Earthmoving Materials Operations

LECTURE 2
EARTHMOVING MATERIALS &

OPERATIONS
AUGUST 26, 2015
CHANG-SEON SHON, PH.D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
NAZARBAYEV UNIVERSITY
ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes
Lecture 02
EARTHMOVING PROCESS
EARTHMOVING IS THE PROCESS OF MOVING SOIL OR ROCK
FROM ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER AND PROCESSING IT SO
THAT IT MEETS CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS OF LOCATION,
ELEVATION, DENSITY, MOISTURE CONTENT, AND SO ON
EARTHMOVING ACTIVITIES
Excavating / loading / hauling / placing (dumping and
spreading) / compacting / grading / finishing
FOR EFFICIENT EARTHMOVING PROCESS,

Accurate estimating of work quantities and job conditions
Proper selection of equipment
Competent job management
Lecture 02
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT INFLUENCES ON THE EFFICIENCY &
PROFITABILITY OF THE CONSTRUCTION OPERATION
FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTING

EQUIPMENT FOR A PROJECT
The ability of the equipment to perform the required work

Maximize the profit produced by the equipment
Achieve the lowest cost per unit of production
Possible future use of the equipment

Availability of parts and service
Effect of equipment downtime on other construction
equipment and operations
Lecture 02
PRODUCTION OF EARTHMOVING
EQUIPMENT
BASIC RELATIONSHIP FOR ESTIMATING THE PRODUCTION OF ALL
EARTHMOVING EQUIPMENT
Where,
Vol. per cycle average vol. of material moved per equipment
Cycles per hour the number of cycles actually achieved expected perhour
Lecture 02
PRODUCTION OF EARTHMOVING
EQUIPMENT (CONTD)
JOB EFFICIENCY FACTORS FOR EARTHMOVING OPERATIONS
(From TM 5-331B, U.S. Department of the Army)
Lecture 02
Lecture 02
EARTHMOVING MATERIALS:
GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
TRAFFICABILITY
Ability of a soil to support the weight of
vehicles under repeated traffic
Function of soil type and moisture conditions
Factors impacting soil trafficability
Soil strength / Slipperiness / Stickiness / Slope
/ Stoniness
Drainage, stabilization of haul routes, or the

use of low-ground pressure construction
equipment may be required when poor
trafficability conditions exist
GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

(CONTD)
LOADABILITY
Measure of the difficulty in excavating and loading a soil
E.g. Loose granular soils vs. compacted cohesive soils and rock
UNIT SOIL WEIGHT (LBS/YD3 OR KG/M3)

Used as measure of compaction
Factor in determining the capacity of a haul
Depend on soil type, moisture content, and degree of
compaction
MOISTURE CONTENT

100
Lecture 02
SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

CLASSIFICATION
SOIL
Consist of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and organic materials
2mm
Lecture 02
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Two principal soil classification systems are used for design
and construction in the United States
Unified System
AASHTO System (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials)
In both systems, soil particles 3 in. or larger in diameter are
removed before performing classification tests.
Lecture 02
Lecture 02
10
SOIL CLASSIFICATION:
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM (USCS)
STEP 1. DETERMINE ATTERBERG LIMITS
Plasticity index (PL) = Liquid limit (LL) - Plastic limit (PL)
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS

(CONTD)
STEP 2. CONDUCT SIEVE ANALYSIS AND DETERMINE SOIL GROUP
ON THE BASIS OF PI AND R200
Lecture 02
11
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS

(CONTD)
STEPS 3-6. DETERMINE R4 CONTENT AND GET RATIO OF
R4/R200. THEN, DETERMINE SOIL TYPE USING THE FOLLOWING
TABLES.
Lecture 02
12
AASHTO SYSTEM
AASHTO SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Courtesy of BOMAC Americas
Lecture 02
13
Lecture 02
14
SOIL CLASSIFICATION: GRADATION CURVE
Typical gradation curves for coarse-grained soils. (U.S. Army Engineer School)
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
UNIFIED SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION : FIELD IDENTIFICATION
in. (6mm) passing materials :
< 50% : gravel
50% : sand
Weight
passing
No.200 (75m) passing materials

< 10% : well or poorly graded
10% : High or low plasticity
Lecture 02
15
Lecture 02
16
FIELD IDENTIFICATION (CONTD)
DRY STRENGTH TEST AND PLASTICITY
FIELD IDENTIFICATION (CONTD)
SOIL SHAKING TEST
Place soil in palm of hand
Add water gradually and knead the soil until it
begins to get sticky
Form a ball about in. (19mm) in diameter
Hold the ball in one hand and tap the back of
the hand with the other
If the ball becomes wet and shiny, it is mostly
fine sand or silt
No reaction suggests clay
Lecture 02
17
Lecture 02
18
CONSTRUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOILS
EARTHWORK OPERATION
BASIC RULE OF EARTHWORKS OPERATION
Cut for the high
Fill for the low
Lecture 02
19
Lecture 02
20
EARTHWORK OPERATION : FILL & CUT
10
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
CHARACTERISTICS
TYPICAL SOIL VOLUME CHANGE DURING EARTHMOVING
Most excavated materials are found to increase in volume
after excavation (bulking or loosing)
When compacted in the in-situ volume, soils occupy less
volume (shrinkage)
Lecture 02
21
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
SOIL CONDITIONS
Bank: Material in its natural state before disturbance. Often
referred to as in-place or in-situ. A unit volume is
identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic meter
(BCM).
Loose: Material that has been excavated or loaded. A unit
volume is identified as a loose cubic yard (LCY) or loose cubic
meter (LCM).
Compacted: Material after compaction. A unit volume is
identified as a compacted cubic yard (CCY) or compacted
cubic meter (CCM).
Lecture 02
22
11
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
SWELL
% =
(
(
1 100
EXAMPLE
Find the swell of a soil that weight 1661 kg/m3 in its natural
state and 1186 kg/m3 after excavation.
Lecture 02
23
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
SHRINKAGE
% = 1
(
(
)
)
100
EXAMPLE
Find the shrinkage of a soil that weight 1661 kg/m3 in its
natural state and 2077 kg/m3 after compaction
Lecture 02
24
12
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
LOAD FACTORS

(
(
)
)
or
1
1+
SHRINKAGE FACTOR (COMPACTION FACTOR)
(
(
or
=1
Lecture 02
25
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
LOAD AND SHRINKAGE FACTORS
EXAMPLE
A soil weighs 1163 kg/LCM, 1661 kg/BCM, and 2077 kg/CCM
Find the load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil
How many bank cubic meters (BCM) and compacted cubic
meters (CCM) are contained in 593330 loose cubic meters of
this soil?
Lecture 02
26
13
SOIL VOLUME-CHANGE
TYPICAL SOIL WEIGHT AND VOLUME CHANGE CHARACTERISTICS*
SPOIL BANKS
OR
Lecture 02
27
PILES
WHEN PLANNING AND ESTIMATING EARTHWORK, IT IS

FREQUENTLY NECESSARY TO DETERMINE THE SIZE OF THE PILE OF
MATERIAL THAT WILL BE CREATED BY THE MATERIAL REMOVED
FROM THE EXCAVATION
If the pile of material is long in relation to its width, it is

referred to as a spoil bank.
Lecture 02
28
14
SPOIL BANKS
OR
PILES (CONTD)
DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS OF SPOIL BANKS OR PILES

Convert the volume of excavation from in-place condition
(BCY or BCM) to loose conditions (LCY or LCM)
TRIANGULAR SPOIL BANK
SPOIL BANKS
OR
Lecture 02
29
Lecture 02
30
PILES (CONTD)
CONICAL SPOIL PILE
15
SPOIL BANKS
OR
PILES (CONTD)
TYPICAL VALUES OF ANGLE OF REPOSE OF EXCAVATED SOIL
SPOIL BANKS
OR
Lecture 02
31
PILES (CONTD)
EXAMPLE 1
Find the base width and height of a triangular spoil bank
containing 76.5 BCM if the pile length is 9.14 m, the soil's
angle of repose is 37, and its swell is 25%.
Lecture 02
32
16
SPOIL BANKS
OR
PILES (CONTD)
EXAMPLE 2
Find the base diameter and height of a conical spoil pile that
will contain 76.5 BCM of excavation if the soil's angle of
repose is 32and its swell is 12%.
Lecture 02
33
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME

WHEN PLANNING OR ESTIMATING AN EARTHMOVING PROJECT,
IT IS OFTEN NECESSARY TO ESTIMATE THE VOLUME OF MATERIAL
TO BE EXCAVATED OR PLACED AS FILL
THE PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED CAN BE DIVIDED INTO

THREE PRINCIPAL CATEGORIES:
Pit excavations (small, relatively deep excavations such as
those required for basements and foundations)
Trench excavation for utility lines
Excavating or grading relatively large areas
PROCEDURES SUGGESTED FOR EACH OF THESE THREE CASES ARE

DESCRIBED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS.
Lecture 02
34
17
ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME:

PIT EXCAVATIONS
SMALL, RELATIVELY DEEP EXCAVATIONS SUCH AS THOSE
REQUIRE FOR BASEMENTS AND FOUNDATION
Divide the horizontal area into a convenient set of

rectangles, triangles, or circular segments
Calculate total area (the sum of the segment areas)
Calculate the average depth
Calculate volume
=
Lecture 02
35

PIT EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Estimate the volume of excavation required (bank measure)
for the basement shown. Values shown at each corner are
depths of excavation. All values are in meter.
Lecture 02
36
18

TRENCH EXCAVATIONS
TRENCH EXCAVATION FOR UTILITY LINES
Calculate the trench cross-section area
Measure the linear distance along the trench line
Calculate volume
=
Lecture 02
37
Lecture 02
38

TRENCH EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
CROSS-SECTIONAL AVERAGE METHOD
+
2
1 +
2
2
1
6
+
2
+4
19

TRENCH EXCAVATIONS (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation required for
a trench 0.92 m wide, 1.83 m deep, and 152 m long.
Assume that the trench sides will be approximately vertical.
Lecture 02
39

LARGE AREAS
EXCAVATING OR GRADING RELATIVELY LARGE & COMPLEX AREAS
Divide the area into a grid indicating the depth of excavation or
fill at each grid intersection
Assign the depth at each comer or segment intersection a
weight according to its location (number of segment lines
intersecting at the point)
Interior points : a weight of four
Exterior points : a weight of two
Corner points : a weight of one
Lecture 02
40
20

LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Lecture 02
41
Lecture 02
42

LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
SQUARE PILLAR
ab
y1 y4 y3 y4
4
ab
V1 h1 h2 h2 h4
4
ab
V2 h2 h2 h3 h4
4
ab
h1 h2 h3 h4
4
ab
V h1 2 h2 3 h3 4 h4
4
V5
21

LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
PRISM
ab
y1 y4 y3
6
ab
V1 h1 h4 h4
6
ab
V2 h3 h4 h4
6
ab
h1 h2 h4
6
ab
V h1 2 h2 3 h3 8 h8
6
V6
Lecture 02
43

LARGE AREAS (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Find the volume of excavation required for the area shown
in Figure. The figure at each grid intersection represents
the depth of cut at that location.
Lecture 02
44
22
EARTHWORK CALCULATION SHEET

(TABLE)
EARTHWORK CALCULATE SHEET (TABLE) IS REQUIRED TO DRAW
MASS DIAGRAM
Cutting of soil (Used in fiiling)
Station No. Distance
11
12
13
14
15
16
20
12.5
7.5
20
20
*Average
Area
Area (m2)
(m2)
21.6
29.4
25.5
**Vol. of
soil
(m3)
510.0
Filling of soil
Area
(m2)
8.3
1.3
Average
Area
(m2)
Vol. of
soil
(m3)
Compaction
factor
(C)
4.8
96.0
0.9
Revised
Vol.
(m3)
Calculated
Soil (m3)
Excess (+)
Short (-)
106.7
403.3
Cumulative 4Vol. (m3)

Vol.
horizontal
direction
(m3)
963.3
1366.6
106.7
Total
* Average area is the average of previously and currently measured areas
**Volume of soil = Average area x distance
1
Revised vol. of soil = vol. of soil / compaction factor
2
"+" means cutting of soil while "-" imply filling of soil
3
Cumulative vol. of soil
4
At the same station no, select small vol. of soil betwwen cutting and filling of soil
Lecture 02
45
Lecture 02
46
EARTHWORK CALCULATION TABLE:

HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
23
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM

IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE MATERIAL WASTE OR BORROW, IT IS
NECESSARY TO PRODUCE WHAT IS CALLED A MASS HAUL
DIAGRAM
A PLOT OF CUMULATIVE VOLUME OF SOIL AGAINST DISTANCE
ALONG THE ROAD
CUT VOLUMES ARE TAKEN TO BE POSITIVE AND FILL VOLUMES

TO BE NEGATIVE
COMMON IN ROADWAY OR AIRFIELD

PREPARED BY HIGHWAY AND AIRFIELD DESIGNERS TO ASSIST IN
SELECTING AN ALIGNMENT
Lecture 02
47
Lecture 02
48
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM (CONTD)
24
MASS (HAUL) DIAGRAM (CONTD)

THE VERTICAL COORDINATE OF THE MASS DIAGRAM CORRESPONDING TO
ANY LOCATION ON THE ROADWAY PROFILE REPRESENTS THE CUMULATIVE
EARTHWORK VOLUME FROM THE ORIGIN TO THAT POINT
WITHIN A CUT, THE CURVE RISES FROM LEFT TO RIGHT

WITHIN A FILL, THE CURVE FALLS FROM LEFT TO RIGHT
A PEAK ON THE CURVE REPRESENTS A POINT WHERE THE EARTHWORK
CHANGES FROM CUT TO FILL
A VALLEY (LOW POINT) ON THE CURVE REPRESENTS A POINT WHERE THE

EARTHWORK CHANGES FROM FILL TO CUT
WHEN A HORIZONTAL LINE INTERSECTS THE CURVE AT TWO OR MORE

POINTS, THE ACCUMULATED VOLUMES AT THESE POINTS ARE EQUAL.
THUS, SUCH A LINE REPRESENTS A BALANCE LINE ON THE DIAGRAM.
Lecture 02
49
CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASS

DIAGRAM (CONTD)
USING THE MASS DIAGRAM
The length and direction of haul within a balanced section
The average length of haul for a balanced section
The location and amount of borrow (material hauled in
from a borrow pit) and waste (material hauled away to a
waste area) for the project
Selection of type of equipment for accomplishing the work
Selection of construction
method
Lecture 02
50
25
CONSTRUCTION USE OF THE MASS

DIAGRAM (CONTD)
EXAMPLE
Figure 1 shows the mass
diagram of earthwork.
(1) What is the total amount of
soil (m3) between A and B?
(2) What is the average
distance (m) between A and B?
Figure 1. Mass diagram
Lecture 02
51
26

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LECTURE 2

EARTHMOVING MATERIALS &

CHANG-SEON SHON, PH.D., ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

FOR EFFICIENT EARTHMOVING PROCESS,

FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTING

The ability of the equipment to perform the required work

Possible future use of the equipment

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

(From TM 5-331B, U.S. Department of the Army)

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

Drainage, stabilization of haul routes, or the

GENERAL SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

UNIT SOIL WEIGHT (LBS/YD3 OR KG/M3)

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

SOIL IDENTIFICATION AND

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

SOIL CLASSIFICATION: USCS

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

Courtesy of BOMAC Americas

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

SOIL CLASSIFICATION: GRADATION CURVE

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

No.200 (75m) passing materials

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

EARTHWORK OPERATION : FILL & CUT

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

SHRINKAGE FACTOR (COMPACTION FACTOR)

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

WHEN PLANNING AND ESTIMATING EARTHWORK, IT IS

If the pile of material is long in relation to its width, it is

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

DETERMINE THE DIMENSIONS OF SPOIL BANKS OR PILES

TRIANGULAR SPOIL BANK

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

CONICAL SPOIL PILE

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

TYPICAL VALUES OF ANGLE OF REPOSE OF EXCAVATED SOIL

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME

THE PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED CAN BE DIVIDED INTO

PROCEDURES SUGGESTED FOR EACH OF THESE THREE CASES ARE

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME:

Divide the horizontal area into a convenient set of

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME:

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes

ESTIMATING EARTHWORK VOLUME:

ECE 404: Construction Technologies & Processes