Lab Manual 1

Engineering Physics Lab Manual
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER
Aim: To find (i) the velocity of sound in the given liquid
(ii) the characteristic acoustic impendence of the liquid
Apparatus: The main parts of the interferometer are the high frequency generator and the
measuring cell. The high frequency generator is designed to excite the quartz crystal fixed
at the bottom of the cell at its resonant frequency to generate ultrasonic waves in the
experimental liquid taken in the cell. The high frequency generator consists of an analog
current meter which records the change in the anode current. The deflection in this meter
can be adjusted using the knobs provided in the instrument. The measuring cell is a
specially designed double walled cell for maintaining the temperature of a liquid constant
during the experiment. A fine micrometer screw has been provided at the top which can
lower or raise the reflector plate in the cell.
Principle: Mechanical, longitudinal waves of frequency more than 20 kHz are known as
ultrasonic waves. These waves can be generated either by piezo-electric method or by
magnetostriction method. A suitably cut quartz crystal when subjected to an alternating
electric field undergoes alternate compressions and expansions (by inverse piezoelectric
effect) there by producing longitudinal waves. If the applied frequency coincides with
Y
1
=
5500
2
t
natural frequency of the crystal, !
m/s resonance will occur and
hence amplitude of the waves will be large. The waves so generated will travel in the liquid
taken in a cylindrical column and is made to reflect from a metallic plate. The ongoing
waves and reflected wave superpose to form standing wave. These standing waves are
characterized by nodes and antinodes. The distance between two consecutive nodes or
antinodes is half and wavelength of the ultrasonic waves. If the liquid column length
between quartz crystal and the reflector is an integral multiple of /2, then the situation is
called resonance. In this condition, surfaces of both reflector and quartz crystal are
positions of nodes (considering the waves as displacement waves) or antinodes
(considering the waves as pressure waves). Under resonance condition the waves draw
more power from the source and accordingly the current meter show a maximum reading.
In other words maximum reading of the current meter indicates that the reflector surface is
f =
Department of Physics
v
1
=
2t
Manipal University Jaipur

the position of node (considering the waves as displacement waves ) and can be noted on
the micrometer.

Moving the reflector plate either up or down using the micrometer screw takes the reflector
plate to series of resonances indicated by maximum current meter readings. The peaks
decrease in amplitude as the distance from the source (quartz crystal) is increased. For
low attenuation, the resonance peaks are sharp and the decrease in amplitude with
distance is small, but with high attenuation the peaks are broad and die down rapidly. The
non-parallelism of quartz crystal and the reflector plate and also the diffraction effects may
give rise to the appearance of unwanted additional peaks.
Acoustic Impedance: There is a similarity between the variations of sound wave
characteristics and those of certain quantities used in a.c.-electricity theory. Thus acoustic
pressure (p) may be regarded as being analogues to electrical voltage, particle velocity (u),
to electric current and particle displacement (y) to electrical charge using the acoustic
equivalent of Ohms law a quantity known as the specific acoustic impedance ZA,
equivalent to electrical impedance may be defined as ZA=p/u. Like electrical impedance, ZA
is in general a complex quantity but for a plane progressive wave, the imaginary
component disappears leaving the real quantity.
This real quantity is called the
characteristic impedance RA and is equal to the product of the density and the velocity v
of sound for the material i.e, RA = v [ in kg m-2 s-1 ].
Procedure: The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency
generator through a shield cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid. When the
high frequency generator is switched on, the quartz crystal produces ultrasonic waves in
the liquid. The waves move normal to the crystal and are reflected back from the movable
metal plate, producing stationary waves in the liquid medium. The micrometer is moved
slowly till the anode current meter shows a maximum reading. At this instant, the
micrometer reading (position of the reflector plate) is noted down. In this way, the
micrometer readings are obtained for a number of successive maxima readings of the
anode current. The wavelength of the ultrasonic waves produced by the high frequency
generator is noted down. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid is calculated.
2.
To find the wavelength of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid:
Order of
Maxima
(n)
Micrometer reading for Maximum Current

PITCH SCALE
READING
PSR
(mm)
COINCIDING
HSD
(div)
2 = (Xn+4 Xn)
(mm)
TR = PSR+(HSD LC)
[Xn]
(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Mean 2 =
3. Wavelength of the ultrasonic waves,
4. Frequency of ultrasonic waves ,
f =
5. Density of the given liquid,
mm
mm
MHz
kg/m3
6. Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid , v = f = .

v = m/s

7. Characteristic impedance of the liquid,
RA = v =
Result: Velocity of sound in the given liquid = m/s

Characteristic impedance of the liquid = kg/m2/s
Reference Book: Fundamentals of Acoustics by Kinsler & Frey, 1962, John Wiley & Sons, NewYork.
EXPERIMENT NO. 2
HALL EFFECT
Aim: To determine Hall coefficient of a given semiconductor and hence its charge carrier
density.
Apparatus: Electromagnet, Hall probe, variable DC power supply, milliammeter, millivoltmeter.
Principle: Consider a semiconductor (assumed to be n-type) in the form of a rectangular strip of
width w, thickness t and electron density n. Let a current flow along its length in X direction
and a transverse magnetic field B be applied across its thickness t along the Y direction. The
moving electrons experience a force FM due to the magnetic field. Due to Fm, the electrons tend
to move in the Z direction leaving behind the + ve charges.
FM = e vD B
where, vD is the drift speed of the electrons and e is the charge on the electron.
This separation of charges results in an electric field EH across the width of the specimen (in Z
direction). EH exerts a force on the electrons given by
FE = - e EH
Under equilibrium conditions
We have
EH =
e EH = e vD B
VH
w
and
vD
EH = v D B
I
newt
Substituting these values, we get
VH
B
net
or
Where, the quantity
RH
VH
RH B
t
1
= RH
!ne
is called the Hall coefficient of the specimen.
VH t

B
Hall Effect in n type semiconductor
GRAPH OF
VH VS B
VH
VH
B

Procedure:
Initially the millivoltmeter is adjusted to read zero hall voltage when the hall probe is not
in the magnetic field.
The distance between the pole pieces of the electromagnet is adjusted to a prescribed
value of 10 mm.
A current I ( < 80 mA ) is passed through the hall probe.
The probe is introduced midway between the pole pieces and oriented to have the hall
voltage maximum.
The current through the electromagnet is varied (in the given range 100-500mA) and
corresponding values of the Hall voltage VH are noted.
The values of the magnetic induction B corresponding to these magnet currents are read
from the chart provided.
A graph of VH versus B is drawn.
The slope of the straight line obtained is found. RH and n are calculated.
Observations and Calculations:

Material of the Hall specimen
Indium Arsenide
Thickness of the Specimen
t = 0.14 x 10-3 m
Current in the Probe
I = 50 mA
Charge on the electron
16 1019 C

Magnet Current
(mA)
Magnetic Induction, B
(Gauss)
From the graph, slope of the straight line =
VH
B =
Hall Voltage, VH
(mV)
= ...
Hall coefficient of the specimen,

!
RH
t
(slope )
RH =
m3 / C
Number of charge carriers per unit volume of the specimen

n
e RH
1
)(
= /m3
Result: Hall coefficient of the given semi conductor,
RH = .. m3/c
Charge carrier density of the given semi conductor, n = .. /m3
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
NEWTONS RINGS
Aim: To determine the radius of curvature of the given the lens by Newtons rings method.
Apparatus:
Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens of large radius of
curvature, optically flat glass plate, reflecting glass plate etc.,

Principle: Newtons rings are circular interference fringes formed at a thin air film between a
plane and curved surface or two curved surface of large radii of curvature.
In fig.1, curved
surface DOC of air film has been completed into a circle of radius R. Let there be nth dark ring at
point C, then its radius, rn = DB = BC. Now, from the geometry of the circle
DB x BC =
AB x BO
rn2 = (AO OB) OB = (2R t) t 2 R t,
(1)
neglecting t2 ( << 2 R t )
The condition for destructive interference is 2 t = n (2)

Where is refractive index, is wavelength of monochromatic light
Substituting value of 2t from equation (1) , rn2 / R = n
on rearranging the terms rn2 = R n /
(3)
or the diameter of nth order dark ring is related as

The diameter of (n+m)th dark ring is related as
Dn
D2(n + m )
By subtracting equation (4) from equation (5), we have,
R
On rearranging,
4Rn
4 (n + m) R
D2n + m D2n
(4)
(5)
4mR
(D2n + m D2n )
4m
The radius of curvature of the lens can be calculated using the above relation.
Procedure:
The least count of the vernier of the traveling microscope is found out. The given
plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate to get an air film
of circular symmetry.
This set up is placed below a traveling microscope.
The air film is
illuminated normally by reflecting the horizontal beam of sodium light using an inclined glass
plate.
The traveling microscope is focused and the Newtons rings (bright and dark circular
interference fringes) are observed. The crosswire is made tangential to various dark rings on
the left side, and then on the right side, noting the microscope readings each time.
(D 2 n+ m - D2 n )
diameters Dn of these dark rings are calculated. Mean value of
Knowing the wavelength () of the monochromatic light, the radius of curvature
The
is found out.
(R)
of the
convex surface of the lens is calculated.

1. To calculate the least count of the traveling microscope:
Distances travelled along pitch scale
Pitch of the screw =
No of rotations given to the screw head
!

Pitch = .. cm
Number of divisions on the head scale (HSD) = .. div
Least count (LC) =
Pitch
Total no of HSD
(TOTAL
PSR + (HSD LC)
READING)
(PITCH
TR
SCALE READING)
(COINCIDING
= .. cm
HEAD SCALE DIVISION)
= 5.893 x 105 cm
2. Wavelength of the sodium light
3. To find the diameter of the dark rings:

(n + m) n
LHS reading in
Sr. No.
No. of
the
ring
1.
18
2.
16
3.
14
4.
12
5.
10
6.
7.
8.
cm
MSR
RHS reading in
cm
VSR
TR
MSR
VSR
TR
8
Dn+m2
2
Dn
Diamete D2
r
in cm2
In
D=(L~R
(cm2)
)
Dn2] = .. cm2
(4) Radius of curvature of the planoconvex lens:

2
R =
( Dn + m Dn )
4m
Result:
=
= cm
Radius of curvature of the lens
= . cm.
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
ZENER
DIODE
Aim : To draw the V-I characteristic curve of a zener diode and to determine the forward knee
voltage, breakdown voltage and the zener resistance.
Apparatus: A zener diode, variable D.C. power supply, voltmeter, ammeter, resistor, etc.
Working: A zener diode is a semiconductor junction device formed between heavily doped p
and n type semiconductors. When a junction is formed between a p and a n type material,
electrons diffuse from n to p side and the holes diffuse from p to n side across the line of
contact due to carrier concentration gradient (fig.1). This charge diffusion results in an electric
field and hence a potential called contact or barrier potential is developed, which at equilibrium
will oppose further diffusion of charges. The charge diffusion will also neutralize the charge
carriers in the neighbourhood of the junction. This region around the junction which is depleted
of free charges is called depletion region. Its width decreases with increasing doping
concentration. The depletion region sandwiched between the p and the n side is equivalent to a
capacitor. Since a zener diode is heavily doped, the depletion width is very small. The net

forward current I flowing from p to n side of the junction diode is given by
e V
R exp
kT
(1)
Where, IR is the reverse saturation current

V is the applied voltage and VB is the barrier potential
k is Boltzmann constant =1.38x1023J/K
T is temperature in Kelvin and e is the electron charge = 1.6 x1019 C
The diode equation (1) predicts the slope of V-I characteristics under both forward and reverse
bias conditions. When a zener diode is forward biased, the applied voltage V opposes the
contact potential VB.
Hence for V = 0 the net potential across the junction is VB and no
current flows across the junction. As V is increased slowly, the effective barrier potential
decreases. This enables those charges with energy > effective barrier energy, to cross the
junction and contribute to a current flow from p to n side.
When V = VB the effective
barrier potential across the junction becomes zero and the charge carriers freely move across
the junction resulting in a sharp increase in current. This value of the applied voltage V is called
the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and it is a measure of contact potential. For V > VB the
forward current increases exponentially as per the equation (1

Circuit Diagrams
Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
mA
Rs
Rs
I
!
mA
When the zener diode is reverse biased, the applied voltage reinforces the contact potential and
effectively stops the flow of charges. However, aided by the reverse potential some of the
thermally generated carriers on n and p side will flow across the junction leading to a small
reverse current from n to p side. The reverse current is independent of the applied voltage but
function of temperature. However, on increasing this negative potential, a stage will be reached
when the vacant energy levels in the conduction band of the n-side appear at the same level as
filled levels in the valence band of p-side (fig-2). According to a quantum mechanical principles,
under such conditions, there is a finite probability of electrons on the p side crossing over to the
n side of the junction without change in their energy. This phenomenon called tunneling, is
characteristic of very small width of the depletion region like in zener diodes. Due to tunneling, a
large current flows under reverse bias conditions. The voltage at which the current shoots up is
called the breakdown voltage. In the break down region even a small increase in the voltage
will result in a large increase current. This property helps in using zener diodes in voltage
regulating devices.
Procedure: The zener diode is connected under forward bias as shown. A suitable series
resistance R is chosen to limit the current through the zener diode well below the maximum
power rating. The voltage V across the diode is increased in small steps and the corresponding
values of the current I are noted till the current reaches (say) around 30 mA. A graph of the
voltage on X-axis and the current on Y-axis is drawn in the first quadrant of the graph sheet.
The linear region of the curve is extrapolated to meet the X-axis at a point that gives the forward
knee voltage.
Next the zener diode is connected under reverse bias as shown. The voltage V across the diode
is increased in small steps and the corresponding values of current I noted till the highest
voltage. A graph of the voltage on X-axis and the current on Y-axis is drawn in the third quadrant
of the graph sheet. The linear region of the curve is extrapolated to meet the X-axis at a point

that gives the break down voltage. The reciprocal of the slope of the linear region of the curve
gives the zener resistance Rz.

Forward Bias
Reverse Bias
Voltage (v)
Voltage (v)
Current (mA)
Current (mA)
Calculations from the graph:

Forward knee voltage ,
= .. Volt
Break down voltage of the zener diode Vz
= .. Volt
Change in the zener voltage in the break down region
V = .. Volt
Change in the zener current in the break down region
I = .. A
Zener resistance,
Result:
RZ
= ..
Forward knee voltage
= . Volt
Break down voltage
= . Volt
Zener Resistance
= .
Reference Book: Electronic Devices and Circuits by Mottershead,

2005, Printice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Aim: To determine the forbidden energy gap of semi-conductor.
Apparatus: A semiconductor diode, constant current source, current meter, voltmeter, heater,
water bath, thermometer, etc.
Principle: Forbidden energy gap EG of a material is the energy difference between the upper
limit of its valance band and the lower limit of its conduction band. The semiconductor used is in
the form of a p-n junction diode. For a small forward current
(I < 0.1mA), the voltage V
across the diode varies approximately with the absolute temperature T as
eV = EG kT
Where, EG is the energy gap of the semiconductor
is a constant that depends on the type of the semiconductor
e is the electronic charge =1.6 10 19 C
k is the Boltzmann constant= 1.38 1023 J / K
EG
A graph of V versus T is a straight line with a V-intercept = ! e
at T = 0 K. Thus the
energy gap of the semiconductor can be determined by calculating the V-intercept.
!
!
Procedure:
The circuit is built up as shown. The diode is connected under forward bias. A
constant current (IF < 100 A) is passed through the diode. At the room temperature the
junction voltage is noted down. The diode is then suspended along with a thermometer in a hot
water bath at about 90 C taking care to see that the bulb of the thermometer is at the same
level as the diode. As the water bath cools down, the voltage across the diode is noted for
different temperatures. A graph is drawn with the temperature in Kelvin on the x axis and
voltage across the diode along the Y-axis. The V-intercept of the line at zero Kelvin is found
using the slope of the straight line obtained and the energy gap of the semiconductor calculated.

Semiconductor used:
Constant forward current through the diode, IF =
To find the voltage across the junction at various temperatures:
Temperature in C
Temperature ( K )
Junction Voltage (V)
Vintercept of the straight line
EG
e
EG
e
dV
V1
T1
dT
= Volt
Energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG = ev
Result: The energy gap of the given semiconductor, EG =
Si Standard Value
EG = 1.10ev
Percentage Error:
..
Reference Book: Solid State Physics by Dekker, 1957, Macmillan India Ltd.
EXPERIMENT NO. 6 & 7
RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS

Aim: To find the ripple factor in (A) Half wave rectifier, (B) Full wave rectifier, (C) Full wave
rectifier with capacitance input filter (C filter), (D) Full wave rectifier with inductance and
capacitance input filter (LC filter), (E) Full wave rectifier with - section filter (CLC filter)
Apparatus: A suitable step down transformer, diodes, capacitors, inductors, resistors,
milliammeter, ac and dc voltmeters etc.
Theory: A rectifier is a device which converts an alternating current into unidirectional pulsating
current. To get a steady output, the output from a rectifier has to be passed through a filter
circuit. A filter circuit may consist of a capacitor or a suitable combination of capacitors and an
inductor. An inductor in series offers impedance for the flow of ac but does not resist dc. A
capacitor in parallel blocks dc but bypasses ac component of the current.
The pulsating nature of the output of the rectifier is due to an ac component superposed over the
rectified dc output. A measure of the purity of the dc output is the ripple factor r which is defined
as the ratio of the two voltage components (or current components)
( R )RMS
(VR )RMS
r =
=
I DC
VDC
!
Where IR and VR are the ripple current and voltage of the output respectively
We have, IRMS2 = IDC2 + (IR) 2RMS
Where IRMS is the rms value of the total output current
! ( R )RMS
2
2
I RMS
I DC
and !
( R )RMS
I DC
IM
I RMS =
I RMS =
2 (half wave) !
It can be shown that,!
2 IM
IM
I DC =
I DC =
(full wave) !
(full wave)
!
r
with these substitutions,
IM
2
I
2
2
I RMS
I DC
I DC
I RMS
I DC
IM
2
(full wave)
and
2
4
2
8
= 1.21
0.48
Similarly the ripple factor due to full wave rectifier

!
and for C-fitler it can be shown to be r = 1/ [ (43) f C R ] where, f is frequency of ac source.
Procedure:
Half-wave rectifier:
The circuit for half wave rectifier is built up as shown.
When the alternating current in the
secondary of the transformer is passed through the diode the negative half cycle of the ac is cut
off and the positive cycle passes out as pulsating direct current.
The pulsating dc is passed
through a load resistor RL and the current I is measured by a milli-ammeter. The direct voltage
Vdc across RL is measured using a dc voltmeter and the ac component Vac of this pulsating
voltage across RL is measured using an ac voltmeter.
The ripple factor
(r = Vac / Vdc)
is
calculated. The experiment is repeated for different load resistors RL and the ripple factor is
calculated in each case
Full-wave rectifier:
The circuit for full wave rectifier is built up as shown. When the alternating current in the
secondary of the transformer is passed through, both the half cycles of the alternating current in
the secondary of the transformer get converted into pulsating direct current. The ripple factor for
the pulsating dc through each of the load resistors RL is found out as explained above.
Full wave rectifier with filters:
The circuit for full wave rectifier with capacitance input filter is built up as shown. A portion of the
ac component of the pulsating dc is filtered through the capacitor.
The ripple factor for the

filtered current through each of the load resistors RL is found out.
The circuits for full wave
rectifier with LC filter and section filter (CLC filter) are built up as shown. The ripple factor for
the filtered current through each of the load resistors RL is found out in each case as explained
above.
A graph of ripple factor versus load resistance is drawn for half wave, full wave rectifiers and full
wave rectifiers with filters preferably on the same scale to compare the result
sssss
Half wave rectifier
Diode
+
V
Primary
230V AC
Mains
mA
+
RL
Output Voltage
Resistance
R
()
Current
(mA)
VAC
(V)
VDC
(V)
+
VAC / VDC
Ripple Factor
Observed
V
r = AC
VDC
!
Theoretical
1.21

Full wave rectifier
Diode
+
mA
Primary
+
VAC / VDC
RL
230V AC
Mains
Output Voltage
Resistance
R
()
Current
VAC
VDC
(V)
(V)
(mA)
Ripple Factor
Observed
V
r = AC
VDC
!
Theoretical
0.48
Diode
Full wave rectifier with capacitance filter

Diode
+
mA
Primary
230V AC
C1
RL
VAC / VDC
Mains
+

Diode
Output voltage
Resistance
R
()
Current
VAC
(mA)
Ripple factor
Observed
VDC
(V)
VAC
VDC
r=
(V)
!
Theoretical r = 1/
(43fCR)
Full wave rectifier with capacitance and Inductance (LC) filter

Diode
+
mA
C1
Primary
230V AC
RL
VAC / VDC
Mains
Diode

Resistance
R
()
Output voltage
Current
VAC
(V)
(mA)
r=
VDC
(V)
Ripple Factor
VAC
VDC
Full wave Rectifier with C-L-C input filter:
Diode
+
mA
C2
Primary
230V AC
C1
RL
VAC / VDC
Mains
+
Diode

Resistance
R
()
Current
(mA)
Output voltage
VAC
(V)
VDC
(V)
O b s e r v e d
V
r = AC
VDC
!
The ripple factors of the output current in the various cases are comparing;
Inference:

1. a)
It is observed that the ripple factor in case of half wave and full wave rectifiers
is independent of resistance.
b)
Mangnitude-wise ripple in case of full wave rectifier is much less compared to

that of half wave rectifier.
2. a)
b)
In case of filter circuits ripple decreases with increase of load resistance.

For a given load resistance ripple is least for CLC filter followed by LC and C
filters.

EXPERIMENT NO. 8

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
Aim: To draw the input characteristics of the given n p n transistor in the common emitter mode
and to determine its knee voltage, input resistance, output resistance and current gain
Apparatus: An npn-transistor (SL-100) variable DC power supply for input power (0-5 V),
variable DC power supply for output power (0-20 V), DC microammeter for input current (0-1000
A), DC milliammeter for output current (0-100 mA), two DC voltmeters (0-20 V), connecting
wires.
Theory: A transistor is a three-terminal two-junction semiconductor device. It consists of either
a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors or thin
layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors. The former is
npn-transistor and the latter is pnp-transistor. The middle layer is called the base. The two outer
layers are called the emitter and collector. The three possible modes of configuration are
common base (CB), common emitter (CE) and common collector (CC).
In common emitter configuration (CE) emitter terminal is made common to both input and out
junction. Input junction is base and emitter, which is forward biased and output junction in
collector and emitter which is reverse biased so that the input junction is having low resistance
(since it is forward bias ) and output junction is having high resistance (it is reverse bias) to flow
of current. Behavior of a transistor can be studied with the help of curves that relates transistor
current and voltage. These curves are known as static characteristic curves.
Applications: It is used for amplification of voltage or current in the circuit. It can also be used
as an oscillator. They are widely used in radios and TV receivers.
Procedure: The circuit is built with the given transistor in the common emitter mode, as shown
in the circuit diagram.
Input characteristics: Keeping the output voltage, VCE = constant (say, 1 volt), sets of reading
of input voltage (VBE) and input current (IB) are taken, and the points are plotted on a graph
sheet. The input curve is drawn. The straight line portion of the curve is extrapolated to the
VBE
voltage axis to find the knee voltage (Vo). The input resistance [RI = (I B ) is calculated from
the straight line portion of the curve.
Circuit diagram for common emitter mode of an npn-transistor
!
E emitter
IB - input current
B base
IC output current
C collector
VBE - input voltage
LT input power supply
VCE output voltage
HT output power supply
IB
Ic
INPUT CURVE
OUTPUT CURVES
VCE = 1 VOLT
IB2 = 80 A
IC
IC2
IB
VCE
IB1 = 40 A
IC1
VBE
0
Output Characteristics:
VBE
VCE
Keeping the input current IB constant,
(say, IB1 = 40 A), sets of
readings of output voltage (VCE) and output current (IC) are taken, and the points are plotted on a
graph sheet. The output curve is drawn for this constant value of the input current. The sets of
readings (VCE, IC) are also taken for another constant value of the input current (say, IB2 = 80
A). The output curve is also drawn for this constant value of the input current. The output
VCE
I
resistance ! C is calculated from the straight line portion of one of the output curves (say of
80 A input current).

Values of output current (IC1 and IC2) are found form the graph of the output curves
corresponding to the values of input current (IB1 and IB2) at a constant value of the output voltage
(usually, VCE = 1 volt).
=
The current gain: !
I C
=
I B
I C2 I C1
I B2 I B1

Input Characteristics
(Output Voltage)! VCE = 1 volt
Input Voltage
VBE
(Volt)
Input Current
IB
(A)
0.00
0.20
Output Characteristics
Input Current
Output
Voltage
VCE
(Volt)
IB1 = 40 A IB2 = 80 A
Output Current
IC
(mA)
IC
(mA)
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.40
0.3
0.45
0.5
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.7
1.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
0..65
0.70
8.0
10.0
0.75
Calculation of the input resistance from the input curve at the output voltage of
1 volt:

VBE
=
I B
RI =
=
.
Calculation of the output resistance from the output curve at the input current of 80 A
RO =
VCE
=
I C
=
.
Calculation of the current gain from the output curves
I C
=
I B
I C2 I C1
=
I B2 I B1
=
.
Result:
Knee Voltage =
Input resistance
Output resistance
Current gain

EXPERIMENT NO. 9

Aim: To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury by plane diffraction grating in
first and second order spectrum.
APPARATUS
Spectrometer, mercury lamp, plane diffraction grating, readings lens, sprit level et.
THEORY AND FORMULA
The grating spectrum formed in the direction is given by
(e + b) sin = !
(e + b) sin
n
!
where (e + b) = grating element (cm)
! = angle of diffraction
! n = order of the spectrum
=
PROCEDURE
Before performing the experiment, the following adjustments are made.
1. Setting the Grating for Normal Incidence
(a) The spectrometer is well adjusted for parallel beam using the usual procedure of seeing a far object.
(b) The position of the telescope is adjusted in such a way that the image of the slit is focussed on the
vertical crosswire of the telescope. In this position, the collimator and the telescope are in the same line.
The reading is noted on the circular scale.
(c) The telescope is now turned through 90 and clamped.
(d) Prism table is now rotated through an angle of 45 or 135 as the case may be, so that it becomes normal
to the incident light. The slit of the collimator is also adjusted, so that sharp spectral lines parallel to the
rulings of the grating are formed. The prism table is clamped in this position.
2. Determination of Diffracting Element
On every grating, number of rulings (lines) per inch are marked by the manufacturer.
Thus grating element will be =
N = number of lines on the grating, 2.54 cm = 1 inch.
3. Determination of diffracting Angle
(a) When the source of light emits radiations of different wavelengths, the beam gets dispersed by gating
and in each order, a spectrum of constituent wavelengths is observer.
(b) The telescope is now turned to get the first order spectrum. The cross wire is adjusted on the line for
which wavelength is to be determined (say red). The position of the telescope is fixed and the readings of
the vernier are recorded.
(c) The telescope is then turned on the side and the crosswire is adjusted on the same coloured line of the
first order spectrum. The reading of the two verniers are again recorded.
(d) The differences of the readings of the same vernier gives twice the angle of diffraction for that lines in
the first order. The average of two vernier is taken.
(e) Procedure (b) to (d) is repeated for other lines and for other orders. The arrangement is shown in figure
14.1. Thus knowing grating element , diffraction angle and order of spectrum , one can compute the
wavelength of desired spectral line.
OBSERVATION
(i) Grating element:
Number of lines on grating = 15,000 per inch
Grating element =
(ii) Angle of diffraction:
Least count of main scale = .
Number of divisions on the vernier scale = .
Least count of vernier scale = = .
Order of
the
spectrum
First
Order
(n = 1)
Spectrum to the left of the

Colour
direct image
of the Vernier
spectral
TR
MSR
VSR
line
()
Spectrum of the right of

the direct image
MSR
VSR
TR
()
Mean
Violet
Green
Yellow

CALCULATIONS
1. For first order
(a) Wavelength of violet colour
v =
(e + b) sin v
= ........ A
1
(b) Wavelength of green colour
(e + b) sin y
= ........ A
1
!
(c) Wavelength of Yellow colour
y =
g =
(e + b) sin g
1
= ........ A
RESULT
For mercury light the mean length of different colours are:
S. No.
Observed
Standard
1.
! v = ........ A
! v = 4078 ! A
2.
3.
g = ........ A
!
!
y = ........ A
Percentage Error
= 4960 ! A
= 5893 ! A
PRECUATIONS
1. Grating should be set normal to the incident light.
2. The slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. Grating should not be touched by fingers
4. The reading lens should be used for taking readings.
5. The reading of both verniers should be taken.
6. The height of the prism table should be so adjusted that the light must fall on the entire ruling surface of
the grating.
EXPERIMENT NO. 10

Lab Manual 1

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Manipal University Jaipur

Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Manipal University Jaipur

Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Manipal University Jaipur

Engineering Physics Lab Manual

To find the wavelength of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid:

Micrometer reading for Maximum Current

4. Frequency of ultrasonic waves ,

5. Density of the given liquid,

6. Velocity of the ultrasonic waves in the liquid , v = f = .

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Result: Velocity of sound in the given liquid = m/s

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Substituting these values, we get

Where, the quantity

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Hall Effect in n type semiconductor

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Observations and Calculations:

Thickness of the Specimen

Current in the Probe

Charge on the electron

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

From the graph, slope of the straight line =

Hall coefficient of the specimen,

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Number of charge carriers per unit volume of the specimen

Result: Hall coefficient of the given semi conductor,

Charge carrier density of the given semi conductor, n = .. /m3

Traveling microscope, sodium vapour lamp, plano-convex lens of large radius of

curvature, optically flat glass plate, reflecting glass plate etc.,

The condition for destructive interference is 2 t = n (2)

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

or the diameter of nth order dark ring is related as

By subtracting equation (4) from equation (5), we have,

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

This set up is placed below a traveling microscope.

The air film is

diameters Dn of these dark rings are calculated. Mean value of

Knowing the wavelength () of the monochromatic light, the radius of curvature

convex surface of the lens is calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Least count (LC) =

PSR + (HSD LC)

HEAD SCALE DIVISION)

2. Wavelength of the sodium light

3. To find the diameter of the dark rings:

(4) Radius of curvature of the planoconvex lens:

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Engineering Physics Lab Manual

Radius of curvature of the lens

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