Chapter 2

Fundamental Antenna
Parameters
2.1

Introduction

To describe the performance of an antenna, definitions of various parameters

are necessary. The antenna parameters describe the antenna performance
with respect to space distribution of the radiated energy, power efficiency,
matching to the feed circuitry, etc. Many of these parameters are interrelated.

2.2

Radiation Pattern

The radiation patter n (or antenna pattern) is the representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of the angular coordinates.
The radiation pattern is measured in the far-field region, where the spatial
(angular) distribution of the radiated power does not depend on the distance. We usually measure and plot the field intensity, e.g. |E(, )|, or
the received power |E(, )|2 / = |H(, )|2 .
The trace of the spatial variation of the received/radiated power at a constant radius from the antenna is called the power pattern.
The trace of the spatial variation of the magnitude of electric (magnetic)
field at a constant radius from the antenna is called the amplitude field.
Usually, the pattern describes the normalized field (power) values with respect to the maximum value. Note that the power pattern and the amplitude
field pattern are the same when computed and plotted in dB.

Class Notes on ECEG-6308

2.2. RADIATION PATTERN

Analysis and Design of Antennas

The pattern can be a 3-D plot (both and vary), or a 2-D plot. A 2-D
plot is obtained as an intersection of the 3-D RP with a given plane, usually
a = const. plane or a = const. plane that must contain the patterns
maximum.
In plotting the pattern, the trace of the pattern is obtained by setting

Figure 2.1: A three-dimensional amplitude field pattern (in linear scale) of

a 10-element linear array antenna.
the length of the radius-vector |r(, )| corresponding to the (, ) point of
the radiation pattern proportional to the strength of the field |E(, )| (in
the case of an amplitude field pattern) or proportional to the power density
|E(, )|2 (in the case of a power pattern).

Exercise 2.1 The electric field of an infinitesimal dipole in the far-field is given by
E = j

kIo ejkr
sin
4r

Plot the amplitude and power patterns.

Some concepts related to the pattern terminology

1. Isotropic pattern is the pattern of an antenna having equal radiation
in all directions. This is an ideal (not physically achievable) concept.

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

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2.2. RADIATION PATTERN

Analysis and Design of Antennas

However, it is used to define other antenna parameters. It is represented simply by a sphere whose center coincides with the location of
the isotropic radiator.
2. Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much
more efficiently in some directions than in others. Usually, this term
is applied to antennas whose directivity is much higher than that of a
half-wavelength dipole.
3. Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has a non-directional
pattern in a given plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (e.g. single-wire antenna; it is non-directional in the azimuth plane [f (), = /2] and directional in the elevation plane
[g(), = const.]).

Figure 2.2: An omnidirectional antenna.

4. Principal patterns are the 2-D patterns of linearly polarized antennas, measured in the E-plane (a plane parallel to the E vector and
containing the direction of maximum radiation) and in the H-plane (a
plane parallel to the H vector, orthogonal to the E-plane, and containing the direction of maximum radiation).
2-D patterns can be polar or linear.
5. Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions
of relatively weak radiation intensity. Lobes are classified as: major,
minor, side, and back lobes.

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

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2.3. PATTERN BEAMWIDTH

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 2.3: Principal E- and H- patterns for a pyramidal horn antenna.

Figure 2.4: A 2-D polar pattern.

2.3

Pattern Beamwidth

Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating at the patterns origin and passing through these points of the major
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2.4. RADIATION POWER DENSITY

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 2.5: A 2-D linear pattern.

lobe where the radiation intensity is half its maximum.
First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating
at the patterns origin and tangent to the main beam at its base (see Figure
2.6). Often, it is true that FNBW 2HPBW.
The HPBW is the best parameter to describe the antenna resolution properties. In radar technology as well as in radio-astronomy, the antenna resolution capability is of primary importance.

2.4

Radiation Power Density

In the time-domain analysis, the instantaneous Poynting vector W (W/m2 )

is defined as
W =E H
(2.1)
where E and H are, respectively, the instantaneous electric and magnetic
field intensities.
Note that script letters are used to denote instantaneous fields and quantities, while roman letters are used to represent their complex counterparts.
As follows from Poyntings theorem, W is a vector representing the density
and the direction of the EM power flow. Thus, the instantaneous total power
P (W) leaving certain volume V is obtained as
I
P=
W ds
(2.2)
S

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

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2.4. RADIATION POWER DENSITY

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 2.6: (a) Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna pattern. (b)
Linear plot of power pattern and its associated lobes and beamwidths.
Since,

1
E(x, y, z; t) = < E(x, y, z)ejt = (Eejt + E ejt )
2

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Apr 2013.

(2.3)

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2.4. RADIATION POWER DENSITY

Analysis and Design of Antennas

and,

1
H(x, y, z; t) = < H(x, y, z)ejt = (Hejt + H ejt )
2
the instantaneous power density becomes
1
1
W(t) = E H = <{E H } + <{E Hej2t }
2
2

(2.4)

(2.5)

The first term in (2.5) has no time dependence. It is the average value, about
which the power flux density fluctuates. It is a vector of unchanging direction
showing a constant outflow (positive value) or inflow (negative value) of EM
power. It describes the active power flow, which is the time-average power
flux or the time average Poynting vector (average power density) and can
be written as
1
Wav (x, y, z) = [W(x, y, z; t)]av = <{E H }
2

(2.6)

Based upon the definition of (2.6), the average power radiated by an antenna
(radiated power) can be written as
I

Prad = Pav

1
=
Wrad ds =
Wavr ds =
2
S
S

<(E H ) ds

(2.7)

Example 2.1 The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna
is given by
sin
Wrad = A0 2 ar
r
where A0 is the peak value of the power density, is the usual spherical coordinate,
and ar is the radial unit vector. Determine the total radiated power.

For an isotropic radiator,

I
Z 2 Z
Prad =
W ds =
[Wo ar ] [ar r2 sin d d] = 4r2 Wo
S

(2.8)

Therefore, the power density becomes

Wo =

2.4.1

Prad
ar
4r2

(2.9)

Radian and Steradian

Plane angle is measured in radian. One radian is defined as the plane angle
with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by
an arc whose length is r. Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is
C = 2r, there are 2 rad (2r/r) in a full circle.

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2.5. RADIATION INTENSITY U

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Solid angle is measured in steradian. One steradian is defined as the solid

angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by
a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of length r.
Since the area of a sphere of radius r is A = 4r2 , there are 4 sr (4r2 /r2 )
in a closed sphere. (see Figure 2.7)

Figure 2.7: Radian and steradian.

The infinitesimal area dA on a surface of a sphere of radius r in spherical
coordinates is
dA = r2 sin d d (m2 )
(2.10)
Therefore, the element of solid angle d of a sphere is
d =

2.5

dA
= sin d d
r2

(st)

(2.11)

Radiation Intensity U

Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle
radiated in this direction by the antenna.
U=

dPrad
d

W/st

The radiated power can be expressed as

I
Z 2 Z
Prad =
U d =

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

(2.12)

U sin d d

(2.13)

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2.6. DIRECTIVITY

Analysis and Design of Antennas

We can relate the power density to the radiation intensity as:

Wrad =

dPrad
dPrad
U
= 2
= 2
dA
r d
r

therefore,
U = r2 Wrad

(2.14)

Thus the the radiation intensity U depends only on the direction (, ) but
not on the distance r.
For isotropic radiator,
Prad
(2.15)
4
In the far-field zone, the radial field components vanish, and the remaining
transverse components of the electric and the magnetic far field vectors are
in phase and have magnitudes related by
U0 =

|E| = |H|

(2.16)

That is why the far-field Poynting vector has only a radial component and
it is a real number showing the radiation power flow density:
1
1 |E|2
Wrad = |H|2 =
2
2

(2.17)

Then the radiation intensity in terms of the electric field becomes

U (, ) =

r2
|E|2
2

(2.18)

Exercise 2.2 The electric field of an infinitesimal dipole in the far-field is given by
E = j

kIo ejkr
sin
4r

Show that its radiation intensity is U = sin2 .

2.6

Directivity

Directivity of an antenna (in a given direction) is the ratio of the radiation

intensity in this direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The radiation intensity averaged over all directions is equal to the
total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4. If a direction is not
specified, then the direction of maximum radiation is implied.
D=

U
4U
=
U0
Prad

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

(2.19)

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2.7. BEAM SOLID ANGLE A

Analysis and Design of Antennas

where U0 is the radiation intensity of isotropic source.

Exercise 2.3
1. Find the directivity of an isotropic radiator.
2. Find the directivity of an infinitesimal dipole.
3. Calculate the maximum directivity of an antenna with a radiation intensity
U = M sin
(ans. 1, 1.5 sin2 , 4/)

For antennas with orthogonal polarization components, the partial directivity is defined as that part of the radiation intensity, which corresponds to a
given polarization, divided by the total radiation intensity averaged over all
directions. For a spherical coordinate system, the total directivity D0 for
the orthogonal and components of an antenna can be written as
D0 = D + D

(2.20)

where
D =
D =

4U
(Prad ) + (Prad )
4U
(Prad ) + (Prad )

(2.21)
(2.22)

The directivity can be expressed in terms of the radiation intensity. If

1
U (, ) = B0 F (, ) [|E |2 + |E |2 ]
2

(2.23)

then
D(, ) = 4 R 2 R
0

D0 = 4 R 2 R
0

2.7

F (, )
F (, ) sin d d
F (, )|max
F (, ) sin d d

(2.24)
(2.25)

Beam Solid Angle A

The beam solid angle A of an antenna is the solid angle through which all
the power of the antenna would flow if its radiation intensity were constant
and equal to the maximum radiation intensity U0 for all angles within A .
I
ZZ
Prad =
U d =
U0 d = U0 A
4
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Apr 2013.

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2.7. BEAM SOLID ANGLE A

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Therefore,
H
4

A =
2

A =

U d
U0

Un (, ) sin d d
0

(2.26)

where Un is the normalized radiation intensity U/U0 .

2.7.1

Approximate Expressions for Directivity

The complexity of the calculation of the antenna directivity D0 depends

on the power pattern Un (, ) , which has to be integrated over a spherical surface. In most practical cases, this function is not available in closed
analytical form (e.g., it might be a data set). Even if it is available in
closed analytical form, the integral in (2.25) may not have a closed analytical solution. In practice, simpler although not exact expressions are often
used for approximate and fast calculations. These formulas are based on
the two orthogonal-plane half-power beamwidths (HPBW) of the pattern.
The approximations for the directivity are usually valid for highly directive
(pencil-beam) antennas such as large reflectors and horns.
For antennas with narrow major lobe and with negligible minor lobes, the
beam solid angle A is approximately equal to the product of the HPBWs
in two orthogonal planes:
A = 1 2
(2.27)
If the HPBW angles are in radians, the approximate directivity will be
4
A

(2.28)

41, 256
4(180/)2
=
1 2
1 2

(2.29)

D0 =
and if given in degrees,
D0 =

For planar arrays, a better approximation is

D0 =

32, 400
32, 400
=
2
A (degrees)
1 2

(2.30)

where 1 and 2 are in degrees.

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

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2.8. ANTENNA GAIN

2.8

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Antenna Gain

The gain G of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity U in a given

direction and the radiation intensity that would be obtained, if the power
fed to the antenna were radiated isotropically.
G(, ) = 4

U (, )
Pin

(2.31)

The gain is a dimensionless quantity, which is very similar to the directivity D. When the antenna has no losses, i.e. when Pin = Prad , then
G(, ) = D(, ). Thus, the gain of the antenna takes into account the
losses in the antenna system. It is calculated using the input power Pin ,
which can be measured directly. In contrast, the directivity is calculated via
the radiated power Prad .
There are many factors that can worsen the transfer of energy from the
transmitter to the antenna (or from the antenna to the receiver):
mismatch losses,
losses in the transmission line,
losses in the antenna: dielectric losses, conduction losses, polarization
losses.
The power radiated by the antenna is always less than the power fed to
the antenna system, Prad Pin , unless the antenna has integrated active
devices. That is why usually G D.
The radiated power is related to the input power through a coefficient called
the radiation efficiency:
Prad = e Pin ,

2.9

e 1,

(2.32)

G(, ) = e D(, )

(2.33)

Antenna Efficiency

The total efficiency of the antenna e0 is used to estimate the total loss of energy at the input terminals of the antenna and within the antenna structure.
It includes all mismatch losses and the dielectric/conduction losses.
e0 = er ec ed

(2.34)

where
e0 = total efficiency (dimensionless)
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Apr 2013.

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2.10. BEAM EFFICIENCY

Analysis and Design of Antennas

er = reflection(mismatch) efficiency = (1 ||2 ) (dimensionless)

ec = conduction efficiency (dimensionless)
= voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
[ = (Zin Z0 )/(Zin + Z0 ) where Zin = antenna input impedance, Z0 =
characteristic impedance of the transmission line]

2.10

Beam Efficiency

The beam efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated in a cone of angle 21
and the total radiated power. The angle 21 can be generally any angle,
but usually this is the first-null beam width.
R 2 R 1
BE = R0 2 R0
0

U (, ) sin d d
U (, ) sin d d

(2.35)

Very high beam-efficiency antennas are needed in radars, radiometry and

astronomy.

2.11

Input Impedance

Input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its

terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the
ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic fields at a
point.
ZA = RA + jXA
(2.36)
Here, RA is the antenna resistance and XA is the antenna reactance. Generally,the antenna resistance has two terms:
RA = Rr + RL

(2.37)

where Rr is the radiation resistance and RL is the loss resistance.

The radiation resistance relates the radiated power to the voltage (or current) at the antenna terminals. For example, in the Thevenin equivalent,
the following holds:
2Prad
Rr =
(2.38)
|I|2
Equivalent circuits of the transmitting and receiving antenna are shown in
the figures below.

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Apr 2013.

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2.12. RADIATION EFFICIENCY AND ANTENNA LOSSES
Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 2.8: Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits.

2.12

Radiation Efficiency and Antenna Losses

The radiation efficiency e takes into account the conductor and dielectric
(heat) losses of the antenna. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna and the total power delivered to the antenna terminals (in transmitting mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters:
e=

2.13

Rr
Rr + RL

(2.39)

Effective Area (Aperture)

The effective antenna aperture Ae is the ratio of the available power at the
terminals of the antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident
upon the antenna, which is matched to the antenna in terms of polarization.

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2.13. EFFECTIVE AREA (APERTURE)

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Figure 2.9: Receiving antenna and its equivalent circuits.

If no direction is specified, the direction of maximum radiation is implied.
Ae =

PT
|IT |2 RT /2
=
Wi
Wi

(2.40)

where
Ae is the effective aperture, (m2 )
PA is the power delivered from the antenna to the load, (W)
Wi is the power flux density (Poynting vector magnitude) of the incident
wave, (W/m2 ).
The effective antenna aperture is used to describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave impinges on it.

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Apr 2013.

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2.14. POLARIZATION

2.14

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Polarization

Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization

of the wave transmitted (radiated) by the antenna. When the direction is
not stated, the polarization is taken to be the polarization in the direction
of maximum gain.
The polarization of a radiated wave is defined as the locus traced by the extremity of the time-varying electric field vector at a fixed observation point.
According to the shape of the trace, three types of polarization exist for
harmonic fields: linear, circular and elliptical. Any polarization can be
represented by two orthogonal linear polarizations, (Ex , Ey ) or (EH , EV ),
whose fields are out of phase by an angle of . The instantaneous field
traveling in negative zdirection can be represented as
E(z, t) = ax Ex (z, t) + ay Ey (z, t)

(2.41)

The relation to the corresponding phasor forms is

Ex (z, t) = <[Exo ej(t+kz+x ) ] = Exo cos(t + kz + x )
Ey (z, t) = <[Eyo e

j(t+kz+y )

] = Eyo cos(t + kz + y )

(2.42)
(2.43)

Figure 2.10: Possible polarization types for harmonic fields.

If = y x = n,
results.

n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , then linear polarization

Circular polarization results if

|Exo | = |Eyo |

= y x =

+( 12 + 2n),
( 12 + 2n),

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
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Apr 2013.

n = 0, 1, 2, . . . for CW;
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . for CCW;

(2.44)
(2.45)

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2.14. POLARIZATION

Analysis and Design of Antennas

Elliptical polarization results if

|Exo | =
6 |Eyo |

when = y x =

+( 12 + 2n),
( 12 + 2n),

or
n
= y x 6= =
2

(2.46)
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . for CW;
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . for CCW;
(2.47)

> 0 for CW;

< 0 for CCW;

(2.48)

irrespective of their magnitudes.

2.14.1

Polarization Loss Factor

Generally, the polarization of the receiving antenna is not the same as the
polarization of the incident wave. This is called polarization mismatch.
Assuming that the electric field of the incoming wave can be written as
Ei = Ei bw

(2.49)

where bw is the unit vector of the wave, and the polarization of the electric
field of the receiving antenna can be expressed as
Ea = Ea ba

(2.50)

where ba is its unit vector (polarization vector). The polarization loss factor
(PLF) is defined as
P LF = |b
w ba |2 = | cos p |2

(2.51)

where p is the angle between the two unit vectors.

Exercise 2.4 The electric field of a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave given
by
Ei = E0 (x, y)ejkz ax
is incident upon a linearly polarized antenna whose electric-field polarization is
expressed as
Ea = E(r, , )(ax + ay )
Find the polarization loss factor (PLF). (ans. 0.5 = 3 dB loss)

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School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
AAiT, Addis Ababa University.
Apr 2013.

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