5.3.

Circuits Without Magnetic Couplings in Permanent Sinusoidal

Periodic Regime (PSPR)
5.3.1. Serial Connection of Some Generally Active Sides of Circuit.
Voltages Resonance
5.3.1.1. Serial Connection of Active Sides
We shall consider some generally active serially connected sides, that is they contain
sources of sinusoidal electromotive voltage (Ek) with identical throbs and complex impedance Zk
(for a side k) (fig.5.14. a,b).

'
1

''
1

''
k

'

U
(b)

(a)

''

Fig. 5.14
Obs: We shall consider as accomplished the first stage of the complex representation, so
we shall treat the serially connected sides with active elements (sources) or passive elements
(impedances) directly in the complex domain.
The whole calculation from now on will be performed in the complex domain, and finally
we shall return to time-domain (in practice).
For a side k we shall write:
U K U k' U k''
(5.75)
where:

'
k

Ek

"
k

Zk

(5.76)
But -because through the serially-connected sides an identical current flows.
Also due to the fact that the sides are serially connected, the total voltage at their
terminals will be equal to the sum of the voltages of the n-sides:
n
n
n
n
n

U U k U k' U k'' Ek Z k I Ek Z k I
(5.77)
k 1
k 1
k 1
k 1
k 1

If instead of the n sides of circuit, we consider a single active side, with an identical
voltage between its terminals, , and pierced by an identical current as the ensemble of the n-sides
(fig. 5.14. b), then we can write:

U U ' U " Ee Z e I
(5.78)
Comparing the relations (5.77) and (5.78) we deduce the parameters of the equivalent
side:
n

Ee Ek (a)
k 1

(5.79)
n

Z e Z k (b)
k 1

The relations (5.79) prove that in the case of the serial connection of many generally
active circuit sides:
- the complex equivalent source is equal to the sum of the complex images of the serially
connected sides ;
- the complex equivalent impedance, is equal to the sum of the complex impedances of the
serially connected sides.
Having in view that generally a complex impedance has two distinct parts:
Z R jX
(5.80)
we write:
Z k RK jX K (a)
(5.81)
Z e Re jX e (b)
and considering (5.79 b) we deduce that:
n

Re Rk

(5.82)

k 1
n

Xe Xk
k 1

In other words:
-the equivalent resistance of many serially connected sides is equal to the arithmetical
sum of the resistances of the serially-connected sides (rel. 5.82 a)
-the equivalent reactance of many serially-connected sides is equal to the algebraic sum of
the reactances of the serially-connected sides (rel. 5.82 b) (An algebraic sum appears here
because the reactances may be both positive and negative).
Obs: If for a side k, R k=0, this term does not appear in (5.82 a); if X k=0, the
corresponding term does not appear in (5.82 b); if Rk=0, Xk=0, these terms generate , this term
does not appear in the sum (5.79 b) -in this case the side k is an ideal source of electromotive
voltage .

 Z1 R1 3
Ex:

R1

Z 2 jX 2 j 4

jX2

Im{Z}

Z=Z1+ Z2

Z2

Re{Z}

Z1

With (5.79) or (5.82) we find:

Z e Z1 Z 2 (3 4 j )

5.3.1.2. Analysis of the Serial Circuit RLC in PSPR. Resonance Voltages.

5.3.1.2.1. Analysis of serial circuit RLC in a.c.
We consider three localized elements of circuit, which are serially-connected:
-a resistor with resistance R;
-a coil with inductivity L;
-a capacitor with capacity C (fig. 5.16)
R
uR

L
uL

C
uc

u
The three elements are supplied with the voltage:
u (t ) 2 U sin t u

(5.85)

Describing the relations between voltages and currents in instantaneous values and taking
into account that these elements of circuit are serially-connected, then they are pierced by an
identical current i(t), we find:
u R (t ) R i (t ) (a)
di
u L (t ) L
(b)
dt
1
uc (t ) idt (c)
C

(5.86)

As the three elements are serially connected, we find the voltage at the terminals in
instantaneous values:

u (t ) R i (t ) L

di 1
idt
dt C

(5.87)

Applying the Theorem of the Linear Combinations, the Derivation Theorem and the
Integration Theorem, we find:
R I jL I

1
I U
jC

(5.88)

where:
U U e j U
(5.89)
Thus (5.88) yields the value of the complex current which flows through the three
elements of circuit:

U
R jL

jC

(5.90)

We symbolize with Z the quantity:

1
1

R j L
R j (X L XC ) R j (X L XC )
jC
C

R j ( X L X C ) R jX e
Z R jL

(5.91)

Z is the total complex impedance of the circuit

Xe is the equivalent reactance of the three elements, in fact, equal to the sum of the reactances of
coil and capacitor:
Xe X L XC
(5.92)
As is a complex number, it may also be represented in the form:
Z Z e j
(5.93)
where Z is the modulus of the impedance:
R 2 (L

Z Z

1 2
)
C

(5.94)

-is the phase-difference between voltage and current and it is introduced by the
impedance:
1
C
arctg
R
Considering (5.93)(5.95), in (5.90) we find:

U U e j U U j ( U )

e
Z
Z e j
Z

hence:

(5.95)

(5.96)

i (t ) 2

U
sin(t u ) 2
Z

R2

1
L

sin t u arctg

L
R

(5.97)

The angle as the difference of phase between voltage and current, may be positive,
negative or zero as Xe is positive, negative or zero. Thus:
(i) - if Xe=XL-XC>0 or XL>XC -we say that the serial circuit RLC has an inductive character.
(ii) - if Xe<0 or XL<XC -we say that the serial circuit RLC has a capacitive character
(iii) - if Xe=0 or XL=XC -we say that the serial circuit RLC has a resistive character, or that this
circuit is found at resonance (resonance of voltages).
The diagrams with phases for the above 3 situations are presented in fig. 5.17 a,b,c -in
which we considered along the horizontal direction the current through circuit (it is the common
element, the 3 elements of circuit being serially connected).

UC= I .1/jL
UL=jL I
I
U= Z .I

UL=jL I
UC= I .1/jL
I
I

U= R.I
I

U= R I

U= Z I

a)

b)
UC= I .1/jL
I

UL=jL I

U= Z .I

U= R I
c)
Fig.5.17
5.3.1.2.2. Resonance of Voltages in the Serial Circuit RLC.
a) In practice there are situations in which the serial circuit RLC has a resistive character
(fig. 5.17 c). This is performed if:
UL UC
U L U C 0 or
(5.98)
b) About the circuit RLC which satisfies the condition (5.98) we may say that "it is found
at resonance". In this case we can also name it "resonance of voltages", because the voltage-

fallings over coil and capacitor are equal and in opposite sense. From the condition (5.98) we also
find the relations:
jL I

1
I 0 (a)
jC

(5.99)
1

j L
I 0

(b)

hence:
1
0 or X e 0
(5.100)
C
c) Then at resonance the equivalent reactance of the circuit is zero.
Because at resonance , we find:
U
U
I
i (t ) 2 sin t u
or
(5.101)
R
R
d) At the resonance of voltages the circuit impedance is the smallest (as we note
comparing (5.101) and (5.94)), then the current from circuit is the biggest.
e) From (5.99 b) we deduce that at the resonance of voltages, symbolizing with the
resonance throb or with f0 -the resonance frequency, we get:

0 L

1
(a); or
0C

1
(b);
LC

or

f0

1
2 LC

(5.102)

Obs: For throb in (5.102 b) we considered only the positive value from (5.102 a) because
only the positive throb have a physical meaning.
f) Because at resonance the voltage falling over coil (identic with those over capacitor as
RMS values) may surpass the supplying voltage of the source - in RMS, we define the quality
factor of the circuit as the report between these voltages:
Q0

U Lo U Co 0 L I 0 0 L L
1
1

U
U
R I0
R
R LC R

L ZC

C
R

(5.103)

where:
ZC

L
0 L

C
0C

X L 0 .X C 0

(5.104)
is called characteristic impedance of the serial circuit RLC.
Obviously, as we can notice from (5.104) and (5.103):
Z C Z L 0 0 L Z C 0

1
L

0 C
C

g) If we substitute (5.103) in the general expression of the current in the case when the
circuit is not found at resonance, we find for the RMS value of current:

1 2
R (L
)
C

U
R
2

1
Z L

1 C

R Z C Z C C

I0

1 Q02

1
LC

1
LC

I0

L
1

L
C

C
C

1 Q02

I0

1 Q

2
0

(5.105)
or:
Ir

I0

1 Q02

1 Q02

1
r
r

(5.106)
where:
(i) Ir is the relative current.
Obviously, because at the resonance of voltages the current I0 is as great as possible.
(ii) represents the relative throb.
h) The graphical representation at given values of the parameters R,L,C and of the
supplying voltage U is called "curve of resonance". For different values of the quality factor, Q0,
the curves of resonance look as in fig. 5.18:
Ir

Qs3 Qs2 Qs1

Ir =1

Qs1
Qs2
Qs3

r =1
Fig.5.18. The curves

of resonance

i) The property of the circuit to realize RMS values of currents which should be strong
modified with respect to the frequency of the applied voltage is called "selectivity". At the serial
circuit RLC - as seen in fig. 5.18, the greater the quality factor is, the stronger the circuit
selectivity becomes, the currents rapidly decrease when the frequency departs from the resonance
frequency.

j) According to (5.102 c) the resonance of voltages may be obtained:

-by modifying the frequency of the supplying voltage, usually continuously;
-by modifying the capacitor capacity - usually in a discrete way (that is in finite steps)
-less often by modifying the coil inductivity it is difficult to assume that values of
inductivity will lead to complete resonance.
Obs: Obviously, as we can see from (5.102 c), the modification of the resistance of the
resistor, R cannot lead to the resonance of voltages, but modifies the maximum of the current
through circuit (at resonance).

5.3.2. Parallel Connection of Some Active Sides of Circuit. Resonance of

Currents
5.3.2.1. The Equivalence Between a Real Source of Electromotive Voltage
and a Real Source of Current.
We shall consider a real source of electromotive voltage with the parameters E
and Z. We want to equivalate this source with a current source, with the parameters J and
Y (fig. 5.19 a,b):
J
I1
U

I I2

U
b)

a)
Fig. 5.19

To equivalate the 2 sources we try to find the relations between voltage and
current for the two solutions:
-for the fig. 5.19 (a) we have:

'

U U U

"

(5.107)

where:
(a)

'

U E

"

Z I

(b)

(5.108)
Then:

U E Z I

or

U E Z I

(5.109)

Using the scheme from fig. 5.19 (b) we get:

I I1 I 2 J I 2
I 2 Y U

But:
then:

I J Y U

or:

UJ

(5.110)
(5.111)
(5.112)

1
1
J
Y Y

(5.113)

Comparing (5.113) with (5.109) we find that:

1
Y
1
E J
Y

(5.114)

1
Z

(5.115)

J Y E E

Then:
-with the relations (5.114) we shall make the conversion from the real source of
current in fig. 5.19 (b) to the real source of electromotive voltage in fig. 5.19 (a).
-with (5.115) we shall pass from the real source of electromotive voltage in fig.
5.19 (a) at the real source of current (fig. 5.19 (b)).
5.3.2.2. Parallel Connection of Same Active Sides of Circuit

Je
I
The circuits formed of generally active dipolar elements of circuit, connected to
Y esides of
J 1 are called "parallel circuits". We shall consider n active
'
the same 'two
terminals
I
1 real sources of electromotive voltage and m active sides of circuit with real
circuit with
Y1

sources of current (fig. 5.20):

''
p

''

Im

J
Y

(b)

p
p

Jm
Ym

(a)

Fig. 5.19

(c)

We shall try to find an equivalent active side of circuit, which should replace the
(n+m) sides from fig. 5.20 a.
Taking into account that generally the voltages at side terminals and the
electromagnetic voltages of sources are associated according to the rule used at receivers,
we shall be able to write for fig. 5.20 a the relations:
n

I I k I p
k 1

'

Ik

'

''

(5.116)

p 1

1
U E k Y k U E k
Zk

(5.117)

''

I p J p Y p U

(5.118)

Then, substituting (5.117) and (5.118) in (5.116) we find:

n
m
m
n

I Y k U E k J p Y p U Y k Y p U
k 1
p 1
p 1
k 1

m
n

Y k E k J p
p 1
k 1

(5.119)

Taking fig. 5.20 as our basis, we get:

I

1
U E e Y e U Y e E e
Ze

(5.120)

Comparing (5.120) with (5.119) we find:

10

k 1

p 1

Y e Y k Y p

(5.121)

Y e E e Y k E k J p
k 1

p 1

or:

Ee

Y k E k J p
k 1

p 1

Y Y
k

k 1

p 1

Ek m
J p

k 1 Z k
p 1
n
m
1

Yp

k 1 Z k
p 1

(5.122)

To conclude, we can say that, at parallel connection of same generally-active sides

of circuit:
I -the equivalent admittance is equal to the sum of the admittances of the parallel
connected sides (rel. (5.121))
I -the equivalent source of electromotive voltage is given by (5.122)
Obs.:
1) As parallel connection of two sides with the impedances and we have:
1
1
1

Z e Z1 Z 2

hence:

Z1 Z 2
(5.123)
Z1 Z 2
3) If each of the admittances from (5.121) is written depending on their real and
imaginary parts:
Y G jB
(5.124)
then we can write (5.121) in the form:
Ze

Y e Ge jB e Gk jB k G p jB p
n

k 1

p 1

(5.125)

hence:
n

k 1

p 1

Ge Gk G p (a)
n

k 1

p 1

Be Bk B p (b)

(5.126)

Then, at parallel connection:

-the equivalent conductance is equal to the arithmetic sum of the conductances of the
parallel-connected sides (rel. 5.126 a).
-the equivalent susceptance is equal to the algebraic sum of the susceptances of the
parallel-connected sides (rel. 5.126 b).
5.3.2.3. Analysis of Parallel Circuit RLC in PSPR. Resonance of Currents.
5.3.2.3.1. Parallel Circuit RLC in PSPR.

11

We shall consider an ideal resistor with resistance R, an ideal coil with inductivity
L and an ideal capacitor with capacity C, parallel-connected -fig. 5.21.
The supplying voltage has a sinusoidal variation:
u (t )

2 U sin(t U )
j U

with: U U e
In this case, the total current absorbed by the circuit will be:

(a)
(b)

i iR iL iC

(5.127)

(5.128)

u R R iR
but:
hence:
u
u
iR R
R R
di
uL L L
dt

(5.129)

hence:
iL

1
1
u L dt udt
L
L

(5.130)

duC
du
C
dt
dt
Substituting (5.129), (5.130) and (5.131) in (5.128) we find:
iC C
i

(5.131)

u 1
du
udt C
R L
dt

(5.132)

Applying the theorems of complex representation (the theorem of linear

combinations, of integration, of derivation) to the relation (5.132) we find:
or:
1
1

I
j(
C ) U (G jBe ) U
R

(5.133)

where:

1
R

Be BL BC 1 C

(a)
(5.134)

(b)

Then:

I Y U

(5.135)

-is the complex admittance of the parallel circuit RLC (equal to the sum of the
admittances of the parallel-connected sides).
Using also (5.127 b), (5.133), we can write:

12

1
1

1
1

I j(
C ) U
C
L
R

R
L

C
L

j U arctan R
1
1

U
C e
R

1

L C

j arctan
1
R

U e j U

(5.136)

hence:
i (t )

1
2 U

sin t arctan R 1 C
U

(5.137)

Here:
1 1

C
2
R
L

(5.138)

represents the equivalent admittance.

1

C
L

arctan R

(5.139)

represents the phase-difference between voltage and current due to the parallel circuit
RLC.
Obviously we can also make a phaser-representation, having the voltage at
terminals as basis (because it is the common element at the 3 parallel-connected
elements).

As we can see from this figure, we can say that the parallel circuit RLC we have:
(i)-inductive character -fig. 5.22 (a)- when the total current succeeds the supplying
voltage;
(ii)-capacitive character -fig. 5.22 (b)- here this time the total current comes before the
supplying voltage;
(iii)-resistive character -fig. 5.22. (c)- the total current is "in phase" with the supplying
voltage. In this case we say that the parallel circuit RLC is "in resonance" (resonance of
currents).
5.3.2.3.2.Resonance of Currents in the Parallel Circuit RLC.

13

(a) The resonance of currents or the current-resonance is obtained in the parallel

circuit RLC when its current component iL and iC are compensated, that is:
iL iC 0

or:

(a)
(5.140)

I L IC 0

(b)
(b) We shall obtain the relation:
U
jC U 0
j L

(5.141)

or:
1

C 0
L

(a)
(5.142)

Be 0

(b)
Then at the resonance of currents the equivalent susceptance of circuit is nil, and
the circuit will have a purely resistive character with the complex admittance:
Y

1
R

(5.143)
(c) From (5.142) we can obtain the throb of resonance, respectively the resonance1

frequency: L 0 C 0
0
or: 0

1
(a);
LC

or: f 0

1
2 LC

(b)

(5.144)

(d) As at the serial circuit RLC, at the parallel circuit RLC, at resonance, the
instantaneous power received by the circuit is equal to the power lost by the Joule-Lenz
effect (the sum of the electric and magnetic energies being constant all the time). From
(5.140 b) it is obviously that an interior circulation current appears through the coil and
capacitor, without affecting the supplying voltage, whose effective value can exceed the
RMS value of the total current absorbed by the circuit terminals. This current only flows
through the resistor R -fig. 5.23.

(e) Considering that the RMS value of the current through the parallel-circuit RLC
is:
I

1 1

C
2
R
L

U G 2 BL BC U
2

14

(5.145)

at resonance this can reach a minimum value:

I0 G U

(5.146)
(f) In this way, also considering here the definition of a "more than one" quality
factor - as a ratio between the value of the current through resistor and the value of the
current through the coil or capacitor, at resonance we can write for the relative value of
the current through circuit:
U

U C

I
I
R
R
R
R

L
0

Q0' L 0 C 0 0
0 R C

U
U
1
IR
IR
L ZC
0 L
L

R
R

LC
C
(5.147)
The expression:
U
I0
1
1
R
Ir

2
2
2
I
1 1

1
0
'2
'2

C
.
U

1 Q0

1 Q0 r
R 2 L

0
(5.148)

where: r
(5.149)
0
represents the relative of the throb.
(g) The resonance curves obtained when the parameters R,L,C of the circuit are
constant and when the throb (or the frequency) of the supplying voltage is modified, have
the same form as the serial circuit RLC (see fig. 5.18).
L

I 0

I L IC 0

C
Fig. 5.24.

(h) In the particular case of the parallel circuit LC (obtained from the previous
case when) because:
Be BL BC

or:

1
C 0 (a)
L

1
Xe L

(5.150)

(b)

means in fact that the resonance current is zero and the equivalent impedance of this
circuit at resonance is infinite.
Such a cell "L-C parallel" serially-connected in a complex circuit is a interruption
for the side to which it is connected ("idle - running").

15

5.3.3. Circuits with Mixed Connection

The circuits at which the circuit-elements exclusively form dipolar circuits
serially-connected or parallel-connected are called "circuits with mixed connection".
Their calculus is made substituting step by step the elements serially or parallelconnected by simple equivalent circuits.
Ex. Boucherot Circuits
These circuits have the remarkable property of supplying through a certain load a
current, independently of the value of the load impedance (fig. 5.25 a,b), if between the
throb of the supplying voltage and the parameters L and C there is the relation:
1
L
C

Z L Z C
IL

(5.151)

IC
C

IC

UC Z

(a)

I
UC L

(b)

We shall analyze the circuit from fig. 5.25 (a), the one from fig. 5.25 (b) being similar.
Fig.
5.25. is:
Due to the condition (5.151), the load
current
I I L IC

U L UC U L UC
U
C

j
U
ZL ZC
ZL
ZL
L

(5.152)

because:
Z L jL Z C

1
1

jL
j
jC
C

(5.153)

The RMS value of the charge-current resulting from (5.152) is:

I

C
U
L

(5.154)

and the phase-difference between this current and the supplying voltage "u" is:

(5.155)

As we can see from (5.152) or (5.154) and (5.155) the current through the loadimpedance does not depend on the load-parameters.
We shall simultaneously find that at a constant value of the RMS of the supplying
voltage (U), the active power received by circuit (and by the load) is:
(5.156)
P RI2
then it is proportional with the load resistance R Re Z . At such circuit it is not
dangerous than to put the load in short-circuit (when R = 0 or PSC = 0), but becomes
dangerous its "idle running" (when R = , then P0= ). In this case Pg=P0, the
voltages UL and UC, respectively the currents IL and IC become infinite. This means that
the disconnecting of loads at Boucherot circuits must be avoided, in order to avoid

16

producing exaggerated voltages and currents through coil and capacitor (which would
practically destroy the circuit) and would jeopardize the security of persons using the
circuits.
Obs. In practice, the coil always has in addition its wire resistance, that leads to a
certain variation of the load current, depending on the load-impedance.
5.3.4. Transfiguration Star-Triangle at Passive Circuits in PRPS
In many practical situations (e.g. at the determination of "idle-running" impedance
at the terminals of a side) it is necessary to transfigure a triangle of impedance at the
terminals of a sidefrom a triangle of impedances in a star of impedances (Y) or viceversa.
The impedances of the triangle-connection are: Z 12 , Z 23 , Z 31 , and for the starconnection (Y): Z 1 , Z 2 , Z 3 (fig. 5.26 a,b).
1
1

Z 31

Z1

Z 12

<=>
Z2

Z3

Z
In order to make23
the necessary equivalencies3 we shall use particular regimes
2 of
functioning.
(a)
(b)
5.3.4.1. Transfiguration Triangle-Star ( - Y)
Fig. 5.26.
Let us first analyze the passing " - Y ". We shall use in this case the "idle
running" regime, trying to find Z 1, Z 2 , Z 3 when are known Z 12 , Z 23 , Z 31 .
(i) idle running at terminals 1 in the 2 schemes (fig. 5.27 a,b) means that the terminal 1 is
disconnected and the equivalent impedances in relation to the terminals 2 and 3 must be
identical:
1
1

Z 31
3

Z 12
Z 23
e 230

<=

<=

(b)

(a)
Fig. 5.27.
-at connection in triangle (fig. 5.27 a)

17

e 230

Z e23 Z 23 Z 12 Z 31 ZZ 23 ZZ12 ZZ31

0

12

23

(5.157)

31

-at connection in star (fig.5 27 b)

Z e23 Y Z 2 Z 3
Z e23 Z 23 Y

(5.158)

But:
0
0
and using (5.157) and (5.158) we find:
Z 23 Z 12 Z 31
Z2 Z3
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31

(5.159)
(5.160)

(ii) idle-running at terminal 2 in the 2 schemes (fig. 5.28 a,b):

1

Z =>
e 310

Z 31 Z 12
Z 23

Z
e 310

Z1

=>

Z3

Similarly in the case (i) we find:

Z e31 ZZ 31 ZZ12 ZZ23 Z e31 Y Z 1 Z 3

3
0
31
(a)23
(iii)-idle-running at terminal 3 in the 2 schemes (fig. 5.29 a,b)
Fig. 5.28.
0

12

Z 12 Z e12
0

<=

(b)

Z1

Z 23
3

(5.161) 2

<=

e12 0
Y

Z2
2

3
(b)

(a)
Fig. 5.29.
As in the case of (i), we find:

Z e12 ZZ12 ZZ23 ZZ31 Z e12 Y Z 1 Z 2

0

12

23

31

18

(5.162)

The relations (5.160), (5.161), (5.162) form a system with the unknown variables
If we add them member by member, taking into account these unknown
variables, we get:
Z 1, Z 2 , Z 3 .

Z Z Z Z Z 23 Z 31
2 12 23 12 31
2 Z1 Z 2 Z 3
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31

or:

Z 12 Z 23 Z 12 Z 31 Z 23 Z 31
Z1 Z 2 Z 3
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31

(5.163)

From (5.163) if we subtract member by member, one at a time, the relations (5.160),
(5.161), (5.162) we find:

Z 12 Z 31
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31

Z 12 Z 23

Z2
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31

Z 31 Z 23

Z3 Z Z Z
12
23
31

Z1

(a)
(b)
(c)

(5.164)
that is the impedances of the star-connection depending on the impedances of the
triangle-connection.
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31 Z
If
we get
Z
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z Y
(5.165)
3
5.3.4.2. Transfiguration Star - Triangle
To realize the passing from a star of impedances Z 1 , Z 2 , Z 3 (from fig. 5.26 b) to
a triangle of impedances Z 12 , Z 23 , Z 31 (from fig. 5.26 a), we use the operating regime
"in short-circuit". If we put in short-circuit step by step pairs of terminals it follows that
the homologue complex impedances from the 2 connections they are identical.
(i) A short-circuit between terminals 2 and 3 to (fig. 5.30 a,b):
1

Z 31
3

Z1

Z 12
Z 23

<=

<=
Z3

Z2

3
(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.30.

19

Because, by short-circuit between terminals 2 and 3:

- at connection , Z 23 vanishes;
- at connection Y: Y 2 and Y 3 appear parallel-connected.

Y e1sc Y 12 Y 31 Y e1sc Y Y 1 Y 2 Y 3
Y1 Y 2 Y 3

(ii) A short-circuit between 1 and 3 (fig. 5.31. a,b):

Z 31
Z 23

Z1

Z 12
Z3

Z2
2

<=

<=

3
(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.31.

In this case we get, similarly with (i):

Y e2sc Y 12 Y 23 Y e2sc Y Y 2 Y 1 Y 3

(5.167)

Y1 Y 2 Y 3
(iii) A short-circuit between 1 and 2 (fig. 5.32 a,b):

Z 31
Z 23

Z1

Z 12
Z3

(a)

<=

<=

Z2
2

(b)
Fig. 5.32.

20

leads to:

Y e3sc Y 23 Y 31 Y e3sc Y Y 3 Y 1 Y 2
Y1 Y 2 Y 3

(5.168)

By summing, member by member, the relations (5.166), (5.167), (5.168) we find:

Y Y Y Y Y 2 Y 3
Y 12 Y 23 Y 31 1 2 1 3
Y1 Y 2 Y 3

(5.169)

then, subtracting from (5.169), only by-one (5.166), (5.167), (5.168) we find:

Y 1 Y 2
Y 12
Y1 Y 2 Y 3

Y 2 Y 3
Y 23
Y1 Y 2 Y 3

Y 3 Y 1

Y 31
Y
1 Y 2 Y3

(a)
(b)
(5.170)

(c)

The relations (5.170) are similar to (5.164), when the transfiguration Y is

made, but this time they are expressed in admittances.
If we calculate the complex impedances Z 12 , Z 23 , Z 31 , we take into account that
they are inverse values of the complex admittances Y 12 , Y 23 , Y 31 (analogous for
Z 1 , Z 2 , Z 3 -as inverse values of Y 1 , Y 2 , Y3 ).
Inversing in the relation (5.170 a,b,c) we find:

Z1 Z 2
Z3
Z2 Z3
Z 23 Z 2 Z 3
Z1
Z 3 Z1
Z 31 Z 3 Z 1
Z2

Z 12 Z 1 Z 2

(a)
(b)
(c)

(5.171)

If the star impedances are equal ( Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z Y ), for triangle connection

equal impedances will also result:
Z 12 Z 23 Z 31 Z 3 Z Y
(5.172)
5.3.5. Decompositions of Voltage and Current for Dipolar Circuits Found in PSPR
5.3.5.1. Decomposition of Voltage in Active and Reactive Components.
We shall consider a passive linear dipole supplied with the voltage u(t)-which has
the complex representation U and which absorbs the current i(t), with the complex
representation I (fig. 5.33).

DLP
21

Fig. 5.33

Using (5.27) with which we defined the complex impedance, we write:

U Z I R jX I R I jX I U a U r

(5.173)

Here:
(1) U a R I
represents the active component of voltage, in phase with the current I .
(2) U r jX I
represents the reactive component of voltage in quadrature with the current
The representation with phasers gives:

U r jX I X 0
I

(5.174)
(5.175)
I

Ua RI

Ua RI

U r jX I X 0

(a)
(b
) form of 2 passive
Corresponding to rel. (5.173) we can represent the dipole under the
Fig.
5.34
elements serially-connected:
-a resistive one, with the resistance R
-a reactive one, with a coil of inductivity L (if X>0) or with a capacitor of capacity C (if
X<0).

I
RUa

RUa

L U r (X>0)

(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.35.

Obviously:
P U I cos R I 2

(a)

22

U r (X<0)

Q U I sin X I 2

(b)

(5.176)
5.3.5.2. Decomposition of Current in Active and Reactive Components
For a dipole identical with that of fig. 5.33, using (5.36) to define the complex
admittance, we get:
I Y U G j B U G U j B U I a I r

(5.177)
Here:
(1) I a G U
(5.178)
represents the active component of current "in-phase" with the supplying voltage U ;
(2) I r j B U
(5.179)
represents the reactive component of current (in quadrature with the supplying voltage
U ).
The phaser-diagrams and the equivalent schemes for B>0 or B<0 are represented
in fig. 5.36 a,b.

I r j B U

I
I a G U

I a G U

I r j B U

B 0

B 0

Ia

Ir

BL

(a)

Ia

BC

(b)
Fig. 5.36
23

Ir

The powers will be:

-the active power:

P U I cos U G U U I a G U 2

(5.180)

-the reactive power:

Q U I sin U I r U B U B U 2

(5.181)

5.3.5.3. The rule of Voltage Divisor

We shall consider 2 complex impedances serially connected Z 1 , Z 2 , which
absorb the current I from the supplying source U (fig. 5.37).

Z 1U 1

Z 2U 2
Fig. 5.37.
We want to find the voltage fallings over the 2 impedances U 1 and U 2 depending on
U 1, Z 1, Z 2 .
But the total current I is:
I

U
Z1 Z 2

(5.182)

Then:
U 1 Z1 I

Z1
U
Z1 Z 2

(a)
(5.183)

Z2
U2 Z2 I
U
Z1 Z 2

(b)

5.3.5.4. The Rule of Current Divisor

We shall consider 2 impedances Z 1 , Z 2 parallel connected which absorb the
total current I , when the supplying voltage is U (fig 5.38)

I1 Z1

I
I2

Z2
U
24
Fig. 5.38.

We want to find the currents through the impedances I 1 , I 2 depending on

Z 1 , Z 2 and I .
But:
I I1 I 2
(5.184)
U Z1 I1 Z 2 I 2
(5.185)
From (5.185):
I1

Z2
I
Z1 2

(5.186)

Substituting (5.186) in (5.184) we find:

Z
Z Z2
I 2 I2 I2 1
I2
Z1
Z1

hence:
I2

Z1
I
Z1 Z 2

(5.187)

Substituting (5.187) in (5.186) we find I 1 too:

I1

Z2
I
Z1 Z 2

(5.188)

5.4. Circuits with Magnetic Couplings in PSPR

5.4.1. Serial Coils Magnetically Coupled
5.4.1.1. Additional Coupling of Serially Connected Coils
We consider 2 serially-connected coils placed on the same ferromagnetic core,
having identical sense of wrapping ("additional coupling") fig 5.39.

11

2 21
22

12
i1 i

i2 i
u1

u
Fig. 5.39
25

u2

Obviously, the 2 coils will be pierced by the same electric current (i1 = i2 = i).
Their total flows 1 and 2 will be:
1 11 12
(a)
2 21 22
(b)
(5.189)
Expressing each flow depending on the proper inductivities of the 2 coils (L11=L1,
L22=L2) and on the inductivity of mutual-coupling (L12 = L21 =M) identical in this case,
and also using Maxwell's relations for inductivities, then:
1 L11 i1 L12 i2 L1 i1 M i2
(a)
2 L21 i1 L22 i2 M i1 L 2 i2
(b)
(5.190)
But: i1 = i2 = i
(5.191)
Then:
1 L1 M i
(a)
2 L2 M i
(b)
(5.192)
The total flow through the ferromagnetic core will be equal to the sum between
the two flows given by (5.190) or (5.192):
t 1 2 L1 i1 M i2 M i2 L2 i2 L1 L2 2M i Le i
(5.193)
Here:
Le L1 L2 2M
(5.194)
represents the equivalent inductivity of the circuit which consists of the 2 seriallyconnected coils, which have identic senses of wrapping and are placed on the same
ferromagnetic core ("additional coupling").
The voltage at circuit terminals is:
u =u1 + u2
(5.195)
where:
d
di
di
u1 R1 i 1 R1 i L1 M
(a)
dt
dt
dt
(5.196)
d2
di
di
u2 R2 i
R2 i L2 M
(b)
dt
dt
dt
Substituting (5.196) in (5.195) will result:
u Re i Le

where:

di
dt

(5.197)

R R1 R2

(5.198)

Le is given by (5.194).
In sinusoidal regime, using the calculus in complex together with the Theorem of
Linear Combinations and the Derivation Theorem, we get:
U U 1 U 2 R1 I jL1 I jM I R2 I jL2 I jM I Re jLe I
(5.199)
where:
26

-Re is given by (5.198)

-Le is given by (5.194)
Obviously: jLe j L1 L2 j 2M
Here:

(5.200)

Z m jM

5.4.1.2. Differential Coupling of Serially-Connected Coils

If we again consider the two serially-connected coils, placed on the same
ferromagnetic core but with different sense of wrapping ("differential coupling") -fig.
5.40, then we have:

1
<=

11
12

2 21
22

=>

Fig. 5.40
1 11 12 L1 i M i
2 21 22 M i L2 i

(a)
(5.201)
(b)

t 1 2 L1 L2 2 M i
(5.202)
Then this time:
Le L1 L2 2 M

(5.203)
The other relations corresponding to the relations (5.195)(5.200) are obtained in a
similar manner, taking into account the sign at the inductivity of mutual coupling M.
The serially connected coils placed on the same core are then coupled both
magnetically (through the ferromagnetic core) and galvanically (through connection
wires).
5.4.2. Magnetic-Coupled Coils Without Galvanic Couplings
We shall consider the case of an idle electric transformer (which presents a perfect
magnetic coupling k = 1, between wrappings) -fig. 5.41.
The voltage from the primary gate u1 and the current absorbed from the primary
wrapping, i1, are associated according to the rule from receivers; at the secondary gate u 2
and i2 are associated according to the rule from generators.

27

i1 R1
*

u1

R2 i2

L1

L2

II

u2

Fig. 5.41
Obs. In electric networks the transformers are usually meant to change the electric
parameters u and i depending on necessities (at the secondary gate). The transformation
efficiency is usually very high; so that from the point of view of transited powers through
the transformer these hardly change (the transformer proper consumption energy is very
small).
If we consider that each coil of the transformer is the host of an electromotive
voltage (of self-induction), when electric current flows we can write for the 2 loops that
appear considering the rule of association between voltage and current:
I u1 e1 R1 i1
(a)
II u2 e2 R2 i2
(b)
(5.204)
But:
d
d
di
di
e1 1 L1 i1 M i2 L1 1 M 2 (a)
dt
dt
dt
dt
(5.205)
d
d
di
di
e2 2 M i1 L2 i2 M 1 L2 2 (b)
dt
dt
dt
dt
Substituting (5.205 a,b) in (5.204 a,b) we find:

di1
di2 (a)
u

(5.206)
1
1
1
1

dt
dt (b)

di2 in instantaneous
di
If the
values are written in complex - with the
u 2 relations
R2 i2 L(5.206)
M 1
2
dt
dtwe get:
theorem of complex representation,
U 1 R1 I 1 jL1 I 1 jM I 2 R1 jL1 I 1 jM I 2

U
2 R2 I 2 jL2 I 2 jM I 1 R2 jL2 I 2 jM I 1

Symbolyzing:

Z 1 R1 jL1

(a)
(b)

Z 2 R2 jL2

(5.208)

Z M jM

(c)

we can write:
U1 Z1 I1 Z M I 2

U 2 Z M I 1 Z 2 I 2

(a)
(b)
28

(a)
(b)

(5.207)

(5.209)
The equations (5.207) or (5.209) represent the equations of an electric transformer
(or for 2 mutual-coupled coils, without galvanic coupling).
If we want to make up an electric schema of the transformer with galvanic
couplings we begin with the relations (5.207):

U 1 R1 jL1 I 1 jM I 2 R1 jL1 I 1 jM I 1 jM I 1 jM I 2
R1 j L1 M I 1 jM I 1 I 2
U 2 R2 jL2 I 2 jM I 1 R2 jL2 I 2 jM I 2 jM I 2 jM I 1
R2 j L2 M I 2 jM I 1 I 2

(a)
(5.210)
(b)

The next schema corresponds to the relations (5.210):

I 1 R1

L1 - M

U1

L2 - M
M

R2 I 2
U2

Fig. 5.42
Obs. If the sense of wrapping of the coil had been inversed in fig. 5.41 -that is
like in fig. 5.43:
R2 I 2
I 1 R1
M
*
L2
L1
U2
U1
*
Then:
U1 Z1 I1 Z M I 2

U 2 Z 2 I 2 Z M I1

Fig. 5.43

(5.211)

and the equivalent electric schema analogous to the scheme from fig. 5.42 will include
instead the coil of inductivity M from the middle side, a capacitor with the capacitive
reactance , and the proper inductivities become (L1 + M) and (L2 + M):

I 1 R1

L1 +M

U1

L2 +M

-M

29

Fig. 5.44

R2 I 2
U2

All these will be deduced in a manner similar to the above presented case.
5.4.3. Elimination of Mutual Couplings at Two Magnetic-Coupled Coils
Which Have a Common Node.
We consider an ensemble of 2 magnetic-coupled coils, with the proper inductivity
L1 and L2 and the inductivity of mutual coupling M. The 2 coils are placed on 2 sides of
an electric circuit, which have a common node (fig. 5.45), belonging to different loops
from the circuit in which they are included.
M
a

I1

L1

oI

L2

I2 b

oII

c
Fig. 5.45

In this case, if we write Kirchhoff's Second Theorem in complex, taking into

account the theorems of complex representation in the 2 loops of circuit, we get:

oI :

oII :

... jL1 I 1 jM I 2 ... ... jL1 I 1 jM I 1 jM I 1 jM I 2 ...

... j L1 M I 1 jM I 1 I 2 ...

(a )
(5.212)

... jL2 I 2 jM I 1 ... ... j L2 M I 2 jM I 1 I 2 (b)

The relations (5.212) prove that we can eliminate the mutual coupling between the
2 coils, but the node o is moving down on the third side (as in fig. 5.46):
a

L1 -M

L2 -M
+M

c
Fig. 5.46
30

The equivalent schema for fig. 5.46 corresponding to fig. 5.45 is valid for the case
when the polarized terminals are identically oriented in report to the common node
(either both are remote as in fig 5.45, or both are close).
If the terminals which are polarized in report to the common node have different
orientations (one is close, the other is remote), we can similarly prove that the equivalent
schema will contain a capacitor -fig. 5.47:
a

* L1

* L2

L1 + M

L2 + M

-M

(a)

(b)
Fig. 5.47

5.5. Resonance in Electric Circuits Found in PSPR

The selectivity of the resonant electric circuits leads to a wide utilization of the
resonance phenomenon in telecommunications, in control-engineering, etc. In the
transmission of electric energy at long distances, the resonance-phenomenon can lead to
the apparition of some great voltages or currents, dangerous for electric installations.
The resonance situations presented in the paragraphs 5. and 5. are particular
cases. Generally by resonance regime of a dipolar circuit we understand the sinusoidal
regime of functioning of some circuits with coils and capacitors, for which the total
reactive power received through the supplying terminals is nil.
Q=0
(5.213)
The throbs (frequencies) which satisfy the resonance condition (5.213) in the case
where the circuit is supplied at a given voltage , or at a given current are called throbs
(frequencies) of resonance.

I
Q

Dipolar
circuit

U =>

Fig. 5.48
At the supplying with a given voltage U we have:

31

Q Be U 2 0

(5.214)
Be is the equivalent susceptance of the dipolar circuit in report to the supplying
terminals.
At the supplying with a given current:
Q Xe I 2 0
Xe 0
(5.215)
Xe is the equivalent reactance of the dipolar circuit in rapport with the supplying
terminals.
Obviously, the resonance frequencies are deduced from relations like (5.214) or
(5.215).
If the equivalent resistance of the dipolar circuit is non-nil at resonance the current
is "in phase" with the voltage.
An example of dipolar circuits founded at resonance is given by the circuits
completely aperiodically of the type serial-parallel or parallel-series -fig. 5.49 a,b.
Be 0

I
C

U
(b)

(a)
Fig. 5.49

We shall prove, for example, for the scheme figured in 5.49 (a) that the equivalent
impedance of the circuit is equal to R if the next condition is accomplished:
R2

L
C

Ze R

(5.216)

indeed:

1
1
L

jL R
R 2 R jL
j

C
j

C
C
Z Z

Ze 1 2

Z1 Z 2

1
1

R jL R
2 R jL
jC
jC

2 R 2 R jL
jC

R
1
2 R jL
jC

because we must also consider the condition (5.216).

Similarly we can demonstrate for the schema from the fig. 5.49 (b)
L
that Z e R if R 2 .
C

32

(5.217)