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MANUAL
SCHOLASTIC
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
By
MERCIER
CARDINAL
And
PROFESSORS
LOU
PHILOSOPHY,
T.
INSTITUTE
HIGHER
THE
OF
OF
VAIN
Authorized
and EighthEdition,by
Translation,
PARKER,
M.A.,
L.
With
P.
Preface
Ph.D.
COFFEY,
Professor of
S. A.
and
ETHICS,
by
(Louvain)
Ireland
at Majnooth College,
Philosophy
VOL.
NATURAL
O.S.B., M.A.
PARKER,
II
THEOLOGY
HISTORY
WITH
LOGIC,
(THEODICY),
OF
FACSIMILE
PHILOSOPHY
LETTER
LONDON
KEGAN
PAUL,
TRENCH,
ST. Louis
TRUBNER
:
B.
1917
HERDER
"
CO,
LTD.
obstat
Nihil
J.
Imprimi
E.
Almond,
Cuthbertus
potest
Butler,
Cuthbertus
die
obstat
C.
deputaius.
Can
Vic.
Surmont
Gen.
Westmonasterii,
second
7-
Edm
This
19*
S.T.D.
Imprimatur
OJ
Junii,
O.S.B.
Schut,
Censor
Italian
Angl.
Congr.
Prases
Abbas
Nihil
O.S.B.
this,
work
(two
Jour
editions)
translation
Italian.
die
has
Proj.
24
editions
French
and
been
de
Septembris,
Wutj
have
already
been
published,
well
as
as
translations.
Spanish
made
1917.
from
has
the
fourth
amplified
iv
the
French
History,
edition,
and
with
has
read
the
aid
the
of the
proofs.
CONTENTS
THE
OF
VOL.
Prefatory
Preface
letter
to the
GENERAL
from
Cardinal
Mercier
Edition
English
INTRODUCTION
Cardinal
by
P.
by
TO
MANUAL
I.
to
the
Coffey,
Translators
Ph.D.
PHILOSOPHY
Mercier
(A Theory
COSMOLOGY
by
D.
Nys, S.T.B.,
Ph.D.
PSYCHOLOGY
Mercier
Cardinal
by
CRITERIOLOGY
by
of Inorganic Being)
(A
Cardinal
Theory
Mercier
of
'
Thought-Being
'
Certitude)
or
METAPHYSICS
GENERAL
ONTOLOGY
OR
by
(A Theory
Cardinal
THEOLOGY
by
Cardinal
OR
THEODICY
(A Theory of
Ph.D.
Arendt,
SPECIAL
of Right Thinking)
(A Theory
of Right Living)
(based
upon
Cardinal
Mercier's
Notes)
ETHICS
by J. Halleux,
OF
by
(A Theory
ETHICS
A.
HISTORY
Being]
Mercier
ETHICS
by
First
Mercier
Cardinal
GENERAL
General)
II.
LOGIC
by
in
Mercier
VOL.
NATURAL
of Being
de
M.
Ph.D.
(Other Theories)
PHILOSOPHY
Wulf,
Synopsis
in the
Glossary
of Scholastic
form
Ph.D.,
of the
LL.D.,
J.U.D.
Principal
Terms,
by
G.
Theses
Simons,
Ph.D.
Index.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
of
Portrait
His
Eminence
Cardinal
Mercier, from
photograph
Five
Physiological
Facsimile
of
by
Pardon
I.
Frontispiece,Vol.
Brussels
Letter
Vol.
Plates
from
Cardinal
Mercier
V
I.
To
face
pp.
331-330.
Frontispiece,Vol.
II.
Volume
of
AnalyticalContents
II
PAGE
NATURAL
INTRODUCTION
of
Meaning
branches
the
among
treatise
THEOLOGY
(3)
natural
of
place
of
"
...
The
CHAP.
I.
the
PART
The
Its
theology
(i)"
(2) Division
philosophy
Existence
OF
IDEA
God
of
THE
DIVINE
BEING
idea
Infinite
God
idea
of an
of a
(4) The
Supreme
Being,
of the
moral
superior to the world, the guardian
order, is an
idea
of absolutely simple perfection ; and
is therefore
sufficient
natural
to provide
a
theology with
object (5) Triple
proper
"
"
of
process
A
neither
process
CHAP.
ART.
I.
fallacious
and
useless
nor
THE
II.
CRITICAL
OPPOSED
General
elimination
attribution,
sketch
THE
(7)
EXISTENCE
OF
PROOF
GOD
THE
GOD'S
OF
(6)"
....
OF
EXAMINATION
TO
transcendence
DOCTRINES
EXISTENCE
and
of
(8) Positivism
agnosticism
(9) Criticism
Criticism
of Comte's
Law
of the
agnostic position (10)
Three
the
it produces
Stages and
agnostic mentality
(n)
Criticism
of traditionalism
Criticism
of ontologism
(12)
(13)
Criticism
of
the
New
of
Examination
Philosophy
(14)
the religion of Sentiment
(15)
"
"
the
"
"
"
'
'
"
ART.
I.
"
II.
THE
THE
ONTOLOGICAL
ST.
OF
ARGUMENT
Criticism
II.
PROOFS
(18)
AUGUSTINE'S
ST.
OF
.
ARGUMENT
ESSENCES
THE
ANSELM
FROM
Statement
EXISTENCE
of
the
GOD
Statement
.
(17)
.
KNOWLEDGE
OUR
criticism
and
OF
"
.29
POSSIBLE
OF
(19)
argument
III.
PROOFS
OF
Thomas's
EXISTENCE
THE
OF
proofs
(21)
GOD
General
statement
of
32
St.
drawn
from
(20)
Argument
metaphysical
this
Objections
against
argument
(22)
drawn
from
efficient
Argument
causality
(23)
Argument
drawn
from
the
of
contingency
Conclusion
beings
(24)
to these
three
common
A
proofs (25)
corollary (26)
Argu
ment
drawn
from
the
of
in
manifested
grades
perfection
drawn
from
the
beings (27) Argument
order
of the
universe
A
note
Scientific
(28)" Corollaries
(29)
(30)
proofs for the
existence
of
God
Proof
from
the
consent
(31)
of
common
mankind
Proof
from
the
(32)
higher aspirations of mankind
Proof
from
drawn
moral
(33)
obligations (34)
movement
15
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
...
vi
35
ANALYTICAL
CONTENTS
vii
PAGE
The
CHAP.
II
Nature
of
God
METAPHYSICAL
THE
I.
PART
ESSENCE
GOD
OF
of the question
metaphysical essence
(35) Solution
Proof
of St. Thomas's
subsistens
ipsum esse
(36)
of
the
Criticism
opinion (37)
opinions opposed to St. Thomas's
thesis (38)
of
Meaning
'
Deus
"
'
est
"
"
60
...
CHAP.
INTIMATELY
IDEAS
II.
OF
THAT
I.
OF
WITH
GOD
GOD
OF
:
Meanings of simplicity(40)
absolutely simple (41) Corollaries (42)
SIMPLICITY
is
II.
CONNECTED
ESSENCE
THE
INFINITE
is
Proof
"
that
God
.65
"
PERFECTION
GOD
OF
Meaning of
perfection(43)
I. God
"
God
"
unites
in
works
(46)
meaning (48)
"
"
69
"
III. IMMENSITY
IV.
ABSOLUTE
V.
ETERNITY
VI.
GOD
OF
IMMUTABILITY
GOD
OF
UNICITY
GOD
OF
GOD
OF
Meaning
(54) and
Meaning
Proof
God
that
is
PART
The
Nature
and
action
(57)
"
CHAP.
I.
Intellectual
79
....
proof (53)
proof (55)
a
84
86
....
88
III
Activity
of God
and
Life
of
God
in God
THOUGHT
(58)
91
....
GOD
IN
life of God
(59) God's knowledge is the actual com
all things actual
knows
prehension of His nature
(60) God
and
possible (61) The divine ideas (62) The objects of the
divine knowledge (63) God
possesses a knowledge of possible
God
the
things (64)
knowledge of vision
(65)
possesses
in which
Manner
the object of His
God
knows
knowledge of
that
of His
simple intelligence (66), and
knowledge of
vision
(67) The difficult question of divine foreknowledge
and
the freedom
of the creature
(68)
"
"
"
"
"
'
'
"
"
'
'
'
'
"
CHAP.
II.
WILL
IN
93
GOD
Meaning (69)
Proof
that in God
formal
there is a will (70) The
object of the will of God is the goodness of the divine essence
be a
(71) Whatever
participatesin the divine goodness can
the
loves
secondary object of the will of God
(72) God
goodness of His essence
necessarilyand the goodness of created
and immutability of God
things freely (73) Freedom
(74)
of God
and
Goodness,
justice,liberality,
(75) The
mercy
omnipotence of God (76)
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
....
108
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
viii
PAGE
CHAP.
works
The
I.
CREATION
created
by
neither
refutation
III.
THE
(77)
of
God
;
part
nor
OF
"3
"
the
to
"
"
emanation
an
(81)"
of
alone
God
divine
the
(82)
created
"
Substance
create
can
GOD
of creation
of monism
has
;
.113
of
need
conserved
DIVINE
GOVERNMENT
Universal
Providence
providence
providence and
sovereignty of
government of
CONCLUSION
'
Extra
God
CONSERVATION
being
ad
Meaning
relation
the
II.
'
of God
WORK
THE
III.
God
and
the
God
of
universal
are
free-will
the
and
(85)"
"
government
God
government
and
particularprovidence (86)
and
(87)
(88)
"
of creatures
"
of evil in the
presence
world
The
The
The
(89)
121
J32
......""""""
LOGIC
INTRODUCTION
:
"
Final
Definition
of
Difference
(2, 3)
causes
logic (4)"
metaphysics and logic
art
an
(7) Divisions of
between
(5) Difference
and
practical science
cause
"
(6)" Logic
logic (8)
formal
and
"
between
"
.135
CHAP.
EFFICIENT
THE
I.
CAUSE
of intellectual
Principles and nature
fundamentally identical, although
and
reasoning made
possible by
concepts (n)
LOGICAL
OF
acts
Intellectual
(9)
"
manifold
the
ORDER
(10)
abstract
acts
Judgment
"
character
of
"
CHAP.
MATERIAL
THE
II.
ART.
I. THE
CAUSE
OF
LOGICAL
ORDER
CONCEPTS
I.
The
CONCEPT
THE
:
concept in
QUALITIES OF
with
to
it (14)
in
regard
logic (13)" Questions arising
logic
The
categories or logicalpredicaments (15) The predicables
(Z6) Comprehension and extension of concepts (17) Subor
dination
of ideas in respect of extension
(18) Comparison of
of identity and
ideas in respect of comprehension : Relations
opposition (19)
OBJECT
I4I
AND
"
"
"
"
"
...
"
II. DIVISION
CONCEPTS
OF
:
Principles of division (20) ; I.
according to content
(21) ; II. According to their
of representing their
object (22) ; III. According
of their formation
manner
(23)
II.
ART.
I.
THE
OBJECT
(24)
II. DIVISION
OF
QUALITIES
AND
The
"
ten
TERMS
parts
(26)
...
of
OF
THE
*44
Divided
manner
to
the
.152
TERMS
TERM
speech (25)
The
object of
the term
154
.156
ANALYTICAL
CONTENTS
ix
PAGE
CHAP.
III.
ART.
I. THE
I.
OF
"
"
i.
OF
AND
AND
JUDGMENT
judgment and
of the
JUDGMENT
OF
CAUSE
JUDGMENT
THE
Place
(28)
FORMAL
THE
MEANING
II. KINDS
THE
THE
ORDER
PROPOSITION
PROPOSITION
THE
Definition
PROPOSITION
AND
LOGICAL
157
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
2.
III.
RELATIONS
PROPOSITIONS
(39) Equivalence (40)
(41) Opposition and subordination
(42) Rules
concerning the truth and falsityof opposed propositions (43)
and
of subordinate
inferences
propositions (44) Immediate
(45)
BETWEEN
"
"
Conversion
"
"
"
ART.
I. NATURE
II.
165
REASONING
REASONING
OF
SYLLOGISM
of reasoning
AND
OF
THE
: Nature
and
(47) The
syllogism and its terminology (48) Nature
of the necessity of
logicalbasis of the syllogism (49) Nature
syllogisticprinciples (50) Logical first principles (51)
moods
of
the
of
the
Figures and
syllogism (52) Rules
syllogism (53) The rules of the syllogism and truth (54)
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
II. VARIOUS
"
i.
KINDS
SYLLOGISM
OF
Basis
of classification
(55)
170
.178
Classification
of Syllogisms accordingto their Form
(56) : Varieties
of the
and
rules of the
categorical syllogism (57) Nature
hypothetical syllogism (58) Conjunctive and
disjunctive
syllogisms(59) The exclusive syllogism (60) The dilemma
(61)
182
"
"
"
"
2.
DIFFERENT
KINDS
into
"
OF
certain
DEMONSTRATION
their
Matter
I. Fundamental
79
The
division
strictlyscientific demonstration
(63) Con
(64) Proof of fact and causal demon
stration (65) II. A prioriand a posterioridemonstrations
(66)
III. Circular
or
regressive demonstration
(67) IV. Other
accidental
forms
of demonstration
.183
(68)
PROBABLE
ARGUMENTS
from
(69) : I. Arguments
analogy
(i)
or
enthymeme,
(2) analogical induction
analogy, (3)example
186
(70) II. Hypothesis (92) III. Argument from authority (71)
ERRONEOUS
ARGUMENT
FALLACIES
AND
(74),
(73) : Of induction
and of deduction
187
(75)
ditions
of
and
the
"
latter
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
ART.
Knowledge
I. FACTORS
IN
III.
system
THE
...
SCIENTIFIC
SYSTEMATIZATION
(76) Systematization
"
SYSTEMATIZATION
OF
of
knowledge (77)
our
KNOWLEDGE
I. Definition
"
"
"
"
...
191
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
PAGE
II. METHOD
Synthetic method
sciences
of
the
(86) Stages of
experimental
(85) ii Method
induction
Methods
of
inductive
the
(88)
(87)
process
induction
of
induction
of
(90)
grounds
Logical
Object
(89)
Induction
and the syllogism (91) Statistics and induction
(92)
of philosophy
method
III. Analytico-synthetic
(93) Method
J96
(94)
I.
(84)
scientific methods
Diversity of
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAP.
Logic
THE
IV.
attainment
the
and
science
(96)
of
(95) Definition
knowledge
of scientific
ORDER
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
FINAL
"
204
..........
ETHICS
The
:
object of
specialethics (2)
INTRODUCTION
ethics
and
CHAP.
209
I.
PRELIMINARY
NOTIONS
LAST
END
Good
and
Nature
and
Evil
END
OF
natural
tendencies
MAN
; the
end
Kinds
(5)
"
good (4)
end
(6)
"
of
"
211
NATURE
HUMAN
OF
NATURAL
Diversity of natural
Kinds
of good (7)
II. THE
Ethics
of
THE
I.
general
General
Theory
"
.......
PART
of
(i) Meaning
ethics
subjectively and
has
I. Man
reallya last natural end (8) II. Man has only one natural end
(9) III. Regarded indeterminately and in the abstract, it is
his happiness (10) IV. Regarded in the concrete, the objective
end is not in any thing created, but it is in God
(11) V. Man
enters
into possessionof his happiness by an act of his intellect
is realized
(12) VI. Subjective beatitude
by an act of the
intellect
and
Corollaries
speculative
(13)
(14) Summary
conclusion
in
Beatitude
the
A
(15)
present
difficulty(16)
life (17); Conditions
for the realization
of happiness (18) A
difficulty(19) Accidental
qualities of happiness (20) The
end of man
is a supernatural end (21) No contradiction
in the
conception of a natural happiness (22)
.214
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAP.
I.
MEANING
PROOFS
AND
liberty (24)
INFLUENCE
OF
"
nature
and
influence
OF
of free-will
PASSIONS
THE
question (26)
of material
of external
the
causes
causes
Meaning
of
224
WILL
Statement
influence
on
on
WILL
THE
(25)
FREE-
ON
of
Extent
FREE-WILL
FREEDOM
OF
Proofs
"
II.
II.
of
free-will
free-will
(27)
(28)
"
of
the
sensitive
man's
Nature
of the
225
....
CHAP.
I. MORAL
GOOD
good
moral
or
evil
THE
MORAL
real, intrinsic
ORDER
distinction
Distinction
between
moral
between
goodness
explained ultimately by
influence (31)
divine extrinsic,positive
of
badness
human
EVIL
AND
and
III.
human
(30)
"
actions
not
and
any
.
229
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
xi
PAGE
FOUNDATION
II.
DISTINCTION
THE
OF
GOOD
MORAL
BETWEEN
AND
natural
The
with
our
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
III. THE
LAW
MORAL
eternal
subject to a natural
of
(41) Nature
(43),namely, in human
natural
and
law
IV.
MORAL
V.
THE
"
moral
"
(42),and basis of it
reason
ultimately in the practical
(40) The
obligation
(44) and
law
is
Man
law
nature
of Providence
(45)
240
CRITERION
SUBJECTIVE
MORALITY
OF
Moral
distinct
from
of
natural
the
VI.
THE
of
able
VII.
doctrine
(54)
"
first commandment
be
must
done
after
of the
of
the
evil
and
Kantian
demanded
"
trial
of
happiness
of
of merit
law
of
Basis
the
duty (55)
his
conclusion
244
....
ORDER
MORAL
THE
(57),and
The
unreason
of moral
principles and
OF
moral
"
upon
is not
categoricalimperative (56)
the
(53)
positive pain
doctrine
(51)
reward
Eternal
(52)
time
of
loss of
Kantian
the
sanction
Some
infliction
CHARACTERISTICS
NATURAL
teristics
life insufficient
eternal
to
Outline
the
Notion
LAW
of
in addition
concerning
the
moral
Charac
act
(58)
"
(59)
(60)
any
? (61)
Good
and
(62) The good
Duty
the supreme
end
(63) Degrees of goodness or of wicked
in human
acts
(64) Pessimistic
Morality (65) Indepen
Morality (66) Secular or Lay Morality (67)
morally
ness
MORAL
present
punishment
of
dent
accumulated
241
Criticism
and
'
sense
"
and
practicalreason,
law, is that good
the
eternal
Christian
"
No
"
no
the
THE
OF
"Those
sinner
race's
the
and
(48)
(50)
SANCTION
or
intellect
utilityoffer
principleof
avoided
the
of
experiences
First
'
postulate
to
evil
and
good
of our
practical reason
'
instinct ' or
moral
moral
a
distinguishedby judgments
need
"
of merit
'
indifferent
"
'
there
Are
'
acts
'
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAP.
Meaning
of
conscience
conscience
IV.
Directive
(68)
"
(69)
and
249
of
obligatory powers
.239
II
Special Ethics :
Theory of Right and
CONSCIENCE
PART
INTRODUCTION
Duty
Definition
of natural
law
:
(70) Its distinctive
of natural
law to positive law (72)
(71) Relation
Corollary (73) Originof rights(74) Kinds of right (75)
"
character
"
"
"
CHAP.
I. RESPECT
236
(46, 47)
VIRTUES
231
OF
Lawful
HUMAN
"
I.
RIGHTS
LIFE
self-defence
OF
THE
Foundation
(77)
....
263
INDIVIDUAL
of
the
right
to live
(76)
"
.270
ANALYTICAL
xii
CONTENTS
PAGE
right to work
(78) Liberty to choose
of
a
opinion (80) Liberty of con
profession (79) Liberty
science (81)
II. RESPECT
LIBERTY
OF
The
"
"
"
272
.........
: Definition
(82) Limits of ownership (83)
right of ownership (84) Ownership founded on
social conventions
and on
legislation(85) Ownership founded
labour
The
from
on
man's
(86)
right of ownership derived
nature
Outline
and
criticism
of
the
doctrine
of
(87)
(88)
(89)
therefrom
and
conclusion
communism,
(90) Outline
(91)
criticism
and
of collectivism
(92) of the doctrine
Reply to
objections brought against the capitalistic
regime (93) Titles
to
property : I. Occupancy
(94) ; II. Prescription (95) ;
III. The rightto make
The rightof inheritance
a will ; IV.
(97)
279
III. RESPECT
PROPERTY
OF
Basis
"
"
of the
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
CHAP.
I.
II.
PURPOSE
RIGHTS
OF
the
OF
THE
INSTITUTION
THE
OF
MARRIAGE
OF
of the
good
MEMBERS
:
Second
(99)
THE
First end
end
FAMILY
of
marriage
of
spouses
marriage : the
of children
their education
and
(100) Education
procreation
is physical, intellectual, moral
and
religious(101) Corollary
"
"
"
(102)
II.
PERPETUITY
III. THE
FAMILY
the
AND
State
GENERAL
II.
PANTHEISTIC
III. THE
IV.
THE
STATE
THE
THE
VI.
THE
Principle(103)
"
Relations
THE
between
OF
SOCIAL
OF
THEORY
OF
OF
STATE
THE
THE
CHRISTIAN
CONTRACT
ORGANISM
OF
THE
STATE
THE
"
The
Philosophy
"
the
systems
philosophy
of
of
Brahmanas
the
China
in
society (115)
Authority (117)
of
"
"
335
of the
India
of
and
the
PHILOSOPHY
and
utilityof
(3)
the
treatise
341
later Sanskrit
(8)
of
Nature
of
328
333
OF
Division
PART
of
Con
of civil
HISTORY
Philosophy (2)
The
the
328
(113)
(108)
"
INTRODUCTION:
RIGHT
Interpretations of
"
OF
325
....
CONCEPTION
OUTLINES
and
....
DIVINE
and foundation
(114) Nature
Origin of Authority (116) The
role
Limits
of sovereignty (118)
losophy
family
32
STATE
(107)
POSITIVE
OF
SOCIAL
THE
dividual
Indian
the
(104)
325
INSTITUTION
AN
History
Divorce
(106)
THEORY
THEORY
RIGHTS
tract-Theory (109-112)
V.
323
III.
NOTIONS
STATE
BOND
(105)
CHAP.
I.
MARRIAGE
THE
OF
316
the
of
or
.
and
China
Phi
"
Hindu
.
period
.
(6)"
(7)
"
The
-343
xiii
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
PAGE
PART
Philosophy
Greek
Periods
of
Greek
II
philosophy (9)
I.
CHAP.
PHILOSOPHY
PRE-SOCRATIC
Characteristics
schools
group
CHAP.
and
subdivision
(10) First
(n)
Pythagoras (12) School
of pre-Socratic schools
(14) The
"
"
"
GREEK
PHILOSOPHY
pre-Socratic
of
group
of Elea
(13)
Sophists (15)
"
II.
345
....
FROM
"
Second
.
346
TO
SOCRATES
ARISTOTLE
I. SOCRATES
Characteristics
"
II. PLATO
Life
of
Greek
"
Ethics
"
ARISTOTLE
Life
"
Ideas
Aesthetics
and
(19) Physics
.350
(22)
"
character
(26)
Ethics
"
"
III.
"
FROM
RISE
General
THE
OF
Stoic
(39)
"
End
"
of
division
Greek
features
(36) Systems
"
fifth
and
century
Plotinus
philosophy (40)
PART
remarks
"
III
lastic
"
369
IV
Philosophy
General
363
"
(42)
Mediaeval
...
St.
"
Nemesius
LEADING
Philosophy
division
centuries
IT
Neo-Platonism
Patristic
first three
SYSTEMS
AND
TO
PART
General
"
and
(37)
THE
TO
"
UP
character
352
School
NEO-PLATONISM
Platonism
third
of the
(31) Schools
(32), Epicurean School,
and
Sceptic Schools (33) Eclecticism (34)
neo-Pyrrhonic School (35)
-359
Peripatetic School
Scepticism of the
General
SCHOOL
division
and
"
IV.
Actu
(30)
ARISTOTLE
OF
NEO-PLATONIC
centuries
second
CHAP.
DEATH
THE
characteristics
and
"
his
of
Pure
"
"
division
and
CHAP.
349
General
(23)
of the
Theory
or
III.
period
......
Dialectic
(18)
this
philosophy during
(17)
of Socrates
(16) Philosophy
and
Scho
the Middle
375
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
xiv
PAGE
CHAP.
FIRST
I.
PERIOD
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
WESTERN
I.
ART.
OF
characteristics
of Scholasticism
Main
VIEW
:
during this
period (47)" Organization of philosophical schools
(48)
Philosophical literature (49) Division of this period (50)
I. GENERAL
"
"
II.
WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY
TURIES
"
TENTH,
NINTH,
IN
ELEVENTH
AND
CEN
"
Philosophy : The
question of Universals
(51)
(52)
Non-Scholastic
Philosophy : John Scotus Eriugena (53)
Philosophy and TheologicalControversies (54)
"
St.
Anselm
" 2.
" 3.
382
.384
.385
III. WESTERN
"
379
Scholastic
i.
PHILOSOPHY
IN
CENTURY
TWELFTH
Scholastic
"
Philosophy : Realism
formulae
(55) Anti- Realist
of
Moderate
Realism
(57) The dawn
(58)
of Salisbury (59) Alan
of Lille
of St.(60) Hugh
Victor
."....
(61)
385
Non-Scholastic
Philosophies (62)
.389
The
Theological Movement
of the Twelfth Century : Schools
of
Scholastic
Theology (63) Mystic schools (64)
389
i.
"
Abelard
(56)
John
"
"
"
"
"
" 2.
" 3.
"
....
ART.
II.
Philosophy
BYZANTINE
AND
the
among
Philosophy among
CHAP.
II.
Armenians,
the
MEDIAEVAL
Arabs
(68)
survey
I.
II.
GENERAL
PERIPATETICISM
Albert
IV.
CONFLICT
Great
Paris
V.
JOHN
VI.
LOGICIANS
tive
Latin
III.
Averrojsm
393
(72)"
Alexander
.394
of Hales
(73)
.400
GREAT
THE
AND
THE
of
ST.
AND
THOMAS
Aquinas (76)
OLDER
Thomism
"
.403
SCHOLASTICISM
(77)
"
Eclectics
"
of
4o6
(79)
grammarians
ART.
(69)
(74)
GRAMMARIANS
AND
THIRTEENTH
synthesis (71).
Its precursors
supporters
SCOTUS
391
PHILOSOPHIES
Scholastic
THOMISM
and
"
THE
of this renaissance
University (78)
DUNS
IN
BETWEEN
Adversaries
Syrians (66)
GENERAL
ALBERT
OF
the
The
and
Jews (67)
SCHOLASTIC
(70)"
SCHOLASTICISM
St. Bonaventure
"
III.
II.
VIEW
OLDER
Causes
"
ART.
I.
PHILOSOPHY
Persians
and
PHILOSOPHY
CENTURY
ART.
General
ORIENTAL
(80)
Petrus
Hispanus
and
the
NON-SCHOLASTIC
specula
.408
......
PHILOSOPHERS
(82)
ANALYTICAL
IV.
ART.
Neo-Platonic
MINOR
(84)
CHAP.
III.
MEDIAEVAL
I.
SCHOLASTIC
The
(86)
fifteenth
NON-SCHOLASTIC
School
III.
PHILOSOPHIES
CURRENTS
MINOR
(95)
Nicholas
"
IV.
General
I.
sketch
division
OF
The
and
-413
(94) Develop
"
Eckhart
(97)
THE
"
Master
(91)
.416
and
German
.418
RENAISSANCE
PERIOD
(98)
419
PHILOSOPHIES
NEW
of Cusa
PHILOSOPHIES
Averroism
PHILOSOPHY
OF
Mysticism (96)
CHAP.
Ockham-
fourteenth
the
Latin
"
The
Thomism
"
413
philosophy (87)
"
of
(88)
(90)
"
of Ockhamism
ment
THE
THE
of Ockham
II.
of Scholastic
(92) Mysticism
(94)
centuries
OF
Decline
Scotist
(89)" The
Aegidian School
HALF
School; William
ites
Roger
CENTURY
DURING
FIRST
PHILOSOPHY
Terminist
410
PHILOSOPHY
AND
FIFTEENTH
outline
direction
"
FOURTEENTH
General
CURRENTS
(83) Experimental
Lully (85)
Raymond
"
xv
PHILOSOPHICAL
direction
Bacon
CONTENTS
OF
RENAISSANCE
THE
Revival
of
General
features
and
the
"
"
"
"
"
II.
SCHOLASTIC
PHILOSOPHY
schools
General
(107)
Spanish
ings between
century (109)
Scholastics
"
CHAP.
I.
Outline
(in)
I.
DESCARTES
II.
CARTESIANISM
MODERN
(no)
"
CENTURIES
IN
431
KANT
General
sketch
"
"
The
(126)
PHILOSOPHY
sketch
(128)
(130)
Ethics
"
(127)
IN
THE
Leibniz
(115) Mysticism
"
(118)
"
(124)
Reaction
"
(125)
"
435
EIGHTEENTH
AND
School
School
Thomas
(119)
earlier
The
Associationist
Hume
Scottish
Deism
"
432
CENTURY
Occasionalism
SEVENTEENTH
THE
John Locke
(121) The
Berkeley (123) David
"
BEFORE
SEVENTEENTH
THE
PHILOSOPHY
FRENCH
(112, 113)
BACON
"
IV.
432
FRANCIS
"
Law
Seventeenth
PHILOSOPHY
OF
tionalism
the
Philosophy
division
and
AND
ENGLISH
in
426
disciplesof Descartes
(114)
Spinoza (117)
(116) Baruch
III.
"
scientists
and
Modern
character
420
Scholastic
(106) Ancient
(108) Misunderstand
Scholasticism
PART
General
"
Hobbes
(120)
(122) George
against sensa
"
"
Ethics
and
Natural
439
.......
EIGHTEENTH
CENTURY
General
"
....
446
CONTENTS
ANALYTICAL
xvi
PAGE
V.
PHILOSOPHY
GERMAN
KANT)
philosophy
The
"
Wolff
and
(138)
The
of
(133)
"
(135)
history
Philosophy
"
in
Wolff
(141)
Faculty
Reason
The
Critique of Pure
(140)
philosophy
Reason
(142)" Critique of the
Critique of Practical
Sentiment
or
(143)
Judgment
"
"
PHILOSOPHY
GERMAN
PHILOSOPHY
HALF
FIRST
THE
DURING
454
...
POST-KANTIAN
III.
CHAP.
OF
NINETEENTH
THE
immediate
The
disciples and
(144)
Idealism
Fichte
Critical
of
Kant
(146)
(145)
opponents
idealism
and
(149)"
logical
Schelling
(148)" Hegel
(147)
Realism
Critical
The
Schopenhauer
(151)
(150)
Hegelians
School
The
Herbart
Psychological
(154)
(153)
(152)
CENTURY
General
449
KANT
I.
"
OF
PHILOSOPHY
THE
of
philosophy
Reaction
(137)
popular form
of
(LEIBNIZ
(134)
sentiment
(136)
against Leibniz
(139)
TO
of
school
The
"
The
"
II.
CHAP.
Critical
sketch
school
aesthetic
The
THE
IN
General
CENTURY
EIGHTEENTH
sketch
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
II.
FRENCH
THE
tic
FROM
CENTURY
sensualism
New
ENGLISH
ITALIAN
of
PHILOSOPHY
IN
The
(161)
positivism
SPANISH
AND
Philosophy
of
in
(163)
PHILOSOPHY
school
(157)
(159)
"
CENTURY
(164)
Philosophy
(162)
"
476
....
in
Italy
(165)
"
480
(166)
Spain
471
General
Associationism
School;
OF
461
Materialis
"
Positivism
"
Evolutionism
"
(155)
Eclectic
the
(158)
NINETEENTH
THE
Scottish
"
English
IV.
"
MIDDLE
THE
TO
sketch
General
and
phases
sketch
REVOLUTION
THE
Spiritualism
ontologism
positivism (160)
(156)
Traditionalism
"
III.
PHILOSOPHY
NINETEENTH
APPENDIX
Philosophy
Contemporary
Favourite
(167)
problems
philosophy
Scholastic
SYNOPSIS
IN
DOCTRINES
GLOSSARY
INDEX
THE
FORM
MAINTAINED
OF
PHILOSOPHIC
"
Tendencies
and
systems
(168)
"
THESES
OF
IN
TERMS
Neo-
481
(169)
THE
STATING
THE
MANUAL
....
PRINCIPAL
488
5"5
528
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
OR
THEODICY
INTRODUCTION*
Meaning
1.
Natural
of
of God.
Natural
"
It establishes
of
existence
the
natural
Christian
human
of
alone, and
reason
discovering but
mind
has
which
2.
Place
studies
with
Study.
have
us,
deals
Books
for
revelation
divine
by
belief
Christian
elaborated
has
these
have
already
with
Scholastics
by Aristotle
Metaphysics, 1). Philosophy, they
this is speculativephilosophy;
is
Gen.
(i) what
and
the
"
consultation
or
philosophic
how
seen
of
Branches
the
among
classified
and
study
Theology
We
"
been
(Introduction,9,
tell
it
to
quite incapable
is
resources
given
are
Natural
of
Philosophic
own
the
which
data
from
starts
the
and
co-ordina
of reflection, deduction
by means
all up into a systematized
them
gradually worked
know
of theology.
we
by the name
data
tion, and
whole
which
endowed
revealed
its
light of
distinguishedfrom
from
is
Cause.
of this
nature
account
latter
if left to
reason
the
This
theology.
this
on
Cause
first efficient
of all
It
theology or,
philosophical study
it is sometimes
as
Theology.
"
etsa
nature
(Beauchesne, Paris, 1915).
2nd
ed., 1896).
London,
Theology (Longmans,
2nd
The
God
AVELING,
of Philosophy (C. T. S., London,
ed., 1914).
Christian
DRISCOLL,
York, 2nd ed., 1902).
Philosophy : God (Benziger, New
The
Existence
MOVES,
of God
1906).
(brochure : Sands, London,
D eu
et L'Agnosticisme contemporain (Lecoffre, Paris,
1909).
MICHELET,
Dieu,
Garrigou-Lagrange,
BOEDDER,
Natural
CALDECOTT
and
large edition
Institut
Literature
the
from
Theism
of
1904).
of
Th6odicee
de
Superieur
as
of the
volume
Philosophic
as
in
Cours
preparation
by
announced
was
before
the
the
of
destruction
vain.
Lou
1
Etymologically
subject of God, GeoG
theodicee
1710)
Kant
took
theology
Theodicy
theology
is also
ROSMINI,
M.S.P."
; and
the
signify
the
in
by
word
it is of
in the
purely
it
narrower
Theodicy,
3 vols.
VOL.
in
II.
God
same
to
present-day
Aristotle
the
used
'
from
derived
known
as
sense
but
philosophical study
is confined
this
is
an
advocate's
'
plea
on
the
de
in his Essai
by Leibniz
mal
(Amster
et I'origine du
he
that
speaks.
by revelation
used
then
since
theodicy has been
from
of
distinguished
as
God,
find
it first used
SI'/CT/.We
de Dieu, la liberte de I'homme
here
word
which
the
la bonte
sur
dam,
to
Selections
MACKINTOSH,
(Clark, Edinburgh,
A
existence
son
was
the
sense
study
of
is also
God
as
often
known
to
called
us
by
rational,
revelation.
natural,
or
[The word
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
philosophy. Speculative
(2)what oughtto be this is practical
of
the
nature
movement, of quantity,
philosophyinvestigates
the treatises that correspond,
have
Hence
of substance.
we
namely,physics,mathematics and metaphysics.
If we ask what is the placeof natural theologyin speculative
philosophy,we find that it belongs both to physicsand to
proof
metaphysics, (i)To physics,because the fundamental
"
of the existence
consideration
in the
see,
of the First
is to be
Being
of movement
found,
the
or
as
we
shall
transition from
It
to actuality
; or,
potentiality
terms
of the
admit
can
to
use
Scholastics,it is in
of
no
transition from
no
expressive
sense
Unmoved.
the First
sidered
without
istics which
any
reference
to
change
or
to those
character
being as
investigates
It
immaterial
immobile.
negatively or
positivelyand
follows,then, that if we take the division of philosophyac
cordingto the ancients,natural theologyis not reallya distinct
branch of study : the existence of God is the ultimate
con
the
clusion,
highestflightof the study of physics,and the
of generalmetaphysics
study of His nature is an application
to a particular
being,the Being that is absolutelyperfect.
We conclude,then, that there is no special
science
philosophic
are
proper
to
matter
"
it
"
of God.
Moreover,
of its
we
to
requirea
formal
object
and
INTRODUCTION
positive, proper
that
concepts
the
within
comes
whatever
immaterial
beings,
applications of
be
the
about
have
the
negative ones
around
its
call
Hence,
as
far
so
the
of
also
positiveis shared
has
theology
adequately
we
possess
finite and
by
formal
no
imper
contingent
and
notions
the
them
the
and
are
origin
make
all
finite
the
may
God
concepts
them
from
we
to
and
proportionately
object
to
own.
the
principles
which
from
fundamental
the
are
different
between
the
from
analysis of
the
and
where
can
be
is
there
the
no
For,
relations
that
which
formal
object
formal
study
the
it to
are
principles
of
establishes
in
science
of the
out
drawn
previously
object special to
to
sets
mind
the
it has
concepts
principles peculiar
no
this
God.
applicable exclusively to
science
and
of
from
analogical.
best
at
only
drawn
knowledge
world
content
it is
as
natural
beings,
Again,
not
particular, can
extension
of
knowledge
in
material
can
material
human
which
God
being
be
characteristic
concerning
previously
all the
by eliminating
are
represents.
about
have
the
the
in
God,
to
that
beings
in
and
us,
form
we
God
we
down
limit
we
ally apprehended
fections
notions
we
applicable
concepts
world
material
our
concerning
immaterial
an
ideas
The
and
world
material
of
scope
the
from
drawn
are
positive
Therefore
question
science, there
the
it
constitute
special
science.
Natural
physics
the
the
in
Cause,
study
3.
far
so
as
and
it is
to
of
of
physics
it is
metaphysical,
principles
existence
the
and
to
application
an
general metaphysics
is made
which
meta
known
the
to
to
of
us
by
of movement.
of
Division
existence
the
concepts
First
both
of
God
activityof
correspond
the
Theology.
Natural
;
the
it
inquires
First
three
Cause.
chief
into
To
the
Theodicy
"
nature
these
parts of natural
three
of
proves
the
and
into
problems
there
God
theology.
PART
The
Before
attempting
first
define
which
is
first
the
"
with
part
one
the
what
the
be
of
Natural
existence
the
prove
to
are
we
to
dealing
to
by
of
proof.
Theology
of God.
the
idea
our
we
of
of
existence
understand
object
with
God
of
Existence
divide
the
divine
God
we
Sovereign
the
Accordingly
into
Being
this
chapters,
two
Being
must
the
other,
CHAPTER
IDEA
The
4.
God,
God
whether
in
in
next,
the
it ;
We
as
lastly,
of
races
find
instinctively
'
we
consciousness
and
in
Master
all
God
first
individual
;
to
serve
entertained
by
God
all
disposes
'
'
expressions
such
use
God
Thank
not,
or
'
'
God
only
that
belief
professing
reflection
any
that
implies
will
the
which
names
not.
or
is
regarded
things,
whose
groups
of
as
Supreme
the
wisdom
penetrates
things.
and
There
the
Elohim,
the
the
groups
either
Allah,
of
in
meaning
all4
of
upon
3.
hearkens
civilized
past
and
from
(e.g.
the
the
the
again,
De
present,
Being
agree
there
indicate
(El,
permanence,
self-same
when
the
dyut,
root
shining
who
in
one,
in
called
0"nro/"u, I invoke).
Quatrefages,
religious
peoples,
the
a
the
Sanskrit
the
heaven,
or
God
in both
universe
the
else
or
remains
petition (0"0'sfrom
savage
in
who
radiant
studied
and
group)
(Zev?
of
for
Semitic
the
that
shown
stand
that
Master
Supreme
group)
to
words
Being
Anthropologists
have
the
Semitic
change
Indo-Germanic
the
the
beam,
to
of
of
power
languages,
Philologists have
roots
immutability
midst
well-defined
two
are
Indo-Germanic.
the
these
the
This
whose
2.
who
the
whether
men,
knows
the
religious notions
the
without
to
religion
of
distinction,
it exists, in
as
with
mankind.
that
Would
'
revealed
know
may
spontaneous
and
different
1.
with
study
our
begin
without
men
original significationof
the
portray
God
of
it should
all
to
common
acquainted
are
notion
place,
is
amongst
if
but
methodical
be
is to
is found
perfection,
environment
infinite
an
"
every
Christian
that
they
This
in
theology
of
notion
Himself
of
notion
The
God.
Infinite
an
in
live
who
natural
the
of
possessing
those
of
Idea
BEING
DIVINE
THE
OF
conceptions
Lang,
of
Chantepie)
the
that
everywhere,
is to
be
found
the
various
both
idea
in
of
EXISTENCE
THE
OF
GOD
above
the order of mankind,
powerful divinities,
who
reward good and punish evil.
It is the philosopher's
task to ascertain whether this univer
from
a
sallyaccepted notion comes
purely anthropomorphic
mind
whether
there really
exists
or
tendency of the human
several beings which
one
or
correspond to it. Whatever
one
more
or
will be ex
the existence of God, which
may be said about
must
first establish the following
amined
in Chapter II, we
proposition.
5. The
Idea
the Guardian
of
of
the
Supreme
Moral
Perfection
Natural
Theology with
these
terms
and
Order,
; and
Simple
prove
is
a
Being, Superior
is
therefore
Idea
an
of
an
Sufficient
We
Proper Object.
"
the
to
Absolutely
to
have
World,
the
to
provide
explain
proposition.
Put
Perfections
are
of different kinds,
as
has
been
shown
in
distinguishbetween
Metaphysics (174, 175). We
mixed, simple and
absolutely**
simple perfections,(i) The
first kind formally contain an
imperfection,
e.g. the power
is the characteristic perfection
of man.
of reasoningwhich
is one
which
does not, by
(2)A simple perfection(simplex)
its very definition,
imply any imperfection,
yet at the same
of intelligence
time does not exclude it ; e.g. the perfection
of life. (3)By an absolutely
or
(simpliciter
simple perfection
whose
one
simplex)is meant
concept formally excludes all
of God
The perfections
belong to
imperfectionwhatsoever.
this third category. They are
characteristic of the divine
Being, since in them we can find neither trace of admixture
General
nor
of limitation.
Nevertheless, the
recognize in God
the result of
which
absolutelysimple perfections
either
from
spontaneous knowledge
philosophic
argumentationdo
not
contain
or
in
we
as
an
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
io
of this
is
of perfection.It
infinity
that
we
draw
from
these
perfection.The
eminent
Actuality is
of pure
nature
deduction
idea
concepts the
of
character
the
explicit
way
only by a further
contained
found
in them
first
infinite
in
an
implicit
way.
According
and
to Descartes
the
who
ontologists
follow him
is
and proper concepts of what
positive
of the Infinite. For, with them, the
immaterial, especially
notion of the Infinite is primordial
; arguing as they do that
finite bespeaks limitation, and that limitation is a
the idea
negative idea that entails a previousacquaintancewith the
positiveof which it is the denial : hence the idea of God is
In his
and proper one.
well as a positive
as
a primary idea
that it is by a
Descartes argues
Meditations metaphysiques,
way of limitation appliedto this primordialconcept we have
mind
the human
has
'
'
we
all finite
know
beings ; the
human
mind
predicatedin the
Descartes
himself
same
sense
allows
of the divine
Being, which
and
is supersensible
even
infinite. Not
natural
can
by
nature
We
is
spiritual.
is capable only of
of man
intelligence
It is clearly
forms.
receivingfinite intelligible
impossiblefor
form to represent the Infinite in a positive
any finite intelligible
Our finite intelligence,
and proper way.
then, cannot conceive
idea of the Infinite. The Beatific Vision,the promise
a proper
faith givesus of lifeeternal,cannot
be by means
of concepts. It
is not given to imperfect
beings such as we are to reach God by
the way
We
suggested by Descartes.
must, therefore, fall
back on the longeryet more
secure
way taught by the Scholastic
Again,
the
finite
system.
Kant
existence
was
aware
of
an
of
EXISTENCE
THE
the existence
it His
of
leap from
appealto the
that
involved
combated
very
which
argument
an
"
sequentlyhe argued
to the infinity
of God
necessity
ontological
argument which he
the
the
an
GOD
Infinity
;
ground
OF
all
that
also refuse to
we
accept. Con
demon
rigorousphilosophical
by the Theoretic Reason must
necessarily
imply the direct affirmation of the Infinite. Recog
he arrived
nizing,and quiterightly,that this is impossible,
conclusion
the
at
that
it
postulatesthat
makes,
can
lead
us
alone, from
fact of God's
positthe
to
the
existence.
Later
shall show
we
as
of recourse
to the ontological
they are on the necessity
argument
for passingfrom the first to the second stagein the proofof an
Infinite God,
We
without
are
assert, then,
Descartes
proof
that
6.
must, take
we
Triple Process
We
of
Kant
as
of God
and
positive
foundation
against
of the existence
that is not
any
proper
(25).
that
against
can,
we
startingpoint for
our
notion
of the infinite
our
Being
one.
Attribution, Elimination
and
Transcend
in predicting
of God the simpleper
justified
fections that are presentedto us in the consideration of the
world and of man
efficient
; for the divine Being is the supreme
of them, and surelyin the cause
must
be found the per
cause
ence.
"
are
further
in the world
them
to
of God
must
we
a
in
submit
all perfections
as
of elaboration
process
if we
we
know
wish to
them
predicate
in
way
that
supereminent way.
This
is the
process
of tran
scendence.
Thus
and
purifiedand
by the processes of
become
simpleperfections
exalted
transcendence, these
elimination
absolutely
NATURAL
12
simple(5),or,
more
and the
aspects one
7. This
THEOLOGY
strictly,
they manifest to us under
absolute perfection.
same
Process
Fallacious
neither
is
be made
may
they
are
meaning
or
as
transcendence.
and
Useless.
nor
The
objection
that
given
they
to
this method
by
us
and
the
are
formalityor
same
essence
either without
erroneous
are
"
of attribution,elimination
different
different
else formali
In the first
quite different from one another.
; in the
hypothesisthere is no ground for any multiplicity
inasmuch
their
second hypothesis,
as
they lead us into error
ties that
are
which
is
cannot
represent the divine essence
multiplicity
above compositionof any kind.
This difficulty,
long ago put by Duns Scotus againstthe
teachingof St. Thomas, can be solved onlyby attendingto the
virtual incomplete
distinction that exists between
the different
that we
attribute to the divine Being. Let us
perfections
recall what has been said on the subjectof distinctions (General
48).
Metaphysics,
and these are either
Distinctions correspond
to compositions,
real or existing
onlyin the mind, (i)A compositionisreal when
quite independentlyof any consideration by the mind it
this thing and
of things; it exists between
impliesa plurality
that thing,inter rem
be a
et rem.
In order that there may
real
be
incapableof existing
apart from one
they may be in realitydistinct,e.g. essence
thought and the facultyof thinking. (2) We
may
distinction
concepts
one
reason
same
when
of the
of pure
or
reason,
or
more
as
well
as
be either
the
reason
mind,
material
than
explicit
of pure
rational animal,
logical
logicaldistinction may
virtual one.
(a) It is one
are,
have
existence,
different
thing.
same
and
yet
several
in
formal
be
may
tinction
there
and
another
the
between
object,although
the
Thus
one
there
concepts of
(b)A logicaldistinction
concepts have
the two
other.
of
is virtual
pure
the
of them
is
and
man
or
dis
dis-
distinct formalities
or
OF
EXISTENCE
THE
"
for
as,
GOD
example,
13
the
distinction be
tween
"
in the
of the human
case
and
distinct
when
each formally
vegetativelife; (p)incomplete
object implicitly
comprisesthe others.
the divine
With
these terms
defined, we recognizeamong
divine
incompletevirtual distinction. The
perfectionsan
be represented
to us by
which is simplein itself,
essence,
may
concepts which have a formallydistinct content ; nevertheless,
the formal objectwhich each of these concepts representscon
tains in an implicit
the objects
manner
represented
by the other
concepts. Moreover, the divine perfectionsare attributed
to an
infinite being ; each of them because it is infinite must
comprisethe others. The virtual distinction that we recognize
between
the divine perfections
must, then, be imperfector
incomplete2.
For the very reason
that this distinction is incomplete,
our
knowledge of the divine Being is not, in the first place,falla
cious ; for the concept of each perfection,
since it implies
contains all the other perfections.Our
infinity,
implicitly
knowledge would be untrue only if it representedas distinct
those perfections
which constitute a real unity.
In the second place, this notion of the perfectBeing is
anythingbut useless ; for each concept which goes to form it
brings before us, in an explicit
some
different
aspect
manner,
its
of the
If
divine
essence.
inquirewhat
we
we
viewed
in
it
we
make
between
certainlycannot
be
absolute manner,
for God
composition; but it is to be found
viewed
in
an
relativemanner
the
for this
incomplete
of God,
perfections
in the
divine
in Himself
in
the
essence
is above
divine
all
essence
that
the world,
relatively,
God
is the primary efficient cause
well as the
as
to our
intelli
supereminent archetypalcause, and relatively
and
is the essence
of material beings,
gence whose proper object
whose
of knowing, being abstract and
manner
fragmentary,
a
is,to
"
of which
The
same
attributes
of
is seen
amongst
the transcendental
On
which
creation
in
maintained
and
surround
that
created
mind
as
the
once
nature.
us
true
God,
the
primary
and
rise
we
them.
foundation
and
wisdom,
and
intelligence
then,
of
useful,
to
from
idea
inasmuch
and
archetypal
that
composite
that
we
piece
in
of
rise
the
the
God
order
we
cosmos
infirmity
of
the
the
glance
this
nature
From
the
single
of
the
see.
we
at
account
know
only
can
we
in
taking
God.
of
fection
mind
from
it
prevents
is
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
I4
to
of
the
as
He
the
His
the
cause
is
of
knowledge,
together
human
to
established
idea
of
of
power
per
relations
finality
contingency
of
simple
of
the
God's
beings
God
regarded
created
which
concerning
who
by
the
things,
is
at
His
CHAPTER
EXISTENCE
THE
ART
DOCTRINES
General
terial
human
mind
the
truth
(3)
God
reach
reasoning,
divine
chiefly by
deals
God
for
His
existence
fundamental
impulse
or
does
himself
must
at
least
of God's
and
most
must
other
with
akin
the
a
a
of
means
proof
rest
those
examine
to
Rev.
these
who
various
affirm
we
Action),
Elan
God
Being.
every
Him3.
subjective
the
of
not
vital
the
and
each
of
do
(la Pens^e-
source
but
experience
on
but
abundant
of Himself,
vital
reasoning,
calls
method
no
we
Thought- Action
the
is
there
the
latter,
the
Bergson
of
whatever
to
existence
of
process
any
speak briefly of
has
man
(5) Lastly,
the
make
we
affirmation
sentiment.
proofs
for
the
teachings
and
existence
show
of
both
has
some
affinity with
Philosophy
positivism
evolutionistic
monism
reducible
to
an
ultimately
;
of
Heraclitus.
See
idealism
and
the
phenomenalism
Hegelian
Le
(Reprint
probleme de Dieu
d'apres la Philosophic nouvelle.
1908.)
Neo-Scolastique, Louvain,
respects
Kantianism
BALTHASAR,
from
by
of God,
that
expounded
as
According
God's
upon
intuition
Philosophy
question
God,
of discursive
ontologism
to
Roy.
we
In
the
is also
existence
Before
God,
Le
reality which
which
afford
not
within
New
demonstrating
intuitivelyby
that
is in the
of
asserts
method
immediate
an
reduce
and
that
based
ontologism
use
may
speciallywith
available
prove
there
Bergson
to
view
the
of faith
of
object
the
existence
the
act
an
hand,
have
(4) We
content
only by
other
we
holds
proving
neccesary
that
essence.
positive
who
it is not
but
of
incapable
the
be
imma
the
that
asserts
(2) Traditionalism
On
THE
PROOF
particular, cannot
received
be
can
revelation.
to
in
God
is
THE
(i) Positivism
"
knowledge.
since
this
and
OF
EXISTENCE
GOD'S
Sketch.
world,
GOD
TO
OPPOSED
OF
8.
OF
EXAMINATION
CRITICAL
I.
II
the
New
it is
15
i6
NATURAL
and
possibility
divine Being.
the
the
THEOLOGY
of provingthe
necessity
On
existence of the
this
question of the
school is divided
existence of God we find that the positivist
The
deals with the possibility
of our
into two groups.
one
knowledge of what is immaterial and, by way of consequence
only,of our knowledge of God in particular
; the other deals
directlywith the questionof the existence of the Supreme
Being.
who deny that we have any notion about
Those positivists
the immaterial
on
Agnosticism.
and
9. Positivism
which
"
different considerations.
Some
set
out
argument
with
simple
affirmation which
self-evident and
they maintain is perfectly
must
mind
be taken as a postulate,
namely, that the human
is capable of thinkingonly in positiveideas. With
regard
to the soul,God; and in general
all thingsthat are not clothed
with material conditions,they professa necessary ignorance,
sometimes
waiving the questionwhether they exist or not,
sometimes
denial. Other
disposingof them by a categorical
dominated
philosophers,
by Kantianism, put forward as their
for eliminating
all idea of the immaterial
from human
reason
thought the fact that there is a law of our understanding
enforcingthis. It is part,indeed, of the Kantian system that
scientificwhich are synthetic
are
only those of our cognitions
a priori
judgments, and these are conditioned by pure intui
tions of time and space,
As what
is immaterial
is, by its
nature, withdrawn
human
mind
from
have
cannot
such
a
scientific
knowledge
the
such
of
beings.
Those
by a law
ledge,he
his famous
'
con
are
"
cognitions: phenomena
and, in consequence,
as
regarded by it as the
supernaturalfree agencies,
subjectto
are
no
fixed law.
This
is the
THE
OF
EXISTENCE
GOD
17
judgments.4We
agnosticismand
10. Criticism
confine
must
the
our
positivismof
of the
attention
an
order.
Agnostic Position.
attain
refutation of
The
agnosticasserts
all examination
concerning
"
self-evident,that
what
is of the
But,
into the
Comte.
prioritruth, anterior to
the object of our
knowledge, and as
rise above
cognitivefaculties cannot
as
to
we
our
sensible
inquiry
cannot
immaterial
to
reflection we
world
that immaterial
requiresfor its adequateinterpretation
to what
thingsalso exist,we shall not be wrong in listening
our
reason
"
informs
us
about
those immaterial
things.
See Criteriology,
39, 40 ; and cp. Crit. gen. (Cours Superieur),98
Cp. Crittriologit
gtntvale (Cours Sup6rieur), 116.
f
.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
i8
littlewe
the
Unknowable
do
We
be
any
of certain and
positivescience
subject-matter
of God is only enough to let us know that
know
the
'
cannot
in terms
is known
what
be
Being,
divine
the
He
is
'.
wish
not
the
which
is concealed
admit
that
to
under
important aspect of
an
material
world
truth
the
objection.We
above
the
finds in the
mind
our
deny
the
readily
object
capabilities
; sensible things
And
in a proper
and
what
know
are
we
positiveway.
where
if the
un
philosopher in defining his terms
doubtedly there is scope for what is arbitrary calls scientific
which
only those representations
possess these character
be the objectof
the immaterial
cannot
istics,then assuredly
which
is
its
proportionateto
"
"
science.
notions
the
must
have
we
never
and negative
capable of possessinganalogical
We
are
not, indeed, able to predicate
conceptionsof God.
of Him
also to material beings;
what is common
positively
have
taken originally
nevertheless these concepts which we
of a
from the material world of things we
refine by means
process of negationwhich eliminates from them
every element
in a posi
of imperfection.Without
what
signifying
strictly
in reality
is peculiar
tive manner
to God, these concepts are
to Him
alone, and thus they afford us a true know
applicable
ledgeof the divine Being.
minds
our
11.
are
Criticism
of Comte's
Law
"
'
of the
Comte
Three
Stages
endeavoured
'
and
the
to establish
All
'
knowledge has
gone
of human
three stages
is corroborated
man
hood
marks
prey
an
reveals in its
every
is
by
to
course
three
credulityand
metaphysicalillusions.
that
of
age
turns
man
THE
to the
EXISTENCE
GOD
OF
19
physicalorder.
to
development,the inability
discover
facts observed.
If,therefore,a
the
of his intellectual
man
earlystages of rational
a theory suggested by
wanted
to find scope
for
he had to invent
activity,
from the information at hand some
that would
interpretation
to unifythe phenomena he observed : theologyserved
serve
him
this purpose.
to the
This prepared the way
meta
physical
theoryof nature, whence humanity has been enabled
to arrive at this stage of positive
science,which is the final
employment
stage.
"
studies
are
if
chiefly,
the final
not
stage of
and
an
then
intermediary
stage
wrote
on
devoted
some
universal
quakes, on
M.S.P.-VOL.
the
H.
the
which
study of
of mathematical
historyof the
considerations
career
devoted
has been
physicalsciences.
Helmholz, who was first a physiologist
himself
to
philosophy after passing
to
entirely,
the
So
study.
too
of the heavens,
concerningfire,various studies
on
nature
tkeory of winds,
and
an
essay
on
Kant
sketch
earth
headaches,
,c
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
20
before he reached
the
his two
elaborated
final
Critiques.
logicalproof of
Again, Comte's
the
from
the three
of
necessity
the
'
he
law of
his
empiricalproof.
it would
be a petitio
Isolated from history,
principii.For he
the assertion that the first hypotheseswhich the human
makes
mind
constructed were
theological.But on what
necessarily
does
of nature
structs
read
theory into
some
hypothesisconcerningthe
some
to the
this
facts, that he
con
of the connexions
nature
and
experi
verification of this
theory,this
premature
theological,and
'
'
accustomed
his
bindingfacts togetherand
ments
grounds does
primitiveman
'
indeed,
as
'
anomalous
to
adopt
some
phenomena
theory of
well have
led
may
this kind : but there
is
had to
our
was
nothing to warrant
saying that recourse
such
an
explanationas a general rule.
takes it for granted, without
Moreover, Comte
offering
adequate proof, that the positivestage of knowledge is the
final and
'
law
perfectone, and
of
the
considerations
three
"
is the
race
without
"
to
fall back
proof,and
assertion
mere
and
It is
as
in this
this is
Either
case
his
apart
from
to
in which
be
historical observation
interesting,
moreover,
to
note
that
case
reallyan
has
no
what
was
empirical
value at all.
EXISTENCE
THE
OF
GOD
21
to a necessary
positivismComte had to have recourse
of the mind
to bind
and universal law, namely the necessity
from this
facts together
by a theory,in order to prove precisely
that there are
such things as necessary laws but only
no
A
less constant.
associations that are
more
or
positivist
of
what
he
what
cannot
about
is,
can
ought
speak
pronounce
of his
to be.
Though
as
of fact the
matter
'
law
of the
three
stages
'
even
majorityof philosophers,
by
it
has
of
consider
the positivists
left
a heritage
themselves,
yet
who
able influence.
are
engrossedin the study
Many thinkers
has
been
of the
abandoned
natural
the
by
sciences and
confine themselves
the
to
of
use
is the
objectof
?
blessings
This
the
Comte
Pasteur
French
showed
and
what
play.
Comte
left him
phenomenon
their
times.
to
consider
antecedent
is the real
is pure
amongst them
the manifold
not
is the
sophistry,
to
to the
face with
antecedents
in which
allowing an
cause
to
of the
source
InauguralAddress
conditions
complex
method, by
great part
method
positive
in the
This
in
the
This confusion
in his celebrated
Academy.
nature
which
of abundant
source
due
created between
experimentalmethod,
discoveries of modern
as
and the
eulogy of positivismis
admiration
our
of the
of
they find
inquiry into
phenomenon
less legiti
enables us merely to pass, more
or
explained,
mately,from what has been to what can be. The experimental
method, which alone is of value in the physicalsciences, starts
to be
out,
menter
on
the
contrary, from
endeavours
to
directive idea
verifyby
his
study
which
of the
experi
phenomena.
the
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
22
He
varies
appears
he sets
of
intensity
subject to
are
the
method
positivistic
which
under
conditions
modifies
with
passive,
the
The
others.
in certain
phenomenon
aside
action
the
which
under
the conditions
artificially
the
phenomenon
passed
writers
other
on
'
the
Poincare*, Duhem,
H.
of fashion.
out
of
critique
the sciences
'
have
and
Roy
Le
done
much
the
12. Criticism
Traditionalism.
of
of traditionalism
There
"
are
two
schools
likewise maintain
semi-traditionalists who
first instance
unaided
is
reason
that
in the
incapableof attainingto
able
to a
them, had recourse
We
cannot
think, he says, without
psychological
argument.
words ; and to create language man
had to think and, conse
most
quently,must
thinker
amongst
alreadyhave
vicious
circle.)Since reason
language and of making an
own,
man
it is necessary
to have
recourse
of which
We
we
see
rationalism
of the
many
receive
that
the
weakness
errors
by
for the
to
had
was
act
(An evident
in itselfincapableof creating
of thought which is reallyits
the
faith.
way
of
reaction
traditionalists took
human
displayedby
of words.
by
of the
use
the
mind.
from
most
The
revolutionary
exaggeratedview
a
truth
is that
historyof philosophyare
the
no
THE
EXISTENCE
OF
GOD
of
speculations
the laborious
that
than
nothing more
established
could
the truth.
towards
But
there
that
assert
we
such
to take
Such
reason.
all thinkers
delirium.
long
one
our
if it could
justified
only be
would
23
in all ages
were
if this
were
Only
has
be shown
been
no
progress
of the
view
pessimistic
serve
it is
but
show, the
As
we
of divine faith.
act
of
is indeed
de Donald's
to
language,which
maintained
he
be due
must
here
existence,he solved
discuss)of
to
how
origin
the
appeal to
an
revelation,
to
may
into
from
argument
problem
language came
only
from
divine
of the human
members
not
teaching made
race
the
to
still to remark
have
we
known
first
(a)that
be
a revelation : the former
teachingis not necessarily
may
the appealmade
of his disciple,
by a master to the intelligence
whilst
the latter is an
appeal to the faith of a believer.
(b) That, if we suppose the human mind to be absolutely
incap
able,a revelation is not sufficient to explainhow we are able to
a
arrive at
If
God.
certain
receive
we
blind credence
the
claims
but
that
and it is
only by
ourselves
about
the
on
knowledge
assertion
revealed
only after
this
of
the
the
This
"
have
authorityof God8.
We
say
of that
finite ;
the
rational
adviscly on
authority.
former, which
supernatural gift.
reason
authorityof
The
we
by
can
traditionalism
about
faith ;
satisfy
is based
totallyincapable. The
objectof his faith by relyingon
knowledge
the
that
of
act
an
is
reason
the
our
of
nature
be received
to
Yet
credibility.
that
and
satisfied ourselves
have
we
admits
believer,in reality,
that he has
existence
has
proposition
the exercise
its
of the
God
and
not
on
the evidence
of credibility,
are
latter,the motives
is the motive
of faith, is unlimited, and
which
we
necessarily
faith
is
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
24
69). Therefore
(Criteriology,
the proposition
succeed in establishing
traditionalism can never
that the existence of God is acceptedby faith; it drives man
back to an agnosticposition.
that
the other hand, by recognizing
Semi-traditionalists,
on
carried on, in spiteof
the reason
has a limited capacity,
are
themselves, to the same
opinionas we uphold ; for by logically
followingout their conclusions they are forced to acknowledge
that a proofof the existence of God is possible.
Their
of
fact
historical
proofunder
the
intellectual
existence of God
which
that
is that
contention
this
enables
it has
revelation
accept as
truth
attainingby
its
proof become
their
less.
already known,
truth
own
is necessary
is in itself
the
unknown
arrive at
can
rational truth
the
knowledge
revelation.
that
which
reason
reason
But
guidanceof the lightof revelation.
operationof the mind which discovers the
is intrinsically
the operation
as
just the same
it to
of
human
the
acquiredby
revelation of
the
our
the act
as
it follows
that
of
truth hitherto
by which
to
we
prove
grant that
reason
the
intermediate
which
position
up
is untenable
to
that
of
fall back
to
taken
either
logical,
return
they must,
radical
if
they are
traditionalism
and
agnosticscepticism,or
else
ultimate
the concession
consequences
of the Scholastics
rationalistic position
proofof
therefore
they
they
and
must
have
ultimately
carry
made
to its
to
the
acknowledge that
God's existence is
possible.
of proving
After this conclusion regardingthe possibility
God's existence, we
school,
must, against the ontologistic
of demonstrating
show the necessity
it.
a
13.
Criticism
Rosmini
of
"
EXISTENCE
THE
arguments
sented
which
gain
can
as
this
the
afterwards
be true, it must
to
in the
But
order
all created
and
order of
knowledge,we
contingentbeings.
Ontologism
1.
25
sets
from
out
an
His
know
from
knowledge only
objectknown.
primary Being
also in the
of fact does
matter
GOD
under
gence,
OF
in
vision.
conformitywith
of real
beings, God
first know
and
God
theory of
erroneous
is
posterior.So
thingsare
must
existence,
immediate
an
be
be repre
intelli
ideas.
have shown
else
as
we
objectof the intelligence,
forms
where
as
89), consists in the intelligible
(Psychology,
To
see
apprehended in the world presentedto our senses.
The
proper
God
is the
limitations
the
of the
which
have
we
processes
have first drawn
we
attests
if
Moreover
should
in the
of
immaterial
know
can
ence
life of grace.
supernatural
our
knowledge in this present life
beings only by applying,by means
alreadyspoken of (6),the notions
from the material world.
Experi
goalpromised by faith to
Under
we
is in Himself
He
as
that
we
have
no
the
infinite
intuition of the
Being.
could
minds
and
we
would
not
should be
anything else.
more
Since
be
subjectto
At
the least
same
time
about
God,
the
error
consequences
are
belied
of that of
by facts,
the
is unwarrantable.
tion does
requirethe
The
truth
of
conformityof this
an
individual
cogni
cognition with
the
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
26
thing cognized;
particular
to be true, there is
of its
order
but
need for
no
logicalsuccession.
system of
for the
to
us
our
cognitions
representeverythingin
Such
is needed
condition
the
for
of our
scientific system, not for its truth : a
perfection
thingis true when what we say of it is in conformitywith what
affirm of God, although it is by
What
it is ontologically.
we
from the world
and drawn
mediate
ideas which
are
originally
and Last
is that He is the First Cause
of sensible experience,
End
of this world
(5).
the
14.
Roy8,
'
of the
Meaning
'
is infinite
becoming.
',becoming. In so far
God
movement
According
"
The
as
7.
'
Philosophy
New
essence
He
has
to Le
realityis
alreadybecome
of
divine.
of
He
us,
Now
is the
immanent
I have
within
becoming, of
and
more
more
I feel within
tendency to become
immediate
myself an
This supremacy
of the moral law which
myself constitutes the affirmation of the existence
atheists
himself
properly soan
aspiration
is better ; or rather, we
should say, every
one
of atheism whensoever
he is doing what
season
what
experiencesa
is evil and
perfect,
more
moral.
There
.of God.
are,
accordingly,no
feels within
called, since every man
towards
and
more
intuition
"
flow of
To use
the meta
realityand so changes its nature.
phoricallanguage of this philosophy,realityis a continuous
curve,
reasoningis
movement
the
tangent which
mind
any moment
its utilitarian
at
stops its
or
owing to
practical
this is matter ; it
and breaks it up
tendency scatters reality,
then unifies by reasoningthese scattered elements
that were
created by Thought- Action.
echo
Here we have as it were
an
of the underlying
fundamental
of the one
and eternal
continuity
becoming which is the only reality,
namely, Thought- Action.
and reason
Besides matter
it is necessary to posita directive
element
which
draws u- on to perfection this is the principle
'
'
"
"
Here
we
confine
ourselves
to
some
fundamental
criticisms.
For
further
details,see
BALTHASAE,
op. cit.
8
E. LE ROY, A New
Philosophy: Henri
" Norgate, London,
1913).
Bcrgson, tr.
V.
Benson
(Williams
THE
of
growth,
cannot
be
EXISTENCE
GOD
OF
27
moral
of our
spirit
reality.This reality,
spirit,
it
reduced
other
of
is
to any
form
at the
reality
;
of existence. It is necessary to positits supremacy,
or
very source
and it is this which
of God.
The
'
New
'
as
It is
it is
for
evolutionist,
the fundamental
is a more
and more
reality
perfectbecoming,
which is necessitated by its own
nature ; being is a dynamic
effort to develop.
an
welling-up,
which claims to correct common
1. This system of philosophy
and to go beyond it by asserting
as
sense
a
postulatethat
thoughtcannot reach out beyond itselfor know an objectother
than
terminate
in pantheism,
thought itself,must logically
what
be affirmed to the contrary. For
notwithstanding
may
God is made
to live within us, to realize Himself
in us ; by
the higherpart of our
beingwe are in fact God, since we know
Him and since thought can know
nothingbut itself.
self2. We
are
conscious, it is said, of a tendency towards
of being drawn
to perform the good. This, how
realization,
be a vital experience
ever, cannot
of God, unless indeed we are
ourselves God.
For if there exists a tendency in my
nature
towards working what is justand noble and good, it is legiti
mate
to argue that this finite impulse towards
the ideal is
contingentlike my nature, and therefore requiresfor its
and
explanationa Necessary Being already self-perfected
not
needing to acquirefurther reality
; but this is a proof
of God
from causalityand not by any
vital experienceof
Him.
3. It is not
that
the
of thought
principles
change the nature of reality.Granted they do not apprehend
all reality,
that they abstract from many
elements
in reality,
nevertheless
they do apply to realityand they trulyexpress
the laws of reality.It is thus that the becoming, or the
of reality,
be adequatelyexplainedwithout
cannot
acquisition
to an
unmoved
recourse
being which in some
way
possesses
this perfection
of reality.We
shall return
to this pointwhen
we
We
deal with
true
the
argument
abstract
motu
for the
existence
of God.
reality
becoming is the fundamental
without at the same
time denying the objectiveapplication
of the principle
of sufficient reason.
The New
Philosophydoes
cannot
say
that
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
28
from
shrink
not
this
extreme
consequence
and
its
utters
so
condemnation.
own
We
ourselves
confine
here
must
to
fundamental
these
criticisms.
New
divine.
15.
of the
Examination
is
immanence
The
sophy.
The
"
word
prominent in present-dayphilo
extraordinarily
cannot
New
get
Philosophy tells us that man
of consciousness
his states
beyond
Religion of Sentiment.
has
; he
an
intuition of the
thought and
operationwhich is at once
between
action.
Other
thought and
philosophersdistinguish
of God
and they positthe existence
sentiment
by virtue of a
purelysubjectivesentiment which cannot be reduced to thought.
The development of these ideas is to be ascribed partlyto the
action
influence of Protestantism, partlyto the disintegrating
of the
Critiqueof Pure Reason ',and partlyalso to the vague
impression that everythingis subjectto a law of rhythmic
evolution, that nothing is absolute, and that truth is but the
real
virtue
by
of
an
'
problems
which
to
reflectingreason
to
us
the
must
remark
study
that
in the
solution
gives rise
of consciousness
always have
the
last
of the
word.
the
Feeling
sentiment
or
reason
God
to Him
if he
only
is meritorious
viction.
The
classical
free-thinker, that
throw
only
in his lot
on
The
if it is founded
pieceof
advice
that
on
reason
Pascal
pays
and
gave
he
con
to
the
should
of his reason
use
any
the side of religion,
as
preferableto taking
without
the
a
worship man
it makes
an
Reason
or
the
appeal
alone
affords
falsityof
to reason,
is
and
this conception the ideas of Renan
fallingunder
Catholic
advocates
certain degree, the ideas of some
a
of a new
of Pascal
apologetic which they associate with the name
; they dis
the part played by the reason
in religiousquestions and
particularly
parage
in the question of God's
existence, and place undue
emphasis upon the part
the
the
will
and
feelings.
played by
9
We
may
Sabatier, and
rank
even,
as
in
THE
ART.
II.
16.
THE
OF
PROOFS
THE
of this Article.
Division
and
a posteriori,
priori,
is one
that proceedsfrom
a
for
sequent. Such,
OF
EXISTENCE
GOD
EXISTENCE
Proofs
"
(a)An
effect,from
to
cause
instance, is
OF
of three
are
simultaneo.
29
GOD
kinds
"
prioriproof
to
reason
con
the
syllogismestablishing
goodness of the end of the universe by startingout from the
idea of a first Cause infinitely
wise and good, (b)An a posteriori
proof goes to work in just the oppositeway, from an effect
to a cause
or
principle.Such, for example, is the proof,in
of the soul from the immaterial
psychology,of the spirituality
of the acts of the mind and the will, (c)An a simultaneo
nature
is the proofof one
demonstration
thingby another which is not
it in reality
but
is conceived
distinct from
which
by the
mind
as
preceding it : e.g. the immortalityof the soul
This threefold division
demonstrated
as
by its spirituality.
of proofs,it is clear, is founded
the relation that exists
on
between
and the way
in which
thingsas they are in reality
they
It
unfold
themselves
is not
in
difficult to
concepts.
our
see
that
is
there
form
only one
of
known
this
state
that
simultaneo
in
demonstration
has
been
put forward,
that
ontological
argument of St. Anselm,
shall
We
conclusion.
argument leads to no justifiable
and examine
it,and then pass on to review the proofs
are
capableof demonstratingthe existence of God.
I. THE
17.
the
history as
ARGUMENT
ONTOLOGICAL
Statement
of
the
Argument.
"
OF
The
ST. ANSELM
celebrated
argument
brieflyfor
mulated
thus : Every man
possesses the concept of that being
which is the greatestpossible.But existence in the ontological
to
which
order is
St. Anselm
has
given
perfection.Therefore
conclude
This
then
is
we
the
name
has
be
may
must, unless
being which
has
absolutely
perfect,
that God
argument
his
this
we
violate the
is the
greatest
perfection.We
does exist.
been
taken
up
by various well-known
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
30
"
"
again the
from
elements
that
analysisof
the
'
idea
our
'
the note
of
of God
could
only have
notion
'
'
of
proved
*"
it
infinite
used
in
this idea
of
if in
two
further
'
to
infinite
we
introduced
been
forming it
Outside
arguments
these
for God's
could
not
'
draw
synthetic
our
three
'
existence
either
had
we
Hence
it.
never
can
into
it
seen
or
hypotheses
existence.
the idea
me
form
'
of God.
postulatedit.
or
Descartes
(1) I have
But
existence
originallywent
is
I
perfect.
infinitely
am
limited
in my
conceive.
lie with
Therefore
Therefore
God.
And
am
the
forced, in order
reason
further
of my
it is not
to
existence
difficult to
cannot
see
that
lie with
there
me
is
no
but
must
power
in
for a
being even
preserve
The
contingent nature, then, of our
being requires the
existence
of a necessary
Being. (Principlesof Metaphysics, 20 and 21.)
the proof
The
second
part of this argument comprises, in a confused
way,
which
here
drawn
from
shall
later
Still
we
we
becoming
explain
(21).
may
that the fact of our
idea of God
existence
and our
object against Descartes
which
is not at all the basis on
we
expect to found the argument from
may
of
contingency. Whilst it is true that we have not in ourselves the reason
to know
this not by observing with Descartes that
own
our
being, we come
the notion
if a being which
of the infinite had
given itself its own
possesses
itself
to
it
without
it
would
have
limits
such
a line of thought
:
being
given
any
is
that
it
for
to
would
at
least
a
itself,and this
cause
possible
being
presuppose
involves
the absurd
supposition that a being can be anterior to itself.
by which we
single moment.
us
are
able
to subsist
or
ourselves
in
"
THE
EXISTENCE
had
professontologism;
existence.
God's
GOD
31
advocate
an
from
in the
In the
of
act
very
he
has
as
this would
be
questionis of proving
it is equallyimpossible,
place,
syntheticconceptionof God,
the
moreover
second
forming
of St. Anselm's
admittingthat
an
to
Now
there.
shrink
certainly
would
argument
OF
the
is in
His existence ; for this,as we
say, is just what
question. And the third hypothesis,which is the only one
to
prove
sufficient for
not
as
"
St. Anselm
ably from
himself
considered
that
contained
necessarily
Consequentlyhe did
in the
existence
left him
St. Anselm
order
ontological
is
that
Indeed
unmoved.
For
him
the
the
premissfrom
which
he
was
was
starting
alreadyrelated to the real order.
is based on
It
this major :
The reasoningof St. Anselm
is necessary to conceive the perfectBeing as existing
'. This
'
we
do not
to contradict.
venture
Consequently the
is illogical.
From
the
be inferred with
can
He
antecedent
the
followingconsequent :
infinite Being includes real
then
goes on
exists '. This
perfectBeing
'
on
which
his
that
existence
inference
reasoningis
concept of
the
under
infer
regard to
Given
to
pain
the
of self-con
belongs
to
It
'
'
in the proposition
predicate existence
must
be united to the subject perfectBeing by a necessary
did not
St. Anselm
nexus.
perceivethat the necessityof
real existence which
our
concept of infinityincludes is only
a hypothetical
necessity.If I conceive the most perfectpos
existent.
sible being, I can
only conceive it as necessarily
But this is no proofthat it really
exists.
(b)The argument as emended
by Leibniz. As the divine
is possible,
and this essence
includes existence,it follows
essence
and
necessarily,
the
'
'
"
St. Anselm's
flaw
as
essence
argument
before.
exists
so
runs
is clothed.
Leibniz
confuses
the
It has
the
new
the
form
in which
same
essential
various
kinds
of
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
32
(Gen.Metaphy
alreadydistinguished
is different
that intrinsic possibility
sics,19). We have seen
The former we may call a non-impossi
from extrinsic possibility.
the
of contradiction between
in other words, the absence
bility,
The latter impliesthe exist
that constitute an essence.
notes
for the production
of a being which is the sufficient reason
ence
of
that is intrinsically
of an
essence
possible
; or, in the case
the Being that does not admit of being produced,the presence of
for us to positthe existence of this being which we can
a reason
not know
properly.Hence, when Leibniz asserts that the divine
is possible,
he cannot
conceived
by the intelligence,
essence,
be either to
to its extrinsic possibility,
be referring
as this would
at issue,or to lapseinto the fallacy
presuppose the very question
He must
be speaking
of St. Anselm
that we have justrefuted.
it is true to say that if we saw
Now
onlyof intrinsic possibility.
in the idea of God's
that there was
no
positively
repugnance
existence, we should ipsofacto be seeing His existence. For
and proper view of
should have to possess a positive
this we
His essence
which impliesexistence : and this would be to fall
that we
possibilities
into
the
Our
when
we
priorino
for
reason
more
admit.
not
affirming
So
that He
Indeed
long, however,
exists,we
it is from
possibility
; and
of those
direct
existence that
we
see
made
of
as
II.
ST. AUGUSTINE'S
the
we
for
reason
asserting
is intrinsically
possible.
draw
our
notion
of intrinsic
the
the
Thus
despitethe
of God,
possibility
conceals the
logic,
analysis
fundamental
same
Statement
and
ARGUMENT
necessary
FROM
POSSIBLE
ESSENCES
Criticism
of the
of metaphysicaltruth
the
no
positive
way the intrinsic possibility
have
and nature
whose
we
properties
in
of his
flaw
notes
have
we
affirm that He
cannot
apparent correctness
19.
as
beings alone of
knowledge (Gen.Metaphysics,20).
Leibniz
that
nor
does
state
sible.
have
we
himself
is
God
that
fact
Leibniz
that
ontologism
pointof
In
have
the
OUR
KNOWLEDGE
Argument.
"
Neither
OF
the
laws of criteriology
objective
of possiblesnor their unlimited
possibility
nor
THE
immediate
supply an
number
OF
EXISTENCE
GOD
reason
sufficient
necessary and
The
truth, St.
ofa
independentof
truth, but
It is
existences.
then, be
for the
Being.
infinite
Augustine somewhere
all contingentbeings.
of the truth.
33
It is
for
says, is
No
in itself,
one
speaks of
one
anterior
norm
the existence
to
my
all created
It cannot,
eternal,infinite.
This
line of argument
same
followed
was
by
opinionthat
The
tions ',that
Bossuet
in
put forward
metaphysicaltruth, or
ifthe truth
it
should
-f
'
is the truth of
be
of
the world
of his
one
EleVa-
is
possibles,
far removed
not
it not
God, when
'
follow that
apprehend
we
in Himself
? Such a consequence
seeingGod
has not escaped modern
exponents of the argument, who are
is not God
that this world of possibles
in asserting
explicit
Himself but only an
of God.
Alongsidethe world of
effect
existences there is,they say, the world of metaphysicaltruth,
of the abstract essences
of possible
being,equallyreal with it
althoughnot existential ; and the notes of necessity,
eternity,
of this world would directly
lead us, by virtue of the
universality
of causality,
to affirm the existence of God, since in
principle
we
other
no
way
and
are
to
The
the
logic,
number
2.
and
11
account
recourse
1.
we
Such
to
may
without
explainthem
not
conditional and
essences
that
of
not
absolute.
belongto the
actual beings;
realm
or
as
of
assertions
logical
the
old Scholastics
and
criticism of the argument, see
London), pp. 89-95, and S. REINSTADLER,
Philosophic Scholasticae (Herder, London), II, pp. 232-235.
a
is the
God11.
Possible
For
notes.
are
not
for these
to examine
It behoves
version of the argument.
us
of possible
the characteristics and nature
essences,
modern
what
can
fuller statement
Ontology (Longmans,
P.
COFFEY,
Elementa
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
34
would
have
It does not;
for the
existence of
sufficient
reason
and, in
Being absolutely
necessary
con
which
norms
posited are
once
conditions
dependentof contingent
ence.
Whether
that
possible
there would
would
The
I exist
I should
be
or
and
not, 2+2
exist.
even
regarded
of
our
still make
If,however, there
as
in
very exist
4, it is still
were
no
mind,
truth and
and
make
I am
necessarily
necessarily
possible,
4, because
finite intelligences
there is demanded
are
a neces
contingent,
should always make
so that 2+2
sary and infinite intelligence
4 and that it should always be possiblethat I exist. We
replythat if we know that God exists,we know also that the
truth is always presentbefore Him
do
; but that as long as we
not know
the fact of His existence (thisis the very point in
question)we have quitean adequateexplanationof the truth
that 2+2
always make 4 because in our very statement of it
of the proposition
we
always to be pre
suppose the two terms
makes
sented to some
Since my
mind
other.
or
intelligence
abstraction
from
siderations,it
the conditions
of time
and
granted that
terms, that always and everywhere2+2=4.
In our
opinion,to give to the ideal world a realityoutside
the mind that conceives it is to multiplybeingswithout neces
of the ideal order is sufficiently
sity; and the objectivity
safeguardedagainstthose who hold a purely subjectiveview
that are drawn from the
by the presence in the mind of essences
Kant's view is that we
sensible world.
activelyconstitute
that guide us in its search are
the truth, since the principles
abstract our
a priori
; it is sufficient to replyto him that we
that we
are
passivein the elaboration
concepts from reality,
of them
and
sees,
of the
relations that
39 f.).
(Criteriology,
unite
them
to
one
another
EXISTENCE
THE
These
is not,
20.
leads
III. PROOFS
THE
General
consider
of the
that
perfections
tion
whereby
which
GOD
OF
Proofs.
of
essence
it,whether
constitute
When
"
we
its existence,
being is the si m
they are essential
Existence is that
accidental.
or
individual
The
possibles
the existence ot
being, we
of
world
EXISTENCE
that there
assert
to affirm
of St. Thomas's
Statement
its action.
and
OF
us
35
to
us
of existences, a
special
way
Being.
some
necessary
force
to us,
seems
alongsidethe world
in
which
it
reasons,
GOD
OF
final determine
or
actuality
is made to be actual,
perfection
into
essence
being. By its
this constitutive
determines
individual
action,the beingbecomes
efficientcause,
an
and
thus manifests
its essential
arguments
essential
existence
of
perfection
basis of the
argument from
and
becoming
demands
(iv)The
shows
and
demand
supreme
designeras
cause
proofdrawn
in the
from
reality
movement13,
argument known
drawn
which
from
Metaphysical
St. Thomas
is to
sets
out
passingfrom
Movement.
as
For
metaphysical
to
potentiality
M.S.P.
Gen.
VOL.
around
v-s
capablecf
further
see
that
I.
"
is
say, the
actuality.There are beings,he says, in the world
formal perfection
which, at first without some
yet
11
cosmos
physico-theological
argument.
21. Argument
ment,
other
(v)The
world,
an
adds
manifest
:
the
as
St. Thomas
with the
is the
purpose
this
being:
known
are
of God
find in the
exists
their contin
shows
necessary
is connected
one
metaphysical movement
that we
degreesofperfection
The
of
existence
from
the
beings
these
'
two
of
there
is the
existence
the
that
conclusion
To
'
the
of their action,which
The
causality,(iii)
gency
is the
to
the
conditional
(ii)The
movement,
that
providesthe
of beings leads
activity
first cause
fact
(i)The
God.
of
Meizphysics. 112-121.
II.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
36
: what
it,do acquirethis perfection
happens is that
possessing
determinate
is made
by its actuality. This
potentiality
actualityis
the
not
which
perfection
the
this
And
trinsic self-communication.
is the
in
an
which
perfection
com
or
principle
the
receivingthis
before
it acquires. For
perfection
of the
source
determination
formal
being is without
the
of its perfection
that it is itself the principle
suppose
to the
is to assert that it alreadypossesses it. This amounts
To
it.
self-contradiction
III. Now
cannot
at
of
series of
mount
ad
up
without
infinitum,
itself has in
which
first term
external action
an
coming
acquiredthe
ever
no
way
For not
to
stop
essential
of these moved
it.
that characterize
one
perfections
of
would
have in itself the reason
beings,taken individually,
would
which
it receives, and the same
be true
the perfections
with
regard to
in this whole
which
ment
the whole
series
series which
could
we
not
in it communicates
they go
find the
form, for
to
of
principle
itself from
the
being to
one
even
move
another.
could
have
not
Consequently these formal determinations
produced themselves, and we are forced, for the explanation
of the passingfrom potentiality
observe
to actualitywhich
we
in the
beings around
is the
of
principle
being
His
there is
no
us,
to have
it and
who
to
recourse
does
not
receive
Being
any
this
who
other
Being
perfections.And as in
there is no poten
metaphysicalmovement
possible,
Theologica.
The
from
essential
own
First
We
give
first and
motion.
things are
the
most
It is certain
in motion.
are
not
Pure
received
Actuality.
in his Summa
text.
manifest
and
Whatever
is in motion
is moved
from
some
by
THE
motion
37
except it have
it is
as
being moved
it is actual.
mean
we
which
inasmuch
moves
"
GOD
be in motion
towards
that
thing
OF
EXISTENCE
the
By
reduction
of
into a state
of
something from a state of potentiality
actuality.Nothing, however, can be reduced from a state
unless by something
of potentiality
into a state of actuality,
Thus that which is actually
alreadyin a state of actuality.
as
it should
motion
which
be
must
move
put in motion
it is put in motion
also must
another
needs
be
be itself
put in motion
again. This
by
another.
is in
If that
by
because
infinity,
then there would be no first mover,
and, consequently,
no
other mover
that
seeing
only move
subsequentmovers
inasmuch
as they are
; as
put in motion by the first mover
the staff only moves
because it is put in motion by the
cannot
go
on
to
"
hand.
Therefore
put in motion
to be God
To
by
13.
:
(I) There
recapitulate
(II)The
11
'
'
Pyima
Certum
est
of
reason
autem,
enim, et
quod
the
are
formal
are
determinations
moved
which
'
they
sumitur
via est, quae
ex
parte motus.
in hoc mundo
: omne
autem,
constat, aliqua mover!
nisi secundum
alio movetur.
Nihil enim
quod
movetur,
et
manifestior
sensu
ab
movetur,
in potentia ad illud, ad quod movetur
autem
: movet
Movere
enim
nihil aliud est, quam
educere
quod est actu.
in actum.
De potentia autem
non
potest aliquid reduci
est
aliquod
'
beings that
aliquid,secundum
aliquidde potentia
in actum,
nisi per
in actu
sicut
calidum
in actu, ut
38
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
acquireis
in themselves
found
not
(Ill) To
explain how
necessary
to
these
it is therefore
acquired it
perfectionsare
would
go to form
which
comes
they
the
movement
then
admit
before
of
the existence
all movement,
d'etre of
must
Cause, withdrawn
of
principle
is itself the
which
raison
experience. We
our
motor
action.
give the
not
is
moved,
are
external
an
series that
extrinsic.
its
from
deter
own
minations.
It is
importantto
It leads
argument.
that
perfections
of this
scope and validity
to place at the head of each series of
the exact
grasp
us
find before
we
in the world
us
formal
cause
in
possesses
mode
"f communication
of pure
Actualityrequirethat
it
that
being
being
itself
be answered
We
completes in
of
one
the
is
alio
hie autem
baculus
non
devenire
ad
movet,
aliquod
intelliguntDeum
The
non
et
movens,
movent
non
secunda
above
Dominican
the
nature
determine
the
moved
eminent
an
series ?
and
manner
These
not
as
only
questions can
this
fundamental
the power
est
procedere
is also
in infinitum,
formal
quia
sic
may
from
we
their
from
other
a
meta
drawn
one
non
perfection,
esset
aliquod
nee
quia moventia
aliquod aliud movens,
per consequens
nisi per hoc, quod sunt mota
sicut
a
primo movente,
nisi per hoc, quod est motus
est
a
manu
; ergo necesse
hoc
et
moveatur
omnes
nullo
primum movens,
quod a
;
'.
Summa
Theologica,I, q. 2, a. 3.
of the following translations
most
are
translation
of St. Thomas
(Washbourne, London,
and
it
From
one.
follow, the
to act
from
drawn
argument
contingency. For
ab
it should
arguments that
two
conditional
primum
the
also that
note
physicalmovement
the
not
by analysis.
must
deduce
does
impossible,and
taken
from
1914).
the
EXISTENCE
THE
and
the
again existence
argument
the
same
which
cause
value
is
GOD
OF
39
perfective
actuality.In
is based
on
the
communicates
when
consequence
intrinsic determinations
to the
applied to
being in potentiality
action
and
existence
also.
22. Objections to the Preceding
Argument.
"
(a)The principle
of movement.
nutrition.
'
"
"
more
we
are
principleQuidquid movetur
ab
alio movetur
'. The
passage
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
40
'
'
from
power
tion exterior
'
to
act
'
in
livingbeingpresupposes
excita
an
the
'
'
'
ment
necessarilybe derived
must
from
of explanation
would
principle
the ultimate
But
only in a supreme Unmoved.
-movement
as
thingsare themselves self
there is
furtherneed
no
something static,then
the
as
found
be
certainly
is
case
otherwise,
nothingbut movement,
and
theyreceived it.
to ask how
"
be
end.
an
Unless, then,
we
are
to introduce
contradiction
Unmoved
an
Being.
23. Argument
drawn
Efficient
from
which forms
metaphysicalreality
subordinated
causalitywhich we
surround
that
phrase. We
other
'
us,
Causality." I.
observe
can
in istis sensibilibus
', to
use
The
proofis
in
the
the
things
St. Thomas's
on
beings acting ; they depend essentially
for
activityand for the very being which
agents, both
is the
see
gives
out
heated
only
a
the
earth
the
sun.
II. Now
the
plantgrows
from
which
none
of its own
principle
involve
of their
source
and
flowers and
it draws
of these
causal
the contradiction
causes
bears
nourishment
can
contain
fruit
and
by
the
within
means
of
rain and
itself the
THE
depends for
the
activityon
it is not
that
other
its
of its
reason
OF
GOD
extrinsic
an
41
and
principle,
the
on
own
efficient cause
an
EXISTENCE
of
principle
is the
its
being is to assert
dependent also for
own
that
III. It is useless
to
series of
dependent
far from
solving the
series can
do
no
the other
On
make
to
either
and
merely
difficulty
than
is
therefore forced
'
The
conclusion
of
extrinsic
an
efficientcausation.
There
is
in which
indeed, possible)
is
which
go
intermediate
the
there be
no
be
cause,
no
it
same
Cause
find there is an
order of
(neitheris it,
known
is found
thing
be
to
the
priorto itself,
to
it is not possible
it would
be
followingin
whether
only.
one
and
cause,
cause,
take
To
efficientcauses,
any
inde
efficient
case
away
among
nor
formalityof
several,or
is to take
first cause
ultimate
as
cause.
we
so
is
of the ultimate
cause
cause
cause
no
so
give the
of the intermediate
cause
is the
the intermediate
away
there
the
of itself; for
causes
impossible.In efficientcauses
because in all efficientcauses
infinity,
to
on
that
is from
way
In the world of sense
efficient cause
of
is to
which
"
second
causation.
infinite
An
subordinate
dependent on some
dependent upon itself. We are
is thus
to the
all action
cause
it is
or
"
pendent of
it.
other
any
ourselves ;
cause
imagined
cause
renews
whole
as
new
independentof
solution
since each
causes,
more
of them
the
down
causalityad infinitum
trace
If in efficient
intermediate.
it is possible
there will be no first
to go on to infinity,
efficientcause, neither will there be an ultimate effect,nor
causes
any
intermediate
false.
14
'
Secunda
via
esse
est
est
ordinem
ex
it is necessary
to which everyone
ratione
sliquid sit
possibile,quod
seipso,quod est impoesibile:
tibus
procedatur
cam:
in infinitum,
to
givesthe
efficientium,
non
est
name
Invenimus
nee
efficiens sui
autem
quia
put forward
efficientis.
causae
causarum
is
; all of which
causes
Therefore
Efficient Cause,
sensibilibus
efficient
tamen
ipsius,quia
possibile,quod in
in omnibus
causis
plainly
First
'14.
of God
in istis
enim
invenitur,
sic esset
causis
efficientibns
nee
prius
efficienordinatis
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
42
of the world
having
possibility
with
Thomas
St.
Some
existed ab aeterno.
great philosophers,
establish by reason
cannot
that we
at their head, maintain
have had a beginning. If the world
alone that the world must
had a beginning in time, there must
evidentlyexist an eternal
Here
self-subsisting
Being
nothingness nothing
could
historyof
the
could
establish
if
life
it
But
of
complete
if science
even
of this world
as
we
at
law
the
of
could
alone
reason
find
trace
if
impossible,
fact that
as
for out
come.
show
was
far-off ages,
originin
an
have
past and
the
evolutions
cosmic
could
commencement
caused
have
to
demonstrate
it had
the
speak of
must
we
had
have
be
never
entropy
that
sure
other state of
endlesslyprecededby some
of data.
which
science is entirelyignorant through absence
of the question
it is imprudent,seeingthe difficulty
In any case
with
of uncertainty of the best philosophers
the
and
state
the questionof the existence
regard to these matters, to identify
this state
world
the
the
b2yond
not, it is necessary
or
series of caused
causes,
even
if such
uncaused
Cause.
problem is
of
the existence
by
existed
always
has
an
us
in another
is to say,
it did not seem
But
adequatereason
he calls such
passage
se, that
solved
not
similar
causes,
causes
to him
is in the
there
whole
causes
causae
in
singlecause
for example a
only
reality
primum
sive
est
causa
tantum
unum
medii,
et
medium
est
autem
causa,
remota
causa
primum
falsum.
omnes
Cp.
Sum.
in causis
Ergo
Deum
est
necesse
nominant
Theol
,
I, q. 46,
ponere
'.
a.
aliquam
Sum.
2, ad
number
of the workman
non
erit
sint
prirna csusa
efficientem
causam
2,
plura,
si
non
Sed, si
efficiens,
emcientes
Theol., I, q.
7.
which
effectus ; ergo,
removetur
erit ultimum, nee
medium.
emcientibus, non
in causis emcientibus,
procedatur in infinitum
erit nee
effectus ultimus, nee
ct sic non
causae
fuerit
causes
againper accidens,as
keep breakingin the hands
that
series of
ever
sum
is to
is replaced
againand
of hammers
in
impossiblethat
need
there
;
of the dependentcausality
subordinatae per
dependent in the very act of causing15.
11
infinite,
be
of times.
proposingit an endless number
says that reason
passage just quoted St. Thomas
in which
in the series of causes
to regress to infinity
the
forbids
quam
posit,
to
the fact of
In
esse
Whether
of the World.
with
of God
not
was
a.
3.
primam
THE
and
transire
est
be
consequently cannot
'
second
in the
GOD
OF
the action
In the firstcase
usingthem.
such
EXISTENCE
43
depends on
'
infinitum
infinite, nam
action
the
the series
depends only
as
non
a
on
singlecause.
proof to say,
argument, then, against St. Thomas's
in the
often said, that there is nothing unreasonable
It is
is
as
no
so
with
but
them
analogical.
: (I) There
recapitulate
To
(II)Their
raison
d'etre cannot
is necessary
if it be infinite,
an
even
adequateexplanationof
24.
drawn
Argument
to
efficient
causes.
(Ill)
in themselves.
found
be
Consequentlyit
causes,
dependent
are
posit,outside
uncaused
Cause
series of
the
givesthe
which
their action.
the
from
Contingency
of
Beings."
I. There
to
are
reason
exist.
be does
possess in itselfthe
not
own
not
of its
reason
is found
in it, there
existence.
existences
the
reason
If
existence.
own
cannot,
none
of the
reason
Being, be any
explanationof contingent
without
first
Consequentlythe causal
requiresa Being that is independentand
of its
St. Thomas
own
beings
is itself
existence.
from
contingency under a
the reasoning into two
different form.
He breaks up
slightly
He
of which follows from
the other.
one
syllogisms,
proves
in the first placethe existence of necessary
beings. Amongst
these
above
'
some
the
are
law
'
in the sense
necessary
of transformation
that
that
their nature
is
NATURAL
44
substances
yet these
THEOLOGY
indebted
are
to
some
other
being for
of itself
soul, which
(e.g.the human
is naturallyincorruptible)
also be that there is a
; it may
finds its explanationin itself.
necessity
necessary being whose
their necessary
being
of
nature
has
its
of
source
being
within
middle
term,
'
existence. If this
were
true, even
now
there would
be noth
'
et necessario
ex
possibili,
(quae tails est). Ines.se, cum
quaedam, quse sunt possibiliaesse, et non
et
inveniantur
et
esse,
generari
corrumpi,
possibilia
quaedam
per consequens
et non
esse.
omnia, quae sunt talia, semper
Impossible est autem
esse, quia
Si igituromnia
est.
sunt possi
non
esse, quandoque
quod popsibileest non
etiam
Sed si hoc est verum,
nunc
bilia non
esse, aliquando nihil fuit in rebus.
Si
nihil esset, quia quod non
est, non
incipitesse, nisi per aliquid,quod est.
modo
fuit
ibile
sic
et
nihil
fuit,
quod
eese,
impose
aliquid
irciperet
enr,,
igitur
Non
entia sunt
nihil esset : quod patet esse
falsum.
possibilia,
ergo omnia
16
venimus
Tertia
enim
via
est
sumpta
in rebus
GOD
OF
EXISTENCE
THE
45
:
(I) There are beings which begin to be.
recapitulate
for by some
(II)These contingent beingsare only accounted
(Ill)No explanationof their
being external to themselves.
dependent existence is found by endlesslytracing a series of
To
do
beings that
Therefore
we
itself the
reason
their raison
contain
not
posita Being
must
d'etre in themselves.
which
shall contain
existence, in
of their
word,
within
necessary
Being17.
Common
25. Conclusion
into
sible to merge
from
do
which
uncaused
Is it evident
of its own
a
that
pure
The
being ?
three
Is it pos
arguments
contingency,presentingas they
differing
only in the pointsfrom
other, inasmuch
as
an
Actualitydraws
from
itself the
reason
is devoid
beingthat
"
must
cause
Proofs.
these
involve each
conclusions
last two
Three
they start
The
and
reasoningand
same
these
singleconclusion
action
movement,
the
to
answer
"
:
explanatory,sufficient reason
such a being is inconceivable, since the purely Actual Being,
it contingent,would be at one time only capableof being,
were
actuality.
potentialto existence,and thus not simplyand solely
"and
yet is
There
is,then,
own
conclusion
common
developed,namely, that
have
we
its
not
reason
the three
to
there
exists
arguments
Being
existence and
of its own
which
action,
and
sed
whose
necessarium
autem
in rebus.
Omne
necessarium
est autem
Non
habet.
necessitatis aliunde, vel non
causam
habent
in
in
infinitum
necessariis,
procedatur
quae
oportet aliquid
vel habet
causam
esse
suae
possibile,quod
necessitatis, sicut
suae
nee
in
quod
17
is
say
subject
raison
other
that
d'etre in
mately
cannot
to
call it
Deum'.
other
some
reducible
words,
efficientibus,ut
est ponere
Sum.
Theol., I, q. 2, a. 3.
but is not self -existent
and, in consequence,
exists,
being
to saying that it has its
change and destruction, is tantamount
dicunt
omnes
To
causis
to
the
synthetic a
esse
ab alio,it is evident
that
there
is
no
middle
term.
is ulti
school
se
or, in
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
46
by
of what
analysis
acquiredabout
careful
that
have
we
the
that
againstKant
is contained
We
may
transition from
the
God.
also here
remark
Being necessarily
existent
in the
involve
an
jumps from
factof its real existence. But in the argument which we are
that the necessary
first demonstrate
putting forward, we
further analysis
reveals must,
Being exists,and then whatever
by the very fact of this previousdemonstration, refer to the
real order ; for our
concepts are not in their buildingup or
in their further analysisthe resultants of subjectiveforms,
not a priori
are
syntheses.
now
able
to
which
we
26.
We
Corollary.
"
religion. If
are
we
are
indebted
have
namely,
;
to
draw
first
the
from
the
three
established,an
foundation
Being for
of
essential
our
our
activityand our existence, there is a moral
perfections,
of worshippingthat Being. The act of worship
on
us
obligation
whereby we confess that God alone is He who is and that our
are
essentiallydependent upon Him
being and perfections
of
is that
mental
act
of this
manifestation
external
the
the
embraces
of the human
internal avowal
and
adoration, which
And
adoration.
to Him
religion.
of natural
the Grades
mani
of Perfection
from
Argument drawn
of this proof is as
fested in Beings. St. Thomas's
exposition
27.
"
follows
:
"
'
in
The
is taken
fourth way
from the
beingsthere
things.Among
are
gradationto
some
more
and
'
be found
less
some
'
'
'
less
and
more
good, true, noble, and the like. But
are
predicatedof different things,according as they re
semble in their different ways something which is in the
degree of most ',as a thingis said to be hotter according
as it more
nearlyresembles that which is hottest ; so that
'
is truest,
something best,some
something which is utter
thing noblest, and, consequently,
most
trulythey
being; for the truer things are, the more
there is
something which
exist. What
in that
is most
genus ;
of heat, is the
as
cause
of all
genus is the cause
is the most
completeform
completein any
fire,which
whereby
all
things are
made
hot.
EXISTENCE
THE
Therefore
there
beings the
cause
perfection
; and
At first sightSt.
notice in
beings which
OF
GOD
47
also be
this
Thomas's
the
are
'
call God
we
18.
to be this : We
proof seems
objectof our knowledge a gradu
scale of
ated
:
virtue, nobleness, goodness, etc.,
perfections
appear before us in varyingdegrees. But we judge the degree
of perfection
that we
find,according as it approximatesto or
falls away
from
supreme
parativepresupposes
this
superlative,
com
every
ideal of
perfection
exist.
must
To
matter
of fact the
"
in
For
cannot
an
be
Essence
"
i.e.
partlyverified
is
being ; the perfection
possessedin virtue of its essence
not a
or
wholly present or else not at all : a being is a man
and
cannot
be partly a man.
man,
Conversely,anything
a
that is
cannot
its reason
11
less
that admits of more
or
way
belongto it in virtue of its essence, but must have for
present in
being in
than
somethingelse other
the
For
essence.
it would
'
Invenitur
ex
Quarto,via sumitur
gradibus, qui in rebus inveniuntur.
et sic de
et
et
minus
nobile,
et
bonum,
verum,
aliquid magis,
aliis hujusmodi.
de diversis, secundum
Sed magis, et minus
dicuntur
quod
sicut
est :
ad
magis
appropinquant diversimode
aliquid, quod maxime
calidum
Est igituraliquid,
calido.
est, quod magis appropinquat maxime
maxime
et per consequens
quod est verissimum, et optimum, et nobilissimum,
dicitur
2.
Nam
sunt
ut
ens.
maxime
maxime
sunt
Metaph.
entia,
vera,
quae
omnium,
est causa
dicitur maxime
Quod autem
tale in aliquo genere,
quae
omnium
sunt
illius generis ; sicut ignis,qui est maxime
calidus, est causa
entibus
calidorum, ut in eodemlibro
dicitur.
Ergo est aliquid,quod omnibus
Deum
'.
est causa
dicimus
hoc
et
esse, et bonitatis, et cujuslibetperfectionis,
enim
Sum.
11
in rebus
Theol., I, q.
Our
2,
a.
3.
interpretation is founded
especiallySum. cont. Gent., II, c. 15,
other
on
and
De
passages
Potentia, q. 3,
from
a.
5.
St.
Thomas,
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
48
indeed
be
wisdom
causal
III. But
have
have
found
in the
the extrinsic
seen
by existence,and
material
communicated
intervention
the
of
the
the
three
action.
above, it is
arguments
essence
is the
in
why the perfections
reason
actualityof
in which
cause
some
inde
being are
We
been
of its own
We
it has
that
for their
necessary
reason
itself.
established
have
we
of wisdom.
no
of
is
wisdom
for supposing an
justification
caused by an extrinsic
perfections
is
finitely
long series
As
but
than
there
which
by
of the absence
reason
consequentlypresupposes
agent other
that
in a limited degree
perfection
does not belong to the being
perfection
find
Wherever, therefore,we
to
to hold that
contradiction
is that
is limited
This
it is received.
is
cause.
It is
is actualized
which
existence
case
by
the
where
of Scholastic metaphysics:
apply the generalprinciple
ad modum
Receptum est in recipiente
recipients.A being's
it is its role to
existence is limited to the essential perfections
of a being is the intrinsic reason
The receptivity
make actual.
must
we
it is not
why
being
its
correspondsto
for this
who
is
itself but
no
We
be careful
drawn
St. Thomas
by
fections of
head
to
things.
of each
much
its
reason
must
just that
or
potentiality,
subjectto
the
has
being which
receptivity.It
God,
on
the
in His essential
is
contrary,
another,
perfections.
series of
does
say that at
there is a being
not
graduated beings
eminent
which
degree their essential type.
possesses in an
This is the realisticconception of Plato, not the thought of the
The
latter asserts
that the perfections
we
Angelic Doctor.
in
world
find in varying degrees
the
mind
carry our
up to
absolute
the principles
of these limited perfec
as
perfections,
tions in the world.
Secondly,he makes no further statement
united
these total perfections
in a single
to whether
as
are
Being or whether there exist several beings each possessing
EXISTENCE
THE
perfectionsin
certain
28.
the
drawn
Argument
That
GOD
degree,or
there is order
whether
even
adapted to
make
one
Order
the
from
there
Universe."
abundantly manifest ;
activities composing the world
and
are
and enduring whole.
This
harmonious
and
free
intelligent
conceived its design,then to have chosen
demands
the
of
is
universe
in the
elements
many
order
49
absolutely
perfectbeings.
several
are
supreme
OF
have
first to
cause,
an
to carry it into
execu
it is not.
or
necessary cause
If it is necessary, the existence of God is proved. If it is con
and
to a necessary
cause
tingent,it leads us in its last analysis
tion.
thus
this
Now
again
the
to
come
we
is either
cause
Being.
divine
"
is the
Such
Summa
develops in his
argument
fifth
Theologica.
of the
is taken from
fifth way
the governance
such
world ; for we see that thingswhich lack intelligence,
natural bodies, act for some
as
purpose, which fact is evi
1
The
way,
not
Hence
to obtain
as
it is
same
plainthat
do they achieve
but designedly,
fortuitously,
their pur
fulfil some
cannot
intelligence
pur
in
endowed
with
unless
it
is
directed
some
being
by
pose,
is shot to its mark
and knowledge ; as the arrow
telligence
being exists by
intelligent
by the archer. Therefore some
whom
all natural
things are ordained towards a definite
purpose
We
lacks
Whatever
pose.
and
this
beingwe
must
'
call God
20.
and
major
the
minor
of this
argument.
I. We
order
of the
Order
to
have
unity. By
the
elements
or
constitute
In the second
the
leading in some
way
of unification we
distinguishtwo
principle
manifold
supposes
and
elements
of co-ordination
order.
teleological
the
parts of
the elements
are
one
means
all
or
the
same
arrangedin
view
whole.
of
one
viasumitur
enim.quod alicua,
: Videmus
rerum
ex
gubematione
natnralia, operantur propter finem,
cognitione carent, scilicet corpora
modo
operantur,
aut
quod apparet ex hoc, quod semper,
frequentius eodem
red
ut consequaritur id, quod
a
casu,
Unde
est optimum.
patet, quod non
ex
intentione perveniunt ad finem.
habent
Ea autem,
cognitior.em,
quae non
non
tendunt
in finem, nisi directa ab aliquo cognoscente et intelligent, sicut
naturales
res
sagitta a sagittante; ergo est aliquisintelli^ens,a quo omnes
ordinantur ad finem, e* hcc dicimus
Sum.
Deun~
Theol., I, q. 2, a. 3.
80
'Quinta
quae
'
NATURAL
50
and
the
end.
same
In
same
are
arranged
so
tend
realize the
to
which
is
which
is
these
reality
form
harmonious
one
end.
same
but
are
order
The
of the
static,exists in view
aspectsof the
two
for action.
being is made
to
as
THEOLOGY
order
The
elements
dynamic. Now
turning to order in the universe we
notice the followingvarious ways
it is exhibited :
in which
(a) Every livingorganism displayswonderful order in the nice
adjustment of its various parts. All its organs are perfectly
arranged and work togetherfor the welfare of the whole living
"
being.
Each
elements
nected
is made
too
organ
displayingforces
and
subordinated
organism.
This
class of
of
number
immense
an
that
as
of
up
are
orderliness that
phenomena presentsan
order
that has refer
one
particular
ence
only to the individual beingof which it is a characteristic.
(b) Furthermore, thingsdo not fulfil the end of their being
in a
of isolation. They are
bound
state
up with certain
other thingsand in such a way
that their mutual
adaptations
we
term
may
present
absolute
an
"
orderliness which,
an
as
distinguishedfrom
the
above,
order. An example is to be
particular
found in the wonderful
proportionexistingbetween the anato
of the eye and the physiological
mical structure
working of
and its physical
the visual organ on the one
hand
agent, light,
be called relative
may
the other,
on
(c)There
are
discernible
classes
stillwider
even
of
ence
all the
parts
universal order.
The
of
world
the
is
constitutes
universe
a
instinct with
poem
and displaying
a marvellous
life,
harmony, known
the
as
basis
The
Cosmos.
of
the
is
fresh
constant.
ment,
the
The
universe
individual
the
revelation
action and
to the Greeks
physicalsciences,and
scientific progress
relative
and
order,
of
(d)
particularand
something continuous
is animated
characters
this
relative,
but
result
invariable
of
is the
the
with
scenes
incessant
shift
move
rapidly;
to be
attained.
the
meaning
of these
assertions,it
do
which
In the
is
as
most
by
noted
be
must
is
in the universe
thing
that
GOD
that
say
there
every
elements
no
are
of disorder and
sources
as
51
do not
we
orderly,that
perhaps appear
not
OF
EXISTENCE
THE
evil.
the
II. The
up.
order in the universe is contingent.Reason
forbids
It therefore demands
assignsuch an effect to chance.
for it
its designer. Indeed to account
as
an
cause
intelligent
by an adequatecause, we must admit the existence of a mind
this subordination
to have designedand a will to have chosen
us
to
of the
us
multifarious
elements
those
suppose
order
particular
component elements
to be the
exhibitingwhat
called
have
we
directed in their
and
sport of chance
(a) Let
end.
to one
In such
principle.
by no sort of controlling
a
supposition
inorganicand organicsubstances would act at
random, combiningand disintegrating
anyhow ; there would no
longerbe any motive making them combine accordingto strictly
fixed proportions
in a way that would render vital activity
possible.We must conclude, then, that chance can offer no
explanationof this kind of order we observe. Nay more, it
would be positively
detrimental to any such effect. Left to
mutual
convergence
themselves
these elements
if each cell in
of the
cells would
not
causes
organism received
an
would
work
merely indifferent
on
go
keep
no
for its
For
instance,
influence from
end
immediate
own
the rest
:
the
the glandular
indefinitely,
without control, the epithelial
secreting
tissues would
tissues would
be
disorder.
productiveof positive
body, it
muscular
would
contract
growing, and
on
all these
activities
being
devoid
order, would
In order to find
since
which
our
furnish
only a
sufficient reason
observation
of themselves
are
meets
for its
reason
with
impossibility.
indifferent to
multitude
of
enteringinto
order,
elements
any
com
rangement of
M.S.P
-VOL.
ii.
so
many
elements
with
view
to
an
end, and
E
their nice
and
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
52
proportions,imply
act
an
of will that
that
the
conceived
has
this
be
must
designingcause
and will,//
(b)And
gence
mind
agent endowed
an
offers
chance
no
in the universe.
To
is,
; that
intelli
with
better
plan
explanation
take
but
one
this order,
immense
drama
that
scenes
universe taken
(c)The
where
succeed
the
one
whole
is like
an
of the innumerable
generalsuccess
is secured
another
as
by
the harmonious
and
of the world
numberless
well-nigh
counts
not
identical
phases,
situations
there
the
the
most
apparent
the
sake
of
ever
; for the
cosmic
to
is
order is
persistent
despite
in it,despitethe
the multiplicity
of parts that are concerned
varietyof phases in which it manifests itself. Suppose, for
argument, that
action did
particular
what
preventedthis
order
the next
The
must
have
be
moment
sought
in
for a
to account
at
indifferent to any
combine
harmoniously;
elements
some
moment
some
from
reason
supreme
broken up at
being hopelessly
of the persistence
of this order
controllingforce,and since we
phenomenon
which
undoubtedlyevidences
in nature
throughoutthe
is to be found
in
which
principle
of elements
determines
and
beings
THE
towards
the
good
EXISTENCE
of
OF
GOD
53
and
of kingdoms
species,
of the
whole
even
if you
universe.
III. Now
such
it to be
allow
presuppose
Itself the
29.
only contingentin
existence
the
of Its
reason
Corollaries.
efficient cause
world
intelligent,
voluntarycause,
an
i.
"
own
We
of
anterior
being and
have
of the wonderful
around
an
necessarily
Being
of Its
own
that
has
perfection.
which
an
is in
observe
we
in
this cause
whether
questionnow
is reallydistinct from
out
the designwhich is being worked
and the end to which it is progressing.If this exemplary cause
and this final cause
which
have
to postulate
been bound
we
the
are
We
us.
necessary
necessary
proceeds. If they
necessary
shall have
cause
are
they
are
the
contingent,they
identical with
depend
on
to placethe designand
ultimately
universe, for
creatures
intervention
of the
can
neither exist
necessary
cause.
the
We
nor
the purpose
act
thus
we
of the
without
come
the
to
the
ac
the efficient,
knowledge a necessary Being that is at once
exemplary and final cause of the world He has brought into
being.
next
2. The
argument
questionin this physico-theological
is whether
the controlling,
of the universe
ordinatingcause
is one
In reference to this questionwe may
or many.
remark,
in the first place,that there is no
need to postulateseveral
designersin order to explainthe tendency towards the good
that we
observe : one alone is sufficient. In the second place,
from
the unity of the order which
reveals the
the cosmos
over
legitimateinference is that it is a singleGod who presides
the governance
of the world.
it is possible
to con
Certainly
ceive two beingswith identically
end in view in their
the same
of
means
rulingof the world and using exactly the same
But
it would
to assert the
be gratuitous
bringingit about.
actual existence of two such beings: if the end and action of
the two governingcauses
are
identical,one of them is useless.
Hence we have here at least a presumptionin favour of there
beingonly one God.
30. Note.
The proof we
have just developedis not merely
an
inclined to think so,
argument from analogy. If some
are
the reason
is to be found in the faultyexposition
given of
"
NATURAL
54
THEOLOGY
this
arranges
which
and
from
St. Thomas
beingsas
arguments which
31.
we
ment
on
is not
then
that
the
towards
such
the earth
of the
these
as
Existence
:
that
of
had
of
and
over
life has
had
shows
that
above
cosmic
the
condensation
and
in time,
been
reached.
nature
scientific
of matter
first place,
commencement
have
proofs
commence
entropy
equilibriumwould
considerations
The
God."
of
simpleintrinsic evolution
accountingfor vegetablelifein the
; that
equilibriumof
an
have
that
the
in
are
infrequentlybrought forward.
not
Proofs
capableof
and
must
are
that
are
Scientific
refer to
elements
can
of sufficient reason.
principle
After having thus examined
God
between
ff.). Our
171
obtains
indifferent
themselves
which
which
order
the
the actual
or
forces tend
These
and
valuable
are
universe
indications
is
there
kindred
something
which
32. Proof
drawn
some
see
from
the Common
races
of
men
of Mankind.
acknowledge the
spontaneousdeclaration
Consent
"
existence of
part of humanity,
be fallacious. This argument,
on
the
EXISTENCE
THE
GOD
OF
55
of ages many
erroneous
therefore
and
entertained,
a unanimous
course
have been
conceptions
verdict is not always infallible. Nevertheless,for psychological
reasons
special
weight does attach to this universal testimony
It is a question,
Pascal
as
regarding the existence of God.
well observes, that is of the utmost
importance. It
very
has
that there is
Master
itself from
ate
spiteof
that
seem
the
proofsof
In
here
no
mere
time
exists.
mental
or
God's
and
races
then, in
through
is
This
for
energy
for
has
who
man
examining
is
which
argument
an
intrinsic
the
existence.
ideas of God vary very
place,since human
different peoples,this argument
does not in
the second
among
realitydemonstrate
more
brief,we
than
more
that
is above
there
is sometimes
made
to
prove
value.
too
much,
33. Proof
from
the
Higher
one
men
of mankind.
In
the argument
sometimes
it is
and
If
anthropomorphism
are
proofswarranting
but perfectly
sound
extrinsic,
much
or
have
we
the
law.
all
punishes
sought to liber
ever
moral
indirect and
who
but
not
of the
find among
bias,we
life if he knows
men
cultured and
it would
passionhas
this Guardian
this natural
all times
out
Human
man's
claims
who
he does amiss.
what
the direction of
great bearing on
is that it
Aspirations of
supplies
Mankind.
"
'
in te
writes
requiescat
St. Augustine, and we
find the echo in the Melanges philosophiquesof the unfortunate Jouffroy, All earthlysatisfaction
graduallyexhausts itself and ends in disappointmentand dis
gust '. Man, it is argued,has been made for the true and the
when
virtue will be clasped
good ; he yearns for that yet-to-be
in the embrace
of happinessand its present divorce for ever
ended.
Such happinesscan
only consist in the contemplation
Irrequietumest
donee
nostrum
cor
'
therefore exist.
Granted
that
human
can
we
valid
must
proof?
vitiated
nature' is not
must
alone He
in God
is found
exist
as
postulatethat
the
our
by
end
nature
radical
some
of its
is
so
higher
made
56
NATURAL
THEOLOGY
Is it not
it that we know
because it is God who made
precisely
it is a perfectproduction ?
How, in consequence,
we
can
affirm the existence of God
by basing it on the needs of our
?
nature
It is true
alone
man
But
this is
with
it more
can
we
of all creatures
would
only an argument
from
than
Again, why
world
We
have
need
we
exist,
not
be
irremediablyunhappy.
carries
analogy that scarcely
of God
the
as
is necessary
led back
thus
are
did
probability.
except because He
nature
that, if God
say
as
an
satisfaction of
our
explanationof
the
examine
to
the
traditional
is
he
then
law
so
eternal
the
as
and
and
Man
"
to
avoid
feels that
evil.
God
the
Legislator.
all-powerful
that
this
all,
proofdoes not demon
God.
It merely declares that the man
God
has already admitted
obligation
imposes His will. The certitude of
first of
existence of
admits
who
practise
good
to
remark,
must
strate the
Obligation.
the
there can
be no law.
exist,for without a legislator
universal,so imperiousas the moral law presupposes
supreme,
We
Moral
from
morally bound
must
drawn
the
moral
Legislatorwho
same
as
law.
With
the
of St. Anselm.
tion, and
second
be used
may
end
;
"
or
so,
in two
senses.
own
Either
law.
For
it is the
the word
ordinance
'
law
of
'
superiorwho
end
fallingshort of its
EXISTENCE
THE
that the law of
Legislator,is to
supreme
'
'
law
that
used
be
cannot
when
intimate
second
in itself. And
what
in this it would
57
law
in
and
this
word
surely is
not,
or
no
were
the
case
wish U
we
feel
offendingagainst the
are
merely considered
nature
that
seem
if there
our
sense,
we
is wrong
we
requirementsof our human
do
we
that
suppose
in the
GOD
be
not
question. Whether
the whole
beg
to
would
nature
our
OF
there
is
sufficient
reason
real
of
this
ontologically,
law
until
that God
are
we
of this.
For
does
God
exists
be ignorant
perforce
His will openly as do
must
we
manifest
not
of God, but
work
human
of
aware
is the
nature
our
very
that
tendencies
special
a divine
argument can be drawn from moral obligation
requiring
Legislatorfor its immediate
explanation. The proof which
is adduced
is not an independentone, but is reducible to the
fourth developedby St. Thomas
(27): namely, that our con
our
science
informs
virtuous, and
of
Being
Being
sary
see here
that
us
therefore
must
more
have
or
less
share
Goodness.
feel himself
cannot
a
we
are
is subsistent
who
also
we
to be
good, more
of the
Moreover
under
no
as
or
perfections
the
neces
we
obligation,
aspect of contingencyor
particular
less
can
of movement.
life (Ethics,
10-13),or if not, if there
would
nature
be
an
were
no
sanction,our
moral
imperfectproduction,and
we
might just
well set at
ourselves to
naught the call of duty and abandon
the pleasuresof the senses
and of the present life as surrender
these enjoyments to follow the strait path of duty. Pre
as
sented
God
man,
21
in this form
is reducible
and
These
theyarc
to
subjecttherefore
different
be treated
points
ex
to the
cannot
in
professo
be
the
same
criticisms ai.
fully discussed
largerwork
on
here
in
this
manual
Natural Theology*
PART
The
Natural
of
the
preliminary
We
Being
demonstrated
are
of
the
God
Being.
(Chapter
notions
(Chapter
of
We
I)
shall
then
immediately
II).
studies
of
the
of
His
first
God
nature
treats
and
then
the
third,
activity.
of
knowledge
our
existence
divine
see,
the
knowledge
our
divine
His
treating
divisions
three
second
spoken
God
of
of
the
or
and
divine
consists
God
already
part,
the
have
second
the
of
attributes
the
into
question
existence
His
proves
Nature
falls
theology
II
connected
now
we
as
of
all,
far
with
as
in
we
that
supreme
to
pass
the
or
essence
first
what,
the
what
are
of
nature
His
essence
concerned,
the
essence
the
of
CHAPTER
THE
35.
METAPHYSICAL
which
whether
or
ESSENCE
the
number
of
its
of
subjects
it is
latter
concerns
in
second
sense,
this
it
stantial
essential
and
life
of
need
and
on
seen
the
to
From
the
so
many
or
analysis
substance,
misleading
further
and
that
sub
logical
made
about
Thus
and
et
specific differ
For
properties
them
of
all
to
good
being
avoid
implicitly,
difficulty
without
may
that
say
given explicitly,but
reasoning
the
animalitas
the
contain
of
up
can
essence.
all the
con
defining
we
rationale,
genus
it must
may
and
matter
whole
set
parts.
be
we
essence.
may
essence
type.
physical parts
metaphysical
of
fixed
necessary,
single
(animal
that
one
indissolubly
are
clearness
and
these
cannot,
and
of
as
proximate
as
that
primary
physical
only
combination
material
sake
reason
indeed
as
namely,
the
metaphysical
being defective
them.
discover
and
an
or
relation
is the
really distinct
is its
regarded
definition
that
is
essence
the
are
man
not,
its
comprising
which
perfections
the
it into
by analysing
of
is
applied.
as
appears
logical parts,
or
rationalitas)
sical
an
view,
type
also, for
metaphysical
sensitive
be
can
relative
essence
in
say,
it constitutes
this
consider
sistency,
The
and
may
we
whole
of
its constitution,
form
But
it
or
expressing
by
into
enter
is to
essence
notes
define
that
point
of
number
When
former,
the
beings
contingent
from
regarded
itself,absolutely,
here, every
us
certain
of
matter
no
comprehension.
this
From
so
be
which
to
world
of
essences
knowledge,
our
the
From
extension,
regarded
its
in
notes
view.
of
point
side
ence
in
absolute
of
GOD
The
"
object
exist
really
OF
Essence.
Metaphysical
form
they
are
the
of
Meaning
things
problem
essence
different
of
before
God,
from
us
what
every
is to
ascertain
is that
other
which
what
makes
being, just
as
is the
God
metaphy
what
sensitive
He
is,
life and
make
reason
scale of
At
to be
man
OF
NATURE
THE
to hold
and
man
61
GOD
distinct
placein
the
beings.
first
sight
may
be
to
appear
futile,
the
in
that
seeing
question
the
God
there
no
'
'
all others
from
analysisof this
belonging tc
perfections
the
all the
mere
of the
36. Solution
Four
sistens'.
"
and
Descartes
the
'
Deus
deserve
The
2.
of the
attention
follow
Leibniz
the
make
preferencefor
of
School
divine
Duns
Esse
Sub-
have
been
intensive
God
of
that
fundamental attribute
possibleperfections.
3. Billuart24 and
in
thought
of
consist
in
to
highestpower,
extensive
an
sense.
philosophyand seem
absolute goodness.
Scotus23 places the characteristic
in the
essence
their
raised to
attributes
the
of God
essence
understood
say, to infinity
Some, however, hark back to the Platonic
to have
deduce
may
Ipsum
est
is to
that
that
so
Being.
our
philosopherswho
of all His
sum
that
we
perfection
the divine
Question:
answers
modern
The
first
Being,
supreme
question32.
this
given to
1.
characteristic of the
the
as
Thomists
some
i.e. in
infinityof God,
is the
which
of
recent
thought.
commonly, with St. Thomas,
of
root
all
it
make
date
consist in intellectual
4. But
more
of God
essence
is considered
lie in the
to
the
very
metaphysical
being
of
God,
is in
exaggerate the importance of this discussion, which
it
seen:s
chief
Its
merit,
realityonly a simple question of scientific method.
if philosophers
to us, is that it emphasizes the simplicityof God, inasmuch
as
11
We
should
constrained
are
perfection from
viction
a.
that
"
In
24
Cursus
i.
at
not
by
the
this
bottom
or
very
that
these
Sent., dist. 3.
Theol., I, Diss.
limits
of the
human
mind
particularaspect, they
divine
perfectionsare
2,
a.
2,
"
2.
"
Cp. GONET,
at
to
once
but
one
study
and
the
divine
their
evince
the
Clypeus,Tr.
con
same.
I. Disp. 2,
NATURAL
62
THEOLOGY
'
'
'
'
'
beings which
than
more
intelligence
this
proof should
to
proper
place in
and
larger treatise
presumingas
it does
truths
on
existence is
in the
and
of the
have
we
To
yet
the
drift of it,
existence
It
that actual
it is shown
metaphysicalessence
actual absolute
Never
to establish.
to notice the
here
part of
that
second
of
is the
God,
whole
metaphysicalessence.
Actual
I.
not
"
Opinion.
its
find
'
those
than
perfect
of St. Thomas's
37. Proof
with
beings endowed
which are merely living 28.
life and
exist without
absolute
God.
We
existence
being is
itself the
that
have
seen
of
Actuality,Necessary Being.
essence
"
Since
of its
reason
belongs to
the
the
First
metaphysical
Being is Pure
it is evident
that
such
existence,it is unwarrantable
""
Zigliarahas
were
intended
with
but
tried to reconcile
to
doubtful
have
complete
success
it.
each
; he
the two
other
appears
(Summa
last
opinions and
to show
that
they
his attempt
to have met
seems
; but
rather
to have
the discussion
evaded
to
'
Esse
ended
THE
absolute
Actual
2.
God.
OF
NATURE
is
existence
GOD
63
the
whole
metaphysical
be
existent,to be subessentially
is ground for a sufficient and explicit
sistent absolutely,
distinc
tion between
God
and contingent
things; secondly,from such
shall presently
absolute essential existence,as we
be
see, can
deduced
by analysisand reasoningall the divine perfections,
and intelligence37.
even
includinginfinity
of
essence
to
Firstly,
"
Criticism
38.
Thesis.
The
"
is
what
the
of
other
requiredfor
Opinions Opposed
St.
to
Thomas's
fail to
give
of the divine
Being.
of the
Each
1.
first
the
perfections
opinion constitutes
who
of which
essence
of
accordingto this
God, is evidently
itself.
of God
consist
metaphysicalessence
absolute goodnesscan
to the sumtotal
only be referring
they lay themselves open
perfections
; consequently
in His
of His
to the
make
the
criticism
same
the notion of
and
the
union
the Cartesian
as
goodness is
view above.
Moreover,
one
being
is not
priorto it.
of God is not a principle
which reveals to us
2. The
infinity
the necessity
of the existence of the self-subsistent Being, but
it is a conclusion to be inferred from this necessity
as
itself,
wili be seen
presently.
that the metaphysicalessence
Billuart maintains
3. When
of God
and
be found
must
in the most
under
labouring
Thomas, between
God
and
(see 36,
2T
abstract
the
passage
which
makes
spoken
of
fore, that
form
Therefore
'
Esse
His
it is
est
actualitas
spoken
in subsistence, he is
of
subsistence
concrete
is His
to
'
is that
Existence
says
goodness or humanity
existing. It is necessary,
; for
of
as
is
only
there
essence,
in Him
Existence
omnis
he
it,in the
is distinct from
which
there is
God
in
since
Therefore,
potentiality.
stand
to
Essence
actual
nature
as
actuality
it follows that
potentiality,
no
reason
relation
same
us
contingentexistence of creatures
Further,
quoted from the Summa).
or
actual, when
existence should
as
to
and
gives the
every
realityknown
essential and
the
the
St. Thomas
of
confusion
be found
it cannot
consequentlythat
noble
formae
does
essence
not
existence.
differ from
'.
vel
naturae
non
enim
bonitas
vel
esse.
Oportet
significaturin actu, nisi prout significamus
est aliud ab ipso sicut
igiturquod ipsum esse comparetur ad essentiam
quae
sequitur quod
actus ad potentiam.
Cum
igiturin Deo nihil sit potentiate,
humanitas
earn
non
est
aliud
in
esse
'.
Sum.
Theol., I. q. 3,
eo
essentia
quam
a.
4.
suum
esse.
Sua
igitur essentia
est
suum
how
the
It
could
is
do
this
(2)
opinion
Conclusion
before
brings
Who
am
Israel
He
Ait
sum
18
sic
formam
et
enim
Unumquodque
sed
denominatur
ipso,
cum
Unde
in
est
se
deficit
intelligit,
minus
dicuntur
"
Totum
modo
Deo
enim
in
seipso
infinitum
minatur
essendi
determinat,
pelagus
Significat
esse
enim
non
et
omnibus
et
esse
in
Et
dicit
de
ipsum
habet
indeterminatum."
se
habet
; sed
Tertio
"
praesenti
hoc
vel
et
hoc
futurum
qui
nomen,
ad
indeterminate
infinitum.
praeteritum
enim
vero
ex
maxime
'.
ejus
lib.
quoddam
qui
ideo
est.
pelagus
nomine
nullum
est,
9)
I, cap.
est,
alio
Deo
nomina
proprie
magis
determodum
nominat
consignificatione.
proprie
Sum.
de
quod
fid.,
Et
omnes.
autem
aliqua
tanto
velut
esse
con-
secundum
nominibus,
Quolibet
rei
id
quanto
(Orth.
dicuntur
Deo
si
rationem.
viae,
circa
ideo
univer-
vel
Intellectus
absoluta,
et
Damascenus
quae
substantiae
substantiae
determinet
est.
se
communia
et
comprehendens
sed
novit
cognoscere
in
magis
Unde
modus
aliquis
Deus
ejus
;
statu
4),
Deum.
secundum
in
ejus
art.
3,
nominat
propter
ipsum.
enim
ipsa
(q.
communia
ipsum
supra
modum
quo
nobis.
principalius
substantiae
essentiam
quemcumque
determinata,
de
Quod
sed
Secundo
minus
pro-
sit
Dei
est
"
sunt
vos
Non
esse
28.
'
maxime
est
proprie
determinant
et
Dei
maxime
aliquid
informant
ipsam
potest
non
cum
forma.
vel
addunt
ratione
qui
sum
ad
me
ostensum
supra
hoc
sua
tamen
quodammodo
noster
ut
nomina
alia
Unde
esse.
nomina
alia
Omnia'enim
vertantur
ipsum
Ego
of
people
signincationem.
sui
He
replied
the
you.
triplici
est,
He
misit
est
propter
conveniat,
inter
qui
qui
quidem
alii
quod
est
salitatem.
cuius
nulli
Israel,
to
and
which
that
to
say
me
(4).
God
Moses,
by
sent
nomen,
Primo
aliquam,
hoc
manifestum
ipsum
Hoc
"
"
essentia,
sunt
'
14.
Dei.
nomen
filiis
is
shalt
thou
(o "5i/) hath
dices
Ill,
signincat
quod
is
Who
Exod.,
prium
(Jahweh)
am
former
the
to
connotes
essence
advo
the
maintaining
asked
when
back
God
intelligence
words,
properly
metaphysical
known
other
driven
which
name
concept
of
this
that
ourselves
are
we
His
us
made
Himself
I
The
in
ultimately
which
that
to
or
fact
the
subsistent
are
the
to
all-powerfulness
of
virtue
essentially
or
of
cates
in
lead
such
as
and
eternity
only
so
intelligence
of
immensity,
infinite
one
notion
the
can
of
'
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
64
Theol.,
de
Deo
I, q.
dicitur,
13,
a.
CHAPTER
of
attributes
God,
of
question
the
which
derive
we
known
formal
as
they
of
fact
be
41.
types
and
virtual
is
of
or
Simple.
Absolutely
and
this
motion
from
and
be
unless
since
in
we
find
and
Sum.
Mover
difference,
are
no
previously
It
;
has
is
and
Theol., I, q. 3,
extended
in three
shown
induction.
Prime
19
can
of
;
from
composition
and
these
compound,
are
according
of
any
distinguishable by
object
the
in
may
Him
there
in
natural
a.
(v)
'
God
(a) Because
else,
been
already proved
that
3, ad
i.
65
unmoved.
we
do
accident.
a
body
no
by something
the
strictly
nor,
is not
moved
Himself
of
(iii)nature
and
substance
parts.
ways
beings
existence,
(vi)
none
are
form,
and
induction.
from
Argument
i.
"
parts, (ii)matter
there
idea
the
which
(i) extended
God
simple
composite things
merely
that
genus
of
speak
can
con
we
object independently
composition
speaking,
being unique.
simplicity
the
under
His
mind.
of
immutability,
distinct
are
are
aspects
the
by
.that
parts
mind,
the
His
We
29. By
'
in the
absolutely simple,
find
not
things
different
the
viewed
is
or
by
God
God
of
'
like the
were
really distinct
are
consideration
reason
they
knowledge
our
union
the
mean
as
though
as
the
GOD
idea
composition
of
on
follows
as
of
OF
The
"
absolute
St. Thomas
are
character
or
Simplicity.
negation
the
things only
we
of
Meaning
of
They
SIMPLICITY
THE
called
immensity,
unicity
His
I.
by
God.
of
THAT
GOD
sometimes
thought
the
infinity, His
eternity, and
ceive
OF
are
complete
essence
His
simplicity,
40.
which
notions,
These
39.
WITH
ESSENCE
THE
OF
His
CONNECTED
INTIMATELY
IDEAS
II
as
body
is in
is evident
God
Therefore
is the
it
is
66
NATURAL
clear God
THEOLOGY
'
'
'
""
'
Deum
non
esse
tripliciterostendi
patet inducendo
corpus,
ut
movet
non
motum,
corpus
autem
supra (q.2, art. 3)
manifestum
est quod Deus
quod
Deus
est
est
primum
immobile.
Unde
2"
corpus.
"
"
entibus
11
'
'.
ST. THOMAS,
Sum.
Theol., I, q. 3,
a.
i.
(a) Omne
et forma
est corpus ; quantitas enim
compositum ex materia
dimensiva
est quae
materiae.
Sed
Deus
est corpus,
ut
non
primo inhaeret
ostensum
est (art.
praec.).Ergo Deus non est composite ex materia et forma.
est id quod est in potentia. Deus
est purus
(b) Materia
autem
actus, non
habens aliquidde potentialitate. Unde
impossible est quod Deus sit compo"
situs
ex
materia
et forma
'.
Loc. cit.,
a.
2.
NATURE
THE
existingbeing except
But
is His
God
67
individual.
an
as
GOD
OF
compositionof nature
(iv)There is in Him
and
no
Theol.,I, q. 3,
a.
that from
which
be
then
and existence.
4.
genus
difference.
and
of
notion
the
'
thence
of
essence
cannot
hypostasis.
compositionof essence
the
specific
(b) Since
He
in any
being", because, since it is
if God
is His essence,
be in the genus
of its nature, genus refers to the
predicated
genus,
The
be
genus,
generic essence.
being;
God
for
'
of
essence
that
thing.
being
non-beingcannot
is not in
were
Philosopherhas shown
cannot
its
would
"
genus
difference.
It follows that
3a.
of substance and
is in God no composition
(vi)Lastly,tjiere
A subjectis compared to its accidental qualities
accidents.
made
is in some
to actuality
as potentiality
sense
; for a subject
actual by its accidental qualities.
But there can be no potenti
33.
in God
ality
and
be potentiality
In every compound there must
2.
actuality
; for the different parts that constitute a being can
'
'
'
only go
are
are
to form
substantial unit
on
in
and
potentiality
only united to one
if they are,
another
as
it were,
some
actuality
mutually
constituens
speciem, se
in
Unde
cum
potentiam.
genus,
Deo non
est quod sit in genere tanquam
adjungatur potentia actui,impossibile
species.(b) Quia cum esse Dei sit ejusessentia,ut ostensum est (art.praec.);
Nam
si Deus
esset
in aliquo genere,
oporteret quod genus ejus esset ens.
autem
Ostendit
est.
in
essentiam
eo
significat
cum
rei,
quod quid
praedicetur
Philosophus(Metaph.lib. Ill, text. 10) quod ens non
potest esse genus alihabet
enim
gene
cujus. Omne
differentias,quae sunt extra essentiam
genus
ris. Nulla autem
esset extra ens
differentia potest inveniri quae
; quia non
ens non
potestesse differentia. Unde relinquiturquod Deus non sit in genere '.
88
'
habet
(a) Semper
ad
illud unde
enim
id
quo
sumitur
differentia
sicut actus
sumitur
ad
"
Loc. cit.,
a. 5.
"
'
VOL.
removetur
II.
Deo
'.
ad
est
accidens
sicut
aliquo modo
actum
potentia ad
in actu
esse
autem
Loc. cit.,
a. 6.
P
;
in
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
68
; in which
they form
Yet they may
accidental union.
substantial but
an
not
a
be in potentiality
relativelyto the whole which they form ;
for they are
actually united after having been in potenti
form
together and
bound
possibleunion.
is in
there
potentiality
ality
and
'
Him
in
since
But
to
accident
group
case
God
there
composition of
no
is
no
substance
34.
3.
Being 35.
Every compound presupposes
'
first
4.
for a
no
being
be
the
is
compounds
would
then
'
Cause
of
contradiction
which
have
another
an
case
efficient cause
and
would
not
would
there
be
being
God
the
first
36.
42. Corollaries.
of the
since in this
itself,
unto
cause
"
i.
It is impossible
to
givea
strict definition
'
divine
be defined,
Being (Logic,78-81). God cannot
for every
definition is by genus
and
difference'37.
specific
God and creature
not distinguished
differ
are
by any specific
which we
ences
can
predicateof them as though they belonged
to the same
; whence,
genus ; they differ by their whole reality
'
strictly
speaking,we
34
'
In
enim
non
say
there
is
difference between
et potentiam.
actum
Non
enim
plura
aliquid ibi sit actus et aliquid potentia.
non
uniuntur, nisi quasi colligatavel sicut congregata :
in quibus etiam
simpliciter,
ipsae partes congregatae
possunt simpliciterfieri
Quae
cannot
quae
sicut
sunt
fuerint in
actu
sunt
sunt
unum
unum,
nisi
Sunt
enim
unitae
potentia respectu unionis.
in actu, postquam
nulla est potentia ; non
potentia unibiles. In Deo autem
est igitur
in eo aliqua compositio '.
36
Item
omne
compositum posterius est suis componentibus et dependens
eis.
Deus
ex
est primum
autem
'. I, q. 3, a. 7.
ens
36
Omnis
compositio indiget aliquo componente
; si enim
compositio est,
ex
secundum
pluribus est. Quae autem
sunt
se
non
conveplura,in unum
niunt, nisi ab aliquo componente
Si igiturcompositus esset Deus,
uniantur.
haberet
enim
componentem
; non
ipse seipsum componere
posset, quia nihil
est causa
sui ipsius; esset enim
prius seipso,quod est impossibile. Compoest causa
nens
autem
emciens
erficiencompositi. Ergo Deus haberet causam
tem
esset causa
; et sic non
prima '. Cont. Gent,, I, 18.
'
'
if
THE
GOD
OF
NATURE
69
marks
complete diversity
; diversity
difference a relative opposition38
opposition,
but
them
absolute
an
'
Care
2.
the
be
must
pregnant saying
that
the
true
'
of
'
est, quae
esse
'
prets thus
non
plariter,
exem-
40.
spirit
pure
INFINITE
II. THE
PERFECTION
Perfection.
of
Meaning
inter
39.
'
per essentiam
autem
is
3. God
43.
meaning be given to
Esse omnium
Catholic theology :
taken
Our
"
GOD
OF
imagination naturally
monad
represents a simplebeing as an unknowable
very akin
to an abstraction,but reflection tells us that God is called simple
is all that
He
because
quiaquidquidhabet
We
then
have
St. Thomas
(II) God
'
has.
est
'
ideo
Deus
simplex dicitur
41.
ascertain
God
what
He
perfection
that God
answers
is
has, that
in His
possesses
is to
say,
simplicity.
all
perfectionto
is infinite
in perfection.
possesses
God
(III)
hoc
to
plenitudeof
what
He
found
in creatures
when it is
thingis perfect
for its action
completelymade, when it has everythingpossible
and natural requirements(Gen. Metaphysics,173). When
we
do not signifydirectly
the
we
say that a thing is perfection
of its rank, but its intrinsic mode
of being,the manner
nobility
that it has, whatever
in which it possesses the properties
be
the degreethat it occupies
in the scale of beings. The question
therefore whether
God is perfectis in other words this : Does
God
His
nature
actuallypossess all the perfectionwhich
that He enjoys
implies? or on the contrary is the perfection
?
capable of being increased, is it yet further perfectible
44.
'
I. God
is Perfect.
Perfectum
dicitur cui
'
38
'
Deus
eidem
et
esse
Sum.
40
Cp.
41
quod
creatum
est sit
non
generi)additis, sed
quam
sed diversa esse
/ Sent.,dist. 3,
39
id
diversum
q. i,
a.
2, ad
enim
modum
est
perfectus,
'
suae
quae-
43.
ipsis :
est
sit
Optimo modo
differunt
se
secundum
Deus
utrum
quaerere
Deus
utrum
nihil deest
'
perfectionis;
rere
We
"
say that
be
absolutum,
sed
diiferens
relativum
'.
3.
8, ad
i.
Theol., I, q. 3, a.
Gent., I, 18, 3, and 20, 5.
De
ST. AUGUSTINE,
Civitate Dei, II,
Cont.
7me Conf.
42
ST. THOMAS,
Sum.
Theol., I, q. 4,
a.
10
3 ; and
MONSABR",
CAJETAN,
Cow/, de
Comment,
N.-D.,
in h.L
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
7o
45. Proof.
God
"
is removed
has
'
Existenti in potentiadeest
:
supposes a certain potentiality
in actu
ut sic
id quod in actu esse
potest : existenti autem
perfectionof
enjoys the plenitudeof
nihil deest' ^
Therefore
but
perfectible
He
the
God
is
His
natural
longer
no
per
fection.
II. God
46.
belonging
to
that
Works.
His
are
perfections
because
perfect,
found
united
possesses
"
Himself
in
be
It must
He
Hence
in God.
He
'
lacks not
is
any
said that
spoken of
excellence
as
all created
universally
which
be
may
the consideration
from
in any genus.
This may be seen
whatever
exists in any effect must
perfection
effective
either in the
be found
in a
or
formality,
eminent
more
degree. It is plain that the effect pre-exists
virtuallyin the causative agent. Although to pre-existin
of a material
is to pre-exist
the potentiality
in a more
cause
and an agent
imperfectway, since matter as such is imperfect,
such is perfect
in the causative
as
; still to pre-exist
virtually
in a more
agent is not to pre-exist
imperfect,but in a more
Since God is the first effective Cause of things,
perfectway.
of all things must
the perfections
in God in a more
pre-exist
eminent
line of argument
Dionysiusimpliesthe same
way.
by sayingof God : It is not that He is this but not that, but
in the
that He
'
is
cause
all,as the
Nothing
cause
of all
except inasmuch
acts
'
same
44.
it is in
: action
actuality
measure
actualityin the agent.
It is impossibletherefore for any effect that is brought into
than is the actuality
being by action to be of a nobler actuality
of the agent. It is possible
however
for the actuality
of the
therefore
43
44
CAJETAN,
'
Dicendum
in
of the
loc. cit.
quod
in
Deo
sunt
Unde
et
perfectionesomnium
rerum.
deest ei aliqua nobilitas,quae inveniaquidem ex eo considerari potest quia quidquid
universaliter perfectus,quia
dicitur
tur
follows the
as
Et
aliquo genere.
hoc
non
effectiva
est enim
in virtute
vel
secundum
quod
effectus
agentis
praeexistereimperfection modo, sed perfection ; licet praeexisterein
materialis sit praeexistereimperfectiorimodo
potentia causae
; eo quod materia,
inquantum hujusmodi, est imperfecta ; agens vero, inquantum hujusmodi,
est
sit prima causa
Deus
perfectum. Cum
ergo
effectiva rerum,
oportet
omnium
rerum
perfectiones praeexistere in Deo
secundum
eminentiorem
Et hanc
rationem
modum.
tangit Dionysius (De div. nont., cap. 5, lect. i),
dicens de Deo, quod
non
quidem hoc est, hoc autem
est ; sed omnia
non
est
'. ST. THOMAS, Sum. Theoi., I, q. 4, a. 2.
ut omnium
causa
non
est
"
"
causae
THE
effect to be less
perfectthan
of
actuality
the
the
actingcause,
as
to which
be found
in God
(though the
proofused
ning (4 f.)on
the
dicated of God
possesses in
in creation.
actuallyis in any
eminentlythan
that
much
more
is not
converse
is God, of Whom
which
to one
cause
ultimately
Everythingtherefore
in connexion
way
leads
us
the
with what
supereminentway
other
in the
thing itself
said
creatures
conclusion
all
things.
thing must
are
is most
we
of
perfections
to the
reducible
everything is
This
71
inasmuch
the
GOD
OF
NATURE
'
perfect*5.
at the begin
all the
be pre
can
Being
be found
47.
"
'
'
'
3.
Good
is attributed
good
as
all
He
is in God
Him
as
to
as
from
'
Nihil
as
45
alldesirable per
Therefore
their first Cause.
God, inasmuch
of
excellently
; and therefore
more
Bonum
Summum
or
'.
actu
in
actus
agit nisi
in
in quacumque
ilia ; non
autem
est
re
secundum
quod
Impossible
agente.
re
e
est
alia, inveniri
converse.
(Trs.RICKABY,
Of
in
est
in
Deo
multo
igitur Deus
God
and
His
eminentius,
quam
sit
Est
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
72
'
by His
4.
its
good according to
creature
to no
by
ordered
essence
own
of all
He
things.
5.
much
is the
God
as
He
end ; but
His
as
Himself
is the
it is manifest
Hence
God
alone
that
Essence
own
therefore
'.
Essence
Everythingis
'
is not
...
by His
every kind of perfection
alone is good by His own
Himself
has
for He
Existence
is His
anything else
to
last end
Essence
alone
in whom
perfection.
its
Everythingis called
But
perfection
belongs
it belongs to God
only,
Essence.
own
called
goodness'46.
of all
III. God
48.
in
Infinite
is
Perfection.
ideas
The
"
finite
derived from
material extension,
are
originally
infinite
and then appliedby analogy to the goodness and perfection
of spiritual
we
beings. When
say, then, that God is infinite,
of the divine Being
that the goodness or perfection
we
mean
and
is not
has
finite,
limits.
no
when
as
we
distinctly,
compare
is
size or perfection.There
i"
'
better way
Bonum
et
tantum.
there
gettinga
of
is a
by saying: God
be
cannot
it is not
if it is
beings of different
more
no
conceive
do not
better
or
in the
againstreason
it to
be
inferior
to suppose
self-contradictory
to anything else 47.
an
infinite
for
perfect,
be
is inferior
being that
*'
Whilst
He.
finite being,even
rationem
or
then
perfectthat
so
another, it would
to
two
clear and
case
limit itself we
Now
idem
secundum
sunt
sic
Quod
patet. Ratio
ens
differunt
; sed
rem
enim
boni
sit
secundum
consistit, quod
in hoc
bonum
aliquid appetibile.Unde
est quod omnia
Philosophus dicit quod
Manifestum
est autem
appetunt".
est appetibilesecun
quod unumquodque
dum
omnia
quod est perfectum ; nam
appetunt suam
perfectionem '. q. 5,
a.
"
i.
2"
'
Cum
bonum
finis,manifestum
3"
'
Bonum
effluunt ab eo
sicut in prima
modo.
4"
Et
'
propter hoc
etiam
omnium
suam
ad
rerum.
perfectionem
essentiam
suam
omnia
quod
est
per
Sic ergo
bonum
quod
'.
bonum
cum
sit in
q. 6,
a.
eo
autem
sit in Deo,
excellentissimo
2.
Unumquodque
Perfectio
enim
nulli create
dicitur
competit
nihil
secundum
'.
suam
essentiam.
Et
ideo
ipse
solus
est
bonus
per
Ibid., a. 3.
'
5"
oportet,
essentiam.
perfectum.
rationem
Ibid., a. 4.
finisimportat
omnes
perfectiones desideratae
univoca,
summum
habeat
autem
'.
inquantum
suam
hoc
appetunt,
rationem
non
dicitur
est bonus
secundum
secundum
quod
omnium
causa
Solus Deus
bonum
Ipse
sit
dicitur
bonum
bonitate
Unumquodque
divina, sicut primo principle
exemplari, effective et finali totius bonitatis '. Ibid.,a. 4.
47
Infmitum
sed non
quantitatem sequitur
potest infinitas Deoattribui
nisi secundum
spiritualemmagnitudinem : quae quidem spiritualis
magnitude
'
NATURE
THE
OF
GOD
73
This
of which we
have been speaking,we
attribute
infinity,
in the first placeto the divine Being,then to the divine per
God is the absolute pleni
: the divine Being is infinite,
fection
tude of being ; God
He is eminently
is infinite in perfection,
all pure perfection,omnis
perfectio
simplex'.
First we
call to mind
the leadingthesis
49. Proof.
must
'
"
all
which
on
God
first discussion
our
furnish
does not
with
based
was
that
idea of
our
positivecharacteristic,but
48.
God and creatures
to distinguish
by way of negationwe come
to try to establish a proof
It would then be againstall reason
contain
the conclusion of which
would
a
positiveconcept of
the manner
of God's existence ; any
and show directly
infinity
be ruled
argument that makes such a claim must
necessarily
it will not
of court.
Nevertheless
be sufficient merely
out
is the
He
could
God
that
to prove
first
us
have
not
Being,could
any
been
have
not
limited
by
another
'
Since the
divine
is His
but
is summed
of St. Thomas
argument
Being
is not
perfect49.
develops this proof under
Summa
is clear that
two
in
lines
anything
God
Himself
'
is infinite and
He
in these
being received
Being,it
subsist ent
own
up
Gentiles
contra
'
God
than
more
is not
one
other
than
form
His
in the
self-ex
infinitely
being,and by this
perfect
is wanting.
being to whom no kind of perfection
Indeed a being is endowed
with perfection
in the measure
which it has existence,e.g. a man
would have no perfection
istence ; He
I mean
the
is therefore the
'
in
ad
quantum
priae
naturae
duo
bonitatem
sive
minus
album
etiam
magnitude virtutis
magnitudinum una
quo
in
eo
potentiam
Diciturenim
completionem.
modum
secundum
ad
sua
albedo
Harum
magnitudine virtutis vel facto rum.
autem
aliam
hoc ipso quod aliquid
ex
consequitur ; nam
in actu est, activum
est ; secundum
completur,
igiturmodum
quo in actu suo
est modus
virtutis ; et sic relinquiturres spirituales
magnitudinis suae
magnas
dici secundum
mole
modum
in his quae non
suae
completionis : nam
magna
Ostendendum
est igitursecun
est majus quod est melius.
sunt, illud omne
dum
Deum
infinitum
hujus magnitudinis modum
quia nullus est peresse,
fectionis suae
terminus, sive finis,sed est summe
perfectus '. Cont. Gent.,
ex
I, 43
; cp.
48
49
SUAREZ,
De
2 ; ST. THOMAS,
Cum
divinum
esse
Cp.
'
subsistens,manifestum
Theol., I, q. 7, a. i.
n.
5.
Cont.
non
est
Gent., I, 14.
sit esse
receptum
quod ipse
Deus
in
sit infinitus
esse
Sum.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
74
wisdom
if he
of his other
so
wise
by his
the degreeof
its perfections,
himselfmade
not
were
perfections.Whence
of
perfection
of being,no
perfection
the total
have
posed
would
of whiteness
white
and degrees
properties
to any particular
be wanting to it ; whereas
degreesof whiteness may be wanting, and
of the
self-existent, none
be
to
thing
some
the
this because
can
the
Now
to it.
wanting
be
total
whatsoever
kind
any
of its
receives
subjectwhich
is
the whiteness
imper
the
to
own
not
wholly
according
entirely
and
God, who be
being possesses being in all its fullness,
of
perfection
is His
He
cause
and
nature
own
Therefore
whiteness.
perfection.
wanting in any possible
belong to a
Moreover, justas every dignityand perfection
thing in proportionas it has being, so any defect is found in
that it lacks being. So in regard to God,
it in the measure
from
justas He has being wholly,so is He wholly removed
non-being ; for in proportionas a thing is being,it is removed
from
non-being. Therefore defect of any kind has no place
be
cannot
'
is
consequentlyHe
'
'
60
Deus
fectum.
nobilitas.
nulla
qui
Et
Omnis
"
enim
et sic de
aliud
enim
nobilitas
esset homini
Sic ergo secundum
alio.
specialem
Nam
modum
nobilior
vel
suum
quam
universaliter
nobilitas
in nobilitate.
hoc
est
non
dico
modum
quo
secundum
non
ut
non
per-
habet
nobilitatis
deesse
is esset
albedinis.
Deus
dicitur
cui
potest, quae
secundum
albedinis
modum
ad
competit
deesse
suum
aliquem
secundum
tota
virtus
rei conveniat.
essendi
virtute
modus
suus
esse
alicui
totam
nihil ei de
est
esse,
contrahitur
albedinis
potest,ex
recipit,et
potestadeesse
defectu
fortasse
igiturqui
esse,
posse
totam
virtutem
probatum est, habet esse secundum
ipsius esse ;
Sicut
aliqua nobilitate, quae alicui rei conveniat.
potest ergo carere
et perfectioinest rei, secundum
omnis
nobilitas
quod est, ita omnis
supra
autem
res
secundum
tem
ens
non
esse
quod suum
nobilitatis,majorem vel minorem,
minus
nobilis.
Igitur si aliquid est
res,
universaliter
est
esse,
cui
totum
est
totum
suum
THE
I. We
is the absolute
God
first that
say
75
form.
put in the followingsyllogistic
be
reasoning may
This
GOD
OF
NATURE
plenitudeof being,
infinite Being.
an
existence
God, whose
'
is,
He
what
proved, is
have
we
of
divinum
esse
Himself, in
est
suum
esse
accounts
inevitable
and
limitation
is that
to mark
beforehand
out
being to
be
defectus
habet
per
so
sole
rei, secundum
totaliter,ita ab
habet
aliquidesse
quod
deficit
the
non
esse.
perfectus.
Ista
esse
Deo
vero
Deus
est.
non
quae
sicut
modum
per
omnis
defectus
tantum
absoluti,
which
autem
quia
ergo
the
existence
precisedegree in
aliqualiternon
absistit
sphere of
which
essence
of the
totaliter
eo
that
reason
inest
esse
quern
produced ;
is the
presupposes
what
non
sunt,
enim
non
ipsa
habent
esse
secundum
totum
suum
posse, sed quia participantesse
per quemet imperfectissimum '. Cont.
particularem modum,
Gent., I, 28, and
alteri inhaerens
terminationem
actus
ibid.,43 : Omnis
cp. with
recipitex
in quo est ; quia quod est in altero est in eo
eo
modum
recipientis. Actus
per
igiturin nullo existens, nullo terminatur
esset per se existens,
: ut puta si albedo
perfectioalbedinis in ea non terminaretur, quominus haberet quidquid de per-
dam
'
(c.21) ostensum
'
'. Also :
Deus
est
Relinquitur ergo ipsum esse infmitum
actus infinitus ; quod patet ex
hoc
finitur nisi dupliciter.
quod actus non
Uno
modo
artificis recipitquantitatem
ex
parte agentis ; sicut ex voluntate
et terminum
Alio modo
ex
pulchritudo domus.
parte recipientis; sicut color
in lignisterminatur
et quantitatem
dispositionem lignorum.
recipitsecundum
divinus actus non
finitur ex
Ipse autem
est ab alio
aliquo agente, quia non
sed est a seipso; neque
finitur ex
nihil potentiae
alio recipiente,quia cum
passivae ei admisceatur, ipse est actus purus
non
receptus in aliquo ; est
enim
Deus
in nullo receptum.
Unde
ipsum esse suum
patet quod Deus est
infinitus; quod sic videri potest. Esse enim
hominis
terminatum
est ad
hominis speciem, quia est acceptum
in natura
specieihumanae
; et simile est
de esse
sit in aliquo acceptum
Esse autem
cujuslibetcreaturae.
non
Dei, cum
sed sit esse
limitatur
ad
modum
non
perfectionisessendi, sed
aliquem
purum,
totum
se
esse
in
est.
se
habet
et
sic sicut
esse
esseinfinitum
in universali
est'. Id., De
ad
infinita
potentia,q.
i, art. 2.
acceptum
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
76
in which
and
the
subjectto
is not
is
there
presupposedbefore existence,
which universally
have mentioned
essence
no
cause
we
and
proof may
same
subsistent
assume
being, were
reasonable
different form
all
not
represent Him
to
it would
but
perfection,
If God, the
unreasonable
be
it
only would
of being
susceptible
being, not
as
to
selfbe
and
of
represent Him
otherwise.
is
there
in
to
of
is the
is
52.
actualityto potentiality
as
distinction between
no
God, His
really distinct
'
His
The
existence.
His
Therefore
self-subsistent
Being is then
it, in
in God
Now
existence ; in the
is the first thing conceivable
existence, which
'
from
and
essence
which
essence,
actualityof
which
essence,
relation
same
case
Existence
stand
should
the
'
is the
Since in God
is His
essence
is
there
does not
essence
last
differ
existence
'
53.
all
the
to
in which
measure
it is not
'
54. But
God
is the
fullness
of
As
to
conceive
we
exclude
from
an
words
and
idea
to
tionis Deum
q. i,
52
a.
'
2, ad
Esse
humanitas
the
Infinite
by way of negation of
being limitations of which
subsistent
consider
to
attempt
derive
the
limits
of
some
other
kind
than
the
we
those
finite,we
have
no
of which
may
not
concept
we
can
from
would
be to play with
things that exist or are intelligible
Dicimur
in fine nostrae
attempting the impossible.
cogni'. ST. THOMAS,
In Boeth. de Trin.,
ignotum cognoscere
tamquam
be
'
i.
est
actualitas
significaturin
omnis
formae
nisi
vel
naturae,
non
enim
bonitas
vel
actu,
esse.
prout significaturearn
Oportet
ad
ab ipso
est aliud
essentiam
igitur quod ipsum esse
comparetur
quae
sicut actus
ad potentiam '. ST. THOMAS,
Sum.
Theol., I, q. 3, a. 4.
68
Cum
est aliud in
igiturin Deo nihil sit potentiate,sequitur quod non
essentia quam
Sua igituressentia est suum
eo
suum
esse.
'. Ibid.
esse
64
Sicut omnis
nobilitas
et
perfectio inest rei, secundum
quod est, ita
omnis
defectus
inest ei, secundum
est '. Id., Cont.
quod aliqualiternon
'
'
Gent., I, 28.
embraces, without
OF
NATURE
THE
limits,every
any
GOD
pure
77
perfection.(6) The
the existence
contingentperfection
presupposes
of a pure actuality
correspondingto it which possesses this
Now
to affirm the existence of a per
perfection
essentially.
is to affirm
fection such that it is in a state of pure actuality
that this perfection
is identical with the subsistent Being.
is
in a state of pure actuality,
Therefore all-perfection,
when
God
is the
who
identical with the subsistent being. Hence
is the
He
Now
subsistent being is eo ipso all-perfection.
of being. Therefore He is the plenitude
of all perfect
plenitude
ion ; He is infinite in perfection.
an
a
priori
2. Second
Argument. Our first argument was
is drawn
of God ; the following
one
(Sio'ri)
proofof the infinity
from a psychological
fact, namely the necessary and supreme
55.
tendencies of the soul towards the Infinite
towards
The soul by its higherfaculties spontaneously
aspires
what
is more
and more
perfect; no finite thing can satiate
existence of
"
'
infinite. Now
the
'
there
are
two
alternatives
either this
of
to it or it is a matter
corresponding
illusion. If it is illusory,
then we
face to face with an
are
fact : we
of man,
the spectacle
a small and
see
inexplicable
whom
feeble creature
all the powers of body, mind and heart,
combined
with the refinement
of art, not only fail to satisfy
but ever
to a deepersense
awaken
of emptinessand disappoint
tendencyhas
real end
'
'
ment
; and
we
to conclude
that, whilst
'
66
'
Cont.
Gent., I, 43.
intellectus
finitum, desiderium
quietare potest, quod exinde ostenditur, quod intellectus quolibetfinito dato, aliquidultra molitur apprehendere ;
unde
qualibet linea finita data, aliquam majorem molitur apprehendere, et
'
Nihil
similiter
in numeris,
et haec
est
'. Ibid., Ill, 50.
ratio
infinitae
additionis
in numeris
et lineis
mathematicis
6t
Essai
that
VAN
sur
one
WEDDINGEN,
la
Elements
Raisonnes
de
S. Anselme, pp. 307 and
struck by the oft recurrence
philosophicde
cannot
but
be
Religion, p.
This
374.
author
320.
of the noblest
Cp.
also
remarks
minds
to
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
78
and
harmony
monstrosity in
more,
will under
good
of the
form
human
satisfythem.
infinite Being who
Conse
the form
intellect under
the
nay
of the
will
world,
anomaly,
an
tendencies
natural
soul
object of
of this
nature.
The
beings
master-pieceof creation, is
alone, the
man
lower
the
finalitygovern
and
is the
since
of
our
dependence of
with infinity,
the only being that can
any kind is incompatible
be identified with the infinite is God ; therefore God
whom
we
as
"
that
is infinite and
God
the world.
distinct from
he argues, must
be all that is ; for,if we
thingoutside of or beside God, He would
in that
But
the advocates
is not
distinct from
Infinite is not
of his
final
(b)in
the
any
since
infinite,
parts.
of the dualistic
infinite57.
argument
of His
and
be
not
(a) in
the
meanings in
that
sense
conceive
realitywould
two
replyby distinguishing
miss
could
infinite,
all that
We
of
the whole
case
The
being and
own
of all that
cause
the
the
the
nature,
the
formal
efficient exemplary
supreme
pre
Infinite must
is outside of Him,
there
major
grant
we
be
that is to say
formally,
must
constitute, all that exists, we
intrinsically
deny. In
the same
his minor ; and accordingly
way we contradistinguish
sense
refuse assent
to the conclusion.
St. Thomas
'
foresaw
The
beingwhich
other
beings and
But
stance.
from
other
St. Anselm's
57
See
and
65.
He
works
50 and
The
such
with
as
author
objection:
same
clearlynot
stone
or
'.
wood.
And
vivid
all
infinite substance
reason
them
of the
is
an
subjective notion
the
nature
not
is not
to
propounded the
possess their
is of such a nature
beings ;
appears
the
sophie,pp.
does
argument.
the infinite
envelop
is of
God
sequentlyGod
and
clearness
that
its
to
Con
this he
in the
light
idea of
seems
to
well, p. 307.
passim, especiallyIntroduction
Esquisse de Phil. Mor.,
54 (Brussels,1888), and
" la Philopp.
48, 54,
THE
NATURE
OF
'
from
'
Him
beings and
its nature
by
is such
nature
every
surpasses
but
do
we
is determinate
of
reason
not
be
distinct
confounded
with
to the
assent
we
other
some
be
necessarily
must
must
we
that that
proposition
is determined and distinct from other beings,
which is exclusive of the
realizes a perfection
79
Himself, because
must
they
because
of
GOD
and
not
allow
distinct from
that
that
all others
exclusive
units of the
same
Being, and
creatures
genus
; and
between
that
Meaning
of
IMMENSITY
Immensity.
"
For
OF
GOD
being to
its activity
upon
a
be somewhere,
tiam.
Ergo
R.
'
Quod
ita
Sed
Deus
Deus
non
Dicendum
receptum
in
substansecundum
est aliud, est finitum
quod non
enim
est aliud.
est hoc et non
Non
est lapis nee
lignum.
est infinitus secundum
substantiam.
quod ex hoc ipso quod esse Dei est per se subsistens non
est hoc
aliquo, prout
et alia removentur
ab
eo
'.
dicitur
Sum.
infinitum,
distinguiturab
Theol., I, q. 7,
a.
i, ad
3.
omnibus
aliis
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
8o
God
perfection,
However
possess it.
must
too
this
have
substances
created
material
and
which
imperfection
apply to
the Being without division or limit. In order to gain as com
which corre
pletean idea as possibleof the divine perfection
sponds to the presence of a created being in space, we must
in turn
examine
(i)on what grounds, (2)to what extent, (3)
material bodies,impliesan
in what
manner,
of His
must
we
This
works.
in which
analysingthe manner
in freeingthis conception
then
is present and
find included
element
of imperfectionthat we
creature
from
midst
the
reason,
will consist in
examination
a
is
God
that
say
fundamental
cannot
every
in it.
In
i.
wider
a
expression,
being is said
active influence,
and in this sense
of the
sense
of its
present by reason
presentto the objectsunder
within
to the things falling
and in the
strictly
present only where
attribute to
He
thingsby
these
God.
and
which
His
Power, inasmuch
He
more
of the
different
God
created, which
knows
even
expressiona being is
The presence that we
substantially.
has
He
works
on
attribute to
must
we
creature
it is
proper
it is
be
to
grounds, we
and
can
is
He
naturallypresent to the
preserves in being,which
'
governs.
Therefore, God
all
is in all
subjectto
His Power
; He is in all thingsby His Presence, as all things
bare and open to His eyes ; He is in all thingsby His
are
Essence,inasmuch as He is the cause of existence to all things 59.
as
things are
'
'
God
accident ; but as
an
it works.
God
.
an
causes
existence
present
'
Sic
sunt
et
I, q. 8,
long
as
Deus
is most
est
in
intimate
omnibus
thing exists,God
of existence.
to
which
thing and
must
Now
what
be
exist
is at
omnia
ejus
per potentiam, inquantum
praesentiam in omnibus, inquantum omnia nuda
adest
aperta oculis ejus ; est in omnibus
per essentiam, inquantum
ut causa
est (art.i) '. ST. THOMAS,
essendi, sicut dictum
Sum.
Theol.,
ergo
potestatisubduntur
omnibus
as
as
long as
is what
(esse)
ence
69
to
Therefore
as
in
nor
a.
3.
; est per
NATURE
THE
the very
mination
bottom
of all
things,inasmuch
is in
of whatever
as
thing. Hence
thingsintimately60.
Further, omnipresenceor ubiquityis
2.
81
GOD
it must
be that God
'
is in all
'
OF
an
to
is in every
place; which means
First,He is so in all things as givingthem
God
attribute of God.
exist
everywhere.
being,and power,
and operation; for He is in every placeas givingit existence
inasmuch
and locative power.
Also, thingsplacedare iriplace,
as
they fillplace; and God fillsevery place; not, indeed, like
inasmuch
as it does not
a body ; for a body is said to fillplace,
of another
suffer the co-presence
body ; whereas by God
being in a place,others are not thereby excluded from it ;
indeed, by the very fact that He givesexistence to everything
in every place,He fillsevery place 61.
of
quotationjust cited also indicates the manner
3. The
God's
continues :
Al
everywhere. St. Thomas
presence
though corporealthingsare said to be in anything as in that
which
contains them, nevertheless
spiritual
things contain
those thingsin which they are ; as the soul contains the body.
Hence also God is in thingsas containingthem ; nevertheless
by a certain similitude to corporealthings,it is said that all
6a.
thingsare in God, inasmuch as they are contained by Him
Incorporealthingsare not in placeby contact of dimensive
quantity,as bodies are ; but by contact of power 63. Hence
'
'
'
'
'
60
'
Deus
est in omnibus
'
I, q. 8, a.
61
'
Deus
rebus,
adest
non
ei in
i.
est in omni
in omnibus
'
continent
spiritualia
et
Deus
63
sicut
'
Incorporalia non
corpora,
sunt
in loco
per contactum
virtutis '. I, q. 3,
quantitatisdimensivae,
a.
2, ad
i.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
82
in every
in each one
whole
and
'
in all
whole
things
65.
'
that God
; for
exist
nothing can
except
by Him'66.
Although
tion of God's
and
proper
we
an
positive
representa
conceive
can
eminent
there must
that
perfec
some
manner,
what
intrinsic and
beings, some
or
Being, in
correspondsto
tion that
immensity,yet
be in the infinite
His
form
cannot
we
action
providential
supreme
of God.
52. Proof of the Immensity
His
and
have
be
to
exercised.
The
ad
'
quod
Secundum
virtus
vel ad
secundum
hoc
substantia
magnum,
vel magno
'.
vel pluribus locis,et in loco parvo
'
""
Sicut anima
est tota in qualibet parte
parvum
omnibus
""
'
et
Per
singulisentibus
convenit
ad
unum
vel ad
incorporea
Ibid.,ad.
multa,
est in
uno
2.
corporis,ita Dens
totus
est in
'.
Ibid., ad. 3.
ubique alicui, quando
esse
tale est qnod, qualibet
Deo
positione facta, sequitur illud esse ubique. Et hoc proprie convenit
;
etiamsi
loca
infinita
quia quotcumque
ponantur,
ponerentur
praeter ista
Deum
nisi per
esse
sunt, oporteret in omnibus
; quia nihil potest esse
quae
ipsum '. I, q. 8, a. 4.
se
THE
realized in creatures.
of
case
involves
being which
of
the
In
the
depends on
it is circumscribed
or
in
GOD
OF
NATURE
creature,
other
presence
it is a mode
that
reason
creature
some
83
itself,and that, as
restricted,it is
way
The
immensity, however,
of God is identical with His substantial being; that beinghas
unlimited in every
extended
no
parts but is indivisible reality
line,and excludingby its very essence
every limit,no matter
limitation.
subject to
essentially
what
and
be the number
may
His
action extends.
Therefore
What
simpleperfection.
immensityis an absolutely
is there,
connexion
between
His
present.
terminate
is there
But
action
the
in
and
is immense
action should
ask, between
on
the two
may
Himself
thingsoutside
Undoubtedly there is a
of God
we
something
between
the
be that
it cannot
which
to
He
of God
action
is not
and
His
'
'
from
nothingness
;
of God
therefore it is absurd
to suppose
the action
demands
necessarily
inmost
which
presence
fundamental
sense.
From
it is not
to infer from
logical
stantially
present in place.
These
criticisms
M.S.P.-VOL.
n.
seem
to
His
penetrates the
these
creature
premisseshe
us
well founded
in
concludes
that He
and
most
that
is sub
the inference
G
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
84
they oppose
consequentlyis
therefore, in order
and
between
nexion
action
back
on
to
substantial
the
to an
appears
the
condition
prerequisite
is
there
be
by proofsthat
con
necessary
of God
and
His
either to go
the one
and
necessary
is anterior to both
to establish each
object
posteriorto
presence
would
thingswithout, it
which
some
principle
other, or else
the
not
that
show
to
of God
presence
deals with
creative action
His
that
; the
illogical
seems
mutually
are
independent.
Moreover
think
we
teaching of St.
in agreement
are
we
Thomas
the
on
with
the
of creation.
act
whole
True, the
be brought againstus :
have alreadyquoted may
we
passage
God is in all things,
as an
agent is present to what it acts upon.
'
it is necessary
For
it
his
by
67. But
'
moved
of
way
as
any
the
in
to this
in
the
spot
universe
created
divine
object
by
reasons
act
in
reason
which
consequently,
this wise : Just
their presence
manifests itself in the
to
us
in asserting
that
us
justifies
analogically
eminent
an
they
objects reveals
Being comprisesin
sponds in
where
action of God
the
St. Thomas
an
con
corporealagents presupposes
to
legitimate
of exterior
action
reply that
action of
The
immediate
an
we
it is
hypothesis,
place,so
Himself
to the
way
the
of finite agents68
presence
IV.
53.
between
analogy.
their presence
on
it follows that
operation. Whence
is necessary
tact
that
THE
Meaning
without
ABSOLUTE
and
comment
Proof.
the
"
IMMUTABILITY
We
concise
cannot
and
do
clear
OF
GOD
better
than
statement
give
of
St.
Thomas.
God is immutable
i.
is
God
above
6 7
'
enim
that there is
what
it is shown
precedes,
contingere.
Cp.
\
some
(a)First,because it was
first Being,whom
call God
we
that
shown
; and
est in omnibus
Deus
omne
mutatio
From
immutable,
altogether
I, q. 8, a.
88
'
agens
Unde
i.
Cont.
'
17.
Quod
creatio
non
est motus
nequc
THE
NATURE
OF
GOD
85
be purely Actual
(Actus Pur us),
Being must
that potentiality
without
; for the reason
any potentiality
is absolutely
posteriorto actuality.Everything which is in
Hence
it is
way a potentiality.
any way changed,is in some
for God to be in any way change
evident that it is impossible
is moved,
able,
(b)Secondly, because everything which
remains as it was
as
term, and passes away
as
regardssome
what
other
term
is
from
moved
whiteness to
; as
regardssome
in substance ; thus in everything
blackness, remains the same
kind of compositionto be found
which is moved, there is some
above that in God there is no composition;
It has been shown
for that He is absolutely
simple. Hence it is manifest that God
be moved,
cannot
(c)Thirdly,because everythingwhich is
moved
somethingby its motion, and attains to what
acquires
is Infinite,compre
it had not attained previously.As God
hending in Himself the plenitudeof perfectionof all Being,
extend Himself to any
He cannot acquireanything new,
nor
He
not
extended
was
previously.Hence
thing whereto
69.
motion in no way belongsto Him
immutable : Thus in every creature
2. God alone is absolutely
to change either as regardssubstantial
there is a potentiality
existence,as in the case of thingscorruptible
; or as regards
locality
only,as in the case of the celestial bodies [which in the
considered
incorruptible]
physicsof the ancients were
; or
of their
as
regardsthe order of their end, and the application
with the angels; and
powers to divers objects,as is the case
taken together
further the whole order of creatures
is capableof
beingchanged,since the Creator has power to maintain them in
this first
that
'
'
existence
or
to annihilate them.
But
as
God
alone
is in
none
of
Deum
omnino
immutabilem
esse
:
praemissis (q.2, a. 3) ostenditur
all
ostensum
est
esse
(loc.cit.)
quod primum ens, quod
Quidem, quia supra
dicimus
actum
Deum
ens
oportet esse
; et quod hujusmodi primum
purum
absque permixtione alicujus potentiae ; eo quod potentia simpliciter est
modo
Omne
autem
est aliquo
mutatur,
quod quocumque
posterior actu.
modo
in potentia. Ex
aliquo modo
patet quod impossibileest Deum
quo
mutari." 2" Quia omne
quod movetur, quantum ad aliquid manet, et quan
de
albedine
in nigredinem,
movetur
tum
ad aliquid transit ; sicut quod
Et sic in omni
manet
substantiam.
secundum
eo
quod movetur, attenditur
est autem
aliqua compositio. Ostensum
supra (q.3, a. 7) quod in Deo nulla
manifestum
est compositio, sed est omnino
est quod Deus
simplex. Unde
motu
moveri
suo
non
quod movetur,
aliquid acquipotest. 3" Quia omne
sit
rit,et pertingitad illud ad quod prius non
pertingebat. Deus autem, cum
in
totius
se
omnem
infinitus,
plenitudinem perfectionis
comprehendens
esse,
in aliquid ad quod prius non
se
non
potest aliquidacquirere ; nee extendere
sibi competit motus
'. I, q. 9, a. I.
pertingebat. Unde nullo modo
68
'
Ex
i"
"
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
86
these
ways
immutable
V.
to
The
"
concept of it becomes
our
at once
eternity
imperfection.In
without
duration
These
(b)limit, (c)vicissitude.
ment,
by
'
the Scholastics
of
possession
(a)commence
has been
become
universally
perfect
life ; Interminabilis
interminable
an
of
features have
since Boethius
altogether
idea of
as
be
to
GOD
OF
Eternity.
as
everyone
proportionas
ETERNITY
THE
of Divine
54. Meaning
appears
alone
70.
'
vitae tota
perfectapossessio'.
Let us go through the ascendingscale of contingentbeings
in such a way as to eliminate one
by one from our concept of
that are found
in them.
the duration of God all imperfections
stand corporeal
substances,which (a)come
1. At the bottom
the result of a natural
moment
as
into being at a particular
acci
combination, (b) constantlymanifest
or
disintegration
later their
or
dental changes (phenomena),until (c) sooner
combines
or
decomposes under the action of
very substance
simul et
extrinsic action, to
some
form
one
or
more
substances
new
(temporaryduration, tempus).
2. Higher in the scale come
spiritual
beingswhich, though
unchangeablein their substantial nature and therefore natur
(a)are no less subject to variations in the
allyimperishable,
development of their faculties,and (b)are dependent at each
the omnipotence of God
for their preservation
in
moment
on
received
(c)at
life (permanentduration,aevum)
the
have
being they
this
dependence involves
of their
the commencement
It does
not
here
us
concern
succession of real
positive
parts
parts (St.Bona venture)or simplya succession of possible
(St.Thomas, Suarez) in the duration of a spiritual
being.
is
matter
such
the
condition
of every
as
a
offad
3. Although
substance, yet it is not repugnant to the mind to
spiritual
whether
'
70
dum
Sic
esse
tantum
et
virtutis
communiter
potestate est
rum
creatura
est
potentia
ad
mutationem
sicut corpora
corruptibilia: vel secundum
vel
secundum
ordinem
(sicut corpora
coelestia)
;
substantiate
applicationem
creaturae
omni
igiturin
esse
sit mutabilis,
et
non
ad
sunt
mutabiles
esse
earum.
secundum
Unde,
omnino
vel
esse
ad
et universaliter
potentiam creantis, in
cum
Deus
immutabilem
nullo
esse
istorum
'.
secun-
locale
finem,
omnes
cu
jus
modo-
Ibid.,a.
2.
OF
NATURE
THE
GOD
87
that it would
be eternal
be ; for
allowingthat
variation in its acts and no real development
there were
no
would
in the duration of its existence,such a favoured
spirit
stillalwaysbe liable to annihilation and, consequently,
radically
speakingit
Strictly
subjectto
the law
would
not
even
of successive duration.
of
'
series of successive
to
events
in the
of its existence.
course
'
my
come
departingthrust out
by coming years,
Thy years are one
away.
day ; and Thy day is not daily,but To-day,seeingThy To-day
for neither doth it replace
to-morrow,
gives not place unto
yesterday. Thy To-day, is Eternity 71.
of God
It follows from what
have said that the eternity
we
is absolute,that is to say, independentof all relation to time,
justas His immensity is independentof all relation to space ;
nor
go ;
they stand
together,nor
for they pass not
are
'
and
therefore the
and
from
His
co-existence of God
creatures
is
with
the
past,the present
following
only a corollary
eternity72.
71
Confessions,XI,
72
'
Conveniens
13.
definitio
dicens
ponit Boetius
perfecta possessio'.
Sicut in cognitionem simplicium oportet
venire
nos
per composita, ita in
venire
cognitionem aetemitatis
oportet nos
per tempus ; quod nihil aliud
est quam
secundum
numerus
motus
prius et posterius. Cum enim in quolibet
sit successio, et una
motu
hoc quod numeramus
prius
; ex
pars post alteram
et posterius in motu,
apprehendimus tempus, quod nihil aliud est quam
numerus
In eo
autem
prioriset posteriorisin motu.
quod caret motu, et
eodem
modo
se
habet, non
est accipere prius et posterius. Sicut
semper
igiturratio temporis consistit in numeratione
prioriset posteriorisin motu,
ita in apprehensione unifo mutatis
extra
con
motum,
ejus quod est omnino
sistit ratio aetemitatis.
Item
dicuntur
ea
tempo re mensurari, quae princiin tempo re, ut dicitur (Phys., lib. IV, text. 70). Et
pium et finem habent
hoc ideo, quia in omni
eo
quod movetur, est accipere aliquod principium et
est omnino
Quod vero
aliquem finem.
immutabile, sicut nee successionem.
quod
'
aeternitas
est
aetemitatis
interminabilis
vitae
est
ea
tota
quam
simul
et
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
88
'
is Eternal.
God
55.
"
idea of
The
eternityfollows
immu
from
the idea of time follows movement,
as appears
as
tability,
is supremely immutable, it
God
the preceding. Hence
as
supremely belongs to Him to be eternal. Nor is He eternal
eternity,whereas no other being is
only : but He is His own
its
duration,
own
His
own
VI. THE
56. Proof.
that there
"
are
show
not
and
cannot
i" Ex
finem
aut
hoc
quod
GOD
OF
polytheismis
be several
and
error
an
the
gods answering to
Being.
habere
id
notificatur
potest. Sic ergo ex duobus
est in aeternitate, est interminabile, id est
2" Per hoc
terminus
ad utrumque
referatur.
quod
?uod
that
may
principium
nee
aeternitas
UNICITY
We
essence,
'
alone
God
own
in
speaking is
And
is His
He
as
is
God
'
Eternal.
is
alone
God
existence.
own
'
His
is He
so
uniform
own
is its
other
no
as
simul
caret, tota
existens
'.
Sum.
Theol.,
i.
q. 10,
'
In tempore
a.
est duo
considerare, scilicet ipsum tempus, quod est succesDicitur
aeternitatis
sivum, et nunc
tempo ris quod est imperfectum.
ergo
temtota simul, ad removendum
nunc
tempus ; et perfectaad excludendum
poris '. Ibid., ad 5.
'
aeternitas
sit mensura
esse
permanentis, secundum
quod aliquid
hoc recedit ab aeternitate.
permanentia essendi, secundum
Quaedam
sic recedunt
autem
est subjectum
a
permanentia essendi, quod esse eorum
transmutationis, vel in transmutatione
consistit,esse hujusmodi mensurantur
tempore, sicut omnis motus, et etiam esse omnium
corruptibilium. Quaedam
recedunt
minus
in trans
vero
a
nee
permanentia essendi ; quia esse eorum
mutatione
habent
est
consistit, nee
subjectum transmutationis
; tamen
transmutationem
adjunctam vel in actu vel in potentia : sicut patet de
naturam
angelisqui habent esse intransmutabile
pertinet,
quantum ad eorum
Cum
recedit
transmutabilitate
cum
ligentiarum
surantur
quod
secundum
et affectionum
aevo,
mensurat
et
electionem,
loco
est medium
quod
rum
inter
et
Et
aeternitatem
intel-
transmutabilitate
cum
modo.
suo
ideo
et
hujusmodi
Esse
tempus.
men
autem
est
mutabilitati
aeternitas, nee
mutabile, nee
adjunctum.
habet
in se prius
autem
non
tempus habet prius et posterius ; aevum
et posterius,sed ei conjungi possunt ; aeternitas autem
habet
non
prius neque
posterius,neque ea compatitur'. I, q. 10, a. 5.
78
Ratio
aeternitatis consequitur immutabilitatem,
sicut ratio temporis
Sic ergo
'
consequitur motum,
maxime
aeternus, sed
est
non
suum
74
'
litatem
Deus
esse.
Aeternitas
dictis
'.
'.
Solus
suum
I, q.
solo
autem
Ibid., a. 3,
nulla
tamen
est
proprie in
et
vere
;
autem
aeternitas
sua
consequitur.
superiusostensum
ex
sibi maxime
aeternitas
est sua
essentia, ita
sua
ut
immutabilis,
10,
alia
a.
Deo
Deus
res
sit
uniforme.
esse
cum
Nee
sua
Deus
sit
solum
est
duratio, quia
Unde
sicut
est
2.
est
quia
est omnino
aeternitas
immutabi
immutabilis,
ut
est
NATURE
THE
OF
GOD
89
have
From
1.
the
is His
self-subsistence.
"
It is
were
essence
type,distinct
from
His
existence,that
could be realized,and
or
species
individuals
several
has
we
that
perfection
the other
lacks, and
Cp. Sum.
'
enim
Deum
quod
Theol., I, q.
esse
illud unde
sed
pptest,
Si ergo
id, unde
Socrates
per
enim
Natura
a.
unde
3 ; q. n,
a.
them
alternatives
to
be
either
Socrates
hoc
aliquid,nullo
modo
est
est
multis
communicari
homo, multis
nisi
uni tantum.
communicari,
potest
hie
sicut
est
non
homo,
quod
possunt
per
autem
Hoc
conpossent esse plures homines.
est'.
est sua
Sum.
natura, ut supra ostensum
esse
suppose
a.
aliquidsingulareest
Illud
communicabile.
then
n,
demon
unum
abso
est
non
3.
in
Deus, aut est per seipsam individuata
significatahoc nomine
hoc Deo, aut per aliquidaliud.
Si per aliud, oportet quod ibi sit compositio ;
si per seipsam, ergo impossible est quod alteri conveniat.
Illud enim
quod
est individuationis
principium, non
potest esse pluribus commune.
Impossi*
bile est igitur
esse
plures deos '. Cont. Gent., I, 42,
former
for
of
d'etre
77
'Deum
sic
ergo
Si
uni
ille
esse
ergo
quod
in
quo
plures
and
that
has
4,
a.
2)
quod
esset
deos
Si
privatio,
'.
Sum.
autem
non
ejus
comprehendit
oporteret
eos
simpliciter
esset
Theol.,
I,
q.
se
differre.
n,
a.
then
totam
alterieorum
that
77.
Ostensum
perfectionem
Aliquid
perfectus.
3.
raison
eminent
an
perfectionis.
perfectio
esset,
the
beings
in
the
longer
no
be
in
infinite
infinitate
hoc
is
conclude
We
two
In
not.
God
comprise,
being.
ex
is
definitely
must
be
it
or
latter,
the
must
Deus
dii,
plures
alteri.
non
He
cannot
probatur
essent
In
so
exists
there
unum
(q.
supra
essendi.
veniret
that
be
to
God
on
infinite.
order
esse
enim
dependent
not
hypothesis
any
est
is
in
all
is
everything
degree,
in
it
case,
infinite,
Et
infinite
second
the
est
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
90
ergo
con-
deesset.
Impossibile
PART
The
57.
intrinsic
as
the
case
medium
of
actions,
being
substance
is
His
and
it is
ence
since
is accidental
is substance.
in
In
God,
throughout
accident
an
it needs
exist
to
it ; and
on
For
their
with
its nature.
of
the
through
acts
latter, together
what
in order
depends
from
proportion
of view
point
another
that
be
can
also
and
determinations
of God
is
58.
in
Life
God.
"
transitive
and
latter
knowledge
are
Beings
subject
should
to
inhere
its
to
im
in
depend
accident
an
is the
; for this
perfected
to
There
but
and
reason
The
and
the
to
The
transcendent
substantial
highest
natural
to
acci
the
nature
activity.
of
are
kinds,
two
of
manifestations
'
is
ad
He
beings
there
now
extra
is
no
', that
from
them.
is before
in
are
reason
is, on
actuality without
reaction
is what
belong
to
proper
the
volition.
other
He
which
of creatures
actions
;
on
independence
any
turn
why
God
things
out
potentiality
Moreover
anything
their
exists
is the
He
and
has
act.
is
no
vegetable
essential
substance,
since
subject
Being
creatures.
transitively
act
side Himself,
power
of
of reaction
law
the
not
act
the
perfections
immanent
which
to
is not
the
self-active
both
has
all-perfect,
dental
both
He
substance
is
who
substance
First
of
trace
essence
same
perfection.
God,
He
nature
determinations
no
is this
is the
being
imperfect.
perfecting of
this
The
powers.
being
Nevertheless,
it is
finite
of
essence
nature
of
there
of
the
activities.
accidental
whole
The
"
principleof
pliesimperfection,
a
it is ;
what
operative
are
however,
the
of
of God.
God
of
Activity
Action
reason
considered
In
and
Nature
III
need
and
actuality
to
point
out
sensitive,
of
are
God.
that
the
lower
incompatible
Intellectual
91
degrees
with
of
the
life, however"
life,
pure
NATURAL
92
it
is
buted
be
attributed
order,
and
endowed
with
enjoy
of
the
the
being
perfect
of
sion
than
only
of
the
in
divine
the
actual
own
directs
therefore
belong
it
is
This
its
therefore
good
infinitely
belongs
to
infinite
the
good
cannot
can
find
that
something
the
to
must
definition
is
it
life
infinite
of
possession
and
in
love,
is
essence
Him
posses
be
other
its
this
such
good
way
that
activity
intelligibility
the
its
intellection,
own
its
its
lovableness,
love.
Therefore
there
the
inspires
Author
essence.
infinite
thought
understood,
good.
divine
the
But
infinite
an
their
endowed
perfect
So
intellectual
this
imperfection
any
are
most
is
contin
that
by
the
design
order
(b) Among
some
of
it
reasons
this
of
(c) Beatitude
must
And
Cause
wherefore
enjoying.
and
Being.
without
will
attri
manifests
(28).
are
possession
of
capable
positive,
purely
there
be
may
positive
world
first
will
perfections,
conscious
three
the
and
and
thought
and
is
that
world
this
same
full
is
know
imperfection;
an
account,
The
(a)
intelligence
in
power
for
Him
to
this
on
moreover,
we
with
beings
gent
(5) and,
And,
contain
formally
not
perfection
God.
to
must
does
"
simple
and
will
and
knowledge
THEOLOGY
in
are
works
that
God
thought
exterior
are
to
and
love
and
God,
this
this
love
thought
them.
According
to
this
into
three
chapters
The
work
of
God
very
:
brief
Thought
(III).
argument
in
God
divide
we
(I)
Will
in
Part
God
III
(II)
CHAPTER
words
in other
in itself
in
or
Considered
sist
Life
Intellectual
59.
in
knowledge
its object.
subjectively,in
of
of
of
of
reasoning, for
process
is
there
substance
known
truths
from
to
of
succession
of
act
exhausts
Considered
60.
Nature.
divine
the
of
actual
being understood
divine
the
actual
the
Now
object
of this
rests
is
its
which
object.
know
and, secondarily,
Comprehension
on
no
and
of
His
simplicity of the
intellective
potentiality
the
intellection
being
divine
the
God,
intellection
one
Being
exist.
Actual
to
are
substance,
of
may
there
determined
being
essence.
actual
fore
God
act
an
say
in its term,
nature
the
proposition
In
Being.
capable
is His
This
i.
"
is
Knowledge
is to
of
intelligibility
at
nor
series
perfection there
multiplicity of acts
knowledge is a single
nor
that
comprehension,
adequate
entire
divine
The
action.
goes
in whom
in God
ideas, for in
of abstract
divisions
no
fruit
ratiocination
and
unknown,
neither
nor
truth
is
is it the
nor
con
there
God
faculty of
the
not
no
again is it
of compositions and
who
is actually and
is
faculties
and
composition
a
in
God,
considered
does
itself, it
faculty, since
be
science, may
or
life of
intellectual
-The
God.
of
His
exercise
the
GOD
IN
THOUGHT
or
the
actual
His
intellection
understanding
same
thing.
and
There
intellection, is also
intellection.
It
rests
on
the
93
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
94
is proper to
of this
perception
that
Being, in
divine Being.
of the
'
physics,Bk. XII,
'
Possible.
and
Actual
all Things
knows
God
61.
infinite
an
God
that
lays down
this opinionhe
Aristotle
"
In
Meta
know
can
followed
by his
and Averroes, the pleabeing
Avicenna
Arabian
commentators,
urged that the knowledge of a secondary objectis incompatible
with
the absolute
perfectionof the divine Being : an act
the knower,
which perfects
of knowledge, they argued,is one
other objects
besides His essence,
and therefore,
did God know
His perfection
would be due to something else than His essen
tial perfection.A second argument is that, in order to know
would
such
objects,the divine intelligence
require to be
sort of intelligible
determined
impres
by them, to receive some
in
and
this
sion from
them
would
imply potentiality Him,
;
He is pure Actuality.
Aristotle concludes that
whereas
Finally,
nothing but
there
apparent after
on
established
The
Creator
and
has revealed
to
considered
were
Further, it would
be
to know.
our
own
will
thesis.
physico-theological
argument
us
and purpose.
actingwith intelligence
beingsHe has called into existence were
of the
than
which
misunderstanding,
have
we
posteriori
proof:
was
is founded
objection
more
1.
In
thingsthat
some
are
This
be
Himself.
Author
an
Therefore
at
of nature
least the
as
arbitraryto
that
suppose
to His
only
the
'
all the
the
to
'
in an
fectly78,
78
would
of
in terms.
be
of ways
writer, Pieralisi,maintains
divine
the
necessarilybe
diction
it should
indefinite number
Franciscan
of imitations
that
nature
essence
infinite ; and
This
because
yet
objection is
Now
by
an
that
it is not
of such
production of an
playing with
mere
possibleto speak
divine exemplar
infinite is
words.
be
'
indefinite number
copy
St. Thomas
St. Augustine nor
overlooked
the
adequately imitated, yet they did not hesitate
of creatures
being the imagines et similitudines Dei
neither
not
it is essential
to
'
or
contra
Certainly
Infinite
can
THE
of creatures
this
ACTIVITY
OF
is
instability
GOD
95
intrinsic characteristic of
an
It
'
'
would
not be
knowledge of the divine essence
comprehensive
if it perceivedthis essence
absolute object
as
an
exclusively
time
at the same
without
seeing it under the indefinitely
of intelligible
great number
aspects that it presents as the
of all the possible
imitations of the divine
exemplary cause
is
know
Being. In the second place,that what He must
the formal
and proper
being that creatures would possess if
they existed ; for this formal and proper being is that by
which the creature
images the divine Being,it is the expression
of the mode according
imitates the essence
to which the creature
of its Creator.
And
in the third place,that He possesses a
alike
distinct knowledge of creatures
; all the perfections,
in their
essential and accidental,which their being represents,
generic,specificand individual essence
; all without
any
exceptionare before the thought of God in their proper for
malities because all without
definite
exceptionare so many
imitations of the Being whose
God
imitability
compre
'
hends '.
Before
correct
He
passingon
to
say
God
knows
remark
the
that
of creation
before He
them.
creates
sees
Hence
we
posterioriargument,
He
Him
sees
types
as
the second
alone
gives the
causal
of the
reason
The
fallsto
God
but
For
that actually
the power
given our first proof as an
Himself
have
strictly
thingsbecause
it is not
of
essences
is the
self as
that
must
we
are
less not
the
objectof
the divine
knowledge, they
are
neverthe
of
determining
principle
superaddedto the essence
determina
God, after the manner
of the accidental intelligible
tion which completesthe potential
intel
facultyof the human
lect when as yet it is intrinsically
101 f.).
incomplete(Psychology,
The divine essence
by itself correspondsto the intelligible
impressionor speciesthat the later Scholastics have called
speciesimpressa ; in other words, it is in itself its own
determiningprincipleof intellection, medium
quo intellectionis ; whilst it is also itself the intelligible
counterpart,
the
which
the
speciesexpressa ', or that in
cognoscibility
'
'
'
'
'
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
96
of
thingis manifested,
real
'
in quo
medium
objectiverelucet
'.
quidquidest intelligibile
and
objectof
derived
St. Thomas
when
Moreover,
the
a
distinguishes
primary object
divine knowledge, he does not
"
which
singleact which
in alio
62. The
(a) the
has
Ideas.
Divine
connotes
which
sees
whatever
sees
"
the
'
idea
reasons
thought
knowledge
and, in this
connexion
necessary
An
"
essential
present to
are
divine
aliud ; the
the divine essence
olio ad
proceed ex
'
in
essence
'
things,
of
God, and
"
with it.
Scholastic
of
is
language
rationes rerum,'
(b)their
formal
So that, whilst
thingsto be created.
is considered as a subjective
the
form,
speciesintelligibilis
the idea is the objective
terminus of the divine intuition. The
is single
former in God
manifold, inasmuch
; the latter are
and having an indefinitely
as
thingsbeingmanifold to infinity
of mutual
relations of causality,
etc.,
finality,
great number
modes
the
distinct
which
infinite
to
so
are
according
many
of the divine Being is imitable.
perfection
It must
not
be thought,however, that these ideas are
so
is identical with that of
realities in God ; their reality
many
divine
considered
the
the supreme
essence
as
archetype of
character
models
as
of
'
'
things;
God
of its role
of God
of
'
in His
as
the
archetype,
what
is distinct from
own
divine
Him
extra
'.
In
this
sense
the
essence
under
actual
the mind
guiseof a
multitude
the
which
ideas of the
Everything
left vague, comprisesobjectsthat
various groups.
which
One distinction,
can
can
be
be
produced
divine
intellect
The
expression
purposely
into
distinguished
Knowledge.
'; which we
possible
and
in virtue
presentsto
in number.
many
63. The
Objects of the Divine
'
But
essence.
objectsresembling those
intelligible
ad
are
them
sees
"
have
have
thingsas
at
some
as
imitable
we
'
ad extra'.
moment
of
time.
'
are
possible
into
being
ACTIVITY
THE
GOD
OF
97
considered without
or
form
exclusive)
sive
excludingit (sivepraecisive
definitely
as
object
the
objectum
simple intelligence,
scientiae simplicis
Things which have existed,
intelligentiae.
exist or will exist, form the objectof intuitive knowledge,
objectum scientiae visionis.
In the controversies that have taken placeabout the know
intermediate
ledgeof God there is the further questionof an
knowledge', scientia media, which deals with objectstermed
d
conditional futurables ', that is to say, thingswhich wou
call
Schoolmen
the
what
of
'
'
have
existed
action
of
some
or
should
of
knowledge
exist if,under
would
or
take
definite
cause
place.
Those
that
maintain
'
had
taken
who
advocate
taking
place,were
futurables
conditional
knowledge of
conditions,the
certain
'
do
not
',seeing
intelligence
futurables
and
not
that they are
mere
possibles; or
under God's intuitive knowledge of vision ',seeingthat they
do not belong to the class of definite and true future things;
theymust then be ranked, they say, as the objectof a knowledge
these other two, in a sense
distinct from
midway between
them : they are the objects
of a scientia media.'
The
is sometimes
called
knowledge of simpleintelligence
also necessary knowledge,since its objectis not conditioned by
the
'
pure
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
any
'
free act
either
the
on
part of
God
'
or
on
the
part
of the
'
as
free
knowledge of vision is also known
knowledge, since its objectis dependent on the free fiatof
the creative act ; the intermediate knowledge againappears
distinct from these other two, since its objectconsists in those
but
thingsof the future that are dependent on human liberty
order of
considered as belongingto the purely hypothetical
free conditional future
things,called by the Scholastics
things'.
also distinguish
In God
we
a
knowledge,
speculative
may
the objectof which is the divine nature and the possibles
which
not and
will be realized,from a practical
know
are
never
ledge,which directs either the will or the activity ad extra
creature
the
'
'
'
'
'
of God.
64. God
possesses
Knowledge
of
Possible
Things.
"
Of
be distingushed
two kinds (seeGen. Meta
may
is verified when
physics,18 f.). Intrinsic possibility
an
object
there
possibility
presentselements
which
from
the
of
compatibility
their nature
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
98
extrinsic
the existence
means
possibility
of a cause
possible.
capableof producingwhat is intrinsically
whatever
is
the
of
is
In
God
who
case
almighty
intrinsically
is also extrinsically
possible.
possible
The
ad
divine ideas are types that are formallyimitable
allow
of existence
'
extra
perfectly.Therefore
'.
extra
But
is to know
He
is
there
these ideas
'
imitable
are
contradiction
no
knows
'
formallyimitable
as
to know
that
them
knows
God
Now
essence.
in the
ad
ad
'
extra
existence
of
God
'the
possesses
of
Knowledge
omniscient
with
regard to
and
with
knows
going to
be
embraces
past or
present
events
performed.
The
everythingwhich
future.
or
With
past does
take
He
sees
the
knowledge
them
all in
happen
knowledge of
for
would
us
God, however,
not
place,but
will
all that
date
advance,
His
of vision would
which
vision that
He
of the
is
has
present,
knowledge
that
of
our
these
knowledge is unchangeable
from
that
so
His
future
free act
be
is
God
"
in the
from
because
Vision'.
be
this
point of view
named
appropriately
after our manner
of thinkingand speaking as that of prevision.
It embraces
all things that take
place,whether
necessary
the
free-will
of
Yet
chief
the
or
on
man.
dependent
point
of interest is mainly in reconciling
the infallible certitude of
with man's freedom of action,and therefore
this foreknowledge
the thesis we
to establish will deal mainly with free
have now
more
future acts.
is the
this universe
with
intel
ledgeof
the end
the attainment
of the universe
of this end
and
and
of the
in order
means
to
suitable
for
guarantee this
the
order is,the
be
must
to
means
more
knowledge
the
constitute
that
elements
comprisesa physicalorder
in subordination
both
Designer of
it has
or
modify
acts.
realization ; in
and
end
a
to
vary
the
means
66. How
and
does
God
know
'
Intelligence ?
Simple
or
"
The
for its
and the
foreknowledge
compromised God, there
God's
no
only after
necessary
be
can
later,for the
work, for Him
be necessary sooner
of the order in the whole of His
His
moral
possess completeand
This knowledge must
must
about, it would
come
it.
and there
latter,
to the
maintenance
to
and
completefrom
change
of
with
but adequatelyand
conjecture,
and
99
and by way
know, not partially
of it must
order,the author
GOD
OF
ACTIVITY
THE
Object
reply to
His
of
particular.
Knowledge of
"
this first
questionhas
we
think
'
the
"
scientia media
and
or intelligence
simpleunderstanding
or
of
that
from
that of intuition
from
vision.
67. How
Vision
'
does
"
i.
God
God
knows
know
that
has created He
forces,as well
as
the
II.
Object of
in
the
are
knows
play of
the
His
decrees
necessary
of
His
by knowing
their nature
infallibly
their combination, and
of
Knowledge
causes
will
the
the
causes
and their
in
conse
that
H
are
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
loo
'
futures
'
futurables
to
seems
others
'
exclude
conditione
freedom
The
(futurabilia).
of
the possibility
by
of
those
'
scientia media
sub
(futura essent
called
are
'
of His
invention
the
futures
conditional
or
'
are
(futura contingentia)
;
for
responsible
'
effects
of these
Some
free?
'
free
possibili),
these
acts
infallible knowledge of
an
the
understand
let us
difficulty
Revolution
of 1789. We
consider the example of the French
know the causes
which, in the lightof after events, explainthe
revolution
the philosophy of the eighteenth century, the
:
in their
them
of the
abuses
These
etc.
To
causes.
of Louis
XVI,
regime, the weakness
supply us to-day with the sufficient reason
ancient
causes
of that
why the men
But
making event.
knowledge of these
time
acted
so
no
with
one
the
even
that
and
in their
infallible
whole
done
could have
one
antecedents
the
that
the
that
who
men
clearlymanifested
to
brought
been
have
consequent
about
free but
that any
to the
assertion
in themselves
; and
it would
Revolution
the
able to avoid
not
be tantamount
reason
not
would
so
the event
of
would
Similarlywith
necessary.
epoch-
thorough
most
in themselves
both
causes,
bringabout
to
as
the
follow
'89 were
appear
all the
at this moment
am
complex state
otherwise
than
would
be
free
the
example, the
to
not
power
But
and
the circumstances
"
no
necessary
though
anyone
knowledge both my
could
never
on
them.
How
than
an
granted that, on
which
have
connexion
and
be certain of
eventuallymake.
led
with
should know
nature
would
such conditions
nothingmore
meaning.
shall
have
write
to
any
he
for
act
write ?
If the
that
as,
is in the
answer
have
"
persuade myself I
dom
free act
as
decision to
my
these ?
My free
illusion,
a word
the contrary, my
to my
me
this
without
nature
present action
readingin
them
possible
perfect
of its operation,
the
decision I
ACTIVITY
THE
OF
GOD
101
Molina,
perhaps insoluble difficulty,
other
have
introduced
the
scientia
Lessius and
theologians
follows : The Apostle Peter
of God.
media
as
They reason
and denied his Master.
He
yieldedto the voice of a woman
need not have done so ; he denied Him
freely. Since he has
that he would
true from all eternity
denied Him, it was
deny
which
reflects all truth,
Him.
The divine essence,
necessarily
is a mirror in which
the divine intelligence
apprehends the
of
truth, Peter denies his Master at a certain precisemoment
history'. The divine knowledge has thus for its necessary
solve this real and
To
'
'
'
truths
that
connected
are
divine
the
Moreover
as
reason,
represents the
essence
with the
same
of
con
same
representsthat of absolute
truth
in the future.
events
This
decree
According to
of creation
objectof
"
the
to the eternal
'
view
our
; before
scientia
vision
we
the
media
"
knowledge
knew
such
follow that
the
and
it has
all truth
divine
essence
the divine
a
truth
as
which
free act
act is
decree
not
knowledge
would
has
an
such
conditions
come
essence
be
and
also
the
not
proposition in
But
after
the
be
infinite.
future
true
unless
which
the
this
divine
eternal truth
same
thing happens with regard to
from
all eternity,since it is
intelligible
such and
So from
before
divine
the
would
temporal existence,
'The
are
; after the
posit,in time,
to
though
ledge.
the
the
of God.
all truth
regard
decree
conditional
from
The
future
actj
know
"
they
would
be made.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
102
first century
he
in existence,he could
not
was
in God
eternal truth
an
intellectus humanus
is
The
'
truth.
no
moment
for
Etiam
dicerentur
res
Sed
divinum.
intellectum
which
there is
God, eternally
esset, adhuc
non
since
act
an
truth.
outside
but
consequentlythere
nothing : and
in ordine ad
of
And
that God
that it is admitted
exist.
put forth
not
foundation
ontological
the
be
should
did not
; he
Nowhere
A.D.
si
si
verae,
uterque intellectus,
veriauferri,nullo modo
intelligeretur
impossibile,
80. (b)In the second place,even
tatis ratio remaneret
sup
t
ruth
it
were
eternally
existing, would
posingthat an objective
quod
est
'
be
not
for God's
term
unless
thought
influence
we
that
suppose
it
His
But
such
intelligence.
is untenable, since God cannot
be subjectto the
a supposition
It is then in God Himself,ab intm, that
action of any cause.
exercises
must
we
This
active
an
although
they
unum,
divine
the
nevertheless
tating motion,
determined
antecedently
not
are
man
say, and
appliesthe free-will of man
ad
knowledge.
Although
of the divine
reason
Thomists
reason
on
divine motion
is
There
infallibleconnexion
an
free act of
the human
the freedom
between
Far
from
voluntary causes
because
being
is proper
God
does
not
the
"
seipsum
trium
movet
aliquidsit
est
prima
bus
causis
movendo
riae ; sed
does not
in all
to
of this
movens
movendo
causas
of
libre
the
'
nature
causas
et
per liberum
necessitate
de
est
sicut
voluntarias.
arbitre
fundamental
reason
ad
nee
ejus.
causa
Et
sint
earum
being
thingin them
in eis
exposition
non
liberty,
actions of
homo
hoc
aufert
voluntarias,
Sum.
quia
liberty
'
of this very
sui motus
:
Non
tamen
et naturales
eas,
potius hoc
'.
proprietatem
causa
destroy
ffl.
2.
a.
agendum.
alterius
causa
causa
ad
and
thingsaccording
By moving
each.
De veritate,
ST. THOMAS,
q. 7,
'
arbitrium
est causa
Liberum
""
deprivetheir
cause
volition.
compromising the
works
that
necessi
of
act
God
the
of the latter.
is not
is necessary
to the
consistent with its
will to make
freedom,
which
motion
hoc
Deus
arbiliber-
quod
igitur
sicut naturalinaturales
sint
secundum
remarkably
which
ita
volunta-
underlies
ejus
clear
it :
ACTIVITY
THE
OF
GOD
103
This latter
But
the created will ; and herein lies its merit.
which reconciles the two
does it offer any rational explanation
libertyof
the
fail to
We
it does.
how
terms
think
see
We
questionit is
led rathei
are
to
franklyto
necessary
No explanationyet
reason.
incapacityof human
have not even
to give satisfaction ; and we
put forward seems
Bossuet
solution.
the hope of ever
satisfactory
findinga more
said the very last word on this subject:
to us to have
seems
the
avow
'
conclusion
My
evident
thingsare
two
reason
'
is,'he says,
by
that
is,that
; one
do
we
the natural
we
are
lightof
free,the
included
are
freely
in
which
either
'
for
reason
Freedom
has
diminished
choice, and
duce
it in its ultimate
choice must
for there is
which
does
it is,the
God, and
nothing
in the
hold
from
not
thingis,the
from
come
"
more
it must
more
This
act.
being
as
"
of
exercise
freedom,
our
being
act
the
all that
it has.
than
God.
; it follows
So, our
then
soul when
we
this very
exercise
being and
all
perfection,it
and
use
in each
free
is God
renders
the
worthy
"
who
efficacyof
even
to
His
that
act
God
God.
if then
phrase
from
perfection;
the infinite
the
immediately
comes
act
there
of the
the
which
it is
will :
being
it has,
more
any
actual
regard it as actually
under
is the
the
of
maker
being
description
"
if
all
and
is any
placed in
divine
granted that
it be
qualityby
divine
actual
more
that
it was
choice, that
actual
the
Now,
the soul
as
of
of its power
needs pro
must
be included
in the
must
however
small the degree of
exercisingits power
action
inasmuch
only
actual
such
it will have
get from
not
the
cause
ultimate
creature,
God
during
'
"
any
free " ;
one
may
the category of
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
104
of free-will,
should
we
providenceon account
where
to begin,so necessary
are
they both, so
evident
the ideas
are
God,
the
on
completeof
'
Let
cannot
we
anywhere, if we
which
we
their
source
reconcile
discover when
except
that both
so
of
questionthose
use
our
reason
known
truths
only have
can
and truth
itself,
reason
cannot
that
principle
some
on
we
in the nature
be attacked
more
as
We
to call in
were
much
most
are
overcome.
cannot
we
which
in
itself.
reason
'
we
man
attribute
we
equallyincontestable.
in
even
be, then, that it is possible,
conclusion
of which
attribute to
we
considered
be
must
our
matters
which
other
and
sure
; for if reason
questionthat which
hand
experienceis so
that which
truths
these
them
to set above
should appear
to
about
have
we
know
not
I do not
whether
know
we
have
mistaken
in the
are
same
truths that
be rash
We
case.
soon
can
to presume
be
should
all knowledge as
rejected
we
we
as
no
less
found
we
our
what
is
ful,and
counters
former
the
rejecting
we
is doubt
to what
begin to
soon
as
it
as
must
we
reason,
en
The
intelligence.
first rule of
logicshould
our
of
we
must
it,nor
not
loose hold
follow it with
eyes from
our
'
; whatever
hold
actually
happens
must
our
not
of
not
in the search
"
end
these
reconciling
to abandon
the
good
pursuitof some
to end.
other.
"
any
which
of
we
success
Disputarevis,
THE
ACTIVITY
GOD
OF
105
nee
of
Followingthis thought we proceedto search for means
free-willwith the decrees of Providence.
We
our
reconciling
the different views held by theologiansin
enumerate
may
82.
the hope of findingsomething which will satisfy
us
'
Before
to
passingto
objection.
an
68. A
Difficulty:
dom
of Free
God
foresees with
the
We
"
made
have
the
reply
must
we
of God
Foreknowledge
Acts.
Future
study of
the
the
and
Free
that
statement
be
cannot
be
they
as
other
do the
forming as they
must
infallible
an
it is.
than
objectof
foreknown
are
future
Therefore
acts
and, in consequence,
it would
seem,
necessitated.
are
"
"
With
God
is like to
present. God
summit
is neither
there
of
past
hill upon a
passingaround its foot.
man
future, but
nor
looks
who
plainbelow
where
down
he
eternal
an
from
the
travellers
sees
by
them,
sees
exists
only in
the created
one
things;
And
when
BOSSUET,
plungesinto
man
82
all simultaneously.
So it is with God.
pass
and
them
sees
The
that
reason
see
Men
movement
thought is eternal
of time.
a
river before my
him
eyes,
to
does
be
op. cit.,ch. 4.
quae sunt in tempo
solum
Deo ab aeterno
re sunt
praesentia,non
rationes rerum
apud se praesentes, ut quidam dicunt, sed
qua habet
quia ejus intuitus fertur ab aeterno supra omnia, prout sunt in sua praesentialitate.
Unde
manifestum
est quod contingentia infallibiliter a Deo
cog83
ea
'
Omnia
ratione
noscuntur,
in
sentialitatem,
parata '. Sum.
quantum
et
tamen
subduntur
sunt
Theol., I, q. 14,
videt illos qui post eum
veniunt
;
intuetur,simul
videt
omnes
suam
conspectui secundum
praecausis
comsuis
proximis
contingentia,
Ille qui vadit per viam, non
art. 13, c.
viam
totam
sed ille qui ab aliqua altitudine
divino
futura
transeuntes
'
"
per viam
'.
Ibid., ad
3,
io6
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
free act ?
do
Similarly
the acts
free because
God
which
God
takingplace
cease
Evidentlynot.
In this reply is the key to the solution of the difficulty,
but
it requiresto be properlyhandled.
The principle
involved
influences its object;
is right: Knowledge neither creates nor
to be
it
it such
merely knows
it
knows
such,
as
as
it is
as
them
sees
if it is
; if it is
necessary
sees
event, it
necessary
free,it knows
it
as
free event.
may
suppose the
quiteright,in puttingit in the
When
certain and
possesses
has
definite
is
event
order, the
ontological
knowledge of
the
free ; therefore
or
necessary
But, in the
event
knowledge to be faithful,it is
logicalorder,to argue : A mind
we
certain
the event
of fact.
matter
it
event, be
an
knowledge
of the
real.
was
it is a questionof reconciling
when
the
Consequently,
foreknowledgeof free events with the freedom of these
the only special
to be solved is to know
by what
difficulty
events,
something which
present
to the mind
This
before God
or,
actual
It
not
does God
what
to
seems
us
to be
in its own
the
determined
be in communication
Our
all
present
immutably and
grant
willingly
succession in the
in terms
being,has
this non-existent
it is not
as
We
thingshad an entityin
explainhow they could be
much
them.
contradiction
future
to
be
has
are
them
see
has
God
same,
knowledge of
present. We
of time
course
acts
thought
the real difficulty
stillremains
: how
are
things
yet exist present to the divine thought ? In
But
do
in the
is the
which
Free
by merely stating:
there
which
solved
another
one
the
eternally
of God.
be
means
of God.
succeed
not
is not
difficulty
which
this
does
certain
with
an
to
say
existence in the
of God
omniscience
entity. Moreover,
present,it would
of
by them,
cannot, it would
mind
if
even
be necessary
which, inas
the term
that
seem,
them.
of
determiningprinciple
the divine
think
we
only be within God Himself. What
have
already suggested. We have adopted the
knowledge can
this
is
we
opinionwhich
free acts
their
in
free mode
holds
His
that
Will
to
God
cause
sees
the
them
of being. Certainlyit
of future
occurrence
to
exist
according
is difficult to
to
reconcile
ACTIVITY
THE
freedom
this
but
with
considering.
it
events,
He
say,
have
if
of
14
the
order,
the
of
of
has
the
we
say,
'
homo
Quia
habent
inde
et
in
futura
Sed
inveniuntur
praeterita
mori,
eum
quod
autem,
sitas
sessionis.
aliquem
necessitate
aliquid
sees
His
act
the
onto*
divine
the
to
ab
ei
modo
adsunt
modo
loquimur
nostro
quomodo
ego
hoc,
ex
quod
Impossible
et
esse
eveniunt
ipse
futurum,
'.
video
aliquem
haec
sedeat
et
duo
; et
illud
non
dum
sedere,
simul
sit
non
nee
est
tamen
"
tempo
re
esset,
Manifestum
ingeritur
et
neces-
videam
quod
possibile
propter
Ego
dicendum
vera,
esse
similiter
omnia
tali
sedet.
nulla
excedit,
dicit
hunc
modo
ejus
sedere,
Malachiae
em
suo
pronostica-
et
praesentialiter
famulo
tamen
cum
Petrum
video
est
non
posterius
illud
praescivit
aeterno
locum
posterius
et
is
succession
sed
Moysi
ipse
ab
ris
God
that
quaedam
et
secundum
tempo
futurum
sicut
are
praesentia,
motu,
omnem
et
;
ergo
omni
ita
who
that
consequent*,
prius
quo
answer
sinner
knowledge
words
prius
videmus
est
"
the
exact
in
tempori,
quaedam
of
case
necessitate
His
the
gives
the
; but
act
ex
memoramur,
liber
Cassino
considering
free
et
mutor
Eo
sedentem,
praesciat
He
in
but,
infal
an
from
anterior
is
Monte
posited.
res,
sicut
non
of
is
necessary
being
acts
praeteritum
".
ut
is
mutationi
Deus,
eo
moriturum,
videt
is
says,
praeterita
et
sum
he
cognoscit
et
qui
sum
est
free
Dominus,
Ego
nee
the
quod
est,
abbot
He
sinner
subjacet
futura.
mur
of
successive
object,
object
the
the
to
sin,
acts
through
its
to
actually
that
argue
is
that
with
Granted
to
future
they
them,
sees
order,
of
of
that
freely.
existence
considering.
are
His
free
logical
Thomas
St.
impenitent.
dies
the
reality
He
knows
them,
nature
present
it84.
of
difficulty
the
freely
place
real
know
motion,
at
are
God
He
to
pass
we
how
does
divine
the
of
question
that
take
in
able,
letter
this
to
to
107
which
that
the
according
come
am
knowledge
ex
fact
them
to
logical
"
certain
they
vision
to
aside
foreknowledge,
them,
from
Putting
a
sees
lible
is
distinct
is
GOD
efficacy
sovereign
the
problem
this
OF
quod
hoc
Deus
futura
II
CHAPTER
WILL
Meaning.
69.
which
faculty by
the
its
creature
This
object.
To
will the
towards
union
of desire
rise to
enjoyment, delight.
God
the
is
divine
is
will
of
act
in
of
In
divine
the
perfect
of
will with
will
or
volition.
of
of
is desire
being
satis
the
its
object gives
find
appetition
human
the
act
of will constitute
this
act
of the
is
will there
love
created
will with
the
reality.
desire, because
no
of
elements
transcendental
same
faculty
tendency
possess
towards
object
an
act
; the
place
no
distinguishbetween
the
the
not
union
the
manifold
these
as
of
The
it does
faction
In
good
constitutes
good which
by
to
union
the
is to love.
good
have
we
will, the
we
faculty tends,
the
which
In the
"
GOD
IN
always
will there
want
no
the
plenary
present,
en
joyment.
Although
yet
apply
we
its
it
to
by
simplicity in
this
recognize
we
of
way
fullness, the
distinction
character
of the
will.
is
perhaps
stand
It
God
superfluous
analogous
experience
object,
it the
secondary
objects
loving because
In
God,
the
divine
Not
that
nothing
is
the
it loves
its formal
essence
loves
wanting
the
these
to
Him
of
; if He
108
in
nothing
in
we
sadness
aversion,
of
objects,
secondary
which
for
formal
to
The
is
will
the
receiving
will
the
its
objects.
itself
of
capable
the
capable
object.
His
secondary
goods
is
passions, which
by uniting
goods
composite
the
there
under
to
Goodness.
or
it is
primary object
the
God
which
better
on
or
classes
two
which
good
are
hate,
"
material
and
that
infinite
the
perfection
add
to
evil
with
is the
primary object
of
from
founded
emotions,
of
is concerned
primary
gives
human
account
on
will
The
the
to
is excluded
all evil
or
human
in order
analogy,
will,
divine
the
objects
order
is
goodness of
created
goods.
will is the
are
to
pleased
acquire them,
to
love
them,
for
this
ACTIVITY
THE
He
is because
wishes to
est sui
bonum
God
In
70.
givethem
diffusivum.
there
is
Will. -We
OF
GOD
the
good
have
forward
109
is self-diffusive
"
already,at
two
the
based
reasons
which
begin
fact
on
order which
designedand
attributingsupreme
the
indeed
perfection,
intellect knows
the
object before
an
and free
intelligence
from the necessity
God.
Happiness is a
the
perfections.Now
happiness to
of
sum-total
good,
but
its function
is to
present it
than
as
with
ture
call will.
we
form
in the
which
perfection
that
happiness,
possesses
St. Thomas
crea
thus
:"
carries with
of
case
it
"
'
and
this constitutes
71.
The
of the
Formal
Object
Essence.
Divine
of will.
act
an
"
'
of the
As
in
Will
God
of
Goodness
is the
is
there
If God
His
own
would
"which
is
His nature.
speak
compare
by
else,He
to
drawn
not
were
be subordinate
of His
power
Thus
it is that
as
all
the Summum
'
expressionsle bon
love
towards
to something
drawn
necessarily
it
to that and dependent upon
suppositionthat conflicts
of God
the
were
the
with
have
races
Bonum,
Dieu
'
'
the
shown
as
true
a
preference
Goodness
Goodness
idea of
knows
itself:
',etc.
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
no
72. Whatever
participates
in the
Goodness
Divine
be
can
God
it is
to which
extent
of love to
communicable
imperfectly,
goodness,in
a
God
Himself, in
In the
sented
to
far
it
of
of His
whole
forces Him
nature
loves Himself
to
as
an
love
necessarily.
be with
created will,the act of volition may
of the finite nature
of the good which is pre
under
it is
as
necessarily,and the
account
"
so
but
necessary
"
word, He
case
goodness
in
is
Beings freely. i. The first
proposition
therefore all in Him
is an
: All is good in God, and
that
sees
on
the communication
not
Essence
of His
of Created
held
easy to prove
objectof love.
is
divine
to
contingent beings is
to
the
of His will.
Goodness
He
Whence
creatures.
to
it is communicable
as
necessary
goodness
freeact
73.
far
so
will of God
love.
His
as
of this
willed
infinite
an
inasmuch
objectof
an
has
works.
that is
infinitely,
essence
He
an
"
object of
it falls short
in
aspect
one
"
love ;
it is not
or
so
far
under
an
not
as
it
presents its
another
aspect
"
is not
essence
Himself
must,
we
possible
;
see, be
whence
necessary
the
of God
love
for
love.
with
with
The
necessary love.
second proposition
may
a
be
proved
thus
God
loves
created
the infiniteGood,
THE
ACTIVITY
is
created
any
produced
always substan
accidental perfection
designedthe
on
hand
the other
world
did not
without
which
and
Yet
good.
in
act of volition
an
receive any
cannot
accomplished,
tially
from
GOD
OF
intelligence
accordingly
have
as
love.
In this connexion
that
the
and
divine
observation
Cajetan's
will is neither
is worthy of notice,
nor
necessary
free
(necessity
freedom
but is a tran
being two imperfectperfections),
scendental perfection
which
excludes both
the imperfections
inherent in the necessity
of creatures
and those inherent in their
whatever
freedom, and comprisesin a supereminent manner
goodnessboth the one and the other contain.
74. Freedom
and
Immutability of God.
Although God
wills His works freely,
and for all,without
He wills them once
ever
revokingor modifying the free decree of His will. God
has no reason
from willing
to cease
what He wills,or to will at
the present time otherwise than He has alreadywilled. His
"
15
'
Prima
necessaria
simpliciter,
magis proprium
superior utraque.
ut dicatur
enim simpliciter
Necessitas
vocabulum, quam
quod est causalibera.
repugnat libertati : contingentia vero
imperfectionem in libertate importat,
in I Sent. dist. XXXVIII,
quia ponitmutabilitatem. Et idcirco divus Thomas
causare
vocabula, negat Deum
praeveniens inepta modernorum
contingenter.
Cum
enim
regularesit,quod superiuspraehabet in se unite quae in inferioribus
sunt
est ut causa
prima, superiornecessariis et continsparsa,
consequens
et modum
gentibus,praehabeat in se, non formaliter sed eminenter, naturam
et conecessariarum
et contingentium, et sit causa
causarum
utrarumque,
Et
modos
earum.
operetur utrisquead earum
proprios effectus secundum
omnis
videtur
necessaria
aut contingens, stupepropterea nos, quibus
causa
necessariis
non
sit communis
mus,
causa
praevalentes videre quomodo una
et contingentibus immediate.
Sed si elevemus
mentis
oculos in excellentius
cessat stupor, et omnia
causae,
genus
eminentioremque causandi
modum,
modum
consonant
ilium
in caligine,non
intuentes
remaneamus
; quamvis
intrinsece
modos
illabens, cunctis juxta suos
quo omnibus
cooperatur. Et
hoc est valde
attendendum
in hujusmodi materiis.
Deus,
Appellaturtamen
vel ejus scientia causa
non
necessaria, propter necessitatem
simpliciter,sed
immutabilitatis quae
in eo, etiam
formaliter
salvatur
'.
inquantum causa,
CAJETAN, Com. in Sum. Tkeol., I, q. 14, a. 13, n. 24.
neqne
causa,
contingens,
proprie loquendo,
sed
nee
est
causa
habemus
Nee
"
NATURAL
112
remains
will
it
75.
remains
always
Goodness,
what
immutably,
always,
therefore
THEOLOGY
it
it
is;
free,
is
and
free.
Liberality,
Justice,
Mercy
After
God.
of
"
studied
having
divine
the
siders
different
it
the
when
justice,
goodness,
76.
of
Omnipotence
effects
its
and
work
has
that
pen
Now
the
this
general
also
for
this
man
in
other
judges
This
words,
;
God
in
consideration
omnipotence.
and
reason
short,
that
His
such,
the
is
is
power
able
God
leads
freely
is
as
e.g.
by
which
we
speak
we
conceived
has
in
it
God,
the
bodily
to
will
hand.
but
dependent
not
in
organs
identical.
are
His
that
for
only
perfect,
is
accomplish
hap
at
not
will
to
may
not
are
infinitely
all
call
God.
design
He
in
execution,
place
no
that
reason
his
out
find
can
causes,
will
it into
carry
carrying
special
more
God
good
to
kind
priori
instrumental
upon
In
of
this
for
means
want
good
judged
God's
say,
Hence
man
"
con
we
view
of
mercy
When
God.
Thomas
is to
(q. 21).
liberality,
of
St.
of
nature
observes,
of
point
the
the
that
he
love,
and
19),
q.
good,
its
This
to
judging
I,
to
20).
q.
according
names
regard
of
Dei,
(Deamore
united
as
will
divine
the
(Summa,
volition
will
divine
the
love
of
act
of
object
the
intellect
omnipotent.
us
to
the
works
of
the
divine
\\
CHAPTER
THE
Works
77. The
'
of God
of life within
GOD
OF
WORK
Ad
'.
Extra
Theologiansexplain,
"
teachingof
the
following
III
fullness
in the
and will
them
are
two
immanent
of God
governs it
but transitive.
it in being
(I),
preserves
(III).
I. CREATION
78.
Meaning of Creation."
The
agents which
givenmatter
or transform
theymodify it accidentally
Again,consider that
as
we
see
subject;
at work
whether
it substantially,
they
when
conceive
regardto
a
man
an
a
to
presupposedmatter.
exercises
an
immanent
for example,
when
activity,
he thinks or loves,
he puts his powers
into exercise,and his activity
bringsabout an interior per
fectionwhich these powers therebyacquire.This allows us to
conceive
an
action which
is not
the
perfectible
powers,
no
but alreadyin
way potential
but which
of
puttinginto operation
113
state of actual
are
perfection.
NATURAL
H4
Creation
the
means
THEOLOGY
which
act
both
excludes
the utilization
'
'
"
which
of
materials,or,
phrase of the Scholastics,which
makes
of matter,
in
use
'
eductio
use
draws
upon
potentiamateriae
of the well-known
to make
the
potentiality
sense
explained
',in the
Cosmology,74.
this notion of creation to work
With
(i)that
God
created
something distinct
Theories
concerning
the
God
to
doing
world
with
away
problem we
the
are:
God
at
are
not
an
to show
consequentlyis
emanation, and
create.
can
The
the
and
have
we
world, (ii)which
Himself
from
that He alone
(iii)
79.
the
upon,
Relation
of God
to the World."
of
concerningthe relationship
(i) Atheistic materialism, which, by
and
suppressingone of the terms of
is no real attempt
present considering,
solution.
of the
doctrine
world
The
theory, which
has
only an
giventhe
now
on
century it found
of
doctrine
The
id
the
more
time
other
us
more
126.
enjoyed a great
We
have
briefly
it (56)87.
reject
its appearance
in
Italywith Giordano
In the seventeenth
'
'
quo, but
Scholastics
ex
creation
For
125 and
it is
prepositionex
source,
87
one
Bruno
that
the
world it made
the modern
so
as
pantheism.
at
historical interest.
that make
reasons
Pantheism,
logy of
and
dualistic
vogue,
84
or,
known
The
(4) Pantheism
commonly
by
Manicheans.
is not
a
ACTIVITY
THE
GOD
OF
115
in his
philosophy. It is the
idealistic philosophyof the last
of German
logicaloutcome
century. At the present time it has spread or is spreading,
rather than a system,in the
under the form of a tone ofthought
in Germany, in certain French
world, in Italy,
English-speaking
and it has succeeded in leavinga decided
circles,
philosophical
impress upon philosophy,history,natural science, art and
limits of this elementary treatise do not
literature. The
philosophical
permit us to dwell at lengthon this erroneous
but we wish to layspecial
view of reality,
emphasison the little
influence of
that
able to say.
are
we
renewed
World
80. The
has
interest
been
created
by God.
of
Refutation
Dualism.
It is
i.
"
'
'
'
'
If
induction ?
'
'
ex
an
in
As far as my obser
vations carry me I see that nothingappears which is not drawn
from a subjectpriorto itself; natural agents are clearly
not
This
to this
to ; nay more,
are
we
willing
be creators. Yet even
to allow that natural agents cannot
creators.
even
readilyagree
we
By
what
are
for God
to
for
we
create
There is simplyno
who
is above
all nature
for such
justification
an
that
we
observe ?
assertion.
Indeed
it may
cause.
formations of matter
and trans
subjective
cause, on a material
and that an efficientcause
substrate,
producingaccidental or
substantial changes only makes
one
being succeed another;
nevertheless you cannot
for some
establish that it is impossible
efficientcause
to make
after no being,and
some
being come
this power of efficiency
is allthat is claimed for a creative cause.
We conclude,therefore,
creation
that it is arbitrary
to repudiate
on
2.
depend on
priorigrounds.
The
creation
alternative to
M.S.P."
VOL.
II.
necessary
of matter
I
u6
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
and
its
of the
propositionwe
the essential
Moreover,
and
infinite.
and
finite.
the
self-subsistent it would
matter
were
have
unicityof
which
with God,
co-eternity
Yet
bodies
Hence
matter
be immutable
manifestlycontingent,changing
are
be
cannot
self-existent.
'
'
must
not
frequentexpression eternal matter
be the occasion of a pitfall.
read
it in this
Matter
we
as
in the abstract ;
in general,
matter
matter
phrase always means
whereas
actual matter
is always in some
body and all material
bodies are
subjectto change and transformation.
It is along the lines of the arguments justindicated that we
Note
that the
refute Gnostic
must
to consider
81.
The
Divine
is neither
Refutation
Part
nor
of
Monism.
historyof philosophyunder
the other
in
World
indeterminate
of
account
law
being
of the
Emanation
an
Monism
"
forms, the
one
appears
idealistic,
of its internal
doctrine
'
(a)is due
originof thingsto
evolution,is
becoming
to
Absolute
called the
'
all
ever
"
consist
which,
on
progressively
things.
thought between
Being. And (b),by making
confusion
being in generaland
God
two
the
makes
itselfand
differentiating
This
then
realistic.
Idealistic monism
an
It remains
dualism.
Manichean
pantheism.
or
Substance.
in the
I.
monism
or
of
the supreme
subjectto the law of becoming,it denies the real nature
of God
as
the pure
Actualitywhose
existence
we
claim to have
demonstrated.
the objectof the first conceptionof the
(a)Being in general,
of comprehension; and it has, conversely,
mind, has a minimum
of potential
a maximum
extension,inasmuch as it is capableof
being attributed to whatever exists or may exist. Being that
is pure Actuality,
of
maximum
the contrary, connotes
on
a
whilst it has no extension, either actual
positiveperfection,
or
be identified with any
potential
; it is itselfand it cannot
thing else. Being in generalis an abstract entitywhich, as
such, cannot have an existence in nature : it exists only in the
mind
that
thinks of it and
puts it in relation
to the
individual
one
by one
predicatedof
the
and
know
same
former
the
OF
ACTIVITY
THE
117
but
;
namely simplicity
meaning entirelynegative,
name,
it has
GOD
from
an
the
spontaneous dictates of
of the
and
races.
If
is at
our
individual
generalexpressionof feelingamong
must
the result of our
investigations
thingelse than
who
of
absence
once
reasoned
mature
conviction
conscience
the different
to
come
that
God
any
exists
pure
we
(Oeov$iKTrj\
2.
is
Realistic monism
of creation
we
have
more
directly
opposed to
justdiscussed.
the doctrine
Monism, under
this
form,
sees
"
(i)the unscientific
of
impossibility
character
posing an
reality.
Pantheism, whatever
fallfoul of two
the form
embrace
it assume,
(a)the changes
that
must
take
the whole
of
necessarily
placein the
universe,and
no
facts
does not
modalities
realities of nature
the
Therefore
universe.
or
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
n8
Being.
beingsof
nor
The
independent,infinite.
they
dependent, finite. Therefore
God
is
not
are
phases
not
are
this world
are
substantially
(b)Nothing
myself,or that
world
in the
persuade
can
me
that
not
am
the
am
of monism.
in the way
Furthermore, the
ward
have
tradicts
considerations
little weight :
very
As
(i)The
"
it
prejudice,
does
have
we
which
monists
idea of creation
contradict
not
bring for
con
On
reason.
the
repeat it here.
Causal
action, indeed, raises
(ii)
will not
an
intricate
problem
of
"
of the
substance
universe
complete phenomenalism.
and
Yet
monism
refuses to
is
recognize
(iii)The
existence
of
God
Alone
itself
can
one
Create."
or
Here
more
we
embark
proved
ACTIVITY
THE
OF
GOD
119
independentway
of
to
come
and
as
makes
limited number
of creatures
forth from
is
St. Thomas
the
holds
Suarez
is often
There
view this
nothingness.
of the opinion that
oppositeview.
brought forward in
does
argument which
not
it is
whilst
impossible,
favour
of St. Thomas's
conclusive
seem
however,
we
that
the
distance
urge
infinite ; it is measured
may
Between
this
; and
only
argument,
an
between
non-entity
by
being is not
which is opposed to non-entity.
thus :
Kleutgen,in commentating upon St. Thomas, reasons
of
have a mode
God
must
being infinite in all His perfections
perfect. This mode of
causality
proper to Himself, infinitely
causalitycan only be the action which is independent of all
material cause,
namely creation. Therefore the creative act
belongsto God alone 88.
and
11
'
St. Thomas
actio
nisi
solius
reducere.
priorescausas
ipsum esse. Unde
et
causae,
hoc
vel
creatio
quae
Inter
oportet quod
Producere
Deus.
est
sit
autem
omnes
effectus
universalissimum
est
et universalissimae
in quantum
est
absolute, non
Unde
manifestum
est quod
esse
creationis.
ipsiusDei.
quod aliquidparticipetactionem propriam alicujusalterius,
virtute propria,sed instrumentaliter, in quantum
non
agitin virtute alterius
instrumental
secunda
Causa autem
non
causae
participat actionem
supenisi in quantum
rioris,
per aliquidsibi proprium dispositiveoperaturadeffectum
principalisagentis.
Illud autem
quod est proprius effectus Dei creantis, est illud quod praeabsolute.
Unde
omnibus
aliis ; scilicet esse
non
supponitur
potest aliquid
aliud operari dispositiveet instrumentaliter
creatio
ad hunc
effectum, cum
sit ex aliquo praesupposito quod possitdisponi per actionem
non
instrumentalis agentis. Sic igiturimpossibile
conveniat
est quod alicui creaturae
creare
virtute propria,neque
'. Sum.
instrumentaliter, sive per ministerium
neque
'
est
propria
actio
'
TheoL, I, q. 45,
Kleutgen
be the
that
sums
effect of
a.
5.
the
thought of
secondary causes
only
particularkind
up
; but
inasmuch
as
St. Thomas
in the
they
in this
'
way
:
are
Things
can
of this
or
be the effects
first
At
appears
insufficient.
who
down
God
it is laid
proper to
Granted
only
originand
that
One
has
that God
universal
in its
remains
creative
and
limited
whether
action of God
or
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
120
in its
object;
the
dependenton
causality
in its action impliesa
questionstill
the sovereign
contradiction
not.
Yet
this
objectionof
Suarez
would
A
superficial.
making a singleobject
appear
it must
be true
that God
alone
can
create
89.
is that a cause
thought of St. Thomas
belongs to a higherorder only on the condition that it has a
of action which properlybelongs to itself. The extent
mode
The
fundamental
which
to
this
cause
is
pointis
the essential
is
applicable
the nature
of
secondaryimportance;
Now
of its action.
the mode
presuppose
being the most
causality.Therefore creation,
perfectpossibleoperation,belongs properly
any
anterior
when
who
a thing is created
produces all things. Now
nothing,it is produced in respect of its being,not only in
Therefore
its production is entirely
so far as it is this or that particularthing.
the fact that
from
Whence
conclude
first
Cause.
the
the effect of
just as we
from
to
the
that
He
has
all
God
nothing, so
produce
things
power
produces
the effect of
be
from
is
what
can
infer
that
we
nothing
only
produced
may
Him who
produces all '. Philos. Scholast., Diss. IX, 1012.
""
Facultas
the argument
thus :
quaevis in
Palmieri
very aptly expresses
formali
sub
extendere
suo
objecto
materialia
omnia
ea
objecta se potest
quae
continentur.
objectum potestatis creativae est ens ut ens,
jAtqui formale
in id
causa
est ens
ergo
; quae
producibile,sive ens ex nihilo emciendum
:
ferri potest,potest versari circa ea
omnia, quae sunt ex nihilo producibilia
'. Institutions
philoomnes
ideoque potest substantias
possibilescreare
Theologia, th. XXXVIII.
sophicae,
of the
or
supreme
produced
Cause
from
'
THE
to
OF
cannot
be shared
and
GOD
121
by
being of
any
Being 90.
the divine
from
different nature
ACTIVITY
II. CONSERVATION
83.
of Conservation.
Meaning
succeeds
non-being;
to
By
"
the
of creation
act
conservation
by
being
being already
Conservation
is the act
existent perseveres in its existence.
in the existence which creation
by which created thingspersist
has conferred
upon
'
It is therefore known
them.
as
continued
creation '.
annihilation
By
it would
a
tive action
have
should
is thus
impossiblethat
real term,
God
as
Annihilation
for it is
soon
as
existence.
beingin
not
about
come
total destruction
the
mean
we
and
to
thing;
to maintain
cease
to be
seen
posi
no
positiveaction should
positiveaction
suppose
terminatingin nothingnessis
annihilation
of
an
evident
of
contra
diction.
Everything created
84.
God.
of this world
Things
beingwhich they have
"
will that
to
being
should
it should
persistin
of conservation
.
beingsis,says
their
sunt
'
Ordo
effectus
is to
will that
create.
is to
To
conserve.
The
act
DIVINE
and
GOVERNMENT
Government.
"
The
conservation
of
St. Thomas,
being
effectus
in bono, et motio
90
dependence
of a being
85. Providence
Duo
be
the follow
in
every moment
To will the essence
existence
III. THE
'
therefore,
'
'
is not,
in being at
persistence
at
by
is the
creation.
ment
being conserved
present moment
ing moment.
Everything is
the omnipotence of God.
on
and
of
essentially
contingent. The
are
at the
of their
Need
has
effectuum
scilicet conservatio
gubernationis,
ad bonum
earum
est
secundum
'
rerum
92.
ordinem
causarum.
Primus
autem
est
Sum.
Theol., I, q. 103,
a.
4.
NATURAL
122
Providence
which
'
"
in
93.
'
est
makes
in finem
THEOLOGY
Government
of divine
providence.
The questionis discussed whether
providenceis formally
act of intelli
act of God's
alone or at once
an
an
intelligence
and will. The two
opinionsare not so different from
gence
St. Thomas
another
would appear at first sight. When
one
as
attributes the plan of providenceto the divine intelligence,
in the divine will :
a
presupposes
purpose
end for His work, and providenceis the
supreme
God
he
order
the
'
which
is not
world
substances
real will
made
when
'
',says Monsabre,
relation to
without
bring about
this end.
collection of
another, without
one
conceptionof
incoherent
an
wills
direction
determined
It is
end.
'
"
Universal
86.
have
goodness and
of creatures
God
that
already seen
essential
and
Providence
that
Particular
Providence.
loves with
He
share
a
receive,though imperfectly,
who
We
"
in the
has
no
of
need
His
own
He
does not
munication
the
anything ;
of the
ultimate
order to make
of intrinsic
end
divine
own
create
by
essential
'
finis
creation
we
speak
perfection,
of it
propter quern
as
'
The
it.
creatures
God
goodness
in order to increase
to communicate
goodness to
of creation,
it clear that
His
receives
com
is therefore
'
;
no
the extrinsic
and
in
increase
glory of
God'.
with a view to the supreme
all creatures
end,
arrange
to endow
to the realization of
with the means
them
necessary
this end, is the objectof universal providence.
To
93
Sum.
84
Loc.
Theol., I, q.
cit.
22,
a.
i.
ACTIVITY
THE
OF
alone
creatures
Yet, intelligent
GOD
123
able to understand
are
the in
tentions of God's
that
87. The
and
Providence
advantage
the
they
"
of
Government
'
are
God
Uni
are
"
wise, He
end
of His work,
which
order
ideal.
infinite wisdom
cannot
of the
to parts
species,
thing or a movement
in the
work
bute in
does
either
the
not
that
whole.
contribute
there
way of
evil intention
an
To
can
excess
to
be
or
ignor
or
power95.
posteriori
proof:
how
which
to
as
lack of
to show
well
individuals
appliesto
end
as
bit of His
every
in their activities,
use
; it
(d) Being
fallsshort of His
which
they
the
will the
must
conceived,
appliesto
means
to
as
suppose a
the ultimate
ance
work
to each
as
execute
has
this is reasoningwhich
And
co-operatetowards
must
(c)Being infinitely
holy,He
His
omnipotent,He
element
each
how
sees
each
It is
impossiblefor
and
creature
each
}
finite intelligence
of its movements
contri-
"
'
the
implies
""
enim
tati
governance
ruler.
Whence
this order
we
St. Thomas
see
'
uniuscujusqueest
tinet ut sicut
nare
of
'.
Sum.
in
consecutione
finis.
Unde
ad
ad finem
eas
esse, ita etiam
produxit
Theol., I, q. 103,
a.
i.
divinam
bonitatem
perducat, quod
est
per-
guber-
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
124
in nature
'
manifestations
in mystery, is still not without
leads him.
existence 97. Man
acts by himself and God
of its
shrouded
The
88.
Whilst
universal
master
two
truths
of his
actions
own
by
is
man
sovereign,
and
him
We
exercised
the governance
the
and
of God
Sovereignty
Free-will
in His works
God
free,and
how
of Creatures,"
can
needs
this freedom
we
be
makes
reconcile these
?
doubt
for
have
alreadygiven
of being able to arrive at a fully
(67,68) of the possibility
reconcile them.
satisfactory
explanationwhich will positively
and infallibly
what
human
God must
actions
know
perfectly
much
very
"
reasons
we
"
will be.
which
of His
Each
action, just as
every
arranged with
view to
if it is not
Him
on
wait
for
of
indeed
decisions
our
cause
by
?
whole
His
an
98
to
work
beforehand.
Now,
which
influence
God, who
be
absolutelydependent
is infinitely
wise, cannot
in order
made
to
the
arrange
and
we
be
generalplan of
in
our
foreknows
part of
every
determined
who
generalend ; and
should be known
activity
indifferent,as
forms
creatures
that He
should
have
sure
what
way
of
enim
in rebus naturalibus
evenire
quod melius est, aut semper
pluribus. Quod non
contingeret,nisi per aliquam providentiam res
naturales
dirigerentur ad finem boni, quod est gubernare. Unde
ipse ordo
manifesto
certus
demonstrat
rerum
sicut si quis
:
gubernationem mundi
intraret
bene
domum
ordinatoris
ordinatione
ex
ordinatam,
ipsa domus
rationem
Theol., loc. cit.
perpenderet '. Sum.
""
'
Videmus
in
aut
"7
MoNSABRfe,
9*
'
ad
utrumque
praecipue
libet,cum
quam
sunt
9"
per
se
haec
futuri
autem
sunt,
vocantur
dependent ex libero
quae
sit quasi in potentia, non
aliam
hujusmodi
Quidam
causam
effectus
in
accepti '.
Cp. MoNSABRt,
quorum
causae
indifferentes
contingentia ad utrumlibet,
arbitrio.
Sed
se
ut
habent
sunt
ilia
ad utrum
quia ex causa
progreditur aliquiseffectus. nisi per ali
determinatur
ad aliud ; ideo
magis ad unum
quam
causis quidem ad utrumlibet
nullo modo
cognosci pos-
De verit.,q. 8, a. 12.
op. cit.,20* Conf., p. 83.
leading our
acts
anything else
direct action
125
this be
can
of the
said to
divine
will
be
the
on
will ?
human
of
To
GOD
And
their ends.
to
than
OF
ACTIVITY
THE
with
man
sovereigntyof
the
of the
as well as
providenceis the work of the theologian
connected with the deep problem
for it is intimately
philosopher,
will here confine ourselves to a brief
of predestination.
We
sketch of the principal
attempts that have been made towards
God's
its solution.
of the
by the majority of the theologians
Society of Jesus, chieflydesirous of safeguardingthe part
of creation,attributes
of human
freedomin the generaleconomy
Molina, followed
God
to
The
'.
taneous
school defends
Thomist
'
he calls
which
concurrence,
indifferent ',
'
simul
stricter theory,which
the
action of each
person,
but in such
and
produced is simultaneously
the proper act of the created
will has a priority
of nature
this concurrence,
wills from all
creature's
from
from
is to make
in this
or
to be
those
which
acts
providence,
to this
accordance
the creature
brought that
be
act of free
an
of
concurrence
and
God
with
His
will himself
if the initiative
shall have
to say that
makes
decisions.
own
to the
the action
that
the creature
both
totally
eternityto accomplishin
freedom
way
agent. Further, as
freelyperform.
To this the objection
may
comes
the
How
safeguarded?
Molinists meet
eminent
creatures.
power
this
of
Sometimes
fellow-men that he
to
beingpossible
acts
man
with
is
a
so
kind
sure
of
of his influence
on
without
infallibility,
their freedom.
an
His
his
it
If
I26
a
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
has
man
belong
great
God, who
so
to
activities of
will and
our
does
persuasion,
most
intimatelyall
of
power
knows
not
this also
the
different
act
may
upon
it?
to analysethe
reply,however, that if we come
discover in it the compositionof two
we
persuasion,
this
To
we
power of
distinct acts, and
we
of persuasion,
than His power
sovereigntyis nothing more
I am
able to shake myself free from His action ; and, if I
is entirelymy
act
own
yieldto it, since my determination
and the radical reason
of the good that I may
do and of the
merits that I may
acquire,this good and these merits cannot
be ascribed
to
any
efficaciousness
supreme
part of the
the
on
first Cause.
(b)The
school makes
consist in this,that
God
Cause
He
Thomist
of all
does not
things,and
produce in
us
sovereigntyof
He
He
absolute
the
be so, in this
not only our
being and
cannot
the
first
opinion,if
our
powers
also the very acts which result from the use of our powers.
Hence
in every created agent that acts God acts ; no being
is able to accomplishits natural action unless by the influence
but
of His
ever
be
divine power
perfectwe
moved
by
no
cause,
not
even
one,
spiritual
may
God.
in the last
to
is the author
analysis,
every
action of
of all that
ours
is
imparted to
will
we
belongs to
the
cannot
us,
for,
somethingbelonging
us.
In the well-known
De
how
question,Q.
divine
providence in
sums
up
7, of his opusculum
his views on the action of
3, art.
'
has
created ;
the
(c) God
'
moves
to
action
'
these
active
THE
(d)God
powers
is subordinate
cause
It
instrumental
an
the
one.
of the
Angelic
characteristics of what
all the
has
secondary
every
clear
seems
as
127
to which
Cause
principal
is the
GOD
OF
ACTIVITY
'
called
have
'
pre-motion or
'.
rather, in a less happy phrase, physicalpredetermination
But the idea of freedom
seems
quite inconsistent with a
motion
who
What
of this kind.
are
we
goingto say to the man
commentators
'
assures
it to
transferring
are
To
'
us
another
Certainlya
exclusion
has
man
all necessary
be the
is in the
in the
St.
liberty
that
of its
we
:
replies
of it.
natural
causes
to
the
that
the
not
necessary
movement,
own
world, both
Thomas
over
Though it is
cause
that it should
everythingthat
endowed
of human
dominion
and
acts
own
cause
free-will should
his
over
it is not
God
at
moves
and
causes
will
the
cause
action,but It also
the
to
were
in the
which
in this
be
not
'
free '.
God
God
In
one
ea
Cum
Cum
quae
our
evil is not
igiturvoluntas
Deus
vult
divina
sed
fieri,
et
"
voluntatis
necessitas, sed
modum
suum
20e Conf
op. cit.,
Does
sinful acts ?
The
"
sit efficacissima,non
quod
eo
modo
fiantquo
quidem
infallibiliter
operatur ; et
contingenter,inquantum
secundum
raised
be
it is a
reality,
necessitate 10".
tantum
.
share in
is
not
answer
this
lies
comprise,but
non
manner
perform an
appropriate
doctrine make
'
to
moves
it to do it in the
causes
1QO
It
of the
nature
would
act
being
deficere
se
actions
our
reality
privationof reality.
effectus
sequitur causam,
ftendivel essendi.
sequitur quod fiant
vult '. Sum.
ea
fieri
modum
solum
Deus
immutabiliter
voluntatem
non
potest ;
sed
propter
ad diversa, non
inducitur
omnibus
providentia divina
habet
in
tamen
a causis
contingentibus proveniunt effectus
Deus
movet
omnia
proportionabiliter,
unumquodque
'.
De
3.
Cp.
128
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
This
privationof beingbelongsto
but
to
alone
us
which
it cannot
Just
of my
soul, the principle
limb
if I
as
the
to
limp,it
but
movement,
defective causes,
are
attributed
be
be defective.
cannot
who
us
to
first Cause
is not
to my
malformed
my
be
failure to walk
attributed ;
properlymust
my
if I sin,it is not to God, the first and indefectible cause
of
so
that
my
actions,but
my
sin must
to
me
free-will that
responsibility
belongs
the
good
there
is in my
101.
'
Molinist and
the
part of my
whole
for
only responsible
is
God
the
on
The
be attributed.
failure
to the
Thomist
the
franklyavow,
that
completelysatisfactory.And, we may add, that the
prolongedcontests these arguments have excited bear witness
is rightin urging us to grasp
to their insufficiency.
Bossuet
firmlythe two ends of the chain, although we do not see all
the links of argument by which they are
united.
We
hold
of God, in the other
in the one hand the truth of the sovereignty
which,
to
must
we
is
If it should
man.
happen
that the
truths be
to
no
that
astonishing
of God.
relations of God
the
to
the
of
world, of the essential Being to contingent subjects,
the Infinite and the finite,
should be envelopedin obscurity.
On
otherwise.
stand
must
World.
and
working
then
fact ; there
is a victim
man
How
can
we
necessary
101
very
muth
ably
S.
divine
and
are
to
evils
physical
and
suffering,
Thomas
Defensio doctrinae
moral
et
"
The
attacks
of Frs.
Docinna
Yet
in the
means
how
phenomena
of nature,
these
three
providence?
Conf
op. cit.,20"
S. Thomae
world
is infallible
government
in the
reconcile evil,under
against the
of Evil
attributes of God's
MoNSABRfe,
"
of the
can
the
on
by
in its end
holy both
be
of its action
and
condemned
The
"
divine nature
the
Government
89. The
it cannot
must
we
mysteriesof
is
surelyall recognizethat
philosophywhich should claim to
reflection
Thomistic
Scheeman
and
Praemotionis
de Praemotione
view
has
been
defended
and
ACTIVITY
THE
The
lies in the
answer
OF
GOD
129
followingconsiderations
"
'
"
'
'
'
Particular ends
exigenciesof
are
generalorder
of nature.
Who
will deny that God
can
permit for the
generalorder and the beauty of His work, that a being which
is defective should give way, that an inferior good should be
sacrificed to a highergood ?
To do so would be to contradict
sacrificed
accidentally
to
the
the
'
'
wisdom
103.
from
free
the
play to
character
is not
'
trammels
the moral
and
bind
that
the
draws
it to
soul to
Bonum
virum
God.
man
'
habet
him
the
on
Seneca
As
in deliciis non
Deus
leaves
says : It
of good will
"
but
He
proves
Ex'
for Himself
"
'
3. Moral
evil cannot
says, whatever
referred to God
is a
of
is
as
10*
positivein
what
to
is
; but
in
De
Malo,
q. i,
'
Cum
a.
act
so
far
i, and
a.
St. Thomas
of sin must
as
it proceedsfrom
right,
As
God.
the material
from
falling
away
our
be attributed
evil,which
such
an
be
act
the defect
is
defect
2.
22"
Conf
"
ad
Theol., I, q. 22, a.
104
SENECA, De
2, ad
2.
Providentia.
Deus
sit universalis
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
I3o
in the
of
act
of all
Cause
tive action
good 105.
on
part, but
God's
'
Moral
attributed
be
never
can
man,
of His
to
in virtue of
and
permission,
this per
vult mala
neque
neque vult mala fieri,
mala fieri; et hoc est bonum
sed vult permittere
fieri,
mission is a
non
"
free-will of
The
immoral
for
obliged,
to
free-will,
fections.
man
which
act
be
Deus
it would
that
evil,so
cannot
good
cease
He
is
from
is the
was
the
or
holy,but
'
106.
that is responsible
for moral
cause
involve
posi
contradiction
to
speak
of
an
God
produced without freedom.
sake of hinderingman's abuse of his
to suspend the exercise of His per
He is free,omnipotent,wise, as well
Now
all these attributes of God
exceedinglybounteous.
are
intimatelyconnected with one another, and they must
manifestation.
attain their end, namely their legitimate
God's
will it before everything
holiness,which wills the good, must
to
else,before that good which would consist in our inability
as
sin.
If God
were
obligedto prevent
which
all moral
evil,He
would
no
reason
that there
possible,
namely the world in which He sees
only beings that are perfect. To expect that man's freedom
be abused, would
should
be to demand
never
necessarily
useless miracles of the divine omnipotence. For it is the law
that every being acts accordingto its nature, and it is in the
of a defectible being that it should have the power
nature
to
fail. And yet the objection
demands
we
that
are
considering
overruled
this
God should have
law of nature from all eternity.
of evil
sound, the possibility
Further, if the objectionwere
would make
good impossible: every good would have to be
withheld
lest,by the fault of him who receives it,evil would
And therefore God could not givemen
follow.
life
necessarily
which is a good,free-will which is
which is a good,intelligence
is a good, because some
creatures
a good, His assistance which
might abuse these divine gifts.
and the
Finally,evil indeed may exist,yet the infallibility
would
holiness of God's government
only be compromised
be
would
only one
mala
est entitatis et actionis in actione
delectus
sed
ibi
est
non
causatur
quod
;
deficiente '. Sum.
secunda
Theol., I, q. 49, a. 2, ad 2.
106
Id.,I,-q.19, a. 9, ad 3.
IDS
sicut
"
in
reducitur
Quidquid
causam
Deo, sed
in Deum
ex
causa
ACTIVITY
THE
permittedevil
if He
OF
GOD
of His
in the works
131
creation to such
an
extent
evil should
'
'
certainlysome
has
of the
weight,
answers
of
none
solution.
give a complete
positive
and
the
world
the
"
The
we
have
them,
we
considered
think,
relations between
can
God
immutability
knowledge of thingswhich
of time ; of His all-powerful
to pass in the course
sove
come
and, consequently,
reigntywith the dominion of our free-will,
of the infallibility
of His foreknowledgewith the contingent
holiness and His perfect
nature
of our free acts ; of His perfect
with the fact of creation,with the
consequences
of moral
guiltywho
loss
all these are
irreparable
limited understandingof man.
"
evil and
bring down
its disastrous
upon
themselves
mysteriesto
necessarily
Nor
should
we
the
expect it
to
ideas of God's
onlyanalogical
activity.The most we can do is to make ourselves thoroughly
and rationally
of our
convinced
present state of impotence
where it is a questionof knowing God's nature and of under
of His action.
and manner
ideas the reason
standingin positive
The deepestknowledge of God convinces us, says St. Thomas,
that,when leftto the lightof natural reason, we are necessarily
Further
ignorantof His nature and His dealingswith men.
in order to give ourselves a satisfactory
explanationof
more,
His government of the world, we
requireto know the plan of
know
whereas in fact we
only a
providencein its entirety,
be otherwise,seeingthat
small
we
have
from
this
we
cannot
do
more
Is it,then, to
guesses at His designin creation.
be wondered
laborious efforts to put together
at that in our
than
make
the detached
be
107
De
M.8.P."
Continentia, c. 6, n.
VOL.
II.
15.
in
bear
we
the
of
natural
objective
be
led
that
bears
which
much
confront
facts
God's
realms
shall
of
can
by
of
then
solution
real
known
the
to
character,
the
many
be
never
we
found
philosophical.
exclusively
is
which
investigation
from
us
is
part
belonging
adequate
an
it
as
but
more
supernatural
that
understand
to
problems
by
fact
and
such
forms
alone,
reason
creation,
universe
entire
the
that
mind
of
light
work
of
THEOLOGY
NATURAL
I32
Conclusion
is
God
Him
we
For
this
of
Seneca
flee
to
end
and
108
mum
quidquid
'
to
said
bonum,
of
quid
et
agimus'.
'
thy
thine
Epistola
sit,
totius
LXXI.
life
aut
vitae
the
whole
to
from
activity.
aspirations
moral
Sovereign
the
our
wishest
on
'
all
our
thou
as
eyes
whole
fugiendum
propositum
devote
oft
So
and
Him
to
must
we
fix
find,
purpose
Quoties
Him
to
faculties
our
End
Supreme
our
direct
must
we
has
or
being,
our
reason
and
Beginning
receive
soul
our
As
First
our
life.
know
what
Good,
the
108.
quid
petendum
respice.
Illi
scire
enim
voles,
consentire
ad
sum-
debet
INTRODUCTION
Definition
1.
which
needs
of
Logic.
exist
to
Logic
"
in
reflexstudy of
is the
this
(material
elaboration
end
the
of
in
materials
consists
of
Logic.
various
But
reasoning.
In
"
orderliness, this
(formal cause)
aims
broad
mind
of the
acts
"
materials
the
sense
apprehension, judg
10).
hension,
are
affirming
consists
a
denying
ing
inference
or
in such
is the
ing
one
or
names
thing
of
(2)
is
another
The
or
them.
appre
of
act
judgment
it
Its outward
ment.
a
common
way
combination
is the
that
and
is the
expression
new
judgment
(3) Reason
proposition.
of two
or
of the
syllogism
The
is formed.
complete expression
judgments
more
simplest
reason
process.
3.
expressed by
terms.
one
in
relation
the
or
only
are
(i) By
The
(3)
attainment
the
"
; and
strictly,they
speak
to
apprehension (3 and
of
more
of
introduced
be
this
this elaboration
In
subject-matter
must
what
(2)
which
the
and
acts
order
object) ;
Cause
logic are
ment
is the
truth.
to
us
more
(finalcause).
Material
2.
the
towards
of truth
of
or
cause
which
into
materials
logic, the
lead
to
elaborate
and
inferences
judgments,
our
order
the
Formal
point
Books
Cause
of view
of
Logic.
from
which
The
"
formal
logic regards
object
acts
of
logic
of the
or
mind
for study
consultation
or
Institut
Mercier, Logique (5th ed., 1909,
supe"rieur de Philosophic
Lou
vain).
P. Coffey, The
Science
of Logic, 2 vols. (Longmans,
London,
1912).
London,
JOYCE, Principles of Logic (Longmans,
1908).
2nd
Introduction
to Logic (Clarendon
ed., 1916).
JOSEPH, An
Press, Oxford,
2nd
A Manual
WELTON,
ed., 1904).
of Logic, 2 vols. (Tutorial Press, London,
An
Text-book
MELLONE,
of Logic (Blackwood,
Edinburgh.
Introductory
1902).
"
Card.
135
LOGIC
136
is their
and
specialsciences
and
the
science of Philo
fundamental
more
work
of
materials
judgment ; judgments
supply the
in their turn
does not
the materials
of
This
scientificsystem.
buildingup
of ideas
'
4. Difference
deal
may
different
pointof
between
with
the
Psychology
same
of
properties
view.
it
In such
and
Logic.
the acts
to be
is said
there
case
(or indeterminate)object,whilst
formal (ordeterminate)
object.
has
studies
material
Psychologyalso
Several sciences
"
of the human
common
one
has
each
different
mind
its
as
proper
part of
its material
ciselyas
and
nature
have
geneticprinciples
to be inves
ences
order
it is
is the
condition
the
object,
object of logicis
an
sine
very
the
qua
-non
of the
science
; in
logic
requires.
5. Final
of
Cause
Logic." The
truth
Before
in
our
ulterior end
our
for
which
reasoningmakes,
the
is to
knowledge.
explaininghow
logicdirects
its acts
towards
truth,
INTRODUCTION
judgment and
not
truth
that
remember
must
we
belong
that
to
the
Now
Jabberwocky
the claim
to
as
sun,
error
are
qualitiesof
is
mentions
long as a man
some
imaginativeobject)
or
Truth
right or wrong.
or
propositionthat the
real (Criteriology,
6).
of
the
As
is
say that he
the statement
can
one
and
of the concept.
the
only a singleobject(e.g.
no
137
logicto
lead
the
and
exists,
sun
'
mind
error
truth
to
',
as
one
thought that the meaning is that logic,
sciences. Obviously
science,can take the placeof all the special
the mind
it cannot
each of the specialsciences enlightens
:
in regardto the special
and so the man
objectit contemplates,
all is far better equipped for making a true
versed in them
who
merely knows logic. There is,
judgment than the man
of
however, another way of gettingat all truth than by means
the successive and collective study of the separate sciences,
which is very different,namely, that way
in which
a
more
Indeed, it is a law of
generalscience aids a less generalone.
our
thought that the simplehelpsus to understand the com
in the matter
of knowledge
plex (Gen. Introduction,2) ; now
simplicityand universality
always go together: therefore
the most
general sciences are those which have the simplest
throw
light on any more
object,and so can
complex or
particularobjectsto which they can have application.In
this sense
it is a
it is that logicleads to truth, inasmuch
as
the content of all the other
generalscience because it regulates
sciences,because they have all to be drawn up accordingto
its laws.
It has an objectof the extremest
and of
simplicity
the widest extension
being of the mind ',ens rationis,as we
will proceed to explain.
it must
be
not
"
"
'
"
6. Difference
another
science which
since it touches
science
treat
between
"
Metaphysics
and
"
name
of all
they treat
their proper
being,they
of it from
formal
There
Logic.
have
different
common
material
is
therefore,
of
general
logicalike
object;
but
each
LOGIC
I38
can
capable of existing,
it is thought about, as a concept in
existingor
Anything, whether
thought
When
about.
of its
result
such,
as
tions such
they
as
universal.
are
as
Between
universal
and
abstract
and
object,it is abstract
mental
being an
the
becomes
mind, it necessarily
the
be
the
as
outside
are
do
mind
the
not
of
allow
mental
one
attribute of another
the predicate
or
object
object becomes
its
relation
the
to
fulfils
of
of thought which, on account
first,
of ideas give
and
extension
the role of subject
; the content
rise to relations of identityor non-identity
; judgments are
and
for all
the material
formed, reasoning processes ensue,
mental
these various
operationsis throughout one and the
same
namely, being : not real being,as it is in itself and
ens
independent of thought, but being-as-it-is-in-the-mind,
"
see,
science
of
as
aspect and
the
with
attributes
the
that
objectof thought.
an
then, that
metaphysics is
whereas
reality
; logicis
universal
the
science
universal
the
of
know
our
ledgeof reality1.
7. Is
Logic
Science
practicalscience
only at
knowledge
one,
on
the
with
view
of the
action
to
or a
logica speculative
of its
nature
hand, furnishes
other
Is
"
speculativescience
"
Art
an
or
or
to
some
is
which
one
object;
aims
practical
ulterior purpose
finis
actio '.
speculativae,veritas ; finis operativaeseu practicae,
The logiciandoes not contemplatethe acts of his mind merely
for the pleasure of knowing the relations they bear to one
another, but with a view to using this scientific knowledge
for the
direction
further
this sense,
science.
and
But
without
not
if
of the
reason,
view
broader
operationsof his
logicis said to be
is taken
and
the
mind.
In
practical
direction
of the mind
is considered as indeed
operations
but a step towards the knowledge of all truth, it may
then be
said to be a speculative
science. This is the standpointof St.
logicgivesto
The
relations
the
studied
the attention
of the mind
intentiones
', objects of
from
learns
the
of
in logic are
not
the ontologicalrelations on
first of all falls,first or direct mental
views '
first abstraction, but logicalrelations
which
a
abstraction.
which
primae
arise
the
'
mind
second
INTRODUCTION
when
Thomas
dialectica
est
'
he says
.
Logic is also
an
it is not
But
external
an
'
2.
collectionofpractical
art
requiresthe
rationalis scientia
result in
alia
speculativis
In
139
production.
to-day to
divide logicinto two
parts,formal logicand real logic. But
of such a division is to be questioned:
the advisability
(a)It
in
its originchieflyto some
owes
arbitrarypresuppositions
Kantian
42). (b)Many of the ques
philosophy(Criteriology,
of a
tions discussed in real logicfurnish for us the matter
separate treatise followingimmediately after psychology,
the scientific analysis
namely epistemology or criteriology,
of
8. Divisions
Logic.
i.
"
It is not
uncommon
"
of certitude.
2.
Sum.
'
homo
ad
rationis
autem
hurnanos
actus
viunt.
2, ad
Alia
Nihil
faciliter
enim
per determinata
judicio in
aliud
et
ars
3.
naturali
instinctu
ad
actus
suos
suis
operibus dirigitur. Et
ordinate
perficiendos diversae
videtur, quam
esse
certa
inde
ordinatio
aguntur,
est, quod
artes
deser-
rationis, qua
debitum
ad
finem actus humani
perveniunt. Ratio
dirigerepotest inferiorum
partium actus, sed etiam actus sui
directiva
enim
est.
Hoc
est proprium intellectivae partis ut
in seipsam
reflectatur : nam
intellectus
similiter
et
ratio
de
suo
actu
intelligit
seipsum,
ratiocinari
hoc
ratiomanus
potest. Sicut igitur ex
quod ratio de actu
autem
media
solum
non
cinatur adinventa
aedificatoria
vel fabrilis,
homo
ars
faciliter et
per quas
actus
ratione
exercere
ars
potest ; eadem
quaedam
necessaria
scilicet homo
est, quae sit directiva ipsius actus rationis,per quam
in
ipso actu rationis ordinate et faciliter
et sine errore
procedat. Et haec est ars
Logica,id est rationalis scientia. Quae non solum rationalis est ex hoc, quod
ordinate
est
est
hujusmodi
secundum
rationem,
hoc, quod
ideo
artes
"
est circa
videtur
ars
esse
procedunt
Cp.
Thomas
Farm.
the
:
De
'.
quod
ipsum actum
artium
ST.
introduction
THOMAS,
of
omnibus
est
rationis
quia
in actu
I Post.
small
artibus
sicut
rationis
Analyt., lect.
treatise
commune
circa
Summa.
on
sed
etiam
propriam materiam.
nos
dirigit,a quo
ex
Et
omnes
i.
logic among
Op. XLIV,
the
works
Proemium.
of
St.
Ed.
LOGIC
140
The
strictly
it
of
matter
of
chapter
material
III
Chapter
in
the
will
order.
of
In
tion
'
[Logica]
per
et
logic
the
four
and
in
scilicet
errore
in
of
directiva
homo
procedit
of
of
text
will
order
Thomas
cause)
(efficient
cause)
cause)
'.
wish
to
into
observed
of
considered
of
logic
quoted
ipso
actus
actu
the
rationis
rationis
utility
order
in
5.
is
in
at
logical
the
of
logic
studies
and
arrive
cause
establishment
ipsius
in
In
inferences,
formal
cause
St.
word,
II).
be
to
of
we
be
this
the
(formal
(final
if
the
final
introduced
rules
drawing
word,
(IV)
the
causes
the
the
terms,
in
(Chap.
be
to
first
"
systems,
philosophy
of
est
quam
sine
scientific
has
the
judgments,
chapter
(1)
which
and
order
make
The
I).
concepts
logical
investigated
operations,
Mention
of
last
and
mental
be
truth
science
our
of
up
knowledge
to
of
forming
this
we
introduced
be
belongs
shall
(Chap.
with
deal
must
itself
order
the
building
the
of
cause
materials
these
order
here
yet
chapter
will
order
logical
psychology,
proper
which
of
cause
preliminary
into
the
of
treatise
the
material
with
efficient
the
domain
the
to
the
the
of
study
made
in
our
footnote
on
(material
ordinate
defini
p.
139.
cause)
et
faciliter
CHAPTER
and
Principles
9.
principle or
made
stance
of
of soul
up
principle is
and
The
"
is the
acts
; their
body
intellectual
the
proximate
remote
human
sub
immediate
or
it is shown
psychology
In
intellectual
our
ORDER
Acts.
Intellectual
of
Nature
source
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
EFFICIENT
THE
of the
all acts
that
mind
their
owe
object of sensation
sense-experience. The
beginning to some
material
thing,
sense-perception is always a determinate
or
of
made
of
this
conception
it is
considered
which
it is
universal
applicable
or
is round
on
space
in
shape
my
table
is
of
notion
circumstances
at
of
matter
judgment,
All
"
be
may
shape
form
can
determining
by
which
no
particular
what
when
or
when
whatsoever,
made,
sound,
or
much
so
one
all bells
way,
accidental
The
or
where
features
forms
"
(a)
or
act
that
"
it will be
apprehension
the
which
mind
the
of
or
have
to
"
secured
of
some
different
determine.
conception
an
what
certain
have
of interest
kind
same
understanding
considers
141
apprehension,
mind-
the
although they
modalities
When
or
Fundamen
are
fundamentally
are
est
of
acts
intuition
quid
first
"
Manifold,
though
the
reasoning
of
Acts,
intellectual
an
ferent
they
possess
may
Identical.
i.
all these
from
and
brass
time
But
quite determinate.
general
material
what
Intellectual
tally
in
particular moment
abstracts
of
exist.
may
10.
act,
in
least
qualitiesthey
they
that
subjects.
occupies
particularizing attributes
or
represent,
this
at
is made
pleasing tone,
the
consequently
of individual
which
touch,
of
and
bell
and
see
with
outside
existing actually
number
any
All this is
at it.
looking
names
when
to
universal,
particularizingconditions
the
really endowed
object
the
and
is abstract
proper
from
apart
bell, which
This
thought
mind
am
of
or
and
matter
for
assumes
dif
it different
object independently
LOGIC
142
surroundingobjectsit
of the
(b)This
of the
bute
or
attention
to
object,but
teristics which
mental
directed
be
objectindependentlyof
of the
essence
may
acts
is said
are
as
acts
any
whole,
considered
individualize
called
as
apart from
it in the
world
of abstraction,
of
those
charac
: such
reality
(c)Abstraction
is
basis for
'
'
"
"
alike
of
acts
its
possesses
their
consequence
the
object
in
in
of
mind
in
can
nature
they
species.
latter
and
term,
quod
ad
"
See
mental
of
the
that
it
is
is,
incon
another
for
or
example,
and
tree
not
any
of
be
are
is
that
affirmed
attributed
to
of
makes
intentio
Metaphysics,
ARISTOTLE,
we
is
the
see
result
is, it is found
individuals,
them
of
(universale
this
or
class-natures,1
possible,
later,
of
apart
abstracting.
species
reasoning
shall
the
mental
of
predicated
one
idea's
of things
our
or
entire
an
representative
as
virtue
in
apprehension
other
of
abstraction
same
Abstraction
of
in
of
that
predicated
be
universality
'.
it
this
power
multitude
be
may
requires,
General
in
beings
of
quality
affirmed
lies
answer
is universal,
concept
be
can
regarding
the
abstractive
Hence
virtue
The
of
power
may
thing
one
notes,
realized
sequitur
praedicantur
this
made.
is
the
this
things
In
the
is
tree
in
individual,
Socrates,
how
then,
judgments
another.
as
; this
else
has
found
abstraction
and
to
the
by
existing
affirmed
be
another.
judgment
of
our
intellect,
Possible
it is
could
being
arises,
praedicando).
genus
called
individuality
individualizing
be
may
it
being
Every
"
another,
not
real
one
the
that
and
no
when
In
or
and
question
from
be
143
6.
another
fact
Concepts.
attributed
and
tree
The
of
such
way
himself
other
ORDER
made
are
incommunicable
own
that
ceivable
is
of
is itself
order
any
LOGICAL
faculty,
same
Reasoning
Character
Abstract
actual
the
and
Judgment
11.
in
and
one
OF
understanding.
or
reason
CAUSE
EFFICIENT
THE
of
genera
inasmuch
universal
abstraction
whole
middle
:
abstrahi
universalitatis.
26.
Anal,
'
Non
singularia
pr., I, 27.
de
aliis
sed
alia
de
ipsis
II
CHAPTER
12.
into
which
consist
these
in
articles
with
(Art. I)
alike
the
THE
The
13.
OBJECT
the
is but
step forward
as
chief
only
in
far
so
as
subdivisions,
QUALITIES
for
the
towards
to
the
sion
as
with
logic is
to
the
of
act
(5) ;
they
they
occasion
of
of
and
logic
with
enunciated
which
expressed
or
the
by
in
far
so
of truth,
not
"
concerned,
the
materials
For
truth
and
with
then,
for
true
direct
notio
them
appertain
error
or
apprehen
concepts
judgments
are
business
the
can
simple conception
to
is
and
(4)
they
as
predicate
or
mind
the
as
appears
concepts
judgment,
subject
only
inference
and
judgment
deals
the
of
of
role
acts
erroneous
and
precisely
are
the
ones.
ideas
or
term,
CONCEPT
judgment
judgment,
new
elements
are
judgment,
furnish
Concepts
of
mental
logic
of
respec
simple apprehension
act
mind,
attainment
the
Both
and
concept
materials
dealing
THE
OF
Since
"
the
fulfillingthe
of
capable
of
act
two
logic,
which
that
(Art. II).
terms
which
CONCEPTS
Logic.
materials
supplies
the
of
cause
elementary
in
I.
AND
in
Concept
of
of each.
ART.
I.
The
materials
out
introduced,
qualitiesof
and
content
be
to
that
and
of
allow
kinds
the
has
the
By
"
material
the
in order.
arrange
ORDER
understand
we
order
concepts
tively with
and
to
Chapter.
aliquid fit): by
quo
studying
are
this
anything
(id ex
that
then,
of
LOGICAL
OF
of
Division
cause
it is made
we
and
Object
material
or
CAUSE
MATERIAL
THE
are
predicated
predication is
'
the
verb
est
subjectum
to
then
of
in
another
made.
be
logic
', the
and
The
copula.
attribution!
144
nexus
vel
the
the
thought-object
thought-object
between
Together
is
them
the
sub
praedicationi) and
MATERIAL
THE
known
are
the extremes
prehension.
logiconly
consider
The
"
in
145
or
Logical Questions
14.
ORDER
the terms
as
LOGICAL
OF
attribute
or
predicate
the
CAUSE
concept,
far
so
it then
in these two
the
Act
of
Simple
Ap
have
we
it acts
as
from
arising
as
roles
:"
of a proposition
is always ultimately,
subject
though
ultimate analysisonly, an
individual.
Propositionsmay
The
1.
in
indeed have
their
as
callyonly an
term
what
"
the
on
being
with
one
and
Aristotle calls
one
hand
but
to
himself
to
ontologiof the
first substance
irpuTrj overia,
it is attributable
hand
incommunicable
no
other
is concrete
at what
since
"
other, individuality
no
another, Socrates
being
identical
the
on
it is the
'
'
'
'
subject of
idea
further
of
predicate,
in-the-sun '. This analysis
of the terms
trates how there is always a first term
a
'
'
snow
'
next
becomes
attribute
the
of
'
'
melts-
illus
proposition
which is originally
an
a
the mind
attributes
to
which
two
all the
2.
What
'
predicationsit makes.
The
predicate furnishes
does it mean
Omnium
possint universe
eorum,
or
convey
quae
; what
praedicari, velut
Cleon
ejusmodi,
Callias, et
solis sensibussubjicitur,
de ipsisautem
alia praedicantur
et homo
est et aniirans
*. ARISTOTLE, Anal. pr.t I, 27.
et
ut
de
millo
alio
vere
singulariset quod
; uterqueenim illorum
res
LOGIC
146
in
And
have
we
answer
the
of
study
the
logicalpredicamentsas
the classification of
times
does it
called,
it be
must
way
(b)How
or
predicables
15. The
attributed
of
ways
Categories
belong
This
it ?
to
to
the
or
categories,
is some
predicates
the
is
subject,in what
question of the
predicating.
Logical Predicaments.
or
"
There
is of
course
discovered
He
of
of
question here
no
ten
under
predication,
one
or
be
can
types
or
genera,
of which
other
arranged
"
Substance
1.
This
something our
'
is
'.
snow
'
our
is an
senses
abstract
say,
or
second
substance.
senses
'
Snow
subjectwhich
is to
that
"
to it the accidental
'
determinations
'
"
"
firstcategory,f)ovo-ia,
By
of
way
"
"
"rri.
contrast
to
individual
subject,TT/WOT^ ovo-ta,
predicationsare ultimately
secunda
; for
whilst it
can
as
the
subjectof
or
attributes,it yet itself presupposes
predicates
logical
crete
con
"
we
The
of
predication
represent accidental
of these modes
determinations 8. Now
of being apper
some
to the individual subject
tainingto substance are INTRINSIC
attributed : two of them, quantity
to which they are
two
(e.g.
cubits in size)and quality(e.g.
inherent
white, learned),
are
2.
For
convey
the
by
difference
our
between
substantial
logicalpredicates,see
essence
General
and
accidental
Metaphysics, 83
f
.
essence
THE
CAUSE
MATERIAL
OF
LOGICAL
ORDER
147
subjectconsidered in itself,
absolutely
; a third,relation
is affirmable of the subjectin virtue of some
con
(e.g.double),
nexion with some
thing or things other than itself. Some
the other hand, representsomething EXTRINSIC
on
predicates,
to the subject
in the street)
and time (e.g.
: place(e.g.
yester
the measure
of quantityand duration.
day) are respectively
Action and
passion (i.e.being acted upon) are amrmable
of the former and the
of a subjectbecause it is the principle
he cuts a stone, a stone is cut).
objector end of the latter (e.g.
The exact
has pro
meaning of the two remainingcategories
in the
'
voked
'
considerable
totle,but
discussion among
think the philologist
Max
we
state
f\"LV
passiveintransitive
the
as
well)9.
I am
(e.g.
The
and
afraid)
am
of Aris
rightmeaning by
(e.g.I walk, I
commentators
Predicables."
Human
"
ty emu),and without
which
it could not
exist
nor
be conceived
"
"
St. THOMAS,
M.S.P.-VOL.
In
II.
Met., lect.
9.
LOGIC
148
the essence,
which
are
ut
contingentaccidents (contingit
called
sint,a-vfjL^/SfjKos)
or
simply accidents 10.
admit
The first class,essential predicables,
For
the
objectof
essence
specific
the
of
subdivision.
the individual
but
essence
of abstract,
represents by a number
universal concepts. Species(tfSos),
then, designatesthe sumtotal of the abstract,universal notes that togethermake
up an
essence
the
as
constitutive
form
that it
mind
human
of the
speciesas
are
whilst
(ycvos),
genus
it u.
knows
the
others, and
Thus
those
all other
"
and
species
To
its two
the
three
constitutive
find
we
are
essence
of
subjectwhich
necessary accompaniment
exist apart from it. Indeed
it,and
in
say
we
specific
type when it belongs
question,is universally
present
is constant
it is realized,and
though
to the species in
exclusively
instance
in allfivepredicables.
have
we
added
be
of
can
never
consequence
to
thingis proper,or peculiar,
whenever
differentia.
must
predicables
those determinations
are
Properties
of its
and
parts,genus
of essential
kinds
throughout in
every
'
omni
write
is proper
to
strict acceptation,
property and essence
substances
sion;
limitation
when
tible with
the
essence
with
to
sively
the
three
it is
quality,
however
of the
of
one
verified by
may
species
therefore
speciesof the
the
(differentia,
difference
specific
Sta""o/"a).
genus, are
of essential predicablesthere are three distinct kinds
same
not
of these notes
also to other
common
differentiate it from
to it,which
peculiar
Such
not
to which
qualityhas
property ; when,
specific
type, but is
opportunity here
In
have
same
property, it is not
true
it attaches.
one
in
or
for
The
term
less strict
sense
this, its
exten
is not
conver
property
in this
of the characteristics
two
to be found
for
the
mentioned
conditions
be used
reason
creatures.
neither
universally
(necessary
confusing ontologicalaccident
is
which
with
logicalaccident
contingent)
which
to properties,and
and
is therefore
immediately opposed to essence
it is predicated ; what
is predicated as acci
relative to the subject of which
dental of one
subject may be predicated of another as essential.
11
the
be on
his guard against confusing logicalspecies,
must
The
student
natural
have
used
in
which
with
the
term
of
we
defined,
same
just
meaning
which
are
it designates a group
of individuals
science. In the latter case
interse fertile.
10
or
There
is
which
is
opposed
to
substance
all
constantlyin
nor
to be
doctor
CAUSE
MATERIAL
THE
or
always,yet
there
found
and
called
be
speciesonly, can
be called
in this
property:
him
to
that
does
sense
have
to
is
property what
thus
proper to
of a species
sense,
belongingto beings of
not
it is proper
that
149
type
individual
in every
that
is,in this
mathematician
ORDER
of
beings representative
Similarlya qualityfound
man.
LOGICAL
OF
two
to
common
of a species
and to them only,but which
representatives
belongs to them merely for a time ; for instance,accordingto
all the
Porphyry, it is proper
The
to
man
accidental
common
opposed to proprium),may
a
qualitythat is not a pro
As a positive
definition Porphyry
perty in the strict sense.
to the absence or presence
says that an accident is that quality
of a subjectis indifferent, accidens est
of which the essence
id quod adest et abest praeter subjecti
corruptionem '. He
be constant
or
goes on to say that this accidental qualitymay
and at another
at one
time be sleeping
animal may
not : an
opposed to r"oi/,accidens commune
best be defined negatively,
as
'
not
that
noted
not
property. As
a
property and
induction
sufficient to enable
is not
observation
shall
we
Mere
property.
to decide
is
what
between
is the
objectof scientific
employment of experimental
the
demands
us
be
must
later,the discrimination
see
is accidental
what
and
qualityis
constant
every
it
Hence
always black.
remains
raven
methods.
17.
the
notice
comprehension and
The comprehensionof
extension.
idea
an
or, as
"
in it. If
its connotation
or
teristicswe
have
we
the notes
drawn
by
See
or
scope
of
take
as
intension13
or
an
variouslytermed,
"
or
it embodies
abstraction
Vol. I, p. 5, footnote.
or
notes
is its
are
the various
from
'
man
of
',
charac
individual
an
con
discovered
applicationof
the number
application,
extension, denotation,
sphere
it is
characteristics
of the
11
"
their
The
Between
Concepts.
different
ordination
to
of
Extension
and
Comprehension
man.
idea, is its
subjects to
LOGIC
150
it is
which
or
be
can
in
applied or,
other
words,
which
to
it
extends.
concept is thus
abstract, universal
The
considered
as
'
'
whole.
The concept
whole and as a logical
man
metaphysical
viewed as to its comprehension i.e. as comprisingthe notes
and reason,
is a metaphysical
of corporeity,
life,sensibility
whole
made
metaphysicalparts (Gen. Meta
up of so many
of all
46). Viewed in its extension, i.e.as predicable
physics,
it forms
a
past, present, future and merely possible,
men,
taken distributively
whole of which men
the logical
are
logical
totus
and
omnis
correspond
parts. The two Latin words
exactlyto this distinction.
An idea is of greater or less comprehensionin proportionto
"
'
'
it includes.
of notes
the number
'
It has
'
greater or less
exten
vice
and
If
we
versa.
two
compare
18.
ideas
some
than
Ideas
others, among
in
scale.
the bottom
logical
of no subjectand
which is predicable
of all predication.Immediatelyabove
At
there
of the subaltern
be
may
proximate
by
Relations
or
of
so
those
of
man
and
Non-identical
is the ultimate
this
subject
the
comes
species
the
most
as
the
subordination.
of their
Respect
Opposition.
"
their contents
or
Two
are
ideas
the
rational animal
Comprehension.
same
are
are
or
identical
different
identical ; not
animal).
ideas
liquidand sugar)or
in
and
man
and
is individual substance,
subjoinedtable, known
essential
predicablesof
the
of Ideas
accordingas
different
(e.g.the ideas of
category
same
immediate, subaltern
or
their mutual
and
Identity
application
The
the
Next
intermediate, surmounted
19.
certain
are
many,
category of substance
of wider
to
referring
concepts
there is a
both
there
of their Extension."
Respect
universal,i.e.are
more
are
that
ideas.
of
Subordination
shall discover
the
relations between
ideas in
more
comprehension we
and
As
or
compatible (e.g.those of
and solid).
those of liquid
incompatible
(e.g.
are
either
MATERIAL
THE
Genus
OF
LOGICAL
ORDER
151
Substantia
generalissimum
Differentia
Genus
CAUSE
Corporea
Incorporea
(Angel)
subalternum
.
Differentia
.
Genus
subalternum
Insensibile
Sensibile
.
proximum
Differentia
(Mineral)
Vivens
Differentia
Genus
Inanimatum
Animatum
.
Rationale
(Vegetable)
Animal
Irrationale
of ideas or
Incompatibility
oppositionis of four kinds :
contradictory,
privative,
contrary and relative.
1.
Contradictory
oppositionexists between two ideas when
of them
is
inasmuch
one
as
they have nothingin common,
less than
nor
being and the other nothing,one is neither more
the negation of the other (e.g.white and not -white, just and
not -just).
is the absence
of a perfectionin a subject
2. Privation
LOGIC
152
'
its nature
capableby
'
deprivedof
be said to be
it cannot
but
it.
if
degrees of lightare
the
white,
same
and
courage
cowardice, are
4. Relation
relative
or
which
series,the
two
Contrarietyexists
exist at the
both
instance,
time
same
in
all
examples.
oppositionexists
when
ideas
two
for their
dependent
each other
upon
and son, of double
of father
For
a
of
extremes
genus.
contraries.
are
between
two
mentally representedas
black and
extremes,
the
meaning ; e.g.
half, of knowledge
and
are
the
ideas
and
that
is known.
II. DIVISION
of Division.
Principles
20.
(I)according
manner
according
and
(III)according to
bases
these
such
are
the
concept,
be divided
may
i.e. the particular
the
by
the
to
Concepts or ideas
"
objectof
the
to
CONCEPTS
OF
of
the
thing ; (II)
object known
;
of their formation. But
divisions are
not
mutually
representingthe
manner
that
the
exclusive.
I. Ideas
21.
divided
are
according
tion of the
the
even
the
on
which
those
gendered
is
common
or
with
or
genericidea
other
the content
they
of
;
an
divi
in the forma
individual,the concept en
e.g. the idea of Caesar, of Napoleon
it
other
speciesof
and
idea
thingsunder
all share
an
an
an
object as
of the
represen
it possesses
species
specific
same
genus, it is either a
it is universal.
Further,
same
in both
in common,
of
individuals
the
may
the
determinate
less
a
conveys
such
notes
only
either with
in
idea
tation,embodying
conceive
that
constitute
the
If, however,
is
If abstraction
singularone
Tran
i.
This
concept.
determinations
Content."
singularideas.
and
scendental,generic,
specific
sion based
to
cases
even
that
are
possessedby
all
beings
of the universe,in
'
one
goes
notions
scendental
verum,
aliquid,
ing one
that
not
'
confuse
to
characteristics of
all the
latter
does not
'
Of
these
collective
they
may
'
idea.
former
at
least all
confused,
be
distinguishit from
to
to
must
care
scope
enable
which
form
the
object,or
as
us
unum,
as
universal
so
indistinct,
animal
an
as
'
with
an
are
indefinite and
fish
'
collective
that
considered
are
inadequate ideas.
and
Adequate
those
res,
'
'
embody
'
omnem
categoriam ',
genus,
all the categories. These
tran
several individuals
when
153
transcendental
is called
them
whole, the idea representing
such is the idea of
people', army '. But
idea ;
be taken
2.
omne
beyond
are
only six in number : ens,
37 ff.).
bonum
(Gen.Metaphysics,
its extension
Note
enim
ORDER
be
transcendit
"
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
MATERIAL
THE
notes
all others
way
(e.g.
common
things
and differentiating
thingrepresented
which breathes only
it from all others (e.g. fish as the animal
through its gills).
An
idea is complex if it is
3. Complex and simple ideas.
the
to
peculiar
note
some
'
'
made
of several
up
'
dicate ; thus
'
'
'
both
are
man
elements
each
of which
divided
are
an
according
the
There
term
of
and
abstract,
concrete idea ;
thing reallyas a strictly
improperly used to signifya note or qualityas
is
is
pre
and
Manner
their
to
'
'
is such
just man
simpleideas.
stand as
may
idea.
But
just
no
such
'
'
in a subject
white
: for instance,the idea
existing
represents
concrete
a
subject. Whereas
qualityas belongingto some
in reality
the so-called abstract idea (although all ideas are
something existing
abstract)represents a note as if it were
apart from a subject; it is the result of the mind singlingout
and disregarding
that it is the note
note
or
some
abstracting
whilst
of a subject: e.g.
whiteness ', animality'. Hence
'
the
concrete
idea
'
is the
result
a
of
double
one
abstractive
act, the
abstraction,is consequent
reflection.
A
positiveidea
is
of attributes that it
one
which
represents a thing by
reallypossesses
'
e.g.
life',
'
means
light'.
LOGIC
154
idea is one which
negative
emphasisingthe absence
'
darkness
to it : e.g.
3. A positiveidea
gives us knowledge of
of a qualitywhich does
'
it connotes
is proper when
qualitywhich is distinctive of the
that is,some
thingby
not belong
property,
it is
being as
if it denotes an
idea is analogical
in reality.An
positively
objectthat is beyond the grasp of the mind and requiringfor
its representation
a
comparison with something else known
with
of
sence
from
spirits
idea
our
of the
of bodies
presence
in
space.
III. Ideas
23.
Formation
immediate
according
and
immediate
into
intuitive when
or
itselfunited
divided
are
intellect
to the
in
representation
it.
mediate
an
second
from
unlike
or
intuitive
cursive
it is proper or
objectwhich* serves~to make the
the
is of like
known
are
analogical
accordingas
Ideas
or
known
or
ideas.
of their
object of apprehensionis
the
When
the Manner
to
knowledge,
knowledge.
in this
case
nature
to
mediate
it.
distinct
As
is sometimes
called dis
i
ART.
OBJECT
I. THE
24. The
TERMS
II.
AND
QUALITIES
OF
-Terms
TERM
THE
or
names
are
vocal
'
not
idea of
word
refer
'
sun
to
directly
the
round
18
our
planet
St. THOMAS,
"
Sum,
which
sun
as
connoted
is evidentlynot
Theol., I. q. 13,
a.
i.
itself; and
sun
yet the
body
true
that revolved
of the
sun
itself
CAUSE
MATERIAL
THE
OF
LOGICAL
ORDER
155
onlyof the
sun
as
"
'
"
the mind
by
with formal
abstraction
determinations
which
and
the
which
the mind
of
terms
conceives
language
express.
The
abstract,and
so
common,
and
secondarysense
The
determinations
it is
which
or
we
qualitative
quantitative,
'
proper
word
is used
in
further determined,
noun.
inhere in
subject,whether
by the adjective.
of or on a subject.The
a
express
verb-predicate
expresses action
to be ',it must
be noted, either expresses actual existence
3. The
verb
the
except when
a substance
designates
i.e.individualized,when
2.
'
(e.g.I
copula
exist)or is nothingelse than a logical
and is implied in every
connecting subjectand predicate,
I hear
I am
verb-predicate
(e.g.
hearing).
It is worthy of remark, moreover,
that the results of philo
research bearout
what we have said of logical
logical
concepts,
for justas predicates
of judgments are abstract, so the primitive
am
forms
ideas.
or
roots
of
language
are
observed
to
express
abstract
156
LOGIC
II. DIVISION
26.
Division
noticed
of
called
are
either
and
if the
either
are
terms,
latter,they
and
or
few
have
we
remarks
Common
terms
and
universal
generic or specific.
are
specificterms
analogical,according
division
singular.
simply general
or
common
transcendental
Generic
ing
to
divisions
for.
are
ones
the
Although
"
Terms
1.
Terms.
of
TERMS
OF
univocal, and
are
to
distinction
transcendental
based
follow
the
on
of terms.
Terms
of the same
name
by means
they
the
essential
definition
same
designate things which verify
:
the name
animal
is applied with identically
the same
mean
and cow,
inasmuch
both
as
ing to man
comply with the defini
tion of sentient
are
living being. Terms
equivocal when
by
of the same
means
name
they designatedifferent things giving
in its
dog
respectivelydifferent concepts : e.g. the name
2.
univocal
are
'
when
'
'
application
to
animal
an
and
to
'
constellation.
Terms
are
in the mind
are
analogical when
they stand for things which
represented by concepts that are only partly the same
; thus,
when
bodies
and
of spiritsthat they occupy
we
say of material
space,
the
in
but
same
3.
like
Terms,
They
6. Terms
direct,
'
genus
concepts,
concrete
vey
in
the
i.e.
are
used
not
are
simple
are
of the
abstract
or
'
latter
vice
and
direct
complex,
or
whiteness
the
'
former
'
white
'.
'
negative:
e.g.
may
be
death
',
used
'
immor
render
to
versa.
'
reflex:
or
', species
'
'
e.g.
substance
',
'
', are
man
reflex.
are
are
those
which
con
by themselves
and
thus
are
capable by themselves
subject or predicate (e.g. man
');
Categorematic terms
a
complete meaning
role of
the
fulfilling
syncategorematic terms
in conjunction with some
of
positiveterm
7.
of
'
space
worded.
that
are
'
and
sense.
positive or
are
tality'. Note
negative idea
'
occupy
analogous
an
'
words
'
are
those
other
term
which
require
'
(e.g.
every
to
',
be
'
none
used
').
CHAPTER
THE
FORMAL
27.
CAUSE
Introductory.
its
into
The
"
acts, the
own
The
work.
attach
and
together
thus
and
of
construct
we
which
this
the
to
logic seeks
which
in
will
judgment
studied
is
proposition (I),the
ART.
THE
28.
OF
Definition.
pression of
^.bout
the
else
something
omnis
every
oratio
something
but
JUDGMENT
is
'
not
it states
entreaty 14.
assertion
ARISTOTLE,
and
the
pro
judgments
Every
PROPOSITION
THE
is
announcing
est
may
IV
157
something
'
something,
signifies
imperative
an
announcement
take
and
ex
enunciativa
oratio
utterance
verbal
the
something.
no
cc.
PROPOSITION
which
propositio
makes
Penhermenias,
and
judgments
AND
utterance
nothing
it
14
an
announce
signification,yet
'An
(Art. I)
judgment
THE
significativa',
does
utterance
the
subdivisions,
three
existing between
AND
calls it.
est
of
division
the
of
proposition,
judgment,
formation
(III).
THE
The
"
uTTo^avo-t? Aristotle
'
relations
JUDGMENT
MEANING
of
nature
upon
divisions
main
main
into
falls
judgments
logical system
three
first
divisions
propositions
I.
I. THE
the
various
The
the
progres
reasoning bearing
progressive
establish.
to
to
formally
complex
into
divided
threefold
and
science.
view
we
elaborate
more
be
when
up
of
train
by putting judgments
build
we
with
mind
the
by
already said,
Next,
the
call
we
chapter
corresponding
order
them
ORDER
order
judgment,
subject.
of
have
we
is
step
Lastly, by
reason.
knowledge
Now
is,as
comparing
object
one
to
LOGICAL
of its ideas
arrangement
first
predicate
OF
introduction
acquisition of knowledge,
sive
III
V.
an
term
is not
;
signifies
without
likewise
affirmativeform
an
or
LOGIC
158
; all
form
negative
of these
two
the
terms
'to
be
at
proposition,
notion,
is true
29. The
we
define
may
the
of
that
utterance
an
whilst
Indeed
paniesthese
of
subsisting,
and
the
perhaps
shape of
"
the
in
Proposition
to
acts
which
which
of its leaves
"
of
forth, there
so
am
accom
"
I have
of external
of
object
some
apprehension of
which
acts
and
refer them
can
successive
and
its trunk
subjectfrom
by
attributes
several
simultaneous
seizes
mind
the sensible
attributes apart
of these
and
Judgment
our
something
gatheredmy
and
my
abstract
consideration
mind
in my
them
attributing
this indeterminate
subject which I am
tryingto describe,
sayingthat they belong to it,to judgingthat a tree is what
colour
to
propositionas
the
perceiving,
to
Not
"
knowledge
notes
of
"
up
Place
the progress
is no act of
ment.
assertion is made
An
false.
or
Thought.
'.
combinations
are
subjectand
"
verb
the
enunciations
elemental
assertions
complex
more
"
is
reallytantamount
to
they togetherconnote.
this testimony
The study of language supports and amplifies
For the invention
is nothingbut to
of a name
subject
apply a concept, under the form of language,to some
which
I denote in an indeterminate
way by the demonstrative
that '. As an instance in point,the etymo
this or
pronoun
wolf ',lupus,Sanskrit Vrka, shows it to mean
logy of the word
there
wolf
that which tears in pieces ; to call the animal
fore is nothing but to apply an abstract concept to something
otherwise
indeterminate, to apply to this subjectthe attribute
of the act of lacerating.
of consciousness.
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
II. KINDS
OF
JUDGMENTS
AND
'
PROPOSITIONS
Some
propositions
are
simple,consistingonly of subject,attribute and copula;
others are complex or composed of several simplepropositions
that are
allow
connected.
in some
Simple propositions
way
30.
General
Division
of
Propositions.
"
FORMAL
THE
of
i.
159
the
related
as
is,and
it
than
former,
is the
the
is
two
apparent
'
or
it may
mutually
previously
judgment. Now
the
Schoolmen,
be in materia
on
con-
', when
matter
the
the
be other
absolutelycannot
the mind
to
"
terms
of
in necessary
terms
Matter.
considered
nomenclature
necessaria
between
connexion
the
use
in materia
tingenti.It
to their
the
to
proposition,
be
according
the formal
may
divided
are
is meant
proposition
subject and predicatebut
of
matter
(I),
of Simple Propositions
Classification
I. Propositions
31.
ORDER
quality(IV).
and
(II),quantity(III),
"
to
LOGICAL
fourfold classification,
namely,accordingto their matter
form
By
OF
CAUSE
analysis
mere
'
'
'
'
'
'.
matter
'
'
is knowable
by itself,
propositionin necessary matter
propositio
per se nota ; whereas the contingentproposition
depends for its being known upon something else beyond the
terms
of the proposition,propositio
mere
per aliud nota '.
The
'
'
'
Kinds
32. Two
class of
one
the
between
considered
Judgment
of
judgments
'
Matter.
Necessary
in necessary
is necessary
terms
in
matter
'
the
connexion
the
either because
subject,
term
same
In
i.
"
as
the
for instance
as
judgment of identity,
that
i +
is an equilateral
i
a square
quadrangle', 2
inasmuch
the*
because the subjectincludes the predicate
as
or
of the subject,
latter is some
element in the essence
e.g. 'a
'. In both cases
is intelligent
', a man
square is a rectangle
predicate which
"
is
'
'
'
"
'
18
within
The
the
particularjudgment
scope
of science
'in
contingent
scientia
non
est de
matter'
does
not
singularibus.
fall directly
LOGIC
160
the
of the
comparison
mere
sufficient to
make
two
judgment
their connexion
necessityof
the
of the
terms
is
evident
is necessary
because
involves the subject,
and in consequence
the predicate
necessarily
In
2.
second
the
connexion
class the
be denned
cannot
"
of the
notion
Let
terms.
two
'
number
'
number
up the necessary
illustrate this :
(a)
connexion
subjectshows
is
is
by
each
groups
the elements
us
'
Five
"
propositionwith
definition
one
containing the
is
of the
prime
a
'
of units 16.
number
same
to be found
Now
in
the number
5,
it
immediatelybecomes
5, inasmuch
'
either odd
The
or
'
attribute
not
even
is either odd
duo
dicendi
lf
prime
or
same
is
be
may
although
even,
of number,
necessary
unity excepted inas
number,
number, is divisible or
kinds
two
PER
SE
number
is
'
of
17,*a0
'
necessary
followed
herein
who
Schoolmen,
ACCIDEXS,
PER
the
to be either odd
; for every
for these
the
dicendi
But
property
by two,
not
even.
given by
modi
reckoned
or
name
that
enter
it is not
as
The
'
of number
resultant
much
is it even
nor
'
said of attribute
it does
'
odd
of number
notion
is a
even
1,
'
it is
as
can
prime number
its necessarily
agreeingwith the number
is
property of it. (b) Every number
with a disjunctive
proposition
predicate.
is not
comprehended in the essential
be defined without
not
evident
; but
Aristotle, was
in contrast
ovro,
propositions
the
to
modi
Kara
generally defined
one
as
divisible
only by
itself and
unity.
'
17
Per se dupliciterdicitur.
Uno
cujus praedicatum cadit in definitione
animal
enim
in definitione
cadit
enim
modo
hcr.ai-iis. Et
quia
propositio per
dicitur
subjectisicut ista
id
Homo
quod
est
est
se,
animal
in defmitione
causa
praedicata
ejus,in his quae sunt per se, dicuntur
dicitur propositio per se, cujus e contrario
subjecti. Alio modo
est
subjectum ponitur in definitione
praedicati; sicut si dicatur : Nasus
esse
causa
simus,
vel
et
nihil aliud
tum
par
est
numerus
causa
est
est
par
quam
praedicati'.
simum
numerus
enim
nihil aliud
ST. THOMAS,
De
est
quam
nasus
curvus,
medietatem
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
ORDER
161
It must
that
the
of the connexion.
the nature
33.
added
the
for
Nomenclature
Different
Same
Pro
Division.-
'
'
34.
II.
Propositions
are
divided
to their
according
Form."
of
the union
subjectand predicateprecisely
it is realized in the assertion of the judgment.
be affirmative
or
I. A
negative19,
proposition
may
according
the mind declares that the predicatebelongs,or does not
here
Form
as
as
18
The
means
(op. cit,,p.
JOYCE
Scholastic
52,
definitions
The
"
the
"
in
in
A
in
which
tained
"
of the terms.
intension
"
in
involved
not
definitions
An
An
predicate
modern
:"
TRS.
negative proposition
'
affirmative
one
'
e.g.
This
similarly an
;
generous
is not
Man
affirmative
: e.g.
'
may
sometimes
assume
the
infallible '.
'
The
world
is not
of
appearance
'
'
is
lacking in generosity
apparently negative proposition
man
means
be
may
infinite '.
an
is not
really
LOGIC
162
must
be united (comand accordingly
subject,
with itao.
not united (divisio)
or
positio)
is the modalityof judgments or
2. Closelyallied to form
which qualifies
the union of predicate
and
the particular
manner
subject. On this score judgments may be divided into apodeicassertoric, and
problematic omnis protic, empirical or
the
belong,to
'
"
continetur,ut
eo
positio
inesse,aut
aut
necessario inesse,aut
ai.
enuntiet
ut insit,
contingere
(which must not be confused with
proposition
apodeictic
in necessary matter) asserts that the predicate
the proposition
either necessarily
belongs to, or else is necessarily
repugnant
have a first cause
',
to, the subject: e.g. The world must
for the world to exist by itself'.
It is impossible
declares that the predicate
The assertoric proposition
belongs
X
matter
of
fact
Mr.
died
: e.g.
to the subject
as a
yesterday'.
which
is founded
The
on
simple
problematicproposition,
'
posse
The
'
'
'
is a
possibility23,
of
non-occurrence
with
tentative declaration
determining
'
cause
e.g.
appointed commander-in-chief
35. Import
tion.
intension
The
"
the
form
upon
tion
they are
tive
one.
and
by nature
possiblethat
of the
extension
Predicate
Mr.
is
of
Proposi
of the
: in an
proposition
inverse proportion
to what
of the
in
connected
'.
Logical Value
or
It is
or
occurrence
that is not
event
some
of the
predicatedepend
affirmative proposi
they are in a nega
affirmative
propositionthe predicateis taken
accordingto the whole of its comprehension, althoughthis be
and according
less than the comprehension of the subject,
All the' notes of the predicate,
to part only of its extension.
but
taken togetheror separately,
are
appliedto the subject,
in
the subjectneed not, and in fact does not, stand precisely
virtue of the enunciation for more
than a part of the objects
i.
In
an
mental
In
ai
12
ARISTOTLE,
Analyt. pr., I, 2.
Aristotle does not mean
By possible
understands
St. Thomas
determinatum
est
solum
the
ad
same
esse
here
'
Dicitur
but contingent.
not-contradictory,
necessarium
quod in sua natura
autem
; impossibile
quod
est
determinatum
autem
est omnino
determina
quod ad neutrum
; possibile
ad
sive
habeat
tum, sive se habeat magis ad unum
se
alterum,
aequalitcr
quam
ad utrumque, quod dicitur contingens ad utrumlibet
'. In Periher.,lect. 14, n. 8.
solum
ad
non
esse
in
included
assert that
the
'
the
dog
connoted
there
are
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
the
predicate:thus
'
vertebrate
'
; but
163
when
dog.
be made,
exceptionto
one
namely in
definition (P) and
case
ORDER
no
is,however,
There
LOGICAL
the idea
by
of
extension
OFJ
the
the
'
the mollusc
is not
belong to
though it may
the
class,it does
not
does not
even
vertebrate
note
some
verifythe
to which
allsubjects
brate
brate ; I exclude
but I do not
be applied,
which
class,inasmuch
or
whole
as,
the idea
this account
on
means
vertebrate
whole
possess
'
'
vertebrate
exclude
'
may
36. III.
"
indefinite.
is one which declares that an attri
proposition
denoted by an idea or that it
bute belongsto all the subjects
are mortal '/No
man
belongsto none of them : e.g. All men
universal
'
escapes death*.
is one which
proposition
singular
belongsto one individual. Should
A
declares that
an
attribute
subjectstand for a
definite group of individuals,
it is said to be a collectivesubject,
is concerned it is not differentfrom a singular
but as far as logic
in which the subjectis not universal
one.
Every proposition
is a particular
whether the subjectbe
matter
no
proposition,
individuals of the same
class or simply one individual :
many
*
the
'
or
choly',where
the
subjectmay
'
be
e.g.
An
'
one
old
all
'
or
the
is melan
man
'
as
'
some
old
men.
Attention
need
M.S.P."
n.
VOL.
hardlybe
called to the
importance
superior
M
LOGIC
164
of the universal
the particular,
for inasmuch
over
proposition
is contained in the universal a knowledge of
the particular
as
the latter impliesa virtual knowledge of the former, while the
is not
converse
true.
37. IV.
"
Propositionsare
true
declared between
or
of Compound Propositions($
Classification
" 2.
38. Division
Complex
of
Propositions. The
compound,
"
or
better
is less evident.
requiredfor
The
i.
Let
us
establish the
define and
conditions
their truth.
first six
copulativedisjunctive
propositionsare
conditional,
causal, relative and adversative.
there are
in which
(a) A copulativepropositionis one
several subjectsor several predicates
joinedby the affirmative
'
'
is
negativeconjunctions and or nor '. This proposition
true onlywhen
each of its partsis true. In the case where the
is also called a r emotive
conjunctionis negativethe proposition
proposition.
is one
in which there are two
(b)A disjunctive
proposition
alone of which can
be true : e.g.
one
incompatiblepredicates,
Every free action is morallygood or bad '. For such a pro
to be true the two members
must
be so opposed to each
position
of no middle proposition.
other as to admit
is one
which contains two parts
(c)A conditional proposition
linked togetherby the conjunction if ; the firstpart containing
or
'
'
e.g.
If the
soul
is
is true
proposition
if the antecedent
soul
were
(d)A
18
By
the
'
it is
spiritual,
immortal
of
qualityof
called
rather
of words
than
kind
when
it would be immortal
'.
spiritual,
causal proposition
is one made
up of
the
This
'.
of
proposition many
it is affirmative
importance.
authors
or
two
understand
negative.
The
parts joined
what
we
have
questionis one
FORMAL
THE
OF
CAUSE
LOGICAL
165
ORDER
'
'
of the other.
expresses a relation,
of this dependsthe truth of the proposition
:
is
relative proposition
(e)A
and
on
'
e.g.
the accuracy
As a man
lives,so
adversative
(f)An
contains
or
one
discretive
or
different
more
which
one
'
'
'
'
own
sake '.
which affirms
is one
(b)An exceptive
proposition
subjectbut
'
with
restriction
e.g.
of
an
excludingpart
excess
an
attribute of
of its extension
'.
(c)A comparative
propositionis one which not only asserts
that a thing possesses certain attributes but that it possesses
them in a greater or less degreethan some
other thing: e.g.
'
Wisdom
is better than
riches/
those
certain
attributes
thinghas commenced
Slaveryceased
e.g.
'
assert
respectively
ceased to enjoy certain
which
or
in
1834 '"
Each
of these four
judgmentsand
propositions
reallycontains
therefore is not
III. RELATIONS
39. Relations
bear
to
between
different relations to
distinguish,
namely
opposition.
and
true
BETWEEN
unless both
two
separate
parts are
true.
PROPOSITIONS
it is necessary
of ^l^alencet
conversion,subordination
one
another
which
LOGIC
166
40.
said
of
Equivalence
expressionwhilst
example, All men
in
not
Conversion
41.
propositionsare
logicalvalue.
'
', No
immortal
are
men
Propositions. Conversion
of
in their
another
one
and
meaning
mortal
are
Those
"
differ from
which
equivalent
be
to
Propositions.
For
'
24.
consists in
"
so
'
'
mineral
'.
is likewise convertible
proposition
(b)A particular
affirmative
that both terms
for the same
of equal extension :
are
reason
with reason
sensitive beingsare endowed
', Some
e.g. Some
these
with reason
"are sensitive '. In both
beings endowed
is evident ; the two terms
the conversion
cases
are
clearly
transposable.The questionarises whether these are the only
'
two
'
The
cases.
consider that
if we
(c)In
the
not
real
is
individual
stance
would
answer
first
"
place,the
term, which
singularpropositions
concrete,
determined,
or
basis of attribution.
a
'
Peter is wise
say that
Peter ',the term
Peter
'
subject.
(d)And in the
of
ultimatelyrepresents a
as
serve
'
conversion
since
conversion
',cannot
to be in the affirmative
seem
or
'
One
is in
'
first sub
Thus, when
spiteof
the
is
men
conversion
still
the
second
in the
universal
but only on
change places,
made
subject be limited in
may
when
are
men
sensitive
'
the
is
predicate
are
predicate
conversion
Thus
'
All
'
its extension.
become
sensitive beings are
Some
may
conversion is imperfector, as it is otherwise
men
and
proposi
affirmative
that subjectand predicate
sense
the condition that the predicate
place,a
is not
of
an
by
one
Among
exception,namely
equal extension.
true
limitation.
In other
conversion, because
that in
subject
imperfect
thus
'
cases
these
'
The
used by many
term
Latin
writers and
adopted by Mill and Mansel
equipollence. The process of changing a proposition into its equivalent
is commonly
known
as
obversion, the new
proposition being spoken of as the
and
obverse of the originalproposition,the obverUnd
(cp.converse
14
is
TRS.
FORMAL
THE
OF
CAUSE
beingsimplysubstituted
terms
LOGICAL
ORDER
167
term
restricted.
extension
42. Relations
of
Opposition
and
Subordination.
These
"
rela
tions between
of
The
subaltern.
and
first two
alone
relative
opposition.
propositionsare said to be contradictories if they
other as to exclude a middle proposition.
are
so opposed to each
They differ both in form and in quantity. Compare, e.g.,
of true
(a)Two
'
All
white
are
men
'
with
'
Some
men
are
not white
'
25.
(b)Two
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
different modes
The
of
11
ARISTOTLE,
""
'
Universalis
Pcriherm.,
designat
ponit
tiva
et
extremam
hoc
c.
VI.
(propositio)affirmativa,
homo
solum
est
removet
distantiam,
pertinetad
Justus,Nullus
ration
in
em
et
universalem
negativa sunt
Justus; quia scilicet
universalis
homo
est
affirmationem,
inter contraria.
sicut medium
negativa sehabent
affirmationem
negatio non
plus facit, nisi quod removeat
In Periher.,lect. n.
et
sed
etiam
In contvadictoriis
.
'.
ST.
THOMAS,
i68
LOGIC
CONTRADICTORIES
A
All
are
men
Q
Some
just.
O,
men
are
just.
not
.A
I
Some
No
are
men
just.
"
both
false,since
of the other.
versa
that
Hence
if it is true
:
'
is
one
Some
traries cannot
would
be true
true
the
negation
other is false,and
at
be
just',it cannot
are
men
both
both
All
false.
one
',stillmore
just', or which
propositionNo
tion
But
the
out
All
men
the
'
"
of
falsity
It may
its being true that
3. Subcontraries
Both may
be true
not
just
Every
be untrue
'
that
All
'
No
men
are
are
imply
not
'
compare
just
'
Some
that
Some men
suppose it untrue
No men
are
just must be true
'
44.
Rules
Some
men
Propositions.
"
The
tivelysubordinate
the
are
concerning
universals
just
are
men
not
the
men
some
one
"
men
without
group of men
both cannot
be false,
be false
if
we
just',the contradictory
are
; stillmore,
and
to their universals
false.
Some
just',
are
then, must
is the
it be
subcontrary.
Falsity of Subordinate
I and
particular
propositions
impliesthat
be
'
just',which
Truth
be
; there may
with
not.
be found in
; justice
may
'
that
proposi
the truth of
may
:
'
'
true
just'. The
are
But
being the virtue of another group.
for were
they so the two contradictories would
'
is
is not
man
does
proposition
'
All
'
just
just,even
not
are
'
'
not
are
men
that
just'.
are
just,even
are
just
are
men
contrary.
men
Some
men
'
'
'
'
comes
be true
If it is true
time.
same
man
vice
the contradictories
were
are
nor
be false. Con
'
men
Opposed
just'.
not
Contraries cannot
2.
'
both
less than
or
of
Falsity
cannot
is true, the
one
that
are
men
and
nothing more
if
are
men
CONTRADICTORIES
just.
and
E.
are
The
respec
truth
of
the truth
THE
CAUSE
FORMAL
OF
LOGICAL
ORDER
169
Again,
ifthe particulars
the universals ; but falsity
so
are
are false,
of the particulars
of the universals does not imply the same
27.
too
45. Immediate
Inferences.
inference
real
"
conclusion
the
three
or
propositions
premissesof
that in a
presently
results from
a
comparison of
this comparison is made
in two
an
seen
When,
argument.
is sometimes
as
It will be
directlyfrom
however,
conclusion
singleassertion,the reasoningis
eduction.
immediate
Such
inferences
inferenceor
able through the conversion, opposition,
and
called
are
an
obtain
subordination
ART.
46.
II.
REASONING
are
"
formation
as
we
considering
have
said,
and
The
the
In the
case
negation lies
typicalcases
of
not
of
followingsquare
S is necessarily P
(S must be P)
S is
possibly P
be P)
(S may
affirmation
propositionsthe contradiction between
of the proposition but with the verb.
the attribute
modal
propositionsare best seen from
opposition between
of modal
with
"
^^XTTTD
ATM^TTMDTTTC
CONTRADICTORIES
rnvTT?
AnirTfVRTFq
CONTRADICTORII
S is not
(g need
necessarilyP
not
be p)
PossiblY p
(S cannot ^ p)
s is not
LOGIC
170
I. NATURE
47.
Nature
of
REASONING
OF
Reasoning.
AND
The
"
SYLLOGISM
THE
end
those
other, consequences
principles.The
or
from
passage
conclusions
to
principles
flowing from
conclusion
is
reasoning.
it therefore asserts a predi
proposition,
it is quiteapparent that the predicate
cate of a subject. When
is evident (Criteriobelongs to the subject,the proposition
logy,52). Evidence may be immediate, i.e. when the objective
is immediately
and the subject
connexion
between the predicate
apprehended,and in this case the certitude engenderedis also
called immediate.
Or, as is the case in most of our judgments,
it may
be mediate ; it may
only after the mind has
appear
As
conclusion
made
of
use
one
is a
or
comparisonbetween
furnishes mediate
of
reasoning. It
the
middle
more
subjectand predicate:
certitude
is known
what
or
as
which
terms
of
such evidence
the certitude
is characteristic
of conclusions.
of comparisons
why we have to proceedby means
is the disproportion
between the complexityof knowable
existing
to know
thingsand the relative feebleness of our mind striving
The
reason
28.
them
of reasoning or
ratiocination is a perfection,
power
call it a mixed perfection
because
yet such that metaphysicians
it impliesimperfection
that is to say, because
; perfection,
The
is better than
to have
it is a circuitous
consists in the
of
18
tum
'
Discursus
rationis
discursus
intellectu
erat
be established
two
as
as
Reasoning, then,
concepts the S and P
Terminology.
of
and
"
conclusion
"
"
with
common
rationis
ratiocinamur
quod prius
its
comparison
judgment to
to reason
inasmuch
ignorantof it,and imperfection
it.
and difficultway of attaining
Syllogism and
48. The
not
ignotum.
procedit'.
Quod
ST. THOMAS,
ergo
Sum.
FORMAL
THE
'
'
third
or
mean
OF
CAUSE
LOGICAL
ORDER
discover
to
171
whether
Its perfect
the one includes or excludes the other.
objectively
is the syllogism.By Aristotle
and simplest
type of expression
certain things
is defined as
the syllogism
a discourse in which
follows simply from
being positedsomething else necessarily
their being posited 2n.
that
the
When
the predicate belongs
asserts
reason
objectivelyto the subject,the conclusion is affirmative ;
it sees
that one
when
only of the terms agrees with the
'
'
middle
that
and
term
second
the
does
negative.
The
two
of the conclusion
terms
are
called extreme
'
'
or
or
mean
terms,
middle
term
both
the
compared. The
subjectthe minor
extreme.
two
asserted second
the minor
words
is to call the
which
the
but
more
accurate
use
of the
in
that proposition
major (or propositio)
'
'
49.
Nature
ingargument
have
"
two
Anal.
and
of the
Syllogism." The
follow
which
specimen of a syllogism: Triangles
equal have two anglesequal ; but this triangle
is
sides
Logical Basis
pr.. I, i.
'
LOGIC
172
ABC
has
two
sides
equal;
therefore this
anglesequal '.
Reasoning is the bringingof
triangleABC
has
two
under
the
definite
subject
that something
extension of an abstract type in order to infer
which
is predicable
of the abstract type as such is likewise predicable
of
this definite
subject.
is a necessary proposition,
The major of the syllogism
assert
ing that the predicateof the conclusion (the qualityof having
some
two
an
an
abstract
abstract
be
as predicable
recognized
of a species
of one or of several or of all the subjects
or a genus.
that the middle term
extends
In the minor the mind preceives
has two sides
to the subjectof the minor
(thatthis triangle
therefore the mind
equal). When
puts major and minor
it perceives
that
together and regards them simultaneously,
the predicateof the conclusion
(having two angles equal)
which belongs necessarily
to the middle
term
with
(triangle
two sides equal)belongslikewise to the subjectof the conclusion
by
which
of the middle
it
it set out
term
between
the
is the advance
; thus
does
subjectand
of
thought
to achieve.
"
extension
of
the middle
From
term.
the
in the
sunt
same
its
established
eadem
middle
term
extension,and
on
eadem
inter
is considered
from
this
se.
related
score
In
the
point of
to the
second
view
of
extreme,
de subjecto
Quidquidaffirmatur
abstractim considerate,
ejus
affirmandumest de omnibus et singulis
uno
verbo, universaliter. Quidquid negatur de
inferioribus,
the
subjectof
the conclusion
"
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
ORDER
173
Necessity of SyllogisticPrinciples."
of the
Nature
generallaw stated
of the
conclusion
of the
essence
that
Here
subjectof
In the second
else
or
necessityof
the attribute is
case
a
law
part of the
property of
or
necessary
is absolute.
the conclusion
in virtue of
term
term
the
whole
either the
connotes
middle
essence.
to the
in the
which
predicatedof
to be
had
has
the middle
ascertained
by
subject is
we
syllogism,
proving force from a
"
have
its cogency
or
proposition.The questionarises,Whence
does this
tion
may
seen,
derives
itself derive
its
logicalvalue ?
reasoning. Yet, as
previousprocess of
infinite series of
an
(52-54),
be
never
be
sure
have
we
inferences
You
just
necessary
say
proposi
from
Criteriology
could
is impossible,
or we
we
certain conclusion.
saw
in
There
must
then
for our
which serve
as
propositions
starting-points
reasoning processes, propositionswhich themselves do not
stand in need
called logical
of demonstration.
These
are
and they assert simple relations between
first con
principles,
some
cepts.
80
This
COFFEY,
S1
see
For
view
The
an
of the
Science
analysisof
largeedition
nature
of the
; also
the
made
objections
58.
Criteriology,
fully by Dr.
TRS.
by J. S.
Mill
LOGIC
174
There
1.
The
2.
The
52.
kinds of
:
principles
logical
of each particular
formative principles
science
of all thought.
regulativeprinciples
are
two
"
Moods
Figures and
the
of
Aristotle's
In
Syllogism.
"
is the
middle
term
is the
term
subjectof
predicateof
extremes
:"
major and
the
both
premisses.
premisses.
"
"
"
reckoned
as
256 moods.
But
there
this number
among
are
figure: AAA,
ist
of the
Syllogism.
"
Besides
"
common
third term
first two
terms
are
in order to discover
related
logically
whether
to each
other.
or
how
the
This rule
may
be violated
'
cause.
The
universe is
an
effect.
Therefore
the universe
has
cause
'.
THE
FORMAL
CAUSE
is
ambiguous, inasmuch as
meanings is equivalentto
have
the
brain
for
brain
organ
RULE
LOGICAL
which
term
two
ORDER
be used
can
'
terms
175
Acts
e.g.
of
An
act
which
organ.
Therefore
is material.
acts
of
the middle
'
term,
having
in two
thought
their
are
OF
has
the
thought
the brain
for
\ is equivocal.
Latius
2.
conclusio
hoc
vult ;
non
(terminosextremes) quam
praemissae
better: Aeque ac praemissaeextendat
or
comparison made
this.
in the
premisses. It
cannot
Were
beyond
compared
go
of which
3. Aut
semel
is
aut
for
indispensable
iterum
medius
reason
rightreasoning.
generalityesto.
after
i,
The
"
of
analysis
an
the
of
process
should
we
in each
never
and in consequence
certain
different,
never
the syllogismhad
not four terms
(Rule i). E.g. All
that
case
not
were
'
metals
This
heavy.
are
substance
is
'
metal
substance
where
"
either of the
premisses. This
Ab
omnes.
uno
disce
RULE
4.
middle
heavy.
Therefore
this
'
medium
Nequaquam
is
'
The
"
It belongs
appear in the conclusion.
to the conclusion to apply to the two extremes
the result of the
term
must
not
comparison effected
middle
in the
Hence
term.
were
premissesbetween
the middle
term
and
them
the
brought into
the
From
affirmative
two
be drawn.
not
but
observed
it cannot
RULE
both
If two
agree
;
premissesa negativeconclusion
ideas agree
with
if there
be denied
one
is
an
with
the
same
can
never
third,they
can
identityaffirmed
in the
premisses,
in the conclusion.
6.
conclusion.
excluded
"
The
from
reason
extremes
be
are
connected
both
by
LOGIC
i;6
reason
that
the
term
same
related
definitely
the
are
through
middle
term
related
or
of this
the medium
two
extremes
givesus no
that they are
middle
middle
new
be
term
to affirm
warrant
Hence
term.
from
excluded
are
certain
either that
they are
not
any
them.
Pejorcm sequiiursemper
7.
conclusion
middle
agreement or disagreementto be
to each
other, and so a conclusion
not
or
fact that
mere
other
some
happen
of their
account
on
reached
which
terms
by comparison with
may
found
two
Yet it may
excluded from one
other.
conclusio
partem.
"
'
The
'
weaker
necessarilytakes after the
premiss.
The meaning of this may
be expanded into :"
the conclusion must
(1)If one of the premissesis negative,
be negative.If A and B are two ideas of which A agrees with
C and B does not, we can never
assert positively
and certainly
that A
agrees with B.
(2) //
by Rule
one
Therefore
we
know
neither
premisses. And
conclusion
of the
term
must
be
universal.
once
be
universal
in the
universal
in the
extremes
can
conclusion
be
particular.
the premisses
(b)If one premissis affirmative and one negative,
will contain two
universal terms, viz. the predicateof the
which by
negative premissand the subjectof the proposition
is universal.
Further, the conclusion is negative,
supposition
that its predicate
is universal.
which when
this term
Now
so
in the conclusion is universal,is not the middle term
predicate
(Rule 4) ; and therefore the
term, and
must
be
which
the extreme
in
particular
the
must
becomes
subjectin
premissesand,
conclusion
i.e. the
'
be
justthe
be the middle
same
if one
are
the conclusion
in consequence,
conclusion has
material
is not
onlyof
the
par
to
be
beings. A
man
'. The
propositions
FORMAL
THE
were
CAUSE
is
negative:
Therefore
man.
OF
is not
LOGICAL
'
No
ORDER
men
are
177
pure
'
spirit;
pure
spirits.
'
or
is
pure
"
"
distributed
middle
violation of Rule
be drawn.
can
Some
term, it is
universal
once
there is
conclusion
consequentlyno legitimate
3, and
Take
not
as
instance
an
'
Some
men
rich.
are
'
are
"
"
'
learned.
men
are
Some
laid down
not
Rules
'
virtuous.
which
"
of the
do
Syllogism and
than
more
connexion
learned
some
correctness
Truth."
The
rules
just
The
logicalself-consistency.
antecedent and consequent is quite
ensure
between
thingfrom
Therefore
is obviouslynonsense.
logicalconnexion
another
not
are
not virtuous
54. The
do
men
consequent
sary
between
the
"
premisses;
what
has
been
acknowledged
to
be
true
in the
LOGIC
178
be
premisses must
when
equally true
stated
in
the
con
clusion.
lead to a false
premissescannot
of a doctrine
conclusion,it follows that it is a legitimate
disproof
of its consequences.
or
Thus,
theoryto argue from the falsity
condemned
be
its
for example, atheism may
conse
justly
by
From
quences.
2. If
true
or
one
'
minerals
'
All minerals
no
horse is
an
animal.
of
may
mineral '.
Therefore
all
'All horses
no
may
is an
horse
is
man
are
men
animal.
animals.
are
horse '.
arrive at
Hence
is a mixture
of
statement
original
because
the element of truth prevails,
or
in the long run
each other.
counteract
false antecedent
is not
enough
that
certain number
drew
many
for the
may
proof of
For
theoryto
argument drawn
an
doctrine
No
man
by
the
is
use
truth and
two
falsehoods
consequent, it
true
or
error
theory to
show
to be
from
experimentally,
figmentof his imagina
of
consequences
to show that all its con
the
true.
are
II. VARIOUS
55. Basis
Therefore
verified them
be conclusive it is necessary
sequences
'.
have
animals
conclusion,either
correct
the
Since
ton
No
animals.
are
false premissone
because
and
Therefore
animals.
are
of
KINDS
Classification.
"
OF
We
SYLLOGISM.
may
several
distinguish
syllogisms
accordingas we consider the form
and the matter
of syllogisms.The form of a syllogism
is its
mode
of arriving
at a consequence,
structure, its particular
apart
of the actual
from any consideration of the truth or falsity
premisses; its matter, or the material aspect of the syllogism,
is the propositions
it is made
up of, which are either true or
shall consider in
false. In the two following
subsections we
turn both these two pointsof view, oiform and of truth.
the
from
induction
differ essentially
does not
Scientific
syllogism. Analogy and example, which
logiciansusually
different kinds of
FORMAL
THE
CAUSE
OF
ORDER
LOGICAL
179
connect
are,
as
shall
we
"
i.
as
form
phase or
some
see
of
generalconclusion
the syllogism.
a
from
of Syllogisms
accordingto
Classification
this section,
their Form
"
"
"
enthymeme.
'
annihilated
immortal
are
therefore
the
human
soul
is
immortal '.
An
of the
inasmuch
syllogism
misses, which
'"
With
M.S.P."
is understood
Aristotle
tinguishedfrom
VOL.
as
II.
epicktirema means
^eal
it appears
instead
an
of
as
to lack
form
disguised
one
of its pre
being expressed. In
attempted demonstration'
one.
as
dis
LOGIC
i8o
sufficient to warrant
is not
this circumstance
reality
a
specialplace as a distinct
form
its having
of the
syllogism.With
Aristotle,however, it did mean
something reallydifferent,
which has onlya probableconclusion (70,i).
namely a syllogism
Rules
and
Nature
58.
the
of
Hypothetical Syllogism.
"
the conclusion
its consequent.
important feature of the hypotheticalsyllogismis in
tion and
The
This
major.
'
'
condition
the
(i) Affirm
conditioned
the
Londoner, you
fore you
propositionor
are
British.
or
-'
neither
case
is the
If you
are
Londoner.
There
"
conditioned
not
or
you
antecedent
But
may
proposition
you
are
'.
But
affirm
the
Londoner
affirm
'
British.
are
true
converse
are
must
you
the condition
deny
If
not
in
But
must
and
consequent
you
(2) Deny the
British '.
are
antecedent
or
involves that
the
between
'
if
'
antecedent
between
than
^'presumption
been
59.
of the
indicates that
connexion
tried
are
in the mind
express
'
E.g. If
'
its radii
ence
of the antecedent.
there
them, and
a
nqx^us
of necessary
Not
in this
strict inference.
it expresses rather
had
E.g. If this man
case
'
opinion'.
Disjunctive Syllogisms. A conjunctive
he
by ill-fortune,
Conjunctive and
figureis a circle,
does not always
depend
infrequently
consequent.
is only a partial,
or
a contingent
speaker a
and
'
would
be of another
"
FORMAL
THE
in which
is one
syllogism
i.e.
that if one
so
in London.
York
'.
Such
Therefore
argument
an
181
major is a conjunctive
proposition,
between
two
incompatibility
cases,
simultaneouslyin
were
ORDER
'
is affirmed
be
could not
LOGICAL
OF
the
positsan
which
one
CAUSE
London
and
New
E.g. You
York.
been
You
in New
hypothetical
laws.
syllogismand is subjectto the same
A
disjunctive
syllogismhas a disjunctivepropositionfor
its major, i.e. a propositionthat positsinstead of a simple
alternatives which
are
entirelyexhaustive.
incompatibility,
this form of syllogismrequiresthe observance
of the
Hence
followingrules : (i) The disjunctionposited in the major
the minor affirms one
of the
must
be exhaustive.
(2)When
of the disjunction,
the other member
members
members
or
For example :
must
be denied in the conclusion,and vice versa.
This act of swearing
All free acts are morallygood or bad.
is not morallybad ; therefore it is morallygood '. Or, It is
bad ; therefore it is not good'. Or, It is good ; therefore it
"
'
'
'
is not bad
The
60.
'.
'
It is not
good
; therefore it is bad
Syllogism is
Exclusive
in which
one
'.
both
premisses
'
exclusive
are
free.
Man
'
"
fore
they
61. The
tion
as
minor.
are
not
free '.
is
Dilemma
major
with
two
combination
or
of
disjunctiveproposi
conditional
more
First the
as
propositions
are
disjunction
of the
members
particular
excluded
by successive partialconclusions ; whereupon the
as
a
generalconclusion follows that the disjunctive
proposition
whole is inadmissible.
It is a livelyand
of
effective form
argument : the adversaryis left to choose one of two alterna
tive propositions
he chooses he is proved to be
and whichever
The validity
of the argument requiresthe observance
wrong.
of the rules applyingto disjunctive
and to hypothetical
syllo
to
such
members
of
be
allow
the major must
as
gisms : (i)The
of no other possibility,
they must be exhaustive or complete'.
which make
(2)The two hypothetical
syllogisms
up the minor
'
must
each
lead to
conclusion
and
to
one
and
the
same
con-
LOGIC
i82
that in
suppose
God, we
are
sions that
Him
He
to have
wisdom
was
fool
been
fool
reconcile
His
renunciation
Jesus Christ
both
Since
istherefore
tallyreducible
ambitious
most
be
easily
can
can
shown
to the
the
conclu
impossible
But
impostor.
an
if
reconcile the
we
doctrine with
life and
madman
or
or
other of the
or
fool,how
displayedin His
istics of
It
'
A celebrated
elusion.
If He
suppose
penetrating
the character
impostor,how
His humility and
was
claims
we
an
with
alike inadmissible,
hypothesesare
fundamen
are
syllogisms
or
typicalsyllogism.
categorical
that the
above
" 2. Classification
of Syllogisms
accordingto their Matter
The
62.
of view
its Truth-
and
Syllogism
value.
"
From
the
point
certitude is
2.
site
demonstration.
it is in suspense
though without
other, it has
opinionis
tion
the
to
doubt.
or
When
it is inclined towards
absolutely
adoptingit to the
one
exclusion
side,
of the
of the mind.
adherence
3. The
with the
called
The
ments
attention.
88
The
dilemma
must
parts,'which
pronouncing upon each
successive
the
conclusion
which
was
'
reasoning by
consists
in enumerating all the species of a genus,
of them
in turn and then assertingof the whole
genus
not
valid
be
confused
for each
with
method
of the parts.
of
KINDS
DIFFERENT
tific Demonstration.
at
premissesthat
from
which
by
In
certain conclusion.
into Certain
Demonstration
"
are
183
ORDER
DEMONSTRATION
OF
Division
I. Fundamental
63.
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
is
and
StrictlyScien
process of reasoning
arrive logically
certain we
stricter
it is
sense
syllogism
'
the cause
we
givesus
that this cause
is really
and that
the cause
of a thing,to know
it 84.
be otherwise than we
know
therefore the thing cannot
that
to know
which
'
for
and
conclusion
Demonstration.
Scientific
"
which
that
In
dealing
Aristotle enumerates
of scientificdemonstration
the demonstrative
be between
first distinction,
then, must
Our
be true, ultimate,
conditions, that the premissesmust
immediate, better known than, and priorto, the conclusion, and
the
as
the
cause
True
1.
lowed
by
be the
of its truth.
reason
or
arrive at
to
a valid demonstration
premisses,
natural
not
demonstrable, in the
themselves
strations of
admit
are,
3.
not
to form
science have
true
premisses
source
2.
from
conclusion
true
never
cause
of demonstration
as
be fol
consists of
of demonstration.
in
consequently,
as
that
sense
it
were
premissesthat
These
ultimate,
Immediate, of such
nature
of firstprinciples,
nature
that
singlechain, the
do not
themselves
first,premisses
or
follow"
they
are
Self-evident,
requiringany proof.
4. The cause
order or
logical
or
the
35
reason
of
of
order
the
conclusion,not
knowledge,but
only in
also in the
the
onto-
order.
logical
since the
5. Prior to the conclusion,
of the conclusion.
the cause
or
reason
premissesmust contain
need be
The priority
of nature.
only a priority
6. Better
known
reasoningis to
84
ARISTOTLE,
31
For
lead
Anal,
this distinction
than
us
from
post., I,
see
the
conclusion, because
2.
Gen.
Metaphysics,165.
the
aim
of
LOGIC
184
unknown.
that this
Note
"
stration.
The
former, demonstration
'
'
on,
'
demonstratio
quia or quod
'),is a proof that
'
that ',not
because
(where quia signifies
something is, without any explanationhow
is Cajetan understands
The
to have both
existential signification.
'
Causal
the other
so.
copulativeand
the intrinsic
and
it is
why
or
'
on
(dpxn oiicaa)
reason
cause
of the
thingproved,
of which
account
it is so ;
it is therefore
scientificdemonstration.
strictly
A proofwhich givesan extrinsic or a general
reason
the connexion
between
subjectand predicateis
demonstration
Sid", propter quid,but belongsto
proofsof fact.
66. II. A
which
Priori
and
Posteriori
Proofs.
"
to
not
explain
a
real
the class of
distinction,
This
modern
logicians
preferto use in place of the one we
have justbeen considering,
is not such a strict one, yet has a
An a prioriargument is one
foundation
in nature.
in which
the middle term is priorin reality
of the con
to the predicate
or
clusion,one which proceedsfrom the cause
reason
(a causa
vel ratione quae in se est prior,a priori)
to effect or result (ad
effectum vel rationatum). In an
a
posteriori
argument the
Examples
progress is just the reverse, beingfrom effect to cause
An
immaterial
are
: of the a priori
subjectis incorruptible.
The human
'.
soul is immaterial.
Therefore it is incorruptible
.
'
"
Of the
demands
The
argument
posteriori
a
cause
other than
Therefore there is
universe '.
cause
'
"
Whatever
commences
itselfto account
some
time it commenced
accountable
to exist
to exist.
To this division
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
demonstration
prioriproof or
with
they
term
quasi a
an
They mean
one
thing from
about
is not
which
another
185
ORDER
simultaneo.
argument which
its connexion
what
add
authors
some
LOGICAL
distinct from
it in
be conceived of in thought
but is such that it cannot
reality,
An example is the
the thoughtof the other.
without involving
of in endeavouringto prove
made
use
argument St. Anselm
the existence of God from the concept of the most
perfect
being.
67.
III. Circular
Demonstration.
Regressive
or
Reason
"
to
again from cause
This
effect,in order to explain the latter by the former.
circular or regressive
as
proof,for the mind
process is known
it were
as
completesa circle by coming back to the effect from
it started its reasonings.This argument, unlike the
whence
existence
valid ; the undoubted
vicious circle(75,
26),is perfectly
is as
but its nature
of the phenomenon
is the starting-point
confusedly
; in the second
part of the process
yet only known
of the thing but only after it
the mind starts from the nature
distinct notion of it ; the latter is then used
has acquireda more
at first.
to explainthe effects observed
from
ascends
68. IV.
effect to
Accidental
Other
indirect demonstration
and
to extrinsic circumstances
is direct
monstration
descend
to
cause
of Demonstration.
Forms
This
than
to
is
the
i.
"
distinction due
of
nature
Direct
rather
things. De
it
straightforward
way that the conclusion
is virtually
contained in the premisses. It is indirect when
is
assent
considerations are appealedto and positive
subjective
givento the truth of the conclusion on account of the necessity
of rejectingits contradictory.Free-will is thus indirectly
This
of determinism.
proved from the absurd consequences
is called reductio per impossibile
latter kind of demonstration
shows
or
in
clear and
reductio ad absurdum.
2.
Absolute demonstration
is that
which
adequate of itself
is
to convince
opponent36.
particular
3. In contrast
demon siratio
88
E.g.
Our
Aristotle mentions
to scientificdemonstration
a
Lord's
is
to
those
who
censured
for
Him
his
Sabbath
by asking which of them would not rescue
bath.
For other examples see JOSEPH., op. cit.,p. 550.
"
ox
or
TRS.
extrinsic
an
healing on
ass
on
the
the
Sab
186
LOGIC
from
proof drawn
proved. An
below
circumstances
external
of this kind
example
to
the
of extrinsic
thing to
proof
be
occurs
(71).
These
all be
accidental
can
secondary forms of demonstration
classified accordingto the fundamental
distinction of
demonstrations
"m
or
and
demonstrations
PROBABLE
69. Probable
ARGUMENTS
for
have
Arguments
Ston.
one
or
both
premisses
under
70.
"
to Aristotle's definition is
ties or
'
signs
; that is to
enthymeme according
'
an
regarded as properties
inevitably
belongingto the subject
to which
they are attributed,but probably do belong. This
in daily life. E.g.
kind of argument is extremely common
in this par
Most
act through self-interest. Therefore
men
ticular case
Peter is actingthrough self-interest'.
not
'
2.
we
Analogicalinduction or analogy:
shall see later (85-91),
singlesout
from
the many
among
various accidents
Scientific induction, as
some
a
natural
substance
property
manifests,
and
from
not
yet known.
abuse
to
by
by
differences
taken
3.
from
for valid
being overlooked,
grounds of
or
mis
by metaphors being
inference.
induction
Example : Both scientific and analogical
an
empiricalfact to its natural sufficient reason,
work
or
its
THE
law, and
thence
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
LOGICAL
ORDER
187
the
Avarice
has
it in that
to
case
of B '.
and
Inferencesdrawn from the calculation of probabilities,
Hypothesis (II)are deferred for consideration later (92).
4.
71.
III.
Argument
from
numberless
In
Authority.
"
in
cases
that
reason
of
sincerity
fidence in such
the
a
we
incline to
testimony of
statement,
if
we
put
fellow-men.
our
follow
the
Yet
laws
of
con
right
be
we
regardedas absolute. Even one whom
esteem for his prudence and observation of facts may
be caught
napping at times, perhaps on this very occasion, or one of
well-known
sinceritymay
possibly on occasion be found
untruthful and deceiving. Whilst, then, the argument from
authorityhas its value accordingto the circumstances of each
particularoccasion,human
testimonyof its very nature cannot
which is absolute.
begeta certainty
In matters
does not hesitate
bearingon doctrine St. Thomas
to declare that the argument based on human
authorityis the
cannot
reason,
of
weakest
fundatur
These
minds
all
super
words
'
Locus
ab
auctoritate, quae
arguments :
ratione humana, est infirmissimus '.
contain
who
valuable
that
imagine
cation of personalreasoningin
authority.
ERRONEOUS
72. False
matter, of
when
and
an
argument
premissesthat
certain ; to the
Scholasticism
ARGUMENTS
Reasoning.
for those
answer
favour
stands
of
AND
superficial
for the
blind
abdi
followingof
FALLACIES
Error
"
or
supposed as true
or unconsciously,
form when, consciously
are
false
or
doubtful
are
LOGIC
i88
is drawn
conclusion
from
premisseswhich
the
does not
logic
case
allyfollow from
reasoning
should be called erroneous
argument, and in the latter a. fallacy.
is deceiving
is a paralogismif the reasoner
Further, a fallacy
of the term,
himself,and a sophism,in the presentacceptation
to deceive another.
when
he is consciously
reasoningfalsely
in General."
73. Fallacies
Following John Stuart Mill we
fallacies into two main groups.
classify
may
fallacies : These
Fallacies of simph inspection
1.
or
a priori
and generalizations
which
fallacies are
are
popular maxims
taken
for granted,usuallywithout
discussion and therefore
at least ambiguous if not
and which are
without
suspicion,
that ideas correspond
An example is the principle
erroneous.
the logical
to the ontological
to things,
order
a preconception
of the chief supports of pantheism. Again,
which becomes
one
the fallacyby which
rationalism endeavours
to substantiate
its denial of revelation,namely, the a priori
of one
repudiation
of attainingknowledge along with
methods
the
or
more
a
In the former
them.
the false
"
simultaneous
Fallacies
itself:
and
in
known
an
arbi
is
trarilyselected way
statement
unqualified
liberty.
2.
is not
Or, again,the
entirelyunknowable.
that man
has the rightto unrestrained
of inferenceor fallacies in
the
reasoningprocess
These
themselves
into fallacies of induction
arrange
fallacies of deduction, the latter comprising verbal and
formal fallacies.
74.
of Induction.
I. Fallacies
placed all
fallacies
Under
"
this
to be
heading are
occurring in inductive
reasoning whether
of the argument
preliminaries
i.
must
Fallacies
be
of facts ;
conclusion
the
of observation
fruit of
For
induction
trustworthyand
to
be scientificit
sustained
observation
a
very often it happens that the desire to reach
leads to assertions which trespassbeyond the limits
justified
by
observation.
observation,
by seeingwhat
Induction
is wished
may
be vitiated
for,not what
is as
by
a
matter
Haeckel
discovered his primary moners
:
so
reality
Huxley his famous Bathybius. Or by non-observation,by
of
failure to
see
what
it would
be inconvenient
to see
mat-
and
the
thus false
THE
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
LOGICAL
ORDER
189
can
of mechanical
in terms
the
cause,
'
Ab
uno
'. In
omnes
similar way
false use
may
analogy37.
of
be made
disce
arise from
the
of Deduction.
meaning
of
it
"
Verbal
i.
fallacies.These
word
words
was
or from
originally
The most
importantare :"
is the
This fallacy
or
(a)Equivocation
ambiguityof terms.
in a syllogism
of a word which has a double meaning or the
use
employment of some
badly defined phrase in two different
',
acceptations.Flagrantoffenders are such words as liberty
', evolution ', rationalism ', liberalism ', socialism '.
equality
The ambiguity introduces a fourth term into the syllogism.
(b) The fallacyof composition.This consists in taking
'
'
'
'
premisses;
whole
what
'
'
what
not
was
taken
together in
of the
affirming
parts taken distributively.
is true
only of the
Gospel records that
the
Thus, when
walk, the deaf hear ',the statement
The
understood
not if collectively.
disjunctively,
(c)The fallacy
ofdivision is justthe oppositeof the preceding
what
and consists in predicating
of thingsdistributively
fallacy,
is true of them onlywhen taken together. Thus I might argue,
are
87
Some
headings.
inductive
fallacies
can
be
under
ranged indifferently
several of the
LOGIC
igo
'
is
Five
But
singlenumber.
two
and three
five.
are
There
38.
singlenumber
2. Fallacies of ratiocination : (a)Begging the question(petitio
principii).This is a fallacywherein something yet unproved
in the course
is implicitly
of the argument as though it
assumed
were
alreadyproved. It may take different forms : the very point
be assumed
at issue may
be taken for granted; the whole may
whereas
the whole
a
part has to be proved ; or a part when
requiresproof; or each of the parts of the whole to be proved ;
it may be some
connected
with
or
pointof doctrine necessarily
the pointat issue.
(b)Vicious circleis reallythe same
fallacy,
except that it not
of unproven
what is to be proved but makes
use
only assumes
Thus did Descartes
for the proof of each other.
propositions
the Divine Veracityby an
appeal to self-evidence and
prove
then justify
self-evidence by the Divine Veracity.
(c)Fallacyofaccident consists in confusing(a)what is accidental
what is relatively
with what is essential,
true with what is
or
(/3)
true, for instance,absolutely
absolutely
condemning a practice
because of the abuses to which it givesrise.
concomitance
or
(d) Fallacy of false cause,
(a)Here mere
fore two
'
and three
are
"
succession
for true
is mistaken
causal relation
fallacyof confusingcondition
and
hoc, ergo
cum
again,concomitance
Akin to this is the
(ft)
and
or
a partial
cause
or
cause,
of many
questionsis the combination
if only one
would suffice,whereas
answer
in reality
more
are
required. Thus if it is asked : Has the
honourable
gentleman ceased beatinghis wife ? the question
he been
to a
Has
impliesan answer
previousquestion:
(e)Fallacy of many
questionstogetheras
'
'
'
too
the
question (ignoratioelenchi).This
real
of three
be
fallacymay
'
kinds
little,
or
something
the
argument
may
irrelevant
and
quite
prove too
beside the
point39.
88
Caius
88
E.g.
loves
To
is for those
Heaven
his friends.
this
list of
common
dictum
speaking
it is
itself may
be either true
the
first of which
alone
who
and
forgivetheir
Caius
enemies.
will go to Heaven
'. TRS.
fallacies may
be added
the paradox.
contrary
or
their friends
love
Therefore
false.
to
There
"
Strictly
in
and
d"5"tav),
opinion (irapb.
accordingly two kinds of paradox,
received
are
strictlydeserves
the
name.
Thus
the
statement
FORMAL
THE
ART.
76.
is
Knowledge
System.
ORDER
191
SYSTEMATIZATION
SCIENTIFIC
III.
LOGICAL
OF
CAUSE
"
The
construction
of
know
our
As
the
soon
of
work
as
have
we
of the
or
essence
These
conse
are
the
upon
completescientificedifice
Systematization of
factors which
'
modi
tres
go to form
'
sciendi
us
There
"
of
systematization
us
with
conclusions
to
on
Knowledge.
from
As
them.
division.
and
principles
; and
three
are
knowledge,
our
definition,demonstration
"
furnishes
Definition
carries
our
demonstration
definition has
what
only
functions
the
We
have
of definition and
ditions
requiredfor
shall inquirehow
their lawful
therefore
to
division and
employment (I).
consider
the
After
con
this
processes have an
applicationin the several specialsciences and in philosophy,
i.e.we shall consider method in generaland the different methods
we
these
factors
or
mental
All
minds
better
to
reality.
"
stands
equal
are
'
(a
for
loose
mere
sense,
statement
to do it ' is
which
perversity of
of Helvetius) is
real
paradox
;
not
'
Far
in
so
only prima faciea paradox, and
is of no importance here, paradox sometimes
expression or a cynicism born of ill-humour*
LOGIC
I92
I. FACTORS
IN
78. I. Definition.
what
SYSTEMATIZATION
THE
definition of
"
Definition has
it is.
thingis
twofold
KNOWLEDGE
OF
function
of
statement
inasmuch
as, in
foundation
thing is
and
but
further
knowledge
definable.
on,
so
which
on
starting-point
or
be built up.
Now
justas not
can
our
later
or
sooner
get down
we
which
notions
to
submit
to
to
'
'
Kinds
79.
meaning
ing
in
Real
its
either
word
ideas and
our
to
of
of Definition.
its conventional
to
2.
40.
whole
or
explainsthe
definition
its etymology or accord
Its purpose
use.
declares
definition
essence
Verbal
accordingto
avoid the
so
i.
"
us
clear
of ambiguity.
possibility
what
a thing is,either according
of its accidents
some
is to make
or
of its natural
some
properties.
gives a full statement
(a) Essential definition
is inasmuch
The
essence
it makes
as
of
ideas
are
hope
to know
universal
and
must
or
thing
essence.
it is this
thing
individual,whilst
89-91);
(Psychology,
this essence,
definitions with
particular
thing,that whereby
distinct from
and
known
of what
we
can
be content
therefore
in
our
our
never
essential
essence
declaringthe genericor specific
of
thing.
(b)Accidental
essence
specific,
'
40
Definition
as
and
its
so
on
'."ARISTOTLE,
Analyt. post.,II, 3.
which
notes
LOGICAL
representsthe thingby
it
When
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
taken
as
ORDER
193
means
group
definition.
accidental
the mind
these qualities
From
:
(c)Natural definition
which
by a process of induction, discover one or more
and the definition is
i.e.properties;
qualities,
necessary
a
an
can,
are
then
natural definition.
definitions
The
zoology,etc., are
definitions,or
best
the
natural
is formed
80. Definition
which
In
of fact
The
Analysis
experimentalaccording
reasoningor by induction
or
deductive
synthetic,
seldom
we
is strictly
scientific
process, whilst in
science the process is first of all analyticand
Let us explain.
by
Essential
by Analysis or by Combined
"
from
definitions.
in matter
ideal to which
an
and
as
chemistry,mineralogy,botany,
most
accidental
part descriptive,
Yet
attain.
and
for the
at
definition is rather
in
used
rational sciences:
experimental
synthetic.
an
then
sensible data
From
presented to
us
by generalobservation we abstract very simple ideas (de
which we immediatelyproceed to put together
composition),
i.
'
to the
of
is
'
number
three
'
and
the extension
As
therefore
attribute
'
odd
'
in its double
two
'. The
meaning
word
'
of
except ng
'
'
first
'
first
two
'
and
'
which
"
'
prime
and^'three
'.
'
',
even
may
'
"
be
rules
Hence
LOGIC
194
combined
when
other
than
is
concept
'
firstodd
apply
exclude
all numbers
it alone ; the
to
compound
an
2.
wise
Before
of
'
'
the attributes
define life we
can
we
'
being called
of which
virtue
We
all.
ourselves
they
are
left with
all immanent
abled
the
"
tinue
and
the
differences
'
vital
'
is in
them
there
(nutrition,
and
intellectual)
or
characteristic
common
of
distinctive features
definition of the
began,
predicatedof
term
we
that
what
we
that
"
Im
elimination
form
to
us
be
can
kinds
operations(Psychology,10, 11).
is therefore
activity
Division
find out
sentient
their
the various
whatever
thought
volition,whether
find
manent
try to
which
operations
the
cognitionand
in
to
attribute
same
eliminate
be among
may
living',and
the
to observe
have
has
"
element.
common
division from
where
en
Now,
the
analysis
different in
action, is discovered to be specifically
and volitional lifewhether sentient
nutritive life,
in cognitional
immanent
or
intellectual.
to the
genus
Science
are
directions.
forms
from
the
species.
This alternation of
in other
legitimately
passes again
be continued
and synthesis
analysis
may
Besides forms
of transitive
of immanent
activity
;
from
there
activity
these
the
mind
ab
activity
; this is the
character
is a differentiating
genericelement, and immanence
of the two characteristics
istic : the placing
together(synthesis)
stracts
the
(analysis)
makes
the
that
are
definition,the
related
tracks down
"
combination
of the
In this way
genus and differentia.
through all these speciesa genus which
so
eventually elements
type that is
are
reached
notions
two
analysis
as
wide, and
increasingly
until
feature
common
and
more
which
becomes
more
defy
simple,
further
the
no
less than
in
decompositionof
a thing through a graspingof its simplest
attributes, together
with their union or synthesis
with which it is to be identified.
the rational sciences definition consists in
THE
The
attribute
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
which
determination
or
LOGICAL
ORDER
is the least
195
comprehen
sive and
element
'
element, which
limits
'
is proper
concept, and
the
generic
generic
the
to
81. Rules
arrangedunder
heads
two
"
be
rules for definition may
to the twofold func
corresponding
The
above
1.
proceedfrom
of the sciences,
firstprinciples
(a)a definition must
objectwhich
an
'
is
'
that defined
'
and
sickness ',may
the definition of each other, for the
such
as
health
priorto
not
one
correlative terms,
therefore be used in
is
of
as
defined
by
itself or
genus made
by
be the
of must
use
2.
in
precise
our
is
what
as
ambiguousand obscure
in its expression.
words
and
division
division
to
make
us
thing
of the thingto
repeat the name
composed of metaphoricalor of
; it must be concise and adequate
thingbe
itself, (b)The
can
to
posterior
proximategenus.
secondarypurpose
unknown
much
as
are
of Definition."
Concomitant
two
mutually complementary
logical
processes. While definition informs us what a thing is,
and by naming itsgenus and specific
difference identifiesit with
the simpleelements making up its essence, division makes clear
how far,or to what special
forms, the genericelement of the
definition extends.
'
tion
or
'
reason
of
The
a
genus
division.
genericnotion
at each step
species,
I.
starts with
and
'
'
odd
'
'
number
M .8.P." VOL.
II.
'
'
'
factorizable
'
and
O
LOGIC
196
'
'
'
'
and
to
common
human
activity.The
analysed,and
are
different kinds
two
their
of
are
activity
foundation
common
or
in their turn
supreme
is
genus
83. Rules
serve
ing
be
to
Division.
for
"
to
double purpose
is to helpin establish
: its chief purpose
scientific orderliness in our
knowledge, and its secondary
a
to make
purpose
of view, to aid
clear
thinkingeasier.
From
the first
point
scientific arrangement,
be
(i) division must
and, as far as possible,
logically
progressive
complete,
positive.
And to be a real help to clear thinking,
it needs to be (2)com
clear and methodical 41.
plete,
II. METHOD
84.
Diversity of
'
means
road
Scientific
towards
or
way
leading to scientific knowledge.
the
science to
which
sometimes
synthetic,
41
We
to make
may
too
too little
add, from
few
the Port
the
is
accordinglysometimes
rather
we
Royal logicians,
that,
may
'
it is
it is to make
too many
; the
other is to distract the mind
'.
as
(/xefoSos)
and
analytic.Or
divisions
light,whilst
it leads
Method
Methods."
'
one
as
great
mistake
fault is to throw
THE
ORDER
197
of both
42.
synthetic
analytico-
This
of the
in (I)the
respectively
"
as
plesin
arithmetic
necessary
tion, deduce
new
different methods
employed
experimental
sciences,and (III)
philosophy.
The
85. I. Synthetic Method.
such
LOGICAL
of scientificknowledge is really
a combination
method
it is
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
and
geometry,
matter, and
truths
rational
and
start
or
deductive sciences,
with
certain
princi
from
so
of ideas is
The march
objectsunder consideration.
from simple to compound, from the more
general to the less
general; in a word, the method is synthetic.The mental act
the elements
also
which combines
expressedin the definition
time effects the division of the objectdefined and
at the same
is the chief factor in all deductive proof. As an example, let
of the angles
us
suppose as alreadyestablished that (a)the sum
side of a straight
line by other straight
lines is
made
on
one
equal to two rightangles; (b) the internal alternate angles
lines by a line cuttingthem are
made with two parallel
straight
straightline may be drawn to any given
equal ; (c)a parallel
straightline : the combination of these three propositions
furnishes the discoveryof a new
relation,the equalityof the
with two rightangles.
three anglesof a triangle
of the Experimental Sciences.
86. II. Method
The experi
sciences start with the observation of con
mental or positive
various
"
crete
The
to the
particular
the
complex
the method
them.
govern
from the
to the simple,
is
analytic.
variations displayedin the pheno
ftIn spiteof the numerous
of the natural world, it needs but a superficial
observa
mena
tion to show that these variations are governed by certain con
It is the objectof the empirical
sciences
stant generallaws.
to determine
these laws of phenomena and the nature of the
with
the observation
of
things observed.
They commence
facts at once
complex and variable,and end when they have
discovered the simple elements of their compositionand the
stable laws governing their variability.
This
method
of
The
general:
We
have
LOGIC
ig8
are
known
purelyrational
are
Stages
87.
inductive,in contrast
as
of the
or
deductive
ment
Induction
"
is
; it consists first in
cause
these
which
sciences.
Process.
Inductive
with those
con
an
argu
determining
four
separatesteps :
"
1.
Observation
of the
senses.
and under
gen
example, the
varied circumstances
(H) combines
with another
fall within
chemist
that
fixed
the scope
observes
repeatedly
fixed quantityof hydro
quantityof chlorine (Cl)
compound, HC1.
scientist supposes that the observed
2. Hypothesis. The
of purely
phenomenon cannot be due to a constant repetition
fortuitous coincidences,and that therefore a sufficient
reason
of the reactingbodies.
lie in the nature
must
Accordingly
scientific
he makes
a
hypothesisas a provisional
explanation
to form
definite
43.
of the hypothesis,
which
verification
is the
most
idea
preconceived
which
As soon
4. Deduction.
possessedby H and Cl. of
the property
recognizes
of
combiningin the fixed proportions
its observations,
i and 35-5, it goes further and, after verifying
each time that H
draws the generalconclusion : Henceforth
in the proportionsi and 35-5 and subjected
and Cl are mixed
to the action of the
sun's rays hydrochloricacid will be
formed, accompanied by the disengagementof 22 calories the
molecule-gramme
as
43
For
COFFEY,
fuller treatment
op. cit.
of
hypothesissee
the
largerLogique, p. 345
f ., and
LOGICAL
ORDER
199
various
These
OF
CAUSE
FORMAL
THE
induction.
of Induction.
88. Methods
the methods
usuallyenumerate
concomitant
Following J.
"
of
S. Mill
agreement,of
variations,of residues,and
logicians
of
difference,
jointmethod.
The
the
ones.
principal
1. Method
of Agreement: When the phenomenon the nature
in different cases
and each different
of which is in question
occurs
that circumstance
has only one
circumstance
in common,
case
of the phenomenon.
is probablythe sufficient reason
the phenomenon under
When
2. Method
:
of Difference
in one
of two cases
and not in the other,
occurs
investigation
first three
and
are
in both
all the.circumstances
cases
are
identical
save
one
which
present in the first and absent in the second, that
circumstance
is the total or partialsufficient reasonjjof
j the
is
phenomenon.
made up
3. Method ofResidues : This is a compound method
from a
When
modified.
of the two
precedingones
slightly
phenomenon that part is subtracted which is known by previous
inductions
to be
the
cause.
where
the
happens
foregoingmethods
when
the
cause
are
of the
of
no
in
use
cases
phenomenon
be
cannot
com
isolated.
pletely
JointMethod
precedingmethods.
5.
89.
This is
Object of Induction.
of the
derived
from
some
"
chemical
simultaneous
The
use
of
lead
experimentswhich
combination
of the
some
deal with
the
and
body, for they reveal its properties
the formal cause.
They also determine
us
to
formal
these
what
are
is
LOGIC
200
the material
of the chemical
cause
fix the
They
may
tendencies
the
which
according to
as
the
they
elements.
component
of the
finalcause
inasmuch
compound
combinations
combinations
or
take
place.
Nevertheless
be
the
particularobject of
of the train of observations
the purpose
is really
investigation
and the same, namely,to ascertain some
one
propertyof a being
and ultimatelythe law of
nature
and through this its specific
its activity.Inductive research, then, aims at the discovery
of causes
(proofof fact,on) or at what lies deeperthan this,the
discoveryof the laws of nature and the definition of natural
Sion).
types (demonstration
of Induction.
The problem connected
90. Logical Grounds
with induction
be stated thus : From
particularfacts
may
whatever
cause
"
formulates
induction
observed instances
what
on
ground
tion is found
is
by
cases),we
particular
a
are
nothing else
be
bodies which
that where
forces that
not in
than
and
the
differ from
reality
tive methods
we
observed
The
find
consider
variable
are
the
ever
solu
always
same
(a
experiment in all
in arguingthat there must
justified
the
be
is to be found
Induction
certain
and
tendencyon
verified not
we
combination
observation
for this
reason
sufficient
can
and
harmonious
fact established
from
argue
instances yet to be
possible
such a procedure legitimate
?
of elements
form
we
to all
in the consideration
able number
unitingto
general law
as
Syllogism.
"
the
ascertain
in the
the
cases
particular
generallaw 44.
Scientific induction
syllogism.By
is the
what
part of
the
does
of the induc
means
of
cause
48
observed
an
phenomenon,
thetical
have
and
by the inductive
the presumed cause
syllogism.Again, when
established
is in truth
menon
inductive
these
we
show
by
its nature
to
cause
indifferent
an
manifest
(which is a
certain
cause
methods
of
we
pheno
demonstration
6Vt),
but
property,to
determined
one
act
according
This
46
There
.,
THE
to
in
law.
FORMAL
Such
OF
CAUSE
LOGICAL
demonstration
ORDER
201
likewise be
may
expressed
syllogisms.
92. Statistics and
Induction.
"
aim
The
of scientificinduction
fixed law of
certaintythe existence of some
Now
nature.
frequentlyit may happen that we have before
of facts which though obviouslygoverned
us
a great multitude
at
by certain laws are yet so complex that the mind cannot
is to infer with
once
note
down
all the
In other words,
tory
or
list of
we
a
the
facts and
draw
As
causes.
step forward
of facts wherein
great number
may
they display.
coincidences
statistics.Statistics form
up
we
an
inven
tabulate
we
in classes
them
cidence in the
connexion.
sufficient
reason
for the
constant
recurrence
of these
"
We
constancy
find
that
cases
in which
indicates
it is
law.
impossible
You
use
may
of a dozen
to
a
discover
die that
from
is
facts
the
perfect
"
any
its faces
with
the usual
markings
to
"
and
LOGIC
202
alone
"
"
method.
94. Method
of
The
Philosophy.
analytico-synthetic
method
is that of all philosophical
speculation.Philosophy
is the science of beingin general,
of all being,
and therefore its
scope includes both the ideal order and the empiricalorder.
in order subsequently
Both of them it traverses first analytically
to combine
the results synthetically
and thus offer a rational
explanation. In this sense is to be read Aristotle's definition
alreadyquoted (Gen.Introduction,4) : philosophyis the science
of thingsthrough their ultimate causes,
or
again,the science
founded
In
on
each
"
the universal
of
its
order.
branches
same
"
physics, mathematics,
itself of the
meta
inductive-deductive
method.
The
mathematician
from
which
tions are
the
ever
they
needed
to
of
principles
are
deduced.
Certain
from
the axioms
elementary observa
become
turn
the
deduced
synthesesfrom
which
are
the
FORMAL
THE
sciences
of
number
abstract
more
The
3.
lead
and
physics
of
actuality,
efficient
intrinsic
finality
number,
etc.,
to
surface
of
ing
moral
the
to
or
mind's
these
contemplates
thus
makes
'
stitutes
formal
its
them
ideal
elements
knowledge
all
things
infinite
First
wisdom
of
aim
of
and
laws
man
wisdom
Cause
is
the
in
the
of
an
line
end,
order
right
metaphysics
or
it
branches,
and
relations,
their
which
synthesis
general
the
or
moral
the
to
and
addition,
the
philosophical
is
in
philosophy
the
con
narrow,
light
the
of
act
the
of
First
and
of
the
perfect
most
who
Cause,
continues
to
vision
the
work
universe
the
explain
to
comprehensive
culmination
influence
the
philosophy
("ro"j"ta)or
philosophy
almighty
;
an
word.
the
attain
can
His
by
of
'
potentiality
by
to
being,
and
produced
as
ethics
objects
principles
rational
such
these
indefinable
acceptation
The
truth
First
of
results
analysis
distinction,
unity,
notional
to
objects.
the
up
the
quantity
to
logic
under
to
continuous
good
the
gathers
mathematics
sciences
of
changes
to
subject
criteriology
further
compounded
form,
passive
the
to
up
philosophical
of
incapable
and
203
lead
eventually
the
substance
to
matter
in
cause
plain
of
objects
to
ORDER
geometry.
pure
departments
mind
definition
of
speculations
LOGICAL
that
quantity
and
several
the
OF
CAUSE
of
of
synthetic
has
govern
the
with
world
philosophy.
created
by
in
His
its
CHAPTER
THE
95.
FINAL
CAUSE
and
Logic
The
ordering
ings
that
form
is
what
of
the
Definition
as
whole,
and
Such
The
truth,
ultimate
extrinsic
"
alone
of
understanding
scientific
with
and
scientific
knowledge,
the
apart
are,
and
stances,
the
from
formally,
of
principles
whence
deduced.
These
founded
in
law
'
later
generating
on
its formal
of
the
of
is
to
this, that
all
one
from
of its
reason
science
be
is
their
form
The
the
unity
of
principles of
object.
204
This
to
most
what
deals
Science
dictum.
is
Science
science, considered
are
the
furnish
first definitions
propositions
of
circum
favourite
whole.
own
know
to
'
action.
one
at
collect
to
variable
and
Aristotle's
thought
matter
science, it is
savant
(b)
their
the
universal
must
true,
of reflective
contingent
propositions.
consists
form
mediately
up
such,
as
of
their
the
universal
only with
(d) Systematically arranged
body
fruit
province
aim
is the
what
uni
or
is, manifestly
is the
cannot,
The
way.
make
(c) Necessary,
is not
and
as
therefore
particular facts
to
body
of its action.
laws
certitude
concerned
is
as
so
intrinsic
the
give
that
science
certain, necessary
unified
of
knowledge
define
may
which
things
Yet
logic.
contrast
immediately
and
subject
evidence
selves
truth.
propositions
prepare
intellect.
by
evident,
drawn
of the
these
say
Certain
faith
of
end
"
reason
guarantee
no
though
We
"
are
are
of the
nature
is
arranged systematically
as
which
properties and
be
which
well
versal,
We
intrinsic
of Science.
propositions
the
of
name
the
and
judgments
our
man's
"
Knowledge.
object is.
an
96.
of
knowledge
deserves
of
ORDER
Scientific
ideas
our
logician therefore
certain
of
is the
science
of
orderly arrangement
is the
which
final object
of the
of
systematization
this
end
LOGICAL
OF
Attainment
the
or
to
go
IV
synthetically
science
are
object is, if
them
not
the
at
essence,
the
fore
the
nature
Such
CAUSE
FINAL
THE
least
intimate
is
"Vrt)
the
of
ideal
LOGICAL
property
of
reason
(rt" n'
unity
natural
OF
the
of
the
unity
of
of
object.
a
perfect
ORDER
science.
real
science
205
subject.
is
the
There
essence,
ETHICS
INTRODUCTION*
I. The
of
Object
of
Ethics"Ethical
philosophyis
deals
with
These
is
the
order
acts
of the
the
order
that
We
may
be
to
will
man,
and
free-will.
2.
those
subject
are
are
words,
of the
under
which
cerned
into
moral
moral
of
and
Special
ethics
in
acts.
ethics.
order
is
considers
towards
be
to
investigatesthe
order
particular
but
the
his
duties
of
about.
conditions
the
conditions
is called
God,
to
hand, takes
the
moral
; it examines
when
right
special
as
con
relating
other
According
towards
man
fellow-men, it
of
former
it is not
brought
control
The
the
end
an
philosophy is
and
may,
peculiar
to
the
Moral
special
Special ethics, on
the
view
acts.
right
to
in
acts
those
and
Ethics."
and
will
object
of human
mean
with
moral
of the
it
"
acts
reason
general and
various
consideration
agent
direction
it will conform
the
produced
called
act
we
20)
its formal
it treats
acts
also
general
with
different
are
object
that
and
free acts
in these
human
are
the
Ethics
into
treats
By
which
to
These
General
livided
its material
say, in other
i.e.
in the
is to be established
realized
department
towards
ethics
himself
religious,personal,
or
social
or
cinics.
Books
for
study
consultation"
or
ien^e
of,E"!?s'vols2
"GilI" Dublin'
1909-1917).
3rdV
",
nd
of Modern
Socialism
Ethics
Examined
Justificati-
(Benziger,
of
New
,900).
Rights) (MacYork,
3rd
cd..
(tr. Gettelman,
^eace
and
War
Morality)
Non-Scholastic"
Tutorial
"^(Cliye;
1
209
Press, London,
L,
London,
PART
Ethics
General
General
of
3. Division
requiresthat
of Good
Theory
Ethics.
"
As
the
and
moral
should
Evil
philosopher
of will and
exist among
acts
this
should
be appropriateto their ends, it
acts
acts :
of the end of human
will be necessary to give an account
of the first chapter. In the second
which will be the purpose
conditions under which these
shall analysethe psychological
we
human
nating them
the
to
question,What
is that
should
conform
which
will treat
the moral
be in
agent
as
far
we
as
of
order.
in
When
II
of the will
the acts
matter
we
subordi
Next
man.
understand
we
itself,
objectively,
chapter,
what
is
shall then
chapter will
deal with
aspect
this final
specially
designateit,conscience.
M.S.P.-VOL.
questionof
order to which
will form
considered
This
positionto give a
aspect, i.e.in
moral
moral
of moral
order
end
natural
is
there
placewhen
actions take
211
the
of
subjective
morality
or
CHAPTER
NATURAL
THE
Nature
tion
existence
line,
one
disposal
is that
and
the
make
towards
one
of which
its nature.
word,
the
substance
and
internal
the
intrinsic
Nature,
in
est
we
the
with
the
object
being
is attracted
other
term
activity
towards
between
this
e
materialiter
Further,
realizes
To
est
its
end
suo
reality one
final
and
the
of
it
the
in
denotes
primary
defines
as
its
aim
or
agent
We
seeking
it.
Bonum
whether
one
or
the
of the
direction
relation
the
is
activity of
use
the
either
end
which
being
natural
good.
special
this
is that
good
the
consider
of indifference
which
or
end
of any
matter
being
conformity
of
Finis
et
bonum,
seu
convertuntur
since
or,
good
perfectivum, it
itself to
strive
It is
we
The
tendency
towards
as
end
made,
or
nature
determinate
being.
is its end
according
The
Aristotle
activity of
the
natural
appetunt.
that
bonum
the
end.
within
This
their
movement.
of this
good
at
tendency
meaning,
it has
as
forces
be done
its natural
activity.
towards
tendency,
or
omnia
quamvis
far
so
principle of
first
conformity
say
in
of
principle
called
quod
being
along
inclination
inherent
primary
direction,
is also
of
its
In
or
to
comes
of their
direction
aim
supreme
sub
observa
our
various
many
the
first moment
continuous
anything
of
under
the
id
one
None
"
come
from
steady
they
sake
Good.
The
have
converge
for the
End
aimlessly
that
so
MAN
NOTIONS
sense
they
OF
manifestations
various
in any
act
Natural
and
whose
stances
END
PRELIMINARY
I.
4.
is the
is clear
of
source
that
after
its
natural
and
the
same
thing.
212
and
self-perfection,
the
good
all
to
impulse
perfect
of its nature.
itself
are
in
THEORY
A
5.
Diversity of Natural
being
it
namely, according as
from
the
external
; and
natural
movement
whereas
body
by
tendency is
a
merely
of movement
is
its movement,
to
an
The
way.
different
wholly
subjectof the
the
subjectof
it in any
to
the
that
cause
itself contribute
contribute
ways,
of self-direction
power
In both cases the movement
of this is that
does
is
inclination^of
any
enjoys the
reason
that
213
be exercised in two
may
communicated
movement
EVIL
The
"
this fundamental
proceedsfrom
which
end
directed.
it or is passively
towards
AND
Tendencies.
its natural
towards
GOOD
OF
extrinsic im
older
philo
violent.
natural movement
itself is
quitedifferent accordingas
it is or is not precededby a knowledge of the end towards which
it is tending; the latter is simply natural, the former natural
also,but in addition voluntaryor spontaneous.
But
Man
since he alone
freelyorder
can
his will.
sense
He
of the word,
knows
the end
"
aiming at it,or
natural
ends
without
7.
I.
and
in
reality,
The
means.
order of
ontological
when
meant
we
speak
the
latter is
Kinds
of
Good.
The
be
will may
in itself; such
of good.
three kinds
distinguish
disposedtowards an objectconsidered as
"
We
good
2.
By
good is
virtue of
a
source
an
time seek
good objectthe will may at the same
the pleasurewhich it will experiencein the attainment
of that
object. The good objectitselfis called the objective
good ; the
pleasurewhich its possessionbringsto the subjectis bonum
delectabile the agreeablegood.
after
striving
"
ETHICS
2i4
which
good objecttowards
3. The
of
the
guidance
honestum.
rightreason
When
speakingof the natural tendency and of the end of a
the beingin the fullness of its nature.
being,we are considering
Thus
while man
tendencies, so that
certainly
possesses many
ends
as
we
particular
might even
say that he has as many
has
he
has
he
being and activity,
end only.
II. THE
In
LAST
this section
and
end
considered
faculties,yet when
only
shall
we
; next
one
HUMAN
OF
show
tendency, one
NATURE
that
shall
we
fullness of his
fundamental
one
END
in the
has
man
determine
natural
one
what
that
end
is.
End.
Natural
an
Thesis
First
8.
by
an
end.
to
an
end
which
are
definition,
we
of
one
and
Really
it is
an
first
the
hypothesis
Last
satisfied with
necessarily
to a higherend.
Human
will call A.
One
of two
results follows
thesis stands
proved.
In the
second, the
which
end
will is
further relation
suppose
us
Subjectively
human
no
their very
Let
has
Man
I. The
"
bears
end which
acts,
of the will
or
is it subordinated
to
ask
:
with
is it the
further end
C ?
this subordination
subordinated
end
to
one
except under
to
another,
higher end.
so
the influence of
that
In
does
one
series of ends
not
act
as
an
there must
exist
any
end which
supreme
the will through the
power of moving
If there
dinated ends.
'
were
no
moral
action.
in itself the
possesses
medium
last end,
Hence
of the
subor
nothing would
be
desired, nor would any action have its term, nor would the
first
no
intention of the agent be at rest ; while if there were
thing among
those that
are
ordained
to the
end, no
one
would
THEORY
GOOD
OF
EVIL
AND
at
215
have
term,
no
'
'
acts
end
for human
'.
varietyof faculties,
different
of which
each
finds its expressionin specifically
actions ; yet it also laysdown, with no less emphasis,that man
In a
is a singlesubstantial being,one
nature, one
person.
of action,
word, there are in man
secondaryprinciples
many
but all proceedfrom one
primary principle.Now, every prin
towards an end.
Hence,
cipleof action tends by its activity
the primary principle
of action tends towards a primary end,
of action can
tend only
and the secondaryor derived principles
This
this primary end.
towards
end
to
subordinate
an
primary end is the natural end of man, his natural good, the
of all his progress towards perfection.
cause
(ratio)
This may be more
to
from the fact that, were
we
seen
clearly
human
natur$ capable of being without an end, we
suppose
should
have
have
would
to admit
disorder againstwhich
a
the
to be set the perfectorder
of the universe, especially
of
is the crowning work
who
pre-eminentdignityof man,
Psychologyteaches
that
man
possesses
nature.
It
is,moreover,
that
suppose
nature, should have
to
impossible
Thesis
wise
infinitely
put in
us
natural
Man
an
only
One
Natural
End.
'
"
It is
time
impossiblefor one man's will to be directed at the same
is because,
to diverse things,as last ends.
The
first reason
since everythingdesires its own
desires for
a man
perfection,
his ultimate end, that which
he desires as his perfectand
crowninggood. It is therefore necessary for the last end so to
fillman's
to
appetite,that nothing is left beside it for man
desire. Which
is not possible,
if something else be required
for his perfection.Consequently it is not possiblefor the
appetite so to tend
perfectgood *.
to
two
things,as
though each
were
its
'
'
Si non
etiam
'
ETHICS
216
last
The
that
Hence
desire.
If
ends.
second
good
10. Third
is
nothing left
it follows that
anything beyond
or
end
second
Thesis
The
Indeterminately and
in the
This is
rather
conclusion
fulfilall
so
as
desires
our
object of further
an
have
cannot
we
one
will seek
the
it there
outside
tellsus, must
two
or
And
purpose
of
would
Human
Nature,
regarded
could
serve
End
what
last
more
thesis
man."
requiring
proof.
It is
the end
of
man
"
'
"
Fourth
11.
is in
End
Thesis
Created
Regarded
Good
in the
; it is in God.
Negativeargu
The
ment."
com
objectcapable of making us happy must
must
be secure
pletelysatiate all our desires ; its possession
and assured ; and this object must
be attainable by all. But
in no created good are all these conditions verified. Therefore
created good can be the adequateobjectof our happiness.
no
Proof of the minor : There are three kinds of goods : those
of the body, those of the soul, and external goods. But all
these goods have a threefold deficiency
which
renders them
powerlessto constitute man's beatitude : they are so in
satisfied anyone ; they are of
complete that they have never
so
no
short duration
without
and
so
unstable that
no
"
one
i.
can
possess them
limited
so
are
finis ita
THEORY
GOOD
OF
AND
EVIL
217
"
Good.
For
be
object can
an
the
adequate
of man's
cause
happinessonly on
of which
man
naturallycapable;
condition
verified.
is
Proof of the
minor
subservient
manifestly
organicand
Man's
and
only in
perfection
God
is this
sensitive powers
are
will. The will in its
into action
comes
12. Fifth
Happiness
Thesis
by
Man
Act
an
into
enters
of his
the
Intellect.
"
of his
Possession
Human
with
nature
in
of many
faculties finds its highestperfection
the exercise of these faculties ; for action is the complement of
its endowment
the
of
capacities
The
subject.
sense-faculties
subordinate
must
perfection
intellect and
highest endowment,
man's
are
his will.
With
which
be connected
happinessof man
divided on
are
Philosophers
attributes happiness to both
former
and
may
Duns
Scotus
between
be,
intellectual
the
be attained.
faculties
Thomas
to
It is evidently
by the exercise of the latter that man's
faculties.
Two
are
these
we
are
three
of
is
only
of these must
his
viz.
the supreme
this
question. St.
intellect and
Bonaventure
will, whilst
St.
one
of
opinion that
standpoint. However
it is in the
exercise
this
of the
ETHICS
2i8
intellect that
the
of human
end
supreme
is
nature
formally
realized.
Proof. The
jectiveend of
be
tially
The
in
human
its beatitude
tendencyof
tendency in
be in
will
with
second
act
an
its end
formallyinto
posses
of the
For
will.
we
when,
moment
having passedfrom
of repose.
has the passage
How
to the second been brought about ? Clearly
been
its
essen
state
produced in
of the
disposition
the
of the
case
must
Now
in the
enters
in the
states
be
cannot
its end.
consider it againat
some
nature
state
this end
sub
the
of the intellect.
distinguishtwo
may
constitute
Therefore
nature.
by which
act
sion of
human
act
an
exercise
"
of
made
representation
by the act
im
Hence the act by which human
of the intellect ?
nature
of its supreme
end, the act by
mediatelyenters into possession
which the taking possessionof the supreme
end is actually
good by
means
brought about, is an
If it is true
in
of intellect.
act
its end
possessionof
an
the human
soul
act, it remains
to be
formallyputs
intellectual
is
whether
this
inquired,as a last analysis,
of the practical
intellect.
or
speculative
Thesis
13. Sixth
Act
of the
Subjective
Speculative Intellect.
"
Beatitude
There
are
an
act
is realized
of the
by
an
three considerations
own
sake
considered
are
them
that
and
man
on
with
realizes them.
comes
14. Corollaries.
nearer
"
i.
to
Two
reason
practical
intellect
(3)It is by the speculative
beings superiorto himself.
points are established : (a)God is
the supreme
nature,
objectiveend of human
(b)The means
nature
attains its supreme
objectiveend is the
by which human
contemplation of God.
subjectiveend of human
end
only a subordinate
expresses it.
"
THEORY
What
2.
end
our
of God
final love
The
"
this love
affords
beatitude.
The
will does
the
enjoyment of
perfectionof
supreme
15.
of which
perfectact
this act
is the
the
is then
He
With
nature.
end
end of
The
"
is
the
the
reality
of
act
an
beingis the
In the
capable.
most
of
case
This
of God.
man
know
beatitude.
his natural
of man,
the action
source.
of our
most
perfectact
perfection
of the objectiveend of our
perfection
the
regard to
is the
nature
it is because
good,
the
the first,
regardto
is God
of
essence
rise to it is in
the
contemplativeknowledge
of
perfection
which
rational nature.
our
its nature
given
Conclusion.
and
Summary
219
satisfaction
constitute
not
supreme
end, but
has
which
activity
the
and
of obtainingour
consequence
of this.
For if this enjoyment is
intellectual
EVIL
AND
of
part played by the will in the possession
is the
?
GOOD
OF
the
exercise of
its
thought appliedto
our
our
highest
Finally,
the
union
of
with
nature
our
the
also
its supreme
end
action presupposes
the
However, as an
object towards which it tends, it is necessary to say that the
absolute last end is God, 'finisultimus
; and the subjective
forms part of
end.
our
'
beatitude
and
the
sub fine'.
end, 'finis
16. A Difficulty. This
study
"
If every
difficulty.
subordinate
the supreme
without God
must
love.
But
end, it
Himself
knowledge and
be
does
the
are
to will
us
our
of
motive
anything
knowledge
inform
not
raises
man
borrows
first objectof
subordinate
of
end
impossiblefor
being the
love of God
bringsare
of the
end
consciousness
our
it
which
felicity
the
that
us
all
and
acts
our
of
volition.
It is true
end
to himself
Hence
our
concrete
does not
man
the
explicitconcept
from
the
first
last
end, the
and
under
one
determined.
always representhis
under
have
we
cepts of
other
that
governs
this undetermined
the first
It is under
form
acts
the
two
con
undetermined, the
abstract and
our
Being.
of the Divine
between
distinguished
all
supreme
of will.
end
of
man
concept
Further,
is not
ETHICS
220
always
have
we
actually and consciously.What
established is that every good for the will is either the perfect
else a particular
or
good itself,
good which can be the objectof
it is related to the perfect
will only inasmuch
as
our
good. It
is in this sense
that the desire of the SovereignGood
inspires,
each
at any rate implicitly
and virtually,
of our acts of volition,
17. Beatitude
in the Present
Life.
During his earthlylife
does not experience
that completedevelopmentof his being
man
the soul with the
which allaysall desire and want
and endows
imperturbablerepose of happiness. Beatitude in the full sense
is possible
Nevertheless,in a restricted
only in a life to come.
with the conditions of our
sense, happinessis not incompatible
earthlylife. ( Some are said to be happy in this life,either on
of the hope of obtaining
account
happinessin the life to come
;
of happiness,
account
of a certain participation
or
on
by reason
of a kind of enjoyment of the SovereignGood '.
Men esteem
that there is some
kind of happinessto be had in this life,
on
of a certain likeness to true happiness. And
thus
account
3.
in their estimate
they do not fail altogether
willed
"
'
'
'
18. Conditions
have
we
explainedand
cerningthe
what
1.
of man's
essence
first condition
of
Happiness.
the conditions
are
The
the Realization
for
and
of the end
only if the
ordered
relatingto
means
love of the
be realized.
sinlessness.
or
end
naturallyin
to it.
But
it will be
the love
rationally
is subordinated
means
con
to consider
happinessis to
love that
that
thesis
beatitude, it remains
which
on
Now
"
to
the
of the
love
means
Thus
state
of beatitude.
condition
of the conditions
one
of the
of
perfecthappinessis securityagainst
its loss. Perfect happiness requiresthat the natural ten
dencies of the will shall be satisfied. But these aspirations
are
co-extensive with our intellectual knowledge,and this does not
2.
"
dae
'
Another
Beati
dicuntur
in futura
boni
summi
aliqualem
aliquam beatitudinem,
et
sic
non
ex
toto
Theol., I-II, q. 5,
a.
fruitionem.
propter
in
3, ad
sua
i
"
Homines
aliquam
aestimatione
and
ad
3.
reputant
similitudinem
deficiunt
in
verae
'.
ST.
hac
adipiscensecundum
vita
esse
beatitudinis
THOMAS,
Sum.
THEORY
from
existence
and
happinesscannot
or
in other
cannot
respectsmay
its happinessmust
Thus
EVIL
221
limited duration
the
natural
be satisfied if the
but
desire of
happiness
lost.
AND
happinesswithin
all time-limits.
be limited
may
GOOD
OF
endure
enjoy a singlemoment's
happiness
be perfect,
unless it is certain that
for
ever.
the
If the
body
is not
essential to
the
organism did
human
not
contribute
its share
to
the
'
The
human
soul
becomes
more
Contra
perfectin
of the body.
whatever
pro
For
is most
by the ardour
with which the will restrains the animal passions. It would
then, that the soul,far from beingdissolved by its separa
seem,
tion from the body, finds its perfection
in this very separation
'.
inevitable that in
The first answer
is that it is by no means
the human
body should impede the expansionof the
every case
of the soul ; these hindrances are an accidental
higheractivity
the
of the imperfections
of the body which
consequence
immaterial, and
soul
spiritual
moral
rectitude
is measured
We
must
next
ETHICS
222
20. Accidental
of
Qualities
Happiness
demand
certain
we
almighty yet
perfect
are
acci
the
generalresurrection
will be brought about by an
suppose
intervention
natural
state of
which
qualities
happinessseems
dental and complementary, (a)After
to
The
"
of
Divine
Providence
far
so
this is compatiblewith
as
the free
play of the
empire of the will
will be
higherfaculties. They
subjectto the
in such a way that the most
perfectharmony will rule in all the
of life; the human
manifestations
body will receive from
beatified
the
soul
increase
of
perfection,
glory and joy.
will find a place of
(b)Thus constituted in beatitude man
his interior state.
existence befitting
And
(c)most probably
to him
will also find there the joyspeculiar
as
a social being.
21. The
made
of Man
End
accordingto
him,
he would
is
Supernatural
of pure
state
he directed his
had
to
an
the moment
might
all his
to
had been
the end
then
proposed
But
and
If man
have
so
beatitude.
first man,
what
"
(Psychology,
173),and
nature
towards
aspirations
even
End.
in matter
descendants,
of fact
a
assignedto the
destiny,
supernatural
is to
say,
22. Does
of
Natural
Happiness
Involve
Conception
"
Our
"
"
vision
summary
of
the
Infinite.
assertion has
We
doubt, however,
sufficient foundation.
whether
this
THEORY
A
It
seems
Reason
here
necessary
is in
in
his
make
to
EVIL
223
distinctions
some
(i)
certaintythat the
natural
exigencies
surpasses the
Man
creature.
would
Essence
of every
capabilities
found
AND
GOOD
OF
not
then
have
inclination (appetitus
innatus
seu
any
naturalis)
callingfor the vision of the Divine Being as its final
nature
perfection.(2)Without
could not
lightof revelation man
have convinced
himself of the positive
of the vision
possibility
of God
of the essential capacityof a rational creature
to
nor
bear such an intense felicity.
On the contrary, he would
surely
have concluded
that the vision of God was
beyond the reach of
created nature.
the condition
God
with
the
It is reasonable
of pure
we
in
nature, is incapableof
categoricalabsolute
(3)Nevertheless
that
to say
are
will
the vision of
willing
elicitus efficax).
(appetitus
inclined to think
that
unaided
natural
of obtain
might easilyhave conjectured the possibility
ing from the divine Omnipotence an intuitive knowledge of the
have
this would
followed a conditional desire
Deity. From
elicitus inefficax),
a
velleity',a hope, rather than a
(appetitus
But under the guidance
will,of the sight of God.
categorical
of the wisdom
proceedingfrom his reason, his will might have
kept this desire within the limits ordained by the plan of
it to
the
subordinated
Providence, and might have
higher
absolute desire of maintainingthe order of the universe which
reason
'
is the
these
whether
merit
The
the
the
considerations
attainment
of the
in
the
natural
happiness reduces
happiness of a being consists
supreme
end.
in the
absolute
Now
sense
doubtless
of
the
no
the
way
question
of
name
it follows
Hence
end
itself to
contradiction^
of
does
a
that the
ascertaining
or
matter
does
not
of words.
possessionof its
supernaturalend alone is,
word,
in
the
end
supreme
of things in which
the
of
an
find
intelligent
nature, in the real order
we
ourselves placed. Yet the natural end, which
in a possible
order
of things might have
the complete and
constituted
exclusive end of man,
is also,in a legitimate
yet relative sense,
end
that is to say, one not subordinated
to a higher
a supreme
end.
Thus there is nothing to prevent the attainment
of the
natural
less
end being called happiness,though in a sense
complete than that of the supernaturalend.
"
II
CHAPTER
FREE-WILL
23.
and
Object
has
nature
been
consists
order
natural
be
that
is
there
devoted
the
to
has, however,
doctrines
moral
liberty in
been
in
of
aspects
order
moral
this
to
essen
presupposi
then,
must,
of
question
section
second
of
are
moral
chapter
liberty
it
various
the
deal
to
of
influence
the
the
act
the
man's
Psychology (112-120),
in
and
that
human
the
in
of
end
see
on
preliminary
that
liberty
rests
As
treated
philosophy, especially
certain
order
of free-will.
established,
there
of
subject.
the
recall
to
the
existence
The
"
shall
we
of
physical
the
study
us
Later
very
already
for
will suffice
the
from
Chapter.
subordination
the
But
tiallydistinct
tion
discussed.
in
end.
of this
Division
with
passions
the
on
in
special importance
free-will.
MEANING
I.
24.
of
Meaning
ing determination,
from
exterior
an
production,
judgment
since
can
it
they
always
have
to
are
this
always
will
the
in
formally
by
judgments
of
assent
will.
for
but
of
facts
for
free-will,
of
their
object,
particular, contradictory
will
and
to
is
the
faculty
the
it alone
mind.
to
Consequently
put
an
end
the
judg
abstract
acts
its
refuse
to
or
Our
free
The
law.
indetermination
an
in the
comes
necessary
to
determined,
influenced
determination
antecedents
root
all necessitat
internal
some
WILL
THE
excludes
particular, individual
be
the
its
has
it resides
undetermined
belongs
from
upon
OF
free act
whether
or
depends
it is true,
ments,
The
"
matter
no
cause
Liberty
assent.
Liberty.
FREEDOM
OF
is such
act
PROOFS
AND
to
the
and
it
in
determination.
Moral
objects
liberty
considered
in
their
of
relation
224
choice
to
different
between
the
end
of
rational
nature.
moral
AND
EVIL
225
in man
the faculty
of choice between
Indeed, it implies
good and evil, but this power is a weakness and an
of
imperfection
free,and
are
free-will.
our
of Free-will.
25. Proofs
we
GOOD
OF
THEORY
study of
the
consciousness
Our
"
informs
givesus
that
us
the
inner
II. THE
26.
universal
The
of this fact.
reason
INFLUENCE
Statement
always involves
of desire
the
of
a
OF
Question.
judgment
the part
the intellect and
spiritual,
act
their
action
PASSIONS
THE
on
the
on
The
"
exercise
of
liberty
of the will.
will
the
FREE-WILL
ON
Now
depend
an
althoughthey are
for the
exercise of
organicand
functioningof
libertydepends in its
exercise on the same
material conditions.
This dependence is
when
the case
the free act is not simplyan act of the
especially
will (actuselicitus)
but an
act of an
organicfacultyresulting
from a command
of the will (actusimperatus).
27. Extent
the
of the
Hence
organism.
Influence
Material
Causes
fortunate
individuals
of Man's
Free-will.
on
who
is beyond
irresponsible,
That
"
owing
to
Nature
Sensitive
there
are
and
certain
derangement
mental
of
un
are
disputed.
That there are others who, whilst able to form correct judg
ments
on
speculativematters, are incapable of resisting
solicitations to evil, does not contradict any
point of our
doctrine but seems
rather to be established by experience.It
not
be even
impossiblethat there exists,as Lombroso
may
'
professed,
criminal
sistibly
given over
doubt
and
to crime
who
can
has
never
monsters
irre
recognizedby
certain
is to
be
been
say,
ETHICS
226
and pathological
characteristics. Such
anatomical, physiological
characteristics
criminals.
most
Further,
we
less
more
or
may
also
numerous
admit,
which
experimentson
caution, that
be found
to
are
person
lose
the
use
suggestion
among
though the
be handled
with
under
the influence of hypnotic
may
of his liberty.All these facts are not
lower
emotional
do
generally
states
than
and
external
weaken
material
agents do
not
moral
liberty.
here with
We
not
concerned
the passionswhich
are
are
consequent upon the free act, since so long as they are con
sequent upon it they cannot affect its nature : they are rather
indication of the intensityof the will's action and are
an
But of the antecedent passionsthe case
of its reaction.
subjects
more
is otherwise.
act
is in the
direction
same
to it. When
will,sometimes in opposition
they
in the direction of the will,it would
seem
they ought to
that
as
their action
Sometimes
of the
increase the
rather
liberty
Self-control,the
case.
it ; but
weaken
than
characteristic feature
such
of
is not
the
freedom, is
lost in
the
proportionas sensible emotion increases. When
is there
to the higher,
appetitepullsin opposition
liberty
lower
by lessened,but
it is made
that
which
entirelyto
have
we
if not
exert
may
the soul's
ing
the
it is not
real power
absolute is none
lay down
to
of control
Either
through change
activity,
Or
generalrule that
over
our
testifies
clearly
passions;
one
limited.
We
it in different ways.
other
as
consciousness
Our
cease.
will to
passions.
true
of
indirectly,
by diverting
thought, throughapply
objects,even
directly,
by
to strengthenthem
passions,
the
or
to
repress
third way,
them,
at least to
certain extent.
yet by
combat.
The
organic or
habits
heredity,
immense
material
of life,climate
influence
on
and
temperament
temperature, have all an
conditions
and
the functions
of
of
our
sensitive nature
and
THEORY
and
rare
very
OF
GOOD
AND
cases
EVIL
227
incompatiblewith
4.
and responsibility
liberty
sensitive
appetite,the
First of all,no
1.
and
material
not
the action of
even
human
Violence
volition,the actus
may
be done
elicititsof
our
to
limbs,
our
by
is
free-will,
influence
necessitating
over
Himself,
the determinations
the
upon
commanded
movement
external
No
the
as
action
constraining
proofagainstevery directly
nature
2.
such
"
over
preventingby physicalforce
will,but
the Will.
on
bodilyorgans
agent whatsoever,
Almighty,can
action of
state
Causes
extrinsic causes,
of the
able to exercise
are
agencies,
God
influence which
is the
What
of External
of the Influence
28. Nature
can
our
by
its
5.
have
of the will.
and in
appetiteinfluences the will directly
it when it seeks the
either by strengthening
directly.Directly,
same
object as the will,or by weakening it when it seeks a
contrary object. In the latter case the loss of energy on the
part of the will correspondswith the intensityof the lower
appetite. Indirectlyand in a no less degree because the
of the passions affecting
the
is indirect by means
manner
cognitivefaculties : they create a disturbance of the organism
and in consequence
de
upset the mind which is objectively
pendent on the sensitive faculties. They also exercise a
of
powerful influence over sensuous
knowledge,for by reason
the attractions and repulsions
which they foster within us they
sensitive
3. The
"
"
help to
of
fix the
imaginationupon
others, a proceedingwhich
influence
objectsto
fail to
cannot
judgment and
the exclusion
exercise
on
the
bad
upright
and
ness
on
certain
necessario, quia
Ex
voluntas
inclinatur, non
aliquo modo
corpora
ad iram
resistere potest, sicut choleric! ex natural! complexione inclinantur
;
isti
inclination!
'.
resistere
voluntatem
tamen
cholericus
aliquis
potest
per
ST. THOMAS,
De
Ventate, q. 22, a. 9, ad 2.
'
Incontinens
dicitur vinci a passionibus,non
quasi ipsae passionescogant
sed in quantum
vel imrautent
necessario
earum
impulsui volunvoluntatem,
"
'
tarie cedit
'
Ibid., ad 3.
potest immutare
'.
tamen
de necessitate,non
voluntatem
potest earn
dicitur
in aliquid,non
immutetur
enim
voluntas
cogere.
Quantumcumque
inclinari
in
illud ;
est
cogi in illud. Cujus ratio est, quia ipsam velle aliquid
inclinationi
illius rei quae
coactio autem
cogitur.
vel violentia est contraria
facit ut praecedentiinclinationi
Cum
immutat,
voluntatem
igitur Deus
maneat.
et secunda
succedat
alia inclinatio, et ita quod prima auferatur
inclinationi jam
Unde
est contrarium
illud ad quod inducit voluntatem,
non
"
Deus
existenti, sed
coactio
'.
M.B.P.-VOL.
inclinationi
quae
prius
inerat
unde
non
est
violentia
Ibid.
II.
nee
ETHICS
228
understand
to
us
agents
and
sensitive
We
out
and
which
of
has
that
has
man
share
be
especially
action
exercised
between
a
states,
and
in
clear
control
complete
intermediate
passions
Their
it.
must
is
always
through
the
leads
material
indirect
medium
view
of
free
fully
the
of
his
in
act
the
of
carrying
"
the
of
morality
will
and
the
his
conduct
entirely
act
"
and
responsibility
lacking
their
it
and
agents
will
our
upon
appetite.
then,
see,
appetite
external
affect
to
since
sensitive
the
how
able
are
remote
the
of
influence
The
4.
in
which
the
spiritual
the
determination
freedom,
the
faculty
of
there
and
senses
of
our
are
the
will,
activity.
possible
the
each
reason,
strive
many
the
for
CHAPTER
MORAL
THE
moral
the
and
Object
29.
other, of the
order
distinction
of
foundation
arise from
of the
law
moral
Natural
of the
T. MORAL
There
Good
is
ness.
Certain
"
and
Evil.
things
right, other
itself upon
imposes
certain
are
virtue
with
things
vice, the
consciousness.
trjith,
every
can
which
virtues, which
(v) Our
the
moral
knowledge
law
(vii)
between
Moral
from
conscious
consciousness
and
it is
good
as
this
distinction
Similarly there
evil, justiceand
and
of which
before
of
code
impossible
injustice,
to
passions
be
found
of
in
human
this
the
contest
"
in
spite of
that
Hence,
229
of
evil
is
necessity,
the
contrary
sufficient
reason
objective manifestatipjL_pf
truths
reason
data
and
of
notes
which
origin and
human
circumstances.
such
interests
compelling
merely
capacity
and
good
between
and
the
confirms
with
us
"
only
of
Induction
"
persistence
better, of
or
contingent
natural
(ii)The
law,
wrong,
distinction
The
"/
presented
solicitations
it
good
truth
argument.
universality and
for
about
in
sincerity.
Inductive
always
moral
irresistible evidence.
with
judgments
and
any
2.
us
We
consider
evil ;
drawn
our
and
bad
as
shall
Distinction
before
come
evil.
EVIL
Argument
i.
"
the
law.
AND
Intrinsic
Real,
Moral
and
GOOD
and
moral
of
moral
morality
and
law
sanction
of
of
of human
treats
we
(iv)The
moral
of the
(vi) The
and
(iii)The
;
philosophy
good
good
goods
certain
characteristics
30.
The
"
to
between
observance
the
act
part
distinction
this
to choose
obliges us
free
of the
this second
study
(i) The
Chapter.
this
of
Division
relations
to
now
ORDER
act
liberty, which
have
III
to
are
anterior
independent
of
short
of
denying
know
the
truth, and
to
all
the
of
ETHICS
230
admit
must
we
logically
professing
scepticism,
that4hei
moral good^angLeyiLisjQ.unded
f
distinction between
on Jhe_yery
thus
doubt
No
]facts
\
the
of
allows
but
siderable ;
of
application
divergencesand
moral
variations
of
ideas
the root
all
the
more
and
good
to particular
principles
at all times
same
call wrong
Now
nature.
there
the nature
The
Divine.
"
writers
Many
for
Goodness
in
explained
Positive
or
Influence, whether
think
that
on
education.
Puffendorf
before him
of
power
Badness
of
Analysis by
Human
even
or
purely positiveinfluences
this
created by
prejudices
that
and
traditional
as
or
an
decree of God.^
made
moral
is founded
its Ultimate
distinction,such
social conventions
or
laws,
possessions,
account
can
6. Therefore between
the
between
is not
Extrinsic
any
rightis by
rational nature
distinction which
drawn
be
things.
Distinction
Actions
Human
be
be
must
nature
must
of man's
is in
whatever
we
conversely,
31.
and
peoples.
"
good and
con-
evil,oL.jusl_,aiid
argument may
argument. Another
3. Deductive
itself. The good or
from the study of human
nature
of human
less
or
Hobbes
of
and
pre
absolutelyfree
appealto
to
It would
Descartes, attributed
creatingthe
both
Rousseau
morality.
distinction made
the
seem
to God's
by
us
between
moral
the
tinction between
of certain actions
Tightnessand wrongness
all positive intervention
is independent
or
system of
that is local,particularand changingl
government. JA cause
cannot
explainan effect that is universal,generaland constant.!
of
(b)It
is useless to have
commands
of
of
exigencies
"
ST. THOMAS,
an
absolute
monarch,
Gent., Ill,
Hobbes
or
with
;~such commands
social contract
Cont.
with
recourse
c.
129.
to the
or
despotic
to
the
contracts
do
Rousseau
not
OF
THEORY
themselves
ex
possess,
GOOD
EVIL
AND
an
hypothesi,
231
intrinsic goodnessLgind
coniinunicate^iLlQ^tJieaets-~w4uch_it is
consequently cannot
their purposejo regulate.
/ In the second
place,this distinction does not rest on a free
decree
of the
opinionthat
depend on the
The
Will.
Divine
tinction between
leads to inadmissible
(a)God
consequences
of contracts
blasphemy, perjury,violation
the dis
makes
and
make
then
might
the
like obli
discern
the
clusions
difference
these
as
is
(b) Whatever
us.
between
condemn
the
con
they
follow.
logically
II. THE
FOUNDATION
OF
GOOD
32.
The
the
Natural
our
Supreme
Distinction
If the
"
Good
good
Now
the
and
Evil
of
Non-conformity
or
end
MORAL
BETWEEN
EVIL
AND
between
Conformity
End.
DISTINCTION
THE
answers
good
is what
of
our
natural
to
answers
and is that
man
on
with
Acts
our
to the
is what
of
is founded
by which
rational nature
the
he
is the
from
What,
the
as
happiness which
matter
nature
connexion
or, what
comes
acts should
these
an
action ?
of this action
to the
same,
with
Do
the
bring us.
by
which
we
not
we
judge
always find
of
perfection
in its connexion
with
our
our
ETHICS
232
end ?
supreme
We
we
us.
condemn
dignityas
and
licentiousness,
they ennoble
because
drunkenness
us
and
to
answer
the
demands
of
our
men.
or
is, at least implicitly
act which contributes to the gloryof God, justas
an
virtually,
the majesty of God.
Hence,
every bad act is an offence against
33.
Corollary.
"
St. Thomas
it cannot
worthy
Every good
act
in His
34. The
sight7.
Sources
of
Morality.
"
There
are
thingswhich
action,namely,
three
the
act.
wrong
than
to steal five
from
shillings
amount
character
poor man
from a rich
a
of the moral
is
greater
one.
Sum.
ST. THOMAS,
ST.
'
THOMAS,
quibusdam
consequitur formam
est, si res generata non
primum malum
loco
sed
hominis, ita primum
homo,
si
aliquid
non
generetur
puta
specificam,
est quod est ex objecto, sicut accipere aliena,
in'actionibus moralibus
malum
modo
ex
et dicitur malum
loquendiquo
genere, genere
pro specie accepto, eo
naturalibus
dicimus
humanum
genus
totam
humanam
speciem *.
the
GOOD
OF
THEORY
AND
one
EVIL
233
succouringthe needy,the
members.
lovingChrist in His suffering
in
in its
good, it must be so
itself,
totally
that of
other extrinsic,
For
act
an
of these conditions
'
Bonum
The
ex
make
is sufficient to
malum
integracausa,
absence
The
in its circumstances.
and
motives
to be
ex
the
act
bad
one
one
defectu '.
quocumque
questionmay
of any
there is such
thing as
an
Individual
35. Neither
of Moral
Worth.
nor
Hobbes
"
Social
and
in
Well-being
generalall
school consider
positivist
pleasureof the presentlife,to be
modern
the
is,the
is the
Measure
the adherents
of
well-being,that
man's
of
goodness of an
conformitywith
standard of right
since the
consequence,
in its relation of
action consists for everyone
all
our
In
actions.
his supreme
and wrong.
end,
criterion of
morality.
such as
Littre*,Herbert
Spencer,
positivists,
in this, that they have
and
Huxley, differ from Hobbes
of the community for
attempted to substitute the well-being
the egoistic
pleasureof the individual.
The
later
36. Criticism
of Individualistic
Utilitarianism."
involve
I.
We
may
maintain
contradiction to
that
"
the
Alexander
proposition:
disconveniens
est
VIII
'
condemned
naturae
transgressiolibera divinae
vel ignorat vel de
est oflensa
aeterna
0.
1290
Dei, neque
'.
dignum
(Herd.er,London),
poena
morale
seu
erroneous
humanus
peccatum
See
and
est actus
rash,dangerous
scandalous,
rational! et rectae
as
philosophicum
Peccatum
ration!
mortale
DENZINGER,
dissohrens
amicitiam
Dei
neque
ETHICS
234
of Hie.. It cannot
criterion by which
enabled
one
distinguish
thing or
from
another as
right
intrinsically
are
we
furnish
to
and
objectively
and intrinsically
wrong.
objectively
considered
Moreover,
pleasure
3.
action
as
and
reason
discrimination, is
without
teaches
us
it is followed
that
simply as pleasure, if
it is indulgedin recklessly
and
self-destructive,for
experience
transforms
by pain or
itselfinto
theory man
seek the
of
humanity.
amelioration
1.
if I
But
welfare of the
must
the
to make
am
greatestnumber,
happinessof
another
the
principle
of my
happinessand the directingforce of my conduct in
in what
is it not of the first importancethat I should know
happiness of
nature
my
of man's
neighbour consists
supreme
end is
The
questionof
deferred
accordingly
the
but
life,
the
the
not
answered.
of happinessfor humanity, we
principle
cannot
acknowledge it to be the universal and primordial
criterion of the distinction of moral good and evil. For, (a)
such a criterion is not universal : for moralityis anterior to the
that
organizationof any society.My conscience tells me
quite apart from any consideration of the happinessof the
community there are certain thingsthat are evidentlygood
that in
and
others evidentlybad.
It is clear to everyone
and the like,do not derive
temperance, blasphemy,parricide,
2.
Whatever
their malice
be the
from
social relations,and
any
that
even
(b) Such
criterion,even
within
the
for the
circle of
immoral
limits in
THEORY
GOOD
OF
is not
it is applicable,
which
AND
fundamental
happinessof
society? The
subordinate
community is accordingly
and
good
38.
Evolutionist
logicallyleads
to the
on
the
good and
indeed is
make
Wrong."
Herbert
Scientific
of
Negation
and
Right
of
Theory
putting Utilitarianism
Herbert
for what
The
between
235
distinction between
up
EVIL
Spencer,
Basis
far
which
from
it lacks,
mechanics
humanity
law
of
instability
The
being to
its environment.
nothingbut
Is
'
the
passingfrom
of the
the stability
homogeneous to
this stability
results from the adaptation
'
the
heterogeneous',and
of
end
of
man
Cosmic
evolution
and
the progress of
by
belongs to the
which
and
man's
to determine
whilst
injurious
A
1.
would
the
others
are
advantageous.
of Spencer's system
find
It is
placeand
no
that
in
the ideas of
of
refutation
universe.
can
liberty
no
the means
to investigate
philosopher
will be effected
adaptationto his environment
of conduct are
how and why certain modes
complete
involve
moral
moral
'
morality
conceptionof
such
system
rightand
might
good
wrong
serve
and
as
evil, it
ETHICS
236
conduce
several that
be
the best.
this final
complicatedthan
more
state, or if there
Now
what
equilibrium of
of the
And
existence
evolution ?
in
equilibrium
of
each
individual would
these
is thus
equationsand
to himself
judgment of
the
with
view
to
which
his
criterion of
Sociological and
of
Pragmatist
them,
rightto
sub
pleasureand interests.
own
conformable
in
this final
to solve
the
phase
were
his conscience,either in
back
criterion of
39.
of
to the conclusions
rejectthem
One
the form
stillreserve
equationsto
order to assent
to
suppose
there
to put
intelligence
sufficiently
prodigious
an
state
mit
that
could
all the
are
the
to
else to
variable
invariable
the
to the
to say,
good
as
man.
of
Systems
Morality.
"
According
under
to
weight of
the
againstevery
varies
with
the
criticism
same
be directed
may
howsoever
regarded,
Utility,
utilitarian system.
every
individual.
which
his
Rational
discern
and
Nature
and
reject what
what
to
is contrary
"
towards
no
some
exception ;
human
Directs
to
to
it.
"
an
it, as
i.
tend
the
by influencing
activity
towards
as
to
inclination
it.
his end.
reason
well
of
Argument from
has within it an
to
Inclination
and
conduces
of
condemnation
the
LAW
MORAL
Subject to a Natural
habitually disposes him
is
40. Man
as
Man
This
is
end
THEORY
OF
by the
natural
is called the
man
GOOD
AND
end
law.
EVIL
the
upon
Therefore
237
higherfaculties
is under
man
natural law.
2.
carries him
higherattraction
reason
pointsout
Man
"
towards
on
weakness
own
practiceof
world
virtue and
which
his
from Providence.
chosen
for
self-reproach
that is given by the
that follows
the shame
by
good
after
the satisfaction
hence
Argument drawn
3.
the
that
to
is conscious
have
must
Before
"
set Himself
adapted to
means
an
evil act,
creatingthe
end in
some
its realization.
Being
The
the constitution
with
harmony
natural law
and free,cannot
implanted in
be, then,
of the
man's
subjectunder
nature, which
fatalisticlaw
on
its
sway.f
is rational
the contrary,il
"
Eternal
\ law is meant
Law
and
the
the destination,
as
Law."
Natural
conceived
by
B^lhe-^"*"rt/
Divine
Wisdom,
I of alijTfgliirpg
of
tn +*"?irregppc fiv^ pndvand_the_adaptation
I thpir activities
Lex aeterna nihil aliud est quam
:
tgJftpTTL
'
ratio divinae
is the
quid
homini
10
quod
ST.
'
vitandum.
in creatione
THOMAS,
10.
intellectus insitum
et
'
et motionum
actuum
The
secundum
sapientiae
non
lumen
lumen
et
hanc
'.
a.
j.
ETHICS
238
its
Regarded under
in
up
this
generalform
fundamental
prosequendum,
dictum
natural
Bonum
vitandum
malum
et
the
'
'.
law
is summed
faciendum
est
et
of
^4-4s-4he_fun,ctien
to
Treason
mor^e
orless rejnQteaie^ucJj^njjthat-Avin
to guide the will
serve
life.
itCcoiiduei-tliiougli
in
With
and
moral
duty. It remains
obligation.
Nature
42.
tains
also
(a)is
not
tical ;
there
of law
the notion
examine
to
of Moral
is bound
the
Obligation.
"
hypotheticalbut
obligation
origin of
idea of
con
obligation
necessityproper to duty
of
(c)is not
of
and
nature
The
necessity. The
physical but moral ; (b)is
that
that
up
theoretical but
not
prac
absolute.
practical,
imperative necessit
is
How
43. Foundation
Christian
of
are
oi freel
such
reconcile
to
we
oJL
notions
of Moral
moralists
"
possibleexplanation,
namely the authority of God,
the supreme
is of the
order as He
Legislator of the moral
physical. If there is a difference of opinionit is only on the
His intellect,His will,or
question whether it is His essence,
only
His
one
intellect and
character
to the moral
What
moral
the
the
are
duty
without
will combined,
power
this
which
on
There
"
lawgiver,nor
and right to
law*
arguments
is based
which
be law,
cannot
command
without
issue commands
and
right
th
to
commaiidsJLhat
issue
to
alone
And
separates us from
'
the theories of
independent morality
'
as
'
the
reminded,
are
superiorwho has
his subjects. Npjw
1 f"b]
p]p_j}f
ftjprinci
jgajjgn
of
moral
theological
duty is
interpretation
^mnr
we
in God
1uJT^yjilur_;
find
interpretationof
the
autonomy
then
do
we
secondly,the
only
of
one
which
'
reason
and
put forward
by the rationalistic
this
necessityof choosing
explained above, and
schools.
However,
between
the
autonomous
quently
LThomas
we
it would
seem
to
us,
theologicalmorality, as
Conse
us.
morality is in no way forced upon
the opinion of St.
prefer to follow_unreservedly
which
makes
the
morarobligati
OF
THEORY
GOOD
AND
EVIL
239
who
rules alLJthings
tfre inteiligence_ofjjod
by His Provi
dence.
-
Moral
44.
Obligation
Nature-
Human
elements
"
The
has
moral
its
Explanation
and
Foundation
of obligation
has
necessity
in
three
(i)t]^jDhysicjJ_jiec^^
'
'
or
moral
This
after
our
obligation'.
moral
true
moral
to
particular
will in
necessityobligesour
as
consequence
to
use
seek
the
have
We
a
specialnatural
leading to the same.
lead us to
which
the means
facility
disposingus to know
the Scholastics called
which
our
habit
end, a facility
or
habitus principiorumrationis practicae or, more
briefly,
means
'
'
'
'
'
'.
synteresis
ETHICS
240
We
therefore
can
that
say
human
is
nature
law
unto
of doing good
that it bears within itself the obligation
itself,
the soul's own
and avoidingevil,inasmuch
as
tendency to
wards its completegood puts upon the will,enlightened
by the
of willing
judgments of the reason, the moral necessity
practical
the supreme
the good that is uprightand, in its final analysis,
is realized.
good in which its completegood and perfection
45. The
and
Ultimate
Distinction
of the
Reason
Obligation and
consequently of Moral
God ; it is formally in the Practical Reason
destined
Beings to a Necessary Last End
in
has
who
briefly,in the
His
Himself
accordinglyknows
are
as
beings He
He
being must
how
Providence^
of
knows
He
essence.
own
Reason
Practical
the
should
He
the
relations
necessary
between
these
Divine
Being.
'
Mind
of
are
conceived
as
Such
of moral
IV.
46. Moral
Virtue.
"
MORAL
As
rational nature,
and
immediate
it
good
man.
and
The
11
'
tern.
prius
q. 92,
given, good u.
est
Cum
law
a.
i.
by
consists
law
the end
called moral
are
is to lead
its
in
of man's
virtue
is
result from
virtues.
subjectsto
makes
proprium legis,inducere
igiturvirtus
effectus
foundation
that
qualities
since
'
Hoc
goodness of the
by the Divine
the moral
dictated
acts
habitual
exist
effect of law
proper
virtue
must
we
of the moral
observance
reason
practical
VIRTUES
regard for
performance of good
the
Himself, it is
is the ultimate
good.
Being,who
which
essential
the
relations
These
His
subordination
and
creatures
knows
to create
power
that every created
sees
perceiveby
not
more
has
impossiblethat
or,
necessary
have
necessity
of Him
God
"
is
Law,
Evil, and
found
Good
between
an
the
'
The
their proper
its
good,
subject
those to whom
habitual
disposition,
sit quae
facit bonum
habentem,
legisest bonos facere eos quibus datur '.
Sum.
Theol., I-II,
THEORY
either received
The latter
the will,
virtues
Some
easier.
activity
are
Principal Moral
47.
is added
makes
powers
EVIL
AND
normal
48. We
distinguish between
the Commands
and
of
exercise of
It is readily
admitted
"
SUBJECTIVE CRITERION
THE
natural
others
perfectthe intellect,
virtues
V.
the
to
the
virtues.
moral
Virtues.
the
moral
241
(infused
virtue)or acquiredby
God
from
GOOD
(acquiredvirtue),which
individual
its
OF
Moral
Practical
Reason.
and
the
of
cardinal virtues
MORALITY
OF
Good
the Prohibitions
that the
Evil, between
Natural
Law,
by
The
practicalreason
passes judgments on the conformityor non-conformityof an
The uprightnessof an
act with a determined
end.
act lies
in the relation of subordination
which this act has
objectively
to the end of our
rational nature.
Therefore the judgment
which estimates this relation must
be the subjective
criterion
of the goodnessor badness of moral acts.
Judgments
49. There
or
lutionist
Origin
Moral
for
account
'
to
that
the
the
in the Course
concerned
"
This
Nervous
ideas and
kind
of
our
instinct
faculties,or
is at
once
The
Evo
their
owe
made
us
Insufficient
and
have
parts. The
comprises two
attribute the
overrulingour
an
first is
originof
our
attraction towards
affective power
termed
specialfaculty,sui generis,
to
Order.
Moral
Moral
Intellect to
the
Modifications
'
moral
from
con
Utility,gathered and
History, which by arousing
of
of Human
thesis
'
Nature
Principles of Morality
Erroneous.
distinct
of the
Experiences
Corresponding
us
'
Sense
"
in Human
to suppose
Knowledge
our
Theory
solidated
into
Need
no
'
Instinct
in
is
our
the
the
'
moral
sense
'.
The
theory of organicmorality'.
Proof of the firstpart. The theory of Moral Sentiment
breaks down before an introspective
of the testimony of
analysis
conscience.
For when
we
analysea moral sentiment we learn
that ultimately
it is always subjectto the practical
judgment
second
of the
mind, which
the
'
approves it according
More
as its objectagrees or disagrees
with man's natural end.
the arguments brought forward by the adherents of this
over
either condemns
or
ETHICS
242
the
and persistent
spontaneity,
universality
energy of
the moral conscience
undoubtedly establish the fact that we
have a natural and constant
towards moral good,
disposition
but they prove nothingmore.
Proof of the second part. The theory of organicmorality
theory
"
"
'
is insufficient and
erroneous.
It is insufficient :
1.
ciple. We have to
is a true
disposition
or
if it
puts
then
ask
English
own
; if the
as
persistence
they obsess
to know
moreover,
teresting,
and
deceive
how
it affirms
self-destructive when
itself
eventuallyto our
to explainthe origin
of these
and
their universality
and
ancestors,
our
It is
the evolutionist
that
be in
theoryis not
the moral
from
apart
erroneous
is
conscience
its fundamental
the
or
disposition,
instinct,or again this
a nervous
identifying
an
It would
us.
illusion.
simply an
with
are
a
persons who
is true, the theory of
case
reduces
second, it is necessary
in
not
deluded
If the first
evolutionists
hallucinations
2.
of
of those
impulse is
prin
this organic impulse or
the good and of our duty,
whether
manifestation
to hallucinations.
prey
the
instinctive
an
in the state
us
'
animal
of
structure
of
error
an
organ,
acting contrary to
herited ?
(b) Man's
instincts which
has
nature
our
in
is
constantly discoveringnew
relations in the moral order, more
complex applicationsof the
laws of rightconduct.
we
By what right can
deny to our
this same
ancestors
faculty of judging right and wrong,
which
find daily exercised by our
we
duty and prohibition,
reason
selves ?
50.
The
sequently
Good
et
First
the
must
First
scribed and
and
importance to
Evil
et Malum
between
what
of
the
Commandment
done
prosequendum,
discriminate
of
be
Principle
good
Practical
of the
Natural
avoided.
'
vitandum
'.
and
Bonum
"
what
Law,
est
The
con
is that
faciendum
intellect has to
evil, between
is prohibited
by the natural
know
and
Reason,
law.
what
It
is pre
is,then,
practical
THEORY
reason,
so
what
is that
to be the
as
GOOD
OF
judgment which
or
norm
EVIL
AND
243
'
'
'
"
"
'
action
agent acts
good. Consequentlythe
is
one
founded
which all
law,that
as
the
end under
an
aspect of
reason
practical
good, viz.,that good is that
first principle
in the
the notion
of
are
evil is to be avoided.
based
upon
this
reason
apprehendsas
naturally
practical
good (orevil)
belongsto the preceptsof the natural law
that whatever
man's
on
for
All other
so
since every
the
something to be done
or
avoided
'
I2.
ad rationem
habent
practicam,
se
rationem
ad
habent
speculativam;
se
In his autem
quae in
principia
per se nota.
'
11
Praecepta legisnaturae hoc
sicut principiaprima demonstrationum
modo
M.S.P."
VOL.
II.
ETHICS
244
VI.
The
51.
SANCTION
THE
Moral
OF
demands
Law
MORAL
THE
Sanction.
LAW
Considered
"
ob
and
the sanction of a law consists of all the rewards
jectively,
punishments attached to the performanceor to the violation of
is the promulgationof
it ; considered formally,the sanction
and
this system of rewards
punishments reserved for those
who
observe
or
moral
The
with
judg
performed ; it is a collection of practical
Now
ments.
can
man
perform an action only under the aspect
of its being a good, and can
reasonablywill no good but what
all the particular
is his good in reality. But
goods that are
the objectof his desires are such reallyonly in virtue of being
actions
to
be
subordinated
it follows
Whence
good.
would
not
to his supreme
been
established
happiness or
violation
of the
the
on
law
moral
and
hand
one
the
on
also have
happinessto him as
reserved unhappinessfor
assured
it,and have
the
In
other.
Divine
had
between
indissoluble connexion
an
misery
of God
that
it
there
man's
practice or
other
words,
him
in
punishment if he
Sanction
violated it.
52.
Moral
the
During
Law, but
Present
Life
it is Insufficient.
there
is
As
far
as
"
the
the
for
present life is
:
concerned, four kinds of sanction are usuallydistinguished
(a) The natural sanction, which consists of the natural con
of
sequences
both
in
(6)The
our
mind
and
in
body,
interior sanction
satisfaction
which
results
of
are
the
from
normal
the
voice
the
result of vice.
of conscience,
fulfilment
of
the
or
duty,
the
and
established
penalties
(d)The publicor
by positivelaws,
social sanction of praiseor
blame
or
from others, of esteem
omnia
ratio
ilia facienda
vel
practica naturaliter
a.
2"
vitanda
quae
Sum,
THEORY
GOOD
OF
AND
EVIL
attaches
245
in different
degrees
external actions.
our
That
the
moral
is not
law
its sanctions
without
during the
goodness is seldom
conduct
have
mentioned.
arraignedbefore
is
the
that
different sanctions
we
is, it
these
have
must
guarantee in
of
principles
Now
be
to
of the
none
offered in this
sanction,then,
order.
moral
the
adequate must
sanctions
all these
conditions.
be found
elsewhere, in
A
a
future life.
53.
After
know,
ness.
"
what
Time
of
of trial ;
alreadyremarked
have
by
reason
and
eternally
will be deprived
the Wicked
We
will be
Virtuous
the
and
Life
itself can
we
shall
tell
rewarded
for
in
about
of which
in
Happi
Psychology(171)upon
the
length of
presentlyinterrogatethe same
us
not
Future
of their
ever
do
we
our
time
source
the
contrary
to
reason
; God
can
inflict on
man
eternal damnation,
If
a supreme
(ii)
delinquencies
of the providential
order of the
consider the exigencies
we
must
universe, God
give a sanction to the moral law by
eternal punishment. If,
the guiltya supreme
on
inflicting
with
therefore,He can and must punish grave transgressions
eternal chastisement, it is a logical
conclusion that the guilty
an
or
mortal
ever
can
unhappy.
visit the
essence
guiltywith
of the sin
we
term
supreme eternal
ETHICS
246
of God
repudiation
of the
one
own
free choice
and
of the
such
summum
himself
state
And
if a
of his
man
flows
allows events
of mortal
naturallyfrom
it.
in
ever
unhappiness.
Sin incurs
debt
the
But
order.
effect
of
long as the
punishment must
Wherefore
debt of
last end.
happiness which
dies in
who
man
state of
'
in
persists
Hence
the
of his
repudiation
trial,he becomes
his end
'
our
into
life of
is
ultimate end.
',our
bonum
who
so
disturbance
needs remain
also.
Now
the
disturbance
:
reparable,sometimes irreparable
i
s
defect which destroysthe principle irreparable,
because
a
be saved, defects can
be repairedby
whereas
if the principle
of sight
virtue of that principle.For instance,if the principle
be destroyed,
sightcannot be restored except by divine power ;
of sightbe preserved,while there arise
whereas, if the principle
these can be remedied
certain impediments to the use of sight,
by nature or by art. Now in every order there is a principle
whereby one takes part in that order. Consequentlyif a sin
destroysthe principleof the_or der whereby man's will is subject
order
is sometimes
of
an
to
as
to be considered
in itself,
'
18
Peccatum
Manente
ordinem.
ordinis
remanet,
hoc
ex
autem
necesse
inducit
causa,
est quod
rationem
manet
remaneat
poenae.
Pervertit
autem
est de
Deo, charitatem auferentia quantum
Sum.
ST. THOMAS,
Theol., I-II, q. 87,
poenae'.
se, inducunt
a.
3.
"
De
reatum
aeternae
malo, q. 7,
a.
i.
THEORY
OF
GOOD
EVIL
AND
247
property of
end ; it is subordinate to
too has, and must
liberty
being a
attach the
abuse
of
human
will is not
its
own
an
end.
our
if Divine
But
Providence
its
of
did not
the
or
possession
the
or
use
to
means
The
will.
the human
our
of
54.
from
End
Happiness suffer
the
posed
mortal
to
Reason.
to
sin
creatures
he should
that
only turns
should
to
fit the
away
from
Pain
be
of
source
Loss
is not
crime.
Now
op
by
God
freely
the Eternal
of Positive
must
who
Sinner
deprivedof
creatures
the
in addition
Infliction
his end.
as
be
must
Punishment
"
not
man
that
Teaching
his Last
turns
of
Christian
The
is
only that
positivepunishment for
him.
the
Secondly,
sin.
The
in
But
no
one
who
man
turns
deliberately
losingit.
Chastisement
Outline
moral
of the
no
desire.
no
distress
onlyif it
positive
punishment 14.
Doctrine
of Moral
Duty.
"
The
'
some
'
priori form.
What
l"
name
from
Kant
obligation,
is therefore due to
and
Kantian
necessary. What
derive its origin
from the
an
man
is this pure
in consequence
ST. THOMAS,
form
which
is alone
has
no
empiricalconnexions
capable of being
universal
and
ETHICS
248
'
It is the principle
from
Act as if the maxim
:
necessary ?
which you act were
to become
through your will a universal
law
of nature
can
serve
as
'
',or
in accordance
Act
This
with
maxim
which
is the well-known
absolute!
called in contradistinction to an
so
categorical
imperative,
hypothetical imperativewhich, according to Kant, though
regarding a real objectis subordinate to a contingent con
If you will this or that, then you must
dition :
proceedthus
or
'
or
'.
so
The
will,or, in
'
word,
freedom
is the exclusive
',which
of
source
fear of
the
touch
Likewise
punishment.
has its
conscience,which
the
legal sanction
play in
cannot
an
interior
province
aloof from
that
there is
and
law
But
mean
to say
law to be without
sanction
contradiction
there
formed
that
of
in view
for
should
that
right15.
regarded the moral
Kant
although
be
radical
and
he says
moral
that
which
act
it is
is per
or
recompense
'
will establish
indissoluble
an
connexion
between
virtue
and
happiness.
analysisof moral
the
the fundamental
laws of that spiritualism
duty, to justify
validityof which he had impugned in his speculative
philosophy.
Thus
16
did Kant
Kant
which
demands
is
makes
a
of
matter
endeavour, by
difference
of
means
of
an
between
and
disposition,
is
"
56.
GOOD
Good
Moral
Law.
Moreover
Argument
are
definition
Evil may
and
moral
be
the
False.
rule is
EVIL
AND
is
Categorical Imperative
The
which
his
OF
THEORY
Moral
no
distinguished,
Principles
nor
249
Standard
is it
which
on
Kant
by
True
bases
"
any
It is not
true
that human
nature
the
consequence
consist in an
consists or can
that
in
Finally,it is not
natural
attraction
true
we
is or
perfectionof
absolute
that
reason
end, and
be its own
can
practicalreason
the
autonomy.
forbids
us
to
follow the
enjoyment of our
desire of this enjoy
experiencetowards
the
happiness;
VII.
it is
NATURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
57. Characteristics
the
of the
Moral
distinctive characteristics of
known.
versally
OF
Law.
THE
"
MORAL
The
moral
being immutable
ORDER
law
and
has
uni
ETHICS
250
do not
we
say that the moral law is immutable
that the matter
which the moral obligation
regardsnever
When
1.
mean
we
changes ; but
in
that
this matter
as
moral
precepts of the
the
far
so
From
modification.
any
of the moral law
application
subject to
circumstances
of time
and
to
common
natural
reason
all ;
the same,
it cannot
concern
be
the
general,independent of the
and place,and in this sense
is eternal
it binds every man
in possession
of his
is
at what
matter
no
which
law
remains
time he may
live
he
where
or
dwell.
may
be
must
not
certain abstract
admit
not
of
exceptions. Yet we
objectivelaw itself with
identifythe
to
of which
formulae
make
we
use
and which,
expressionas possible,
the generalityof cases, allow of
16.
additions and restrictions for particular
cases
moral
The
law is nniver^Uy known ; it is sufficiently
2.
of reason
has come
who
to the use
promulgated that no man
be ignorant of it without
for his ignorcan
being responsible
an
giving it as accurate
being enunciated to meet
of
Indeed
"uce.
denote
not
the
; he
reason
that
grant
this is
moral
end, and
time
at
his
years at which we
it signifies
: but
the
does
which
have
he
capableof
in regard
has
become
agent.
derived
is
first
conclusions
of
remote
of invincible
or
between
made
immediate
or
principles
law, and
error
reason
capable of using
the
to
come
general distinction
before
enough
subordination
moral
their
child is
'
the age of
he has
the
perceiving
to
well
reasons
when
the time
which
at
age
'
For
truism.
moral
the
of
possibility
natural
ignorance appliesonly
principles,
to
remote
con
clusions.
of
universality
The
of the moral
law
18
Cp. SUAREZ,
17
In
se
per
facienda
the
ratio
;
De
has been
naturalis
sicut
c.
St. Thomas
13, n. 6-10.
writes:
patrem
tuum
sunt
Quaedam autem
observanda
a sapientibusjudicantur esse
tamen
indigeantdisciplina,
qua minores
Coram
cano
capite consurge, et honora
.
Sum.
et
quae
Theol., I-II, q.
100,
a.
i.
of the
'
Quaedam
dijudicat esse
cujuslibet hominis
Honora
furtumfacies.
promulgationand
proved above.
II,
legibus,
strain
same
the
matrem,
et
statim
quae
vel non
facienda
occides ; Non
Non
sunt,
subtiliori consideratione
knowledge
de
lege naturae,
sapientibusinstruantur,
personam
rationis
senis ; et alia
sicut
ut
illud^:
hujusmodi
'.
OF
GOOD
of the
Moral
THEORY
58. Characteristics
1.
the
stamp
AND
Act.
EVIL
The
"
251
moral
has
act
either of moral
rectitude
of sin-
or
2.
before
men.
of Merit.
59. Notion
The
"
one
we
do we
merit ?
somebody else. How
By
for
done
the
is
act
which
an
advantage of
morally good,
condemnation
deserve
another.
Conversely, we
by any
another.
morallybad act, done with the designof injuring
Merit, then, is the characteristic of a morallygood act done
merit
with
thing from
view
demands
recompense
secundum
fit alicui
from
to
him
ordine
ad
'
return.
it
Meritum
et
retributionem, quae
fit
secundum
justitiam
justitiam. Retributio autem
eo
ex
quod agit in profectum vel nocumentum
19.
'
it follows that
Hence
conditions
pense
in
dicuntur
demeritum
alterius
its usefulness
to
; for
of
meriting requirestwo
one
desire would
power
of
(a)That
the
no
'
naturalis facultas
of one's actions :
Unde
being master
ad merendum
'. Whilst to merit in
liberi arbitrii requiritur
the further conditions : (c)that an action
matter offactrequires
be performed which is morallygood ; (d)that it be performed
in view of another's good ; and (e)that it either actuallybe, or
of
at least be considered
Our
behalf it is done
whose
on
to
actions
may
have
and
accordinglyacceptedby
merit,
18
dum
quam
19
""
'
another
60.
or
Actus
quod
imputari
of
finally
at least
God
ao.
the
justifies,
vel malus
alicui malitiam
Ibid., q. 21,
ST. THOMAS,
or
of
secun
laudabilis vel culpabilis,
habet rationem
vel
laudari
aliud
nihil
enim
culpari,
voluntatis
est
potestate
;
bonus
est in
him.
a.
vel bonitatem
3.
De ventate, q. 29, a. 6.
sui actus
'.
Ibid., q.
21,
a. 2.
ETHICS
252
giving of
has
person
is it that
How
the
on
recompense
merited.
What
part of him
is the
before
whom
of this title ?
foundation
the
law
(51ff.).But
account
be, does it sufficiently
may
merit and
in
ments
demerit
Must
moralityin
however
answer
of
be recompenses
and chastise
that the law may
be kept, or do
there
order
and chastisements
recompenses
kept or violated ?
action.
course
an
exaggeration. Reward
of
moral
order
the
act.
of
can
be
It must,
merit
finality,
is anterior to recompense,
and that it must
be considered in a
it.
certain sense
since it demands
the cause
of the recompense
of merit is an ap
the recognition
According to Taparelli,
plicationof the laws of symmetry, proportionand unity21.
But
this is
merit
The
'
at its proper
followingconsideration
solution.
All the
by right redound
out
11
of
value.
will
good accruingto
to
benevolent
the
author
an
act
of the
intention he turns
perhaps help
6.
towards
must, it would
act.
his
When
good
Liberatore
seem,
therefore
action to the
also takes
the same
THEORY
GOOD
OF
AND
EVIL
253
deprivinghimself of
profitof his neighbour,he is really
thing that is his own ; and instead, the person to whom
some
the
is
so-called effectively
restores with a mathematical
justice
strictly
the equalityof strict rights,the recognitionof merit
precision
is the approximate estimate
of an
exchange of goods and
profitswhich
hardly be
could
estimated
in
of strict
terms
justice. The
will be anxious
inglyhe
that it should
be restored
behalf of
on
impossiblefor
him
do
to
guiltyof
miserable
things.Should
anything towards effectively
to be
least,unless he wishes
at
acknowledge
ingratitude,
in his mind
the
What
hast
faculties
from
the hand
giftsof
61.
Are
Thomas
of
are
that
hast
thou
For,
received ?
not
'
The
by which
selves which
the
thou
God.
before
merit
speak precisely,
any
we
we
God.
Acts
any
that
Morally
Indifferent
althoughcertain
acts
W7e
"
only in
considered
St.
with
hold
relation
specific
objectare neither good nor bad, yet if taken in
their concrete
reality,with the end and circumstances deter
to their
'
moral or immoral
(34). It
mining them, all acts are necessarily
happen that the objectof an action does not include some
may
to the order of reason
thing pertaining
; for instance, to pick
and the like :
up a straw from the ground,to walk in the fields,
'.
and such actions are
indifferent according to their species
Since it belongsto the reason
to direct ; if an action that pro
'
ceeds from
by
that
evil.
reason
needs
But
;
deliberate
fact
reason
alone, repugnant
if it be
directed to
wherefore
it
be either directed
quently every
human
is
or
end, it is,
and
reason,
due
end
action
directed to
that
specifically
it is in accord
good.
specifically
not
is
due
it must
Now
end.
proceedsfrom
with
Conse
deliberate
ETHICS
254
'
62.
Good
Janet
The
'
and
be
good
or
moral
good
tical
it
judgments
of
duty occupy
the genericor
reason
time
he does act
is not
he must
actuallyto
or
rather, materiallygood ;
good only when such an act
end of the moral
Good
it would
be
field if moral
same
formal
acceptationof
the
to
is bound
man
with
do
everythingthat
he
has
to
do
what
do
every
But
them.
is
the
prac
to
never
in accordance
act
bound
the proper
63. The
for
to these
the
is conformable
what
means
"
take of this ?
we
and
goodness is taken in
as
make
"
should
view
word, inasmuch
amongst others
duty and the good co
"
Tiberghien
What
writers
and
extensive.
man
individual,must
2a.
'
bad
in the
if it be considered
reason,
specifically,
materially
is
order 25.
the
good,Tightness,
moral
law, are words which have a meaning only in respect
of our
end, it follows that every rightact is implicitly
supreme
and virtually
But
act that contributes to the gloryof God.
an
and
the
End.
Supreme
"
As
human
act
every
the actual or express
that
to conclude
illegitimate
cannot
"
"
'
11
actus
non
includit
aliquid pertinens
dinem
ad
or-
'
rationem
mali
rationis, unde
vel
a
non
ordinetur
deliberativa
si
ad debitum
ordinetur
rationem
Necesse
boni.
finem, convenit
vero
habet
ad debitum
ratione
finem.
procedentem,
Unde
est autem
necesse
in individuo
'. Ibid., a. 9.
La Morale, II, ch. II.
de Vhumanitk,
Les commandements
est
omnem
"
14
11
86
a.
3.
ne
comm.,
ordinetur
actum
hominis
consideratum,
vel malum
p.
128.
ordine
cum
vel
quod
bonum
esse
GOOD
OF
THEORY
Now
that
see
subordinate
essentially
255
reflection leads
all that
he is and
givingof gloryto
the
to
EVIL
wills that
he
AND
and
tained,he wills the rightorder of things,
man
man
has, is
God.
When
be
should
main
capable of
is certainly
reflecting
capable of willingthis 27.
64.
of Goodness
Degrees
is evident
that
or
good
Wickedness
in Human
evil admit
and
Acts."
It
of
degrees. To
to the various principles
have recourse
estimate them we must
which we have alreadyshown to
both objectiveand subjective
rectitude (34). After having laid down
the
constitute moral
:
proposition
Neque omnia bona opera, neque omnia peccata
shows that for determiningthe degree
sunt paria',St. Thomas
both
'
goodness or malice of an
subject,its conformitywith
of
act
the
of the will,and
intensity
the act 28.
inspires
the
of
take
must
we
into account
its
philosophyof Schopenhauer
Hartmann
is a congeriesof arbitraryhypotheses,
and von
from the theory
borrowed
often mutually contradictory,
some
of materialistic evolution,others from pantheism.
is the key of the universe is a will,
which
The principle
is the
absolute, unconscious, and free. The ultimate reality
65. Pessimistic
Morality.
"
individual
The
is relative
ago it was
for how
hypothesis,
moment
and
free)and
can
is
(a
fatalistic
of
pleasure(mere
?).
'
not-yet-satisfied
be
of effort cannot
end
'
"
of this if it is unconscious
it know
attained ;
arrive at the
(an hypo
contradiction
(a confusion
(Mere
illusion.
an
will is effort
of the absolute
manifestation
thesis)which
The
it follows that
must
we
to search
then, is only a will that is striving
painfully
world,
for
an
impossible
happiness(gratuitousand contradictoiy).
As for moral duty,it liesin willing
the good of others through
motives
own
27
"
of
good.
Swm.
Cont.
renunciation
TheoL, I-II, q.
Gent., III.
c.
23, a.
140.
and
and
in
of one's
7.
ceasingto
own
good
will one's
will
bring
ETHICS
256
about
universal
brotherhood
and
lead all
absolute
to
men
unity.
From
these
conclude
that
but
theories it would
suicide is
avoid
to
adduces
such
moral
logically
must
we
obligationbindingupon
universal
that
seem
annihilation
all ;
Schopenhauer
'
it is not
Suicide is the
an
answer
:
phrase,though
negation only of life,not of the will-to-live '. Von Hartmann,
the most
energeticof Schopenhauer's disciples,
argues to the
a
for
necessity,
collective
cosmic suicide.
evolution towards
66.
of
will-to-live,
This
Independent Morality.
"
term
stand
for any
which is
rationalistic,
may
"
Council
indeed
of
Vatican
the
be attributed
to
divine,are
'
that
of themselves
not
To
this divine
those
things which, in
beyond reason
in the
no
matters
be known,
can
by all men,
race,
it is
Revelation
admixture
even
without
of error
'
zg.
in
the
regard to
knowledge
of the moral
and
law
its per
and entirely
formance, which is purelyphilosophic,
independent
of God.
Now
system without
moral
God
is
it is
as
erroneous
as
impracticable.
In
the
first
imperative in
to
say,
towards
end
an
atheistic
an
ultimate
the
as
is
place there
term
which
good and
all
of
no
for the
justification
conceptionof
life. Take
away,
absolute, that is
volitions,an
and all
subsists of itself,
our
moral
our
deliberate volitions
our
cease
aspirations
to have
any
tribuendum
quidem est, ut ea quae in rebus
non
sunt, in praesenti quoque
generis
impervia
per
omnibus
humani
conditioned
expedite,
firma cevtitudine et nullo admixto errore
Enchiridion
Symbolorum, ed. 1911, n. 1786.
cognosci possint'. DENZINGER,
89
'
divinis
Huic
divinae
humanae
revelation!
rationi
se
OF
THEORY
GOOD
EVIL
AND
257
to
object. We cannot conceive the absolute obligation
unless there
in other words, duty
will what is morallygood
or
be, beyond all contingentgoods that I may
may not will,a
which is an end in itself,
good which is not contingent,
namely
final
"
"
God.
Secondly,the study of
theologyshows
natural
absolute
whole
the
moral
loves Himself
with
Himself
He
can
though in
fection
has
is
vain
establish
the other?
an
the
one
that
there
on
which
the
fact that
the
God
only in view of
capable of sharing,
that
are
31.
to
For
be
law
to
how
is the
guaranteed if
sufficiently
that a justand powerfulGod will sooner
eternal harmony between
virtue and
hand, and between vice and misery on
moral
certitude
happinesson
hope
recourse
of the
no
later
beingswho
without
observance
*",so
love
necessary
or
observed
or
depends,namely
love those
way
Finally,it
man
order
fact
us
law
be
to
(51ff.).
Lay Morality.
Independent Morality,in the
second meaning of the word, is called by preferenceto-day
Lay Morality. Aiming at the suppressionof God, it claims to
67. Secular
have
found
it has
or
"
assumed
during the
last few
which
forms
principal
The
be
years may
summarized
i.
tract and
Theory of Solidarityputs
debt
as
forward
volition
is bound
man
by both
idea of
the
these
by
con
the
mere
ST. THOMAS,
Sic'At Deus
/ Dist., 45,
cognoscendo
'
a.
i.
sunt
co
bonitas
tantum.
ordinat Deus
Alia
sua
quidem
suam
essentiam
assequatur,
aliquam
divinas
faciente*.
au
creaturas
sed
ut
tern
vult in ordine
in finem
ipsae
bonitatis
creaturae
Ibid., a.
2.
ad bonitatem
divina
esse
suam.
Non
.
suae,
non
et
ETHICS
258
contract
No
individual.
heirs
it
of
make
idea
the
of
its
from
of
which
society,
members,
debt
claims
it
regards
superior
represented
by
as
in
the
use
of
origin
with
in
duty
distinct
person
and
we
so-called.
moral
natural
no
and
the
see
them,
to
the
properly
to
freely.
by
has
anybody,
any
into
contracted
forebears
and
Theory
been
inheritance
the
incurring
not
are
Sociological
The
2.
we
has
nature
everybody
to
it is entered
when
generations
of
belongs
it
bind
furthermore,
And
discoveries
the
this
of
engagement
and
exist
only
can
of
right
command.
But
itself
it
has
the
right
and
welfare,
If
it.
it.
right
this
on
ground
conduces
do
only
find
laws
because
it
because
individual's
the
to
in
the
not
but
in
end
no
is not
simply,
what
in
has
it, this
obeys
command
to
it
from
distinct
being
individual,
the
individual
the
real
Moreover,
of
good
command
to
is it
nor
person
the
absolute
the
has
for
exists
for
dividual
composing
individuals
the
it
is not
society
ultimate
their
justification.
of
'
The
3.
moral
the
and
develop
bers
of
is
dard
of
our
tradictory
in
repress
equally
the
doomed
by
this
to
first
ways
order
we
'
human
?
conduct
?
to
nature
failure.
And
with
as
idea
of
man's
realize
to
foundation
the
submission
ourselves,
individuals,
and
his
to
maintain
to
then
as
mem
belong.
'
nature
is
which
Do
not
moralists
are
not
the
further
of
the
for
looks
morality
said, is
which
to
of
in
ourselves,
forms
other
it is
end,
society
What
Theory
imperative
Our
nature.
'
Nature
the
those
Independent
strive
serve
of
to
Morality
the
as
it
interpret
instincts
harmony
we
to
stan
in
con
endeavour
we
to
given
nature
our
foster
this
Like
?
too
seems
all
ff
CHAPTER
CONSCIENCE
Conscience.
of
Meaning
68.
is
act
concrete
is
premisses
position
which
The
by
act
the
ad
be
can
these
and
and
the
have
then
Several
but
to
32
allows
of
are
Sum.
actum
inducere,
modum
accusare
or
act
vel
scientia
ad
id quod
factum
processisse
"
vero
quando
examinatur,
est
5.
secundum
eorum
remordere,
quam
of
of
quae
id
defendere
enim
Secundum
quod
jam
quod
factum
autem
secundum
sunt,
formam
necessarily
est
vel
has
themselves
we
is
contingent
applicatur
ad
vel
actum
dicitur
per
conscientia
discordare
invenitur
quando
'.
scientia
instigare,
scientia
excusare,
bad,
or
certitude
of
act
scientiae
to
good
as
sic
De
invenitur
verit., q. 17,
i.
M.S.P."
VOL.
II.
259
his conscience
quod
applicatur
acta
error
How,
conscientia
dicitur
hoc
par
and
conscience.
moral
one
principles of
guarantees
a
with
which
rule
the conscience
all the
is
perform
suggested
matter
'
dirigens ipsum,
ligare ; secundum
examinationis
ignorance
abstract
the
no
application of
life varies
decisive
of
one
amongst
that
(57), the
to
Whilst
"
several
mind
of
and
before
a.
by
applicatio
Conscience.
actual
man
bearing
19,
of
principle
understand
and
has
have
Theol., I-II, q.
dis
synteresis (44).
unlawful,
general
habitual
quam
human
judgment
comes
whose
The
an
est
measure
is not
the
vel
solutions
of
one
we
of
the
of
which
possible where
ut
aliud
of them
immediate
ask, is man
an
what
immutable
are
concrete
different
lawful
that
universal
Power
knowledge
act
obligation of
32.
'
Obligatory
conduct
When
i.
a.
nihil
conduct
true,
human
synteresis
is
case
of
particular.
applies
the
moral
every
direct
as
the
cases
concrete,
Scholastics
easily perceived by
principles to
as
the
actum
and
without
ticular
through
particular
aliquem
so
are
mind
Conscientia
Directive
them
the
reason
judgment
syllogism
other
by
principlesof morality
the
ad
'
or
the
called
which
conscience^:
scientiae
by
was
mpralityto_some
69.
and
general
complete
rectitude
of
conclusion
the
is formulated
premiss
the
concerning
practical reason
the
Every
"
ETHICS
260
variable,we
and
readilyunderstand
can
Where
direction of conscience.
it would
marks
of mathematical
But
whether
act
an
is
be
good
or
done
to
when
the
or
it is good
bad would
or
is in doubt
reason
bad, lawful
whether
in doubt
unlawful
To
the act in
who
he
knowledge that
and
it.
(a)If
is bad
act
he succeeds
act when
be
to
doubtful whether
that he is able
and
that it is his
in his efforts,
we
of
conclusion
endeavour
that
to do
to abstain
brought back
are
succeed
not
lead to
the
bound
or
duty
his efforts do
conviction
the
to
good
good or
an
and must
placed must
so
exert
hypothesis, (b)If
first
the
to
must
alone
good
The immediate
bad.
happens
his doubt
to solve
therefore,may
man,
questionis good or
this is that
choose
do
be to will
evil indifferently
; and to hold the will indifferent to
eschew
cha
evidence 33.
is to
what
act when
or
even
is of such
matter
be unreasonable
racter
2.
the
important
an
is
case
in
invincibly
be done
must
I abstain
Must
from
action
not
an
This
doubt
the
be
bear
it is lawful
whether
me
would
abstain
to
or
from
acting?
Since it is to
moral
conduct,
doubt
take
the
it goes
the
safest
the
the
pretext that
33
'
Certitudo
to
course
est
semper
it may
improbable; shall
objectivemanifestation
non
is this ?
Is it
there is least
one
adopt definitely
this manifestation
in
when
danger of sin ?
probable,that is, the
in which
is
directingmy
I must
Which
side.
of
be the least
may
of truth
to the manifestation
it is reasonable
account
one
duty
saying that
course
least conformable
happen
without
reasonable
most
Yet
reason
is
quaerenda
side without
of the
in omni
say that
taking into
we
truth, under
incomplete?
materia
Reason
even
in actibus
the
can
enim
by
indirect process
an
reflex
a
OF
THEORY
principle
get
or, to
GOOD
use
an
direct solution,and
thus
arrive at
AND
EVIL
261
acceptedexpression,by a
to be incapable
of
it knows
a
conscience
that
is prac
certain. We
or
tically
put this process in the
definitely
may
form of a syllogism
:"
A man
does not sin formallywhen he prudentlyjudgesthat
he is doing a lawful action.
Now
when, after a serious effort,
he is not convinced
that an act is unlawful, he can
prudently
regardit as lawful. Hence when the direct doubt concerning
the moral character of an act is invincible,
a man
can
indirectly
form a deliberate and certain conscience that the act is rightand
lawful.
whole
consists
difficulty
in
'
'
other.
'
Between
these two
extremes
there
are
'
various shades of
'
'
concede
prudence,to
'
probability.
it
name
a
of
higher
ETHICS
262
Without
all
them
probable,
may
judgment
of
be
is
judgment
conscientia
in
ever
precise
something
in
person
in
not
the
law
of
84
'
tamen
recedat,
and
an
all
in
Quamvis
id
ab
accipitur
recedet
accepts
depart
The
.
simply
quod
opinion
Thomas
his
with
mind
law
the
'
omnem
eventum,
die
errante
sed
fi
A\
AJ
this
to
in
of
these
may
God,
God
of
this
he
will
depart
does
the
; and
law
from
bind
not
it binds
but
tat
conscientia
ipsa
ut
Dei.
lex
erronea
Dei
; et
Conscientia
ideo,
se
per
non
'
sit
consonum
non
erronea
it lasts
whilst
only
ligat
dum
manet
'.
De
veritate,
loquendo,
ligat
q.
17,
34.
legi Dei,
si ab
simpliciter
...
in
Utrum
real
conscience
erroneous
be
erroneous
the
as
from
an
may
conscience
erroneous
it
that
replies
up
more
so
obligation
sums
or
truth,
that
to
common
cases,
lege
St.
accordance
if he
God.
of
systems
probable
the
maintain
to
and
nevertheless
error
'
it
is
simple
matter
Although
strictly speaking,
so,
liget
'
terms
be
can
affirmative,
the
on
different
which
with
permissible
erronea
question
dictate
formed
is it
or
be
whatever,
conscience
these
difficulty
disagreement
in
Now
erroneous.
to
opinion
Any
of
discussion
ourselves
confine
will
we
into
entering
a.
4.
hex:
et
PART
Ethics
Special
II
of
Theory
Right
and
Duty
its wide
sense
Natural
INTRODUCTION
70.
of
Definition
Law
Natural
Law.
or
In
"
rules
the
of conduct
which
are
deduced
from
the moral
form
the
law, and which
logically
basis of our rightsand duties both with regard to our neighbour
Natural
understood
is the
and societyin general. Thus
Law
Social Morality. But in a more
the
restricted sense
same
as
stands
for that part of social morality
Natural
Law
term
duties arisingfrom
which treats of our
justice. It therefore
derived
designatesall the rules of conduct which are logically
'
from
'
moral
the
enforced
by
law
coercive
71. Distinctive
monly said
Law
by
ever
the
This
whose
Character
of
be
be, may
different nations.
is
Law.
"
It is
distinguishedfrom
com
Positive
according to different
all
peoples.
objectionwe must needs
among
The
We
Natural
provokes an
objection drawn from
an
"
the
Law
its universality
and
same
execution, if need
measures.
statement
here,
among
varies
and
the
of moral
evolution
it
conceptionof justice,
races,
countries and
law in
answer
ideas
is
said,
ages.
it would
such as
itself,
present
replythat the natural
not
itselfto a perfectly
illumined and uprightconscience, must
be confused with men's
opinions. The conscience of peoples
as
well
of individuals
as
race
does
Yet
variations
science, are
no
Certain
are
rational
obscured.
The
human
nature
number
of relations
and
agent which
the
become
become
not
acts
may
derived
are
from
the
very essence
independent of time and
263
of the acts
space.
In
ETHICS
264
this
the
sense
Natural
which
Law,
formulates
them, is im
and universal.
mutable
condemned
not
are
that
happen
certain
absolutelyby
the
acts
moral
or
law
72. Relation
of Natural
to Positive
Law
Law.
Our obedience
"
is due to
obedience
social
nature.
our
or, what
nature
will of
us
it is of
sovereignclaims
to
of
kind
of itselfconstitute the
cannot
own,
for
since
legislator,
condition
to the same,
comes
is
human
of
source
by
natural
legislator.
different from
no
of
true
our
obligation
our
Corollary. An
"
vindicated
Such
againstthe
declaration may
application.This
of any
claims
be
form
thought by
of absolutism.
to be
some
dangerous
reason
the
individual.
normal
admitted
principles
fore, we
lay down
sincere
matter
As
of
matter
of
by the generality
is that
if, after
fact
we
see
What,
men.
these
there
serious,impartialand
the conclusion, no
at
arrives
examination, anyone
whether
law bids him
true or false,that a positive
what
is
obey
it.
by
reprehensible
In
moralityof
the
case
the
where
moral
a
law, he is bound
doubt
exists
not
to
concerning
the
in favour
of
be decided
do
to
the
interpret
natural
upon
OF
THEORY
law.
AND
But
DUTY
is
by authority. It is useless to
that be
rights of the
prescriptible
powers
is more
claims of society. What
sacred than
commanded
invoke
'
'
the father
to do
son
his children ?
over
what
is
Yet
if
265
duty incumbent
immorality of what is
of the
is convinced
who
anyone
RIGHT
and
the
father
the
higher
authorityof
to bid
were
have
im
the
the
his
rightto
written
on
individual
always has
cf rulers.
In vindication
the
',in the
of which
name
the
Wood.
Origin of Rights.
74.
"
individual
principlesof
by Kant, must
the
tical
These
the
reason.
(55). Reason
rightsderived from
The
reason
"
will,we
priori
are
told
itself to the
conform
speculativereason,
mind
Are
i.
bids
arise from
us
the
constitution
of the
person, whose
'
'
formula.
If the
of the
human
sense
exercising
my
know
as
liberty
;
fullyas possible
no
same
between
extend
are
autonomy
person
in
my
is in
true
myselfonlyby
rightthen will
say the
everyone else may
inevitable conflict will arise
And
will try to
activityof individuals,each of whom
Two
consequently,
rightsindefinitely.
hypotheses,
the
his
possible:
either the
on
the
in
'"
HASTIE,
The
Philosophy of Law,
p.
ETHICS
266
Thus
the theory in
sphere of activityfor each one.
question is reducible either to the sanctioningof a reign of
the
force
to
or
either
case
matter
of
social contract
existence
the
as
the
of natural
ultimate
basis
of law.
rights is denied.
fact,the Kantian
anti-social.
If
man
himself
dignity,make
humanity, which social
subservient
somehow
the
life implies,
the
to
In
As
person is
his own
claims
of
of the individual's
use
behalf of all is
obviouslyimpossible.
of respecting
a question
a liberty
If,on
hand,
is
limits
which
in some
requiredefinition :
way limited, these
it is not enough to lay down
that the liberty
of each must
be
of all. The principles
reconciled with the liberty
which
will
bring about this reconciliation must be stated as well. Thus
on
powers
it is
the other
Kant's
formula
as
rightsderived from the impersonalreason
identified
with the State ? This theory,held by Hegel, Schelling
and their
solves the problem of the originof rightsby the use
disciples,
2.
Are
"
pantheisticprinciples.The
of
substance
State is
The
of the
only a
Universe, and
mode
is
Absolute
this substance
is mind.
or
but
arbitrary
with
one
or
divine
tlie
The
reason.
regulated
according
of reason,
to the immutable
creates rights.
principles
This theory is open to all the arguments that may be brought
against pantheism in general. It is a denial of the individual
of his rights
elevates civillaw to an
and, consequently,
; it even
absolute sovereignty.
in any hedonistic principle
? Utilitarian
3. Do rightsoriginate
theories. The egoistic
seekingfor self-satisfaction or for wellbeing is,according to Hobbes, the supreme law of our actions.
The state of nature that was
was
priorto all social organization
Men
a state of warfare.
hearkeningto the voice of their own
interests agreed to make
concessions.
reciprocal
By common
consent
they set up an authoritywith the purpose of regulating
each one's sphere of action and thus of avoidingconflicts. The
as
as
"
edicts decreed
therefore, have
"
as
due
What
Kant
does
universal
constitute Law.
their immediate
also say :
law ' ; but
'
no
Act
foundation
in accordance
action
bears
liberty-?
Yet
what
which
unless
rights,
will of
in the
maxim
this character
with
and
Law
can
it is done
is due
serve
with
to another
rest
Yet
they
:
Bentham
more
once
individual ;
of the
is to
highestinterest
individual's
endeavours
who
welfare and
formula
Bentham's
race.
is he
The
and
simply the
the
of
that
to
justman
greatesthappinessof
follows
267
of Bentham
to consider
cease
rather
look
DUTY
utilitarian considerations.
on
This
AND
and
legislator
they
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
to
is
as
the
procure
greatest number.
the
sentiments
appealto the egoistic
he tries to persuade himself that man's
work for the good of his neighbour. Mill
makes
of pure
of the
men
of
of
influence
the
under
spontaneously spring up
Both
forces.
psychological
this altruism
future
will
certain
no
rightand utility.
Rightsthe resultant offree
system of Rousseau:
distinction between
4. Mixed
acts
of will.
that
our
inimical
ancestors
forces
that of Kant
the
is
Rousseau
"
by
human
from
without.
reason
of the
in
nature
mined
only by
far
so
the need
rights. Rousseau,
with a high idea of
Kant
of
on
an
former
The
personality.
human
in
considers
who
instincts
nothingbeyond egoistic
other
free being,and one
among
differs from
materialist
it is
as
to establish
he endeavours
is
rightsof
the
emphasishe layson
; the
in
sees
latter knows
him
pleasurestogetherwith
For
Rousseau
emancipated
laws which
reason
of
he
has
the author
rightsin
its submission
'
or
the
to
that
libertymeans
agreed
of the
as
all laws,
from
man
free
sensual
resist
to
resembles
his doctrine
But
Hobbes
he teaches
as
in order
obligedto combine
were
person.
man's
utilitarian inasmuch
imperativesof
the
at least is bound
others
with
'
looks
For
for the
is
those
only by
establish.
to
Social Contract
individual
this
origin
of individual wills.
chief exponent.
Societyis
an
expressionof
the needs
organism subject,like
law
of
of the social
evolution.
organism.
all other
Right
The
is the
juridical
268
ETHICS
relations which
as
which
bind cells
adopt.
we
we
of rights. Yet
isjthe
; source
resolve
Kant
With
itself into
our
law,
maintain, does
we
not
this
law which
reason
in
determined
is not
; our
wJi^^xjslJbeiween-things
reason
the formation
(e.g.
any blind necessity
force of objective evidence
of its
judgments by
it
order
an
of relations
Is""by
Man
this
result
there
perativeswhich
Positive Law
Law,
to
on
Thus
exigenciesof
arise from
it.
law, have
their
law
But
metaphysicalsource
Kinds
of
as
"
From
enjoined by
are
the
of
Natural
its execution
and
and
consequentlythe
be
must
of the Divine
Rights
im
or
of
being the expression
God, it
of the Natural
Rights.
is
nature, and
our
as
therefore
function
The
to enforce
nature
our
originfrom
the guidance
acting under
Law.
the entire
the moral
law
practicaljudgments
what
interpret
its violation.
inherent
the
of
number
is to
maintain,
75.
moral
developits consequences,
to check
we
teaches
men,
nature
rules
certain
prescribes
the
Divine
moral
Will,
is the
Reason, which
Law.
distinguishedinto
those
of
Individual
Right determines
exist between
being made of
regulatesthe
individuals
the
of
such, without
as
ties of kindred
relations
relations that
or
any
ties.
political
justicewhich
exist
or
may
consideration
Family Right
exist between
the
parties
the
family
subjects
and
of
view
of
Public
We
units.
the
Natural
state
Right
of
Right
Law.
shall
by
the
concerns
study
examining
DUTY
269
between
and
different
between
rulers,
divisions
principal
conjugal
the
group.
moral
many
in
living
AND
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
relations
of
between
considered
states
in
members
as
turn
each
of
them
from
the
so
these
point
CHAPTER
RIGHTS
Individual
Right,
justice which
been
has
cellence
possession of
the
This
end
implies the
faculties, and
sequently
the
right to
towards
The
the
forms
He
of
his
of
subject
lawful
of
we
of
By
the
unjust
the
and
right
of
of
right
to
controversy,
to
as
two
we
of
during
his
perfection,
such
The
means
then,
animal.
an
live.
human
lawful
by
the
con
not,
that
right assailed.
love.
state
than
may
aggressor
self-defence
it
of
in
implies
his
sacrifice
ex
highest
our
for this
more
the
in
soul, and
We
it
Ethics
of
it
out
may
ground
"
safeguarding
work
to
justify the
resistingan
principles of
the
the
the
it consists
as
our
is much
as
In
which
towards
fellow-men.
another
can
end
of
tend
must
live.
Self-defence.
for
he
to
motives
that
needful
and
an
is created
man
right
personality is
moral
mean
Since
the
life of
the
Lawful
77.
therefore
General
perfection ;
deepest aspirations
welfare
human
higher
of
of
for
In
complete functioning
happiness,
act
the
dispose
we
and
has
He
the
"
by contemplation
our
others,
LIFE
Live.
Good
full and
happiness.
our
perfection
Absolute
of
rights.
end, inasmuch
other
political
or
property.
three
is created
man
consequently
of
satisfaction
life.
the
to
neighbour,
well-being
HUMAN
OF
Right
every
surpasses
the
his
family
any
of these
treat
the
that
shown
of
obligations of
to
life,liberty and
RESPECT
of
Foundation
the
regard
respect
of
shall
we
I.
76.
to
us
matters
present chapter
said, indicates
independent
are
especially in the
INDIVIDUAL
fulfil with
must
binds
Justice
THE
have
we
man
which
obligations
ties.
OF
Only
life.
self-defence
force
as
is
application
particular cases
shall
briefly
now
explain.
i.
The
May
the
defence
theory upheld
of one's
by
possessions ever
Penal
some
270
Codes
?
justifyhomicide
and
adopted by
THEORY
writers
many
it is
the
to his
life. Now
the
property and
second
aggressor,
the two
between
the
or
rightof
that
reason
At
things.
the
when
even
the
rightof
the aggressor
first. One
to his
of
an
proportionexists
no
need not
owner
stand
property very
upon
the
it is accom
person
of violence against the
acts
upon
grave
it is
not
may
same
this
by and let
closelyresembles assault
panied with threats or
owner,
particular
case,
rights:
two
outweighsthe
271
of
for
unjust
maintain
far
the
DUTY
In this
conflict between
therefore in defence
who
AND
givesa negativesolution.
argued,there is
owner
RIGHT
OF
when
for
questionof goods indispensable
his subsistence.
According
moralist De
other
means
ever,
that
to the
other
opinion,held by
the
goods
in the
are
not
matter
case
at issue it is not
ground
injury. The
to make
attempt
an
property.
remain
aggressor
We
cannot
without
puts himself
gressor, he is no more
to be able to react
allow
his
the
which
of
fallacy
Must
the
innocent
an
refuse
wayman,
rightwhich
our
The
committing an
attacks
who
man
he
than
constrains
protect our
threatens
is
brute force,againstwhich
we
according
the
to
as
and
measure
to
unjustly
us
he
rights. Inasmuch
The defence of
necessary.
fact that a criminal forces
that with
evil of his
the
is in the wrong.
It is he who
his life,
if we
wish to
upon
defence.
outside
for his
opinion
questionof inflicting
upon
the
us
Spanish
it is allowable
the famous
ag
an
ought
manner
stoppedby the
to do him
us
a greater injurythan
clear
he threatens us.
An example will make
reasoningon which the oppositeopinionrelies.
a
rightmust
traveller,whose
to
defend
not
be
life is demanded
himself
rather
than
by
high
kill his ad
versary ?
this even
he
soul to eternal
world
quence
the
damnation.
preservationof
than
And
this
the salvation of
yet
to
earthlylife is
soul.
of far less
conse
ETHICS
272
2.
ever
attack
to
me
his mind.
up
is
He
unawares.
make
he may
any moment
have time to defend myself.
At
ambush
caused
kill me
with
revolver
to turn
me
day
some
out
and
to kill me
has decided
man
cocked
of my
He
has made
attempt
an
Only
;
wait
my
yesterdayhe
It is
the
what
all his
on
me.
life before
lyingin
was
quite certain
offensive.
plans
for
circumstance
chance
doubt
no
always lying in
way.
take
if I do not
is
there
alone
he will
In this
case
of lawful defence ?
may
my state be called one
Most
authors
replyin the negative; for the
But
yet commenced.
not
De
Lugo
has
aggressionhas
another
opinion: I
that my
lawfullybe on the defensive from the moment
In the hypothesisthis is
gravely menaced.
right becomes
already so. My life is exposed to certain and imminent
danger. One expedientalone is open to me, to slayinstead of
who
being slain. He is already an aggressor against me
can
resolves
to kill me
amount
to
he may
at any
and
has
commencement
moment
take
II. RESPECT
by surprise.
OF
LIBERTY
The
it cannot
protectorto
be
see
said that
it is
that in every
favourable
to their exercise.
case
particular
as
such
universal
conditions
THEORY
shall be
these
conditions, and
ticular
falls
supplied. It
tiative and
effort.
RIGHT
OF
on
State
273
to
bring about
be the work
of
personal ini
cannot
Should
DUTY
the individual
this must
The
AND
itself to be
set
it do so, it would
par
the
run
risk of
these
will
disclose
him
to
inclinations.
own
his
natural
Very
avocation
of mistake.
although,of course, there is always the possibility
Some peoplethink they have natural qualifications
which they
have not, and consequentlyturn out not only useless to the
But far more
serious
community but perhaps even a burden.
would
if a regime existed which
be the consequences
denied
to individuals the free choice of their
own
This
career.
developingour
must
This
to
us
decide
faculties.
first and
The
foremost
is
principle
pation in life.
the
what
work
devolve
ground
Yet, it may
best
libertyof
of
himself.
choice of
objected,this freedom
be
walk
perfection
individual
the
with
us
means
of individual
on
for the
the
are
choice
occu
has
not
of Natural
absolute
Right, we
slaveryand
a
human
person,
as
this form
of
without
forth the
denunciations
slaverywithout
Seneca,
enjoyeth the
same
dieth
as
thou
'
the
rightsto live,to
the
Stoics
of the
'
seed
as
it called
thou
Whom
same
create
condemn
authors
All modern
Of old
qualification.
of the
is born
By
serfdom.
to acquireproperty, etc.
family,
slave ',wrote
difference between
the
note
mitigatedslavery or
must
callest
he
thyself,
ETHICS
274
by
nature,
of
beasts
only, is
protests wrought
of
being devoid
the
save
this
But
'.
true
these
appreciablechange
no
of men,
; not
reason
late
in the
and
but
solitary
conditions
of
We
know, on the other
pagan world.
hand, that Aristotle sets himself to justify
slaveryby the needs
slaves
throughout
the
of the
social order
Not
into two
A.
the former
to
latter he
rights,the
admits
the
conceptionof
'
work
risen to
having
rights/writes
natural
men
'
that
elsewhere
should
alone
devote themselves
does
he
condemns
allow
civil and
slavery'.
to
'
to manual
political
Still Aristotle
partakeof
reason
'.
the
the
perfect freedom.
for
way
was
Christianity
it remains
true
no
doubt
that it
Though
seconded
was
the
the
influence
by certain economic
of
forces,
motive
preponderating
power
fail to recognizethis would
in
be
bringingabout the change. To
supremelyunjust. The slaveryof the ancient world received
in the
its death-blow
slave and patrician
the day when
met
depthsof the catacombs to partakeof the MysticBanquet.
^Serfdom is a mitigatedform of slavery,or rather it is
radicallydifferent from it. The personalityof the slave
becomes
recognized; he is acknowledgedto possess inalienable
He
is no
longer part of his
rightsin virtue of his nature.
master's goods,able to be sold or even
put to death ; he has the
worship,to receive a
rightto marry, to take part in religious
Only is he denied the rightto choose his
wage for his labour.
occupation,he is bound all his life to the service of a master
and to the working of the soil. Yet such a position
procures
and
his having work
for him certain advantages; it ensures
from
of subsistence, and frees him
the means
anxiety with
regardto the future. What view are we to take of the morality
of this mitigatedform of slavery?
it outright. Others would allow it,
authors condemn
Some
the
provided that it is grounded on a free contract between
villein and
his lord.
worker
should
himself
and
let out
is
they say,
for
his services
life in order
no
Teason,
why a
to put
his
of the future.
all
not
There
he
part of his liberty,
renounces
his
rightof takingup
of
different career
or
there
reason
no
seems
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
his services
offering
why
the
is essentially
inalienable,and
but onlyfor
lightly
AND
righthe
the
the sake of
DUTY
else ; but
to anyone
would
thus
serf does
serious
275
not
relinquish
it
relinquish
compensation.
may
be said of the
"
been
accomplished.
80.
Liberty of Opinion.
"
of free choice of
matter
free from
We
make
must
opinions:
physicalrestraint,because
distinction in the
placein
it takes
is
man's
manifestation
of such
I.
binds every
thinkingbeing of searchingfor
his interests,
his passionshave no
fancies,
a
questionof the higherrightsof truth.
and
the
"
earnest
reflection we
are
convinced
the
truth.
claim when
When
that
which
law
His
there is
after serious
givenopinionis
at least
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
ETHICS
276
his voice
though with
"
metaphysic,he
'In
morality.
the
know,
we
end could
also
the moral
maxim,
my
and
could
own
eyes
lead to the
nothing
would
principles
surrender
on
them
which
acquirepractical
of
precept is at the
can
it should
God, and
shake
be
in
this
be overthrown
without
life.
future
cognisant of other
unity of ends under
same
that
that
is
one
no
in the existence of
'
that
commanding
reason
all my moral
and I cannot
possibleunder
of God
existence
the
is
firmlyestablished,and, according
thus
believe
inevitably
and
obey
must
law.
says, 'action
the moral
law
which
conditions
is here
for certain
know
is, I
that
for
indispensable
are
belief,he
only condition is
namely,
validity,
I
beliefs that
of moral
case
one
agree
to certain
absolutelynecessary,
all points. The end
to all
less
no
to assent
man
every
was
little logic
too
at
time
same
so,
I shall
future
life,
belief,because
the same
time,
becoming hateful
in my
37.
of
the rightto be
opinion,then, does not mean
and moral questions. As in other fields,
indifferent to religious
more
so
even
emphaticallyhere, eagerness for the truth must
in the whole
of man's mental progress.
be the rulingprinciple
Kant's
To
forcible expression,I cannot
surrender
use
the principles
and beliefs that my
declares to be of
reason
sovereignimportance from the moral point of view without
self-condemnation.
own
Religious
incurring thereby my
indifference,therefore,far from being a natural right,is the
Freedom
May
we,
of intellectual
againstwhosoever
anathemas
doctrine
sacred of duties.
as
ourselves, or may
happens
we
resort
not
anarchy, hurl
to
hold
the
to force to make
our
same
them
it is
that
We
Certainlynot.
say
being to assent to the
undoubtedly the duty of every intelligent
of knowing it. But it is
truth accordingto his opportunities
quite possiblethat under the prejudicesof education or by
is false.
in good faith adopt what
other influences a man
may
The assent of the mind to doctrine is not always determined
by
It is generallythe highlycomplex resultant of
evidence.
mere
of
the observation
subjectiveconditions that entirely
escape
prevail over
others.
37
The
Critiqueof
others
tribunal of
Pure
Reason,
man's
tr. F.
Max
(London, 1881).
which
no
one
of another's
opinionsis
alone searches
To
enter.
may
reins
the
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
form
sincerity
delicacy.God
have
he thinks
as
coercive
use
we
277
of the
We
heart.
soon
as
anyone
Still less may
ourselves.
estimate
an
the
therefore, to condemn
from
DUTY
of the utmost
matter
and
AND
right,
no
differently
To
measures.
to
teach.
or
approve
what
in
presuming his
and
in
usingno
he believes to be
he believes to be false.
But
this
respect
"
publicgood.
In the first place,every
true
doubtful
or
opinionought
to be
free
social and
rightto
and
ideas.
is endowed
Since
with the
to the minds
communicate
by
discussion.
judgments,in
The
State
belong to
has the
the truths
the
benefit of his
be free to
own
in
giveexpression
order that
must
their ideas
the State.
rational
nature
of his fellow-men
does not
by
facultyof speech,he
is
man
and
not
views.
the
direction
As
it is not
sovereignpower
of man's
mind
ETHICS
278
the
With
that of the
only
State cannot
is
form
another
of the
claim
right to express
monopoly of teaching.
one's
ideas.
Private
economic
where
The
enterprise
as
in the
be limited to
seconding the
necessary,
body
no
Yet
of
pretext of bringingabout
the
politic.It
genius,into
like that
has
alike,on
this idea
was
absurdities.
the worst
thinking,is derived
direct connexion
which
from
led
perfectunity
Plato, with all
The
right of teaching,
human
and
personality
of the State.
diffuse one's
limitations.
opinionshas some
which is the interpreter
of the natural
In the publicAuthority,
be recognizedthe
law and the guardian of social order, must
right to repress the diffusion of opinionswhich are clearly
freedom
to
inimical to the
general peace.
Intervention
in the
matter
of
the most
by even
opinionshas been allowed as a final resource
liberal legislations.
Examples of abuse are not wanting ; but
that
this only means
libertyrequiresserious safeguards.
between
a
However,
dogmatism or a sectarianism that is
and a liberalism that authorizes the
intolerant and persecuting,
diffusion of the most subversive ideas,there is surely
mean.
a just
but com
This mean
can
scarcelybe determined theoretically,
in fixingit in practice.
will not have much
sense
mon
difficulty
other questions,
defer to the dis
we
Here, as in many
may
of those who
are
cretionary power
appointed to see to the
welfare of society.
of conscience we mean
81. Liberty of Conscience.
By liberty
with the
the rightevery man
possesses of actingin accordance
"
dictates of his
own
conscience.
absolute
right?
It is,when
with
right. If,however, it is a question of interfering
conscience, it is certainlylegitimateto oppose
any
false
of its
OF
THEORY
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
279
lawful
rightsand interests
of publicorder.
If a religion
would be directlysubversive
or
human
sacrifices or other immoral
to prescribe
practices,
were
Authority would be evidentlyright in taking active steps in
would
which
manifestations
damage
the
of
liberty
endeavour
an
end
to
put
conscience
such
to
libertyof conscience
adopt
restricted in the
be
may
no
practices,
should
; it would
have
how
matter
them.
Hence
of
case
to
false
conscience.
But
coercive
other
adherence
to
doctrine which
For,
accept.
to
measures
repudiatea
him
make
be had
recourse
may
in order to obtain
account
no
on
to
III. RESPECT
the
"
he feels bound
belief which
we
OF
by
conscience
alreadysaid,it is by
have
38.
its dominion
extends
truth
not by violence,that
persuasion,
82. Definition.
person'sexternal
to
nor
internallyrepudiates,
he
repeat what
persecutionor
to
PROPERTY
with ownership,is
Property,as synonymous
animal
and to dispose of an
or
thing for a
rightto use
end without the interference of any other person.
legitimate
from the rightof disposal,
The rightof use, as distinguished
is the power
recognizedin law of puttinga thing to any use
that
does not
involve
transformation.
Any
destruction,
transfer,or
its
Limits
conceived
of
laws and
have
Jurists and economists
ownership as the right of absolute
the
he chooses
does
no
with
this
When
it is said
injuryto
heresy to
rebel
time
be
that
lawful, it must
be
anti-social
This is how
rightsof another.
law.
the point of view of positive
effects.
also
that
he
against
him
the
upon
society,based
heretic
was
one
lies his
heretic
the
looked
repression of
the
maintains
Aquinas
added
To
do what
may
he observes established
owner
the
St. Thomas
not
sin which
opinion,an
thing so long as
rightof
Ownership."
right of
disposal.According to
soever
the
that
radical
actions characteristic
or
as
it
who
reason
was
at
as
committed
for
that
a
justifying
of our
for he expressly recognizes that some
such
as
conscience
alone, notably
for the individual
obligationsare matters
the
in
constraint
of
duties to God.
he
Moreover,
proscribes every measure
case
of those who
are
strangers to the true faith, on the ground that no one is
civil
measures
of
repression;
questionsee
CASTELEIN,
280
ETHICS
But
moral
the
law
Yet
certain
the
the
positivelaw
refuses to
stillbe
punish may
limitations
The
which
acts
of
nature
goods committed
the
partlyfrom our
social being.
to
nature, which
own
In the firstplace,
we
must
Providence
dominion, and
our
of
is that
rational and
concerningeach
in view for oneself or for others,
with no purpose
mere
caprice,
it
is certainly
to disregard
its end ; stillmore
make
so, if we
to
serve
gratifyillicit desires. The same
principlemust
regulate
inanimate
deserve
for
suffering,
unnecessary
h
as
been
never
suffering
only
as
of some
consequence
kindness to animals,
much
materialism.
animal
proper
willed
marked
so
is
or
an
worthy
of
for
out
as
end
an
in
unavoidable
remark
praisein
these
that
days, is
Whilst
of
as
our
made
as
one
that
kith and
own
by God.
of his own,
it should
be
with
strugglefor
existence and
Secondly,the
that
moral
But
yet belonging to
if
subdued, even
this does
of nature
the non-survival
law
forbids
Man
is
us
to
social
use
mean
that
social function, as
clusively
some
would
has
furtheringhis
his
own
personal life
to
development and
race,
which
decrees
the
it is
the
of the weaker.
our
possessionsfor
behave
must
ownership has
own
destroyed,in
not
suppose.
consider, he
his
in it
regard
lower
being and
not
individual
sees
materialist should
great law
purelyselfishmotives.
such.
kin, nevertheless it
If the
accordance
as
animal
that
reason
on
inflict
not
may
Creator
condition
It
good.
the
than
more
Creator, and
of the
the
by
necessary
it
philosophy than
creature
they,
more
animal
For
greater respect. We
them
itself but
animals.
things,show
this account
upon
of
treatment
our
an
Since
ex
the
aim
at
happinessby
the
can
OF
THEORY
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
281
who
those
his
of the
in want
are
bare
necessaries
will put
as a person of wealth
position
influence over
a great moral
exercising
84. Basis
of the
at his
of life.
dispoala
His
of
means
others.
A distinction must
Right of Ownership."
be
made
The
is derived.
dominion
claim
given.
are
the concrete
between
others
base the
Some
labour
on
man,
85.
Various
others
legitimately
man
from
the
very
Social Conventions
and
answers
and laws,
associate
nature
of
he is a person.
as
founded
Ownership
on
on
Legis
common
originally
Everything, it is argued, was
whose
set up a legislator
property. By a social compact men
In
mission it should be to apportionthe wealth of the earth.
this way was
ownership established. Its foundation is there
lation.
"
and
in the laws
execution.
Whatever
view
may
it is quitecertain
history,
problem proposed. The ultimate
cannot
of
that
it does not
of
foundation
Men
the
theory from
could
never
pointof
solve the
ownership
have
set out
to divide
goods,if they
had
not
of
an
Ownership founded
argument
on
Labour.
"
can
it
This is a
conceptionvery
to do duty
that is very often made
against the present order of things; for all
one
legitimate
ownership,it is said, must
must
never
one.
widespreadto-day,and
as
but
be the reward
of
man's
effort.
depend upon
labour and
Labour, however,
cannot
282
ETHICS
be
shown
be
to
transforms
ultimate
the
basis
of
this
right. Labour
thingsso
wild
eat
to
as
I found
fruit which
Would
effort ?
pluck without
and
hand
to
anyone
path it
deny
happened
if I
that
to
picked
property from
that I found it ?
the moment
Could anyone
depriveme of it on
the sole ground that it had not yet been worked
by my
upon
diamond
uncut
an
up
on
my
my
was
have
exigenciesof my
of it before
possession
certain
to
obtain
I may
and
nature
I have
uncut
diamond
it answers
been
able to
labour
wealth
why I
are
it.
follow from
his
only what
then, about
produced. What,
My labour never created
why
I have
that would
tion in the very consequences
stated that a man
own
legitimately
may
has
because
the
appropriate
may
mine
labour upon
my
the ultimate
not
land
personal
natural
and
It is
therefore
materials
raw
were
Thus
individual.
no
every
of personalas
proscribed,
well
individual.
as
The
kind
well
disallows
produced by
87.
The
The
earth
man
the
of
landed
as
by
body than by
ownership is
human
created
more
race
is to
be
ownership of
found
to
an
be
property, collective
as
simply perish
paid to the principle
everythinghe has not
must
his labour.
Right
and
of
Ownership
its wealth
were
derived
made
from
for the
Man's
use
of
Nature.
man.
"
This
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
AND
DUTY
283
be disputed. Man
has the rightto
seriously
and to disposeof thingsand of animals, because, as we have
use
As such he has the rightboth to
alreadysaid,he is a person.
and to make
of his natural
use
providefor his own preservation
statement
cannot
only look
to the
condemned
to
As
savage.
future and
springof
when
he
of
rational and
regulateshis
For
to
free
desires,he
of
these
whom
with
to
positionto employ
exercise
ordinated
beneficent
to
these
Sub
him.
is
certainly
personality.
But a specialquestionpresents itselfhere.
human
he will
legitimate.It is necessary
will pro
cares,
around
those
on
day
material
his faculties in
influence
to his
rightof acquiringa
of the
needs
needs.
provide
to
entrusted
has
morrow.
his nature
extent
some
claim the
perennial
Providence
he may
reasons
the
are
conformitywith
is bound
familyhe
in
acts
conduct
Man is not
present needs.
mouth, the existence of the
his appetites,
which
restraining
new
As the head
hand
live from
of his
satisfaction
that the
Granted
use
and, consequently,
appropriatethe earth
may
and its riches,stillit would seem, on a priori
considerations, that
there are two possibleforms of appropriation,
namely by the
race
individual and
by the community.
the
as
first form
examined, if our
The
legitimateas
individual
ownershipquite as
person.
humanitydoes
each
same
not
But
ing things.
what
of it.
rights,and
Individual
and
that
to
the
Hence
much
must
Is
be
the
by
right to
that
as
has the
man
reason
is due
belongsimply to
individual member
essential
This
developing establish
been
have
we
the
second
the
argument is to be established.
considerations
of
legitimacy
questionarises
The
man
race
by
as
it confers
virtue
whole
on
of his
but
each
to
the
in
the collectivist.
ETHICS
284
Outline
88.
the
of
of
Doctrine
Communism.
Communists
"
assert
is the
wealth
the
have
men
same
patrimony of
common
the whole
At
race.
for
the
its
first,
common
regime of
tract, the
Criticism
89.
theoryis based on
the world.
They
"
of
a
for
communism
the
Doctrine
of
one
not
meant
to be
social
con
privateownership.
Communism.
of
falseconception
of the
are
of
means
"
This
I.
of the goods of
nature
possessedpromiscuously
by
all
very
men.
act
by which
man
exchanges
nomad
life for
settled
Such
since
Hence
of
he
ownership is conformable
the
very nature
it can
in no way
of the
with
the
designsof Providence,
things themselves
be admitted
demands
it.
THEORY
basis of,or
is
sanctions,
even
repugnant
OF
the
to
RIGHT
of
nature
of
state
AND
DUTY
ownershipwhich
common
things.
285
Hobbes
and
the
com
munists
was
"
exploredtracts of land
doubt
no
time
when
vast
un
occupier. In this
negative way, in so
in a
entirely
far as they belonged to nobody. But the earth was
in a
never,
of land by
possessedby all men.
positive
sense,
Appropriation
of history. A hunting
families or tribes dates from the dawn
tribe has alreadytaken possessionof a pieceof
or
a pastoral
land as soon as it prevents a neighbouring
tribe from trespassing
sense
they were
upon
it.
Private
but
common,
of land
ownership
usurpationof
would
seem
be
to
simply the
the
fruitful
very
beingfollowed by
reclaimed
and
other
thus
example
groups,
become
for
owing
to
its initiative
be cleared and
capable of providingfor
very
much
largerpopulation.
to the
would lead logically
reasoningof the communists
If the
denial of all ownership,
collective as well as individual.
earth belongsto everybody, an individual cannot call the very
3. The
"
violatingthe rights of
is equallytrue of the family,of the
whatsoever
nation.
Any appropriation
smallest
part of it his
others.
This
statement
even
of the
tribe,and
is
privativein
89
See
so
far
as
LEROY-BEAULIEU,
1908).
(Murray,London,
own
what
without
is
from
is withdrawn
appropriated
abbrev.
by
Sir
A.
Clay
286
ETHICS
the
of others.
use
littlewhether
It matters
the reservation
of
the
"
nature
all
on
and
men
everybody would
be entitled
he would
each article,
at the
the
law
same
rightof
would
have
time would
it extends
that
equallywith
the
either have
so
else to
without
own
violating
this violation,or
allow
to
goods. Since
everyone
be able to do
not
all
same
neighbour. Under
his
to
absolutely
that he
right,or at least demand
it by some
kind of transaction.
should partially
Each
remove
and
of these solutions impliesan essential oppositionof rights,
consequentlya fundamental contradiction in the natural law.
that universal
Once again. It is admitted
community of
of the earth
would
be an
im
utter
goods and especially
of incessant con
therein the source
Hobbes
saw
possibility.
"
"
flicts. But
could
how
the state
of nature
be
one
such
as
to
being developed? Is it
conceivable that the moral law should give individuals rights
which by their use must
assuredlylead to a state of warfare ?
To be true to his theory,Hobbes
had to deny that man
is by
is a fact,it is clear that
nature
sociable. But if his sociability
of thingswhich is destructive of all social lifecould not
a state
prevent the
resources
be founded
on
nature
give to
things.
all
men
not
90.
that
Conclusion.
the
his human
dominion
of nature
itself. Hence,
the
From
"
from
same
the
effective
above
conclude, nature
we
or
property, that is
to
say, the
power
positive
rightto
considerations
does
man
has
all
it is clear
in virtue of
positiverightto
the abstract
right of
of
becoming an owner
or
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
AND
things not
DUTY
287
freelyceded by
or
their
legitimate
possessors.
is not
Our
proof,however,
granted without much
clear and
without
there
cultivate
doingan
are
it may
yet complete. Certainly
that
difficulty
Robinson
injuryto the
for
rightswhich were
subsequentlybecame
and
the individual
may
advantage
own
natural
some
his
Crusoe
be
But
race.
at firstexercised
function
by
of Public
such
among
these ?
rightsas
Is not the
examined.
91. Outline
of the
Doctrine
theoryin
The
of Collectivism."
items
following
of
means
the nationalization
production,the refusal
to allow
and the
any productivecapital^
state of all economic
Such
concerns.
own
would
reasons
92.
be
which
we
Criticism
of
to
the
Collectivism."
i.
system
and
all
individual to
any
administration
rightsof man,
will developin turn.
contrary
of land and
we
this
by
the
maintain
many
for]
Collectivism is incom
and
both theoretically
with the liberty
and
patible,
practically,
dignity
of the human
person. Man, we have already said, has
the rightto realize to the full his own
and to use for
personality,
this end the goods which
has put at his disposal.
Providence
Now
how can he perfecthimself except by the exercise of his
"
faculties ?
40
1911,
The
development of
the
individual is therefore
was
publishedin
288
ETHICS
is
which
work
exactlyhis
knows
his
may
conduct
such
means
end.
is the
who
only one
him, then,
With
his
given
has
his true
reason
that
he
end, by freelychoosing
as
individual.
societyfor
the
favourable
for his
It must
provide an
development.
protectit and secure
it must
initiative,
Far
environment
from
him
paralyzinghis
sphereof action as
possible.
as
Can it be maintained
this end ?
certain
One
that
would
is
their attitude
State to be
owner
of the
management
loud
are
personalrightsof
the
whether
collectivistregimewould
be led to think
collectivists who
respectfor
seen
God
himself towards
Hence
wide
wants.
own
He
tendencies.
will
activity
determine
and
wants
own
ultimate
the
must
himself.
personalto
from
so
in
of
the statements
their
But
man.
further
of
protestations
it remains
to be
To requirethe
logicalone.
of all land and capital,
to have the entire
productionand the distribution of wealth,
a
to
individual
the
that
should
abdicate
his
submit
will and
own
himself
as
conclusion
must
the
contradiction
and
Yet
suppose
lectivism is not
individual
would
in
we
duction
officials
would
of
thingsto
the
be
than
have
wants
cell.
collectivist ideal
with
sake
the
of argument
that
personallibertyof
collectivistState would
ment
for the
inconsistent
permanent working of
The
the
more
liberty.
admit
col
the
alliance
impossible.The orderlyand
machinery so complicatedas that of the
of
requirenothingshort of a discipline
nevertheless be found
iron.
to be
be
satisfied,and
accordinglyof
of labour, the
the
distribution
THEORY
of
OF
all have
would
products,
RIGHT
to
AND
depend on
DUTY
289
the supreme
will of the
State.
We
that
reminded
are
need
not
would
But
it do
What
so
guarantee
difficultieswould
brief,the practical
and weighty. We
further
be very numerous
are
that the collectivist regime would not interfere in any
be found
to
informed
with
way
man's
at will.
division of labour,
The
being freelyarranged,would
Man
has a strong dislike for uni
be unstable.
necessarily
formity; he is pleasedwith variety; he is ever ready to fancy
Thus the staff
to his own.
that the lot of others is preferable
of workers
How,
be exposed to incessant variations.
would
pray,
conditions
in such
could
the
collectivist State
fulfilits
task?
The
questionhas
socialism
to
as
enough
duce
number
41
How
been
'
In what
more
and
RENARD,
great
are
to raise the
severe
sur
of workers
too
nor
called the
of
standard
test
force those
Etude
appositelyput by
is the army
neither too
be
follows
41
'
in
small ?
le socialising.
be
regulatedso
He
answers
as
it will be
professions
to intro
knowledge required,
liberal
selection that
less
to
'
apologistfor
an
capable to
would
fall back
lessen
on
the
other
ETHICS
290
of
occupations'. In the case
would
pay a higherremuneration
But
is not
other
occupations
in those that
the
State
less popular.
are
this
of labour
choice of
no
occupation,
of State
number
engage in any
by the State.
less than
who
would
made
would
the
able to
judge in
be the
to
comes
the
of
the matter
for any
not
or
set
same,
given
committee
What
up of persons appointedby the State.
guarantee
there be in such a regime for the choice of one's occupa
It is true
tion ?
that
posts that
freedom
of education
of small
moment.
People
acknowledged that
more
very much
system which has as
How
of
domain
that
principle
not
no
And
come
it must
of the
be
abuses
appointments.
be under
shall engage
one
in any
public authority!
even
it would
Here
do not
few
abuses
such
the consent
thought.
at all.
with
supremacy
such
Then
would
numerous
a
really
influence.
often determine
too
all without
occupationat
in the
in the
favouritism
and
partiality
of the land
is attended
in this matter
is
a liberal pro
several examinations, some
of
the law
even
where
take up
intending to
between
again,there
under the cognizanceof
The
of the State
are
vention
in countries
But
appointments.
the choice
fession have
which
to the
State
are
even
conditions of admission
be
be
would
one
is fitted
this person
State or, what
The
that
decidingwhether
career
So
the
officials. No
employment
But
best ?
requirements,would
certain
it decides
according as
more
formidable
recourse
have
along
printing-house
duction
Thus,
only
with
be under
would
not
be had
to
the
nation
to
all the
State
the
other
would
life but
be under
press.
instruments
For
the
of pro
of the State.
the management
economic
not
also the
the
intellectual
sovereigndirection
publicauthorities.
who
or
what,
that it should
be
It is too often
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
of
men
it is the
accordingas
sort of
It is nothing but
absolute.
more
291
divinity,
a body
are, by prejudices,
passions
liable to abuse their authority
its mission.
concerns
DUTY
that
forgotten
infalliblein what
AND
We
have shown
that the
in
thousand
associations exercise
all the
submits
Private
ways.
check upon
actions of the
interests and
government
free
of the press
control of
and this
publicopinion. What would become of this liberty
control if a system prevailed
that would
put into the hands of
the State the machinerynecessary for the propagation
of ideas ?
There
is no
need to ask
privateinterests and
counterbalance
would
what
become
of the influence of
the power
of the
to-day so happily
State. By owning all wealth
huge
itsglory.
a
suffragewould supplya
How
remedy againstany abuse of power.
of opinion and independenceat
expression
nation of officials?
a
scandal
in the
sentients under
Officialdom
as
it exists
of the State.
peopleretain
said
have
and
complete independencein voting,
ment
at
will
as
soon
of such
as
state
a
sequences
Such criticism of the
mean
the
guarantee a free
the pollamongst a
speedy ruin
it
ceases
can
sovereign
power,
they maintain
overthrow
pleasethem.
to
of affairs
the
are
their
govern
The con
immediately evident.
publicauthoritywould
Party rivalrywould
discipline.
actions of the
of all
greater ; dissatisfactionand
frequent as
the
governing
widespreadinterests. All
these circumstances would
keep the government necessarily
In
unsettled and make it constantly
pass into different hands.
such conditions how would the collectivist State perform the
power
endeavoured
to
settle
more
ii.
ETHICS
292
and
requirehabits of regularity
direction in the highest degree ?
Imagine some
of share
of
number
a
society,composed
great
enterpriseswhich
commercial
of
unity
anonymous
holders
the
of whom
none
changing
crowd
would
is determined
nomination
whose
swayed by
of
be to invest one's
follyit
What
views.
political
in such a concern
capital
all kinds
this is
Yet
It is quite evident
picture of the collect!vist State.
rivalryof partiesand fluctuations in publicopinionwould
baneful
most
There
would
effect upon
only be one
that
society.
discipline.
Thus
regime,by puttingthe
guardianshipof the State and
absolute
him
individual under
the collectivist
the
than
life of the
economic
have
of preventingdisorder and
way
crushingthe citizens under the yoke of an
anarchy, namely, by
iron
the
of
the votes
by
of
success
all be
which must
enterprises
ever
managed by a personnelnecessarily
at once,
and
any
for many
business, formed
undertaken
have
disparagementof
of the
reasons
natural
law.
why
enjoys to-day,would
be
system would
be
; and
personality
his human
such
robbing
nothing less
indeed
this is
contrary
to
one
the
The
establishment
of any
such
"
historyand psychology.
(a)Argument from history. Collective ownership has existed
in many
places and everywhere it has always evolved into
privateproperty. A system of allotments has followed that of
the working and
land, periodicre
enjoyment of common
distributions have tended to become
less and less frequent,and
perpetual possession or ownership has eventually replaced
this evolution was
Now
temporary possessionor usufruct.
It
in time with the progress made
in land cultivation.
parallel
to
became
as
a
numerous,
population grew more
necessary,
"
abandon
the wide-area
cultivation of former
times.
This fact
increasingly
an
necessityof allowing the worker
longer, and eventuallya perpetual,ownership. The incon
veniences of the villagecommunity explain its disappearance.
shows
But
the
these
inconveniences
were
not
essence
accidental
of such
; on
a
the
con
system. As
OF
THEORY
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
293
soil
of the
requiredmore
capitaland greater
indis
labour, the incentive of personal ownership became
pensable. In the villagecommunity it very often happened
the soil would neglect
the cultivation of his
that the worker
on
the cultivation
allotment
for redistribution
time
the
as
drew
near
in consequence
obligedto devote
lengthy period of time to gettingthe exhausted
possessor
was
fit condition.
and
It
energy.
back
to
con
was
remedy
placeto perpetual
was
always found in
gave
much
very
only would
aggravated
more
the cultivator
own
less
redistributions became
which
Not
collectivist regime.
land
new
or
to
precisely
was
periodsbetween the
usufruct
eventuallymere
longer,until
more
system, there
the
the
not
would
be
personal profit. For the produce would
gatheredinto the granariesof the State and apportioned to the
citizens in exchange for other proceeds of labour.
argument. If we look into the nature of man
(b)Psychological
it is easy to understand
why a system of collective ownership is
be
not
his
to
"
to be
not
that of
to
preferred
privateproperty.
For
most
men
to
obey
the
provisionfor
the future
these
dispensewith
can
of the
family.
motives
and
Those
take
men
few who
are
to their work
solely
from
of
sense
duty
for the
or
be free,and,
worker
him.
ones
as
himself,or
By
this
which
we
do not
initiativeand
mean
man
over
the
but
is in earnest
what
with
agree
play in human
we
part they
over
labour
must
acknowledgingthat
A
productivenesshuman
rule, be undertaken
obeys,
man
very great.
of
what
he does
endeared
to
the
only
Hobbes
in
conduct
is
are
of his
a
own
success.
ETHICS
294
Work
which
natural
most
is not
taste
under
but
be
cases
under
done
simply
under
of self-interestor
of constraint
the
goad
productive. The
less
much
the stimulus
who
man
server,
and
of
who
is
an
or
the slave.
one
wage-earner
has
owner
an
The
had
this
eye-
The
work
When
matter.
became
allowed then
were
mere
of effort.
the
stimulatingthem
to
recourse
works
singularlyinstructive example in
qualityof the work done by slaves
masters
by
will in
to
view
liberty.Col
eventuallyto purchasingtheir own
would
this in replacingvoluntary
exactly reverse
lectivism
labour
drawbacks,
competition, notwithstanding certain
recognized by all to be one of the most powerfulfactors
economic
the
inventions
not
in
fruitful
most
due
is
to
public
which
privatemanagement and initiative,
is ever
kept on the alert by the stimulus of competition.
Secondly,whilst privateproducers in their rivalrywith one
another
naturallystrive to vary their productionsand invent
to
effective and
more
would
oppositecourse
an
and
ments,
And
as
necessary
of
matter
time
every
to
never
of manufacture,
be the
fact,what
invention
new
methods
introduce
namely,to
economical
more
arise
difficultieswould
immense
of any
it
the pro
Furthermore, besides suppressingall competition,
to
heirs.
for him
to
acquire any
work
them
for his
Yet
it cannot
be
denied
number
matter
of
cases
what
may
own
the
of the
hope of
strictly
production,
to his
on
pass
desire to build up a
them
the
mainspringof
of
means
profitor
that
of any
would be
children,is in
a
man's
very
activity.
THEORY
OF
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
295
small
class. How
a
relatively
many
life
of
toil
of
with
lead
a
no
their own
thought satisfying
parents
but because
wants
they are looking to the future of those
How
dependent upon them.
people does not this one
many
When
at
thought keep from takingthe pleasantpath of ease.
lengththey have made their mark in life,
they stillwork on to
that has cost them
the position
make
much.
In his
secure
so
strugglefor the manifold necessities of life,obligedto provide a
of livelihood for himself and his family,harassed
with
means
has a powerful incentive to
anxietyfor the future, every man
under
work.
Quite otherwise,however, would be his position
community
the
are
the collectivistsystem
would
he
have
he
Indeed,
placeto
is
worker
the
be
be his own,
not
working
is to
; that
community
would
prospect of bequeathing it
no
would
his business
than
personal interest
say,
to
and
anyone.
for the
would
give
mere
of
owner
everybody to work
lackingin natural incentives,would
better results than
powers, and
one
in
of the slaves in
that
3. Collectivism would
no
not
way
to
compel
this enforced
labour,
be
likelyto produce
previousages.
the State
impose upon
in accordance
able
be
course
task
beyond its
mission.
looked at from
a
practical
changes very considerablywhen
in
of
arise
Difficulties
which
view.
theory
point
immediately
not
were
economic
contemplated.
We
functions which
the
will examine
new
brieflythe
regime would
lay upon
chief
the
State.
to make
distinction between
necessary
This, it will be admitted, is no
when
there is the questionof recon
especially
it with each man's liberty
to settle his own
requirements.
ciling
These requirements are constantlyvarying and become
more
in proportion
numerous
becomes
as
man
highly civilized.
more
were
use
originally
Thingswhich to-dayare articles of common
objectsof luxury. The State would have to reckon with this
easy
matter,
progress.
It would
not
296
ETHICS
be sufficient to make
be
articles of
subjectedto
an
cultured
more
Such
of officialswould
army
would
is
required.
*
and
42. Since
what
'
asserts
No
per
line of
is
merely useful,
societygrows richer
competent in this
the necessityof submitting
is
one
no
draw
to
competent
is necessary
be
scarcelybe attained.
'
neces
accordingas demands
change according as
'
classes of
classificationwould
revision
constant
what
line must
for
luxury.
George Renard,
', says
son
and
once
to divide them
produced, and
have to be
out,
it to the
be
laid down
in
Constitution
the
by the
whole
of the
citizen's economic
that
It would
community.
would
be
up
of declaration
kind
which
a few years
bicycle,
tool
use
as the errand-boy's
drawn
be
that
into
come
or
the
to
get
to his
duced
What
is there
impatientfor
and
the
of
would
that
for the
clamour
greatest comfort
(2)The
State
be
not
in
would
demanded
would
the
the
commissariat
what
moment
of
an
culations to be made,
is not
whole
every
question of
nation,
day.
sleep in
'
to
administration
victuals for the
*2
Op. cit.
without
morrow.
To
produced.
powerful aid
but
kind
do
this,it
of statistics.
difficultiesof
cities,
nay, of a
that
too
rations, and
of immense
provided with
having
only the
the immense
are
but
army,
London's
peace
not
an
be
by the masses,
of gold ?
Each
to determine
be
for
man
clothing.
have
think
the age
choicest
also the
But
rightsof
economic
reignof
oft-promised
the
all would
the
settling
'
Leroy-Beaulieu,can
individual or the public
least
.
the
anxiety
about
People who
the
know
arrival of
nothing of
and
economy
political
hand,
the other
of
the sake
give
never
in the
consumes
concerted
yet
spiteof
various
to the
to
sibility
assume
disastrous
what
And
departments
jointaction
the
of
"
the least
in
"
no
to be
have
of
for the purpose
life. What
of economic
consequences
innumerable
difficulties to be
practical
WThat
on
43. What
'
their needs
attending
formed
committees
by
undertaken
Yet,
guided by personalinterest,would
individuals each
various
division,for instance,for
less effective
the
none
general
all of the
day
no
foresight,
easy task in providingfor
to-dayhappens spontaneouslythrough
way
the
to
it has, in
manoeuvres,
297
twenty-fourhours.
brigade or
DUTY
thought
we
of men,
few thousands
AND
to produce each
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
respon
!
overcome
in calculation
error
entail !
would
would
eollectivistorganization
above.
uniform
everywhere
the
for the
hands
State
would
direct
there
toil
obligedto
indirect.
or
with
meet
ambitions
same
rougher
be
which
difficulty
the
here
Yet
on
the
resort
this
be
would
land
to
could
would
everybody
or
in the
coercive
not
even
produce
prefer
of
dearth
willing
The
mines.
measures,
be
the
noticed
have
we
or
literary
and
of progress ;
condition
either
attempted
these
and resistance. To overcome
arousingill-feeling
it would
certainlybe necessary in the end to establish an iron
that would annihilate individual personality.
discipline
(4) Once the workers have been drafted into the several
industries,the State has to supervisewhat is being done by
the task assigned
each person in order to see that he is fulfilling
without
to
him.
army
*8
For
Op. di.
be
necessary
then
to create
an
find realized,under
ETHICS
298
ivist
work
pro
of interference,
for there is the spur of
any need
personalinterest to keep the worker
ceeds
ideal of
without
have
regime we
(5)Again, the
seen
State would
But
at work.
have
have
ceased
to exist.
the distribution
to undertake
On
in the collect-
this
social
pointespecially
istic writers displaythe greatest variety of opinions. Several
been
have
formulae
suggested. Among socialistic theorists,
of wealth
for the
'
some
say
to
community.
each
his needs
according to
'
others
'
to
each
'
combine
accordingto his labour
; whilst others again would
both these principles,
without, however, showing how this is to
there are some
who speak of
be carried out in practice.Lastly,
remuneration
to all workers.
givingthe same
is essentially
to each according to his needs
The formula
Man's
needs are
well-nighinfinite,and they become
vague.
'
definite
more
civilization.
And
well
as
Again,
all needs
would
as
would
what
with
numerous
more
State would
? The
needs
'
have
to
be reckoned
have
step in
to
be
progress
considered
to settle this
equal ?
as
Then,
as
Schaffle
?
an
as
question.
of
the
all
up
It is not
inquiry.
his
what
the
needs, where would be, no matter
task he had to fulfil,
the stimulants to labour ?
Equally vague is the second formula, to each according to
accordingto
'
his labour
'.
How
According
to
the
If so, how
In
'
this
the
effort and
all would
Here
could
be
connexion
of labour
value
moral
the
individual
arbitrary,with
the
socialist
merit
case
free scope
G.
Renard
be
determined
worker
of the
to be estimated
for favouritism.
frankly writes
be
that
'
'
"4
Op
cit.
THEORY
depend
on
varietyof
with moral
merit.
the
that
way
RIGHT
AND
circumstances
After
its failure to
with
OF
that
299
have
nothing to do
repeatedlyreproachingcapitalism
so
give to
DUTY
each
the reward
socialism declares
the
by
of his
of
pen
effort,this is
of its
one
ex
'
ponents
conclude
must
we
the value
ing to
But
standards
Marx
is the
would
lengthof
'
them
of the
had
have
labour-time
That
which
repaidaccord
produced.
presents itself : Accordingto
now
of different
value
his work
see
has
thingshe
question
new
would
that each
them
commodities
rated
determines
average
of
production each of
the
the
fixed ?
the
according to
required for
be
to
what
of the value of
magnitude
of labour
socially
any article is the amount
necessary, or the
labour-time socially
necessary for its production *5. But to
'
determine
this amount
led to suppose.
justbrought
order
'
For
value
of the
the
to
time
be
'
has
man
In
granary.
which
this bushel
labour-time
the
would
one
as
national
of elements
only
not
matter
easy
of wheat
so
bushel
fix the
to
is not
be
must
into
taken
the
spent in manuring
implements, waggons,
example
here
of
'
word
value
thingthan
by
this
'.
wheat
grown
be assessed
on
more
of the
plain?
labour
done
the Marxian
gives an
principle
cannot
consumer
he would
productiontook
an
accordingto
Moreover,
given
are
how
have to be made
commodities
We
etc. '.
sacks,
otherwise
do
longer time.
principle.
be made
Would
Marx
under
that
forgetsthat
different
to pay
the
simplyon
steep hillsides or in
than
highly,
meaning
erroneous
it
conditions
for
ground that
barren
more
same
the
a
its
produced
the
more
to
districts to
number
would
of hours
vary
of
in their
of
production.
Moreover, this leader of scientificsocialism fails to attain the
objecthe proposes, namely, to procure a more
equitable
system
power
46
MARX,
Capital,ed. Engels, p.
(Sonnenschein, London,
ETHICS
300
of remuneration
for human
portionateto the
length of labour-time
Effort
is
accessible
In
not.
or
the
first
is
in the
more
same
is
seam
the
case
no
pro
it is to the result
than
The
obtained.
time
effort.
space
easily
more
of
amount
of
labour
less.
considerably
expended was
cannot
examples will show that the Marxian principle
be easilyreconciled with the claims of socialism to remunerate
labour more
equitably. Take the example of two bushels of
Some
wheat
in the barren
respectively
grown
fertile lowlands.
Let the figures10
hillydistrict
and
the
and
for the
of labour
amount
be
requiredin
the two
will
average
is to settle the rate of wages in
7! hours.
5 stand
in
The
cases.
the
of work.
different kinds
The
effort
less time
took
of
work
will
than
greater recompense
the
very
less time.
much
of the principle
of Marx.
consequence
his flock in sweet idleness from dawn
a
under
takes
Yet
is done
one
would
be
Must
because
logical
The shepherd watching
tillevening would
receive
the
is
health
whose
glass-blower
quicklyruined.
Then, again,how
is Marx's
to
principle
be
appliedwhen
it is a
receive
Would
the
higher wage
mechanic
than
the
who
watches
over
engineer,the artist,the
machine
man
of
letters,etc. ?
consumer
or
would
the
as
look
to
to
the
rather
needs
wealth, but
to
the
of the
to do
so
of
contrary to the very essence
with the present
part company
regime preciselybecause
prices are regulated not by work
but by the law of supply and
demand
value
secondly
; and
would
which
the
masses
would
THEORY
ministerial
impose
upon
would
not
be
task
show
301
falls in wages
action
that
collectivism would
its powers.
And this task
with
the function of public
must
supersede
not
that
of
The
working
and
machinery, and
various
State
of the soil
industry,are
privateenterprise.They
of
the
State assert
has
in
itself the
of
master
that
in the
it
higher
alreadyshown
personal
rightcould
to
what
it be
the
lead in
of the
not
have
we
due
By
Would
no
work
are
effort.
itself produced ?
way
claims of the community ?
Yet
would
be
never
of human
branches
but
in
in
safeguard
and always
necessarily
except by
the
facilitateand
on
"
established
settled
beyond
all consistent
at
dividual,but,
as
DUTY
of rises and
these
as
the State
authority. Its
far
AND
decisions.
considerations
Such
as
RIGHT
againstthe acceptance
make
by
OF
that
establishment
of
its incentives
and
generalwealth.
Should the objectionbe raised that the existing
titles of owner
of usurpation of
ship are nullified by the undeniable cases
with the
be rejoinedthat surely prescription
wealth, it may
labour
of generations superadded is not an
empty plea in
if you reject
of the existingstate of things. And
justification
vitiate
flaw must
then the same
fundamental
ever
prescription,
national
it does
individual
must
as
ownership. For we
not
the
decrease in the
forgetthat
its value
represent the
and
these
who
acted
should
before
the
not
us
made
generations were
without
we
be
generations,
of individual
up
persons
Why
gone
particular
pieceof land was
else again some
other party sold
included the increased value
of
of
the State.
from
inducement
any
have
the rightfulheirs of those who
This
expend
efforts
accumulated
my
capitaland
leavingit
some
day
my
upon
my
for
me
given to
it.
ancestors,
by
me
it to
he had
labour
to
left
it ; I, in my
The
children has
or
pricewhich
turn,
cherished
given zest
hope
to
my
ETHICS
302
efforts.
It
decessors.
owned
the
was
Yet
the
it is
some,
The
else
should
lifetime,or
would
will the
entail
about
my
pre
rightfully
it among
be
its
imagined
indemnifying the
State should
pay
of
considered
been
of
out
their
transac
Where,
From
funds ?
the
ex
during their
rent
them
graduallybuy
ever
raise
State
numbers
is
have
But
possessions.
property
on
true, talk
propriatedowners.
such
urged
flagrantviolation
more
had
that
steps in and
firmlyestablished
rightsmost
tion
that
deny
State
Could
!
possessions
Yet
will
Who
resolve
same
pray,
the
tax
necessary
that is to say, from the pocketsof those who are to be
payer
indemnified ! Besides, the sums
paid to the expropriated
"
would
owners
be of
avail
no
except for
the
purchaseof
articles
consumption
or
In such
use.
have
to be
established in defiance of
all existing
rights.
Reply
93.
Regime.
because
natural
these
"
Objections brought
to
First
The
:
objection
by it
sources
allowed
of wealth
to their
things were
meant
to
own
the
work
selfish
furnish the
to
is
regime
capitalistic
are
some
unjust,
and
advantage.
means
the
But
of subsistence
the
fore,may
whole
human
; and
race
be the exclusive
owner
of them.
is without
the motives
to make
Again,if the
it is not
the
the
individual
course
himself may
not
much
be
said about
community.
Thirdly,collectivism would not guarantee to everybody an
of the soil,any more
than the prevailing
actual possession
simplybe replacedby
DUTY
of
farmers
303
to-day would
publicofficials.
dense
a
populationwhere
how
could all have
prevailed,
of
number
AND
and
landowners
The
does.
system
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
the
an
'
argument is
writingsof Lassalle.
But
world.
this
of wealth
distribution
another
his
making
to the
For
To
make
more
claim
difficult and
strenuous
very
to
has
who
deserts.
ordinary
life of the
Will it be said
is
ownershipto
service
and
by
effort than
of talent ?
man
reward
time
meritorious.
perhaps more
in givinga higherreward
is guiltyof an injustice
labourer
who
to his work
new
object,has manifestly no
an
fortune
the
the services he
his
from
Nevertheless
manual
labourer
that
accordingto
to each
givesmore
inexperience
greater wage
made
desirable
'
in the words
be formulated
reason
everybody should
his merit and efforts as far as is possible
the dominant
principlegoverning the
is that of commutative
justice.It may
of
found
be
to
This
circumstances.
of
chance
of moral
even
use
be
it need
legitimate
merit
service
to
is censurable
of chance
not
be
necessarily
rendered
may
the
still be
fortuitous circumstances.
only in
the
case
of the
in life
making his position
and
to exempt himself from
who
in this way
endeavours
It is not right to say that every
Nature's law of labour.
reward
received must
depend simply and solelyon the re
man
who
trusts
merit.
cipient's
fortune and
prise.
bad
Is it not
talents above
to
solely
Where
it alone
in this
case
for
would
matters
end ?
his fellows ?
Good
enter
with
ETHICS
304
And
circumstance
fortuitous
happen that
of genius on
man
to be allowed
enrichingthe
done by a man
entirely
some
his way
to a
his talents to
to turn
whilst he is
account,
own
puts
Is he not
great discovery?
his
does it not
often
again,how
whole
of
societyby
is the exclusive
discovery? No work
efforts ; a number
of factors always come
product of his own
will.
into play that are quiteindependentof the human
his
If
of
intervention
the
vitiates
chance
of riches by
property, then the acquisition
condemned
be
equallywith
that
by
it draws
the land it
must
corporation
individual.
an
title to
man's
profitfrom
Is it not
soil is
the
good
nation commits
for
an
of
fertility
special
the
occupies?
chance
economics.
For
skill, etc.,
professional
economy,
difference to the
later the
of
means
the chances
of
success
an
did
indeed
when
become
industry and
of
matters
enterprise?
We
to notice
have
in this world
ourselves
safeguarding
in
against
of misfortune.
divorce labour
: Capitalism by strivingto
objection
and capital
For some
of another.
at the mercy
puts one man
of productioninto their hands
and thus
men
get all the means
in a positionto lay down the law to their fellow-men.
are
Reply : First of all,is it unjust for capitalnot to belong to
Third
labour
or,
labour
of another
not
in other
words, for
An
one
to be
man
affirmative
is
answer
of my
land
again,I invite you to
benefited
by
the
we
do
given but
in consideration
of
co-operatewith me in
its cultivation.
This co-operation
is freelygiven by you in
What
rightis
exchange for certain emoluments
agreed upon.
certain
here
any
charge,or
violated
advantage
Where
is the
whatever
from
?
injustice
the labour
not reap
If I may
of another, I must,
interests of the
whole
tage is taken by
one
man
community.
In both
cases
man.
an
advan
Are
we
THEORY
RIGHT
OF
AND
DUTY
305
divorce
The
become
the collectivistregime,whilst at
under
reality
always the
would
labour
capitaland
of
Under
case.
proposedsystem the
have
always to avail
State.
the
implements belonging to
It is true
the
of
be that
actual
an
himself of the
he would
infinitesimal
an
of the
who
be
degree,
publiccommons.
In
one.
practice his
wage-earner.
mere
who
reignsthe man
capitalism
of productionholds sway
the rest of
over
possesses the means
But would not all those paid by the State be subjectto
men.
from whom
the rule of the supervising
officials,
they would have
Such
a dependence would
to beg the dailynecessaries of life ?
We
be
it said
hear
direct.
more
even
privatehands,
the
employer. But
he
as
To-day
when
sole manufacturer
But
system.
;
; for it is indeed
one
of fact
matter
; the
owners
the
industries
many
great
farmer
has
and
in
are
of land
amount
would
are
merely a
rightto
sole merchant.
the
in the
often
an
new
same
of
theory,but
cultivated
by its
matter
is
be
then
of
root-principle
labour
to-day capitaland
is their combination
nor
so
labour
separationof capitaland
absolute
hands
where
that
the
agricul
the workmen
capital. Even
themselves
become
by the formation of co
capitalists
may
operativesocieties. It is lawful for them conjointlyto acquire
them
to use
of production and
by their savings the means
tural
to
implements
their
his
own
profit. They
already existing.
common
of societies
The
are
binations.
What
is the
reason
not
may
shareholders
also become
exclude
any
of these
why work-peoplemost
com
frequently
of others.
ETHICS
306
allied to the
argument is very closely
This
answered.
have
It
representsthe
above
of Marx's
sum
articles of
use.
labour
produce
to
Marx
have
we
just
objections. We
the
exchange-valueof
commodities
by the normal labour-time requiredfor their
of finding
production. According to him, it is the only means
of things,and so of fulfilling
the require
a common
measure
should
of commutative
ments
justice,by which
everyone
receive in exact proportion
the
as he gives. For looked at from
the needs
standpointof their use- value,i.e.their fitness to satisfy
have no standard of comparison,
of the consumer,
commodities
measure.
they do not admit of being reduced to any common
the priceof an
article higher or lower
Marx
therefore makes
accordingas the labour-time requiredfor its productionshall be
the
greater or less. It is accordinglyeasy to see whence
The capitalist
is a man
who with
derives his wealth.
capitalist
his ready money
purchasesgoods in their raw state and then
to
sellsthem at a higher price. In this way he uses his money
And
how does he manage
this ? By
produce more
money.
who work up the raw
material into
the labour of his operatives
seen
that
one
says
Marx,
article
equal
Suppose,
an
measures
one
day.
employee work
value
pocketthe surplus-
He
makes
own
it
in
which
value
does the
What
six hours
his
requiressix
to
hours
that
of
of the
do
capitalist
they produce.
Thus
we
see
is accumulated
from
what
capitalist
belongs to his employee.
Reply : We have alreadyreviewed Marx's theory of value.
it is impossibleto leave out of
in which
The questionis one
of things. Commutative
the utility
account
justicedoes not
exact
a mathematical
equalitybetween the things exchanged.
violated so long as each of the parties,
of its principles
None
are
and knowledge of the matter
in hand,
acting with full liberty
considers that he has received a compensationfor the advan
that
the
of the
wealth
use-
Hence
account
must
be taken
value.
Marx
keeps in view
namely labour,
a
to the other.
matter
and
that
merely
the labour
complex result
the
operatives,
of
one
number
of the
factors of wealth,
of the
value of
employee. But as
thingsis the extremely
of factors
the
labour
of the
work
of the
materials,the needs
of the
consumer,
the
fluctuations
raw
of the
THEORY
OF
law
the
according to
market
business management,
RIGHT
AND
of
supply and
The
etc., etc.
DUTY
labour
307
demand,
good
of the artisan
is
Tides
merits
'.
Property
to
external act
of distributive
one
which
by
should
which
principle
that the
remember
of
For occupancy
to be
I.
reallytakes
man
making
it his
title to
Occupancy is an
of a thing
possession
Occupancy.
"
own.
'
necessary
intention
conditions
these
to
it per
possess
be
legitimate
To take possession
of a
titleto property is easilyunderstood
with a view to making it mine and
thing which has no owner,
usingit to meet my legitimatewants or for any other upright
That
occupancy
can
in itself
'
We
do
involves
not
think
that
the
external
representslabour
necessarily
the word
act
which
occupancy
of
in the economic sense
take
say, that there must
improvement in the object. In the case of movable
;
that
is to
placesome
property,
by
mere
act
of
on
the
possession.Here possession
taking, providedthat this act
part of the occupierto become
pieceof ground,occupancy
may
be effected,
it is true, by reclaimingit and cultivating
it,but
also by setting
up an enclosure or marking out its boundaries.
owner.
Whatever
M.S.P.-VOL.
In the
method
n.
case
of
portion
x
3o 8
ETHICS
of land
which
mined
95.
one
should
of the work
done.
by
the very
II.
Prescription.
the transfer
of
nature
property
of
or
it is immediate,
over
and
definite
clearlydeter
be
prescription(usucapio)is meant
any other real rightby possession
By
"
which
ing
desires to possess
fixed
sometimes
period of time.
basis of
?
The question
prescription
be looked at from the point of view of the authoritywho
may
legalizes
prescription
; or from the point of view of the bene
that is,of the one
who has entered into possession.
ficiary,
is the action of the legislator
who
i. How
justifiable
prevents
from
claimant
his
after
owner
or
an
a certain
asserting rights
lapseof time ?
An
allows
who
owner
(a) Presumption of abandonment.
considerable time to elapse without
reclaiminghis property
when
he might easilyhave
done
so, is presumed to have
his rightto it. At a giventime he ceased to consider
renounced
What
rational
is the
"
it
his.
as
From
that
'
it became
moment
res
nullius
'
and
case
at
has
not
been
his intention
negligencedepriveshim
can
we
of the
at least understand
rightto
that
his
summon
law.
retains
money
it as
an
and
to preserve
possessor
in
good
faith who
loss if he
were
accordingly,
obligedto
restitution.
THEORY
law
The
OF
considers that
RIGHT
AND
careless
the
DUTY
309
ought
owner
suffer the
to
of his
"
who
anyone
has
good
small
no
article in
acquiredan
of transfer.
ordinaryway
matter
of
good
is clearly
a
security
Such
of
administration
necessary
For
property.
hold
who
those
importance that
in the
faith and
it is
property
of
always have to be reckoning with the possibility
beingbroughtagainstthem by others,thus abruptly
proceedings
disturbingthe peace of their possessionand robbing them
of the fruit of their labour.
Lastly,it prevents articles that
should
not
have
whose
to be
continues
owner
from
unknown,
rely on
the
regulationsin
for the
46
years
of
longer take
the
law
the
price
which
prevented that
to
hand
48
with
to
This
'
is the
no
consistentlywith
But
exception that if
object in an open market
has
man
its
in the
or
where
occasioned, should
be
often
of
thing
(iv)Finally,in
laid down
supposed
by
law
canon
title,such
as
that
had
long
passed from
specialcircumstances,
some
'
or
lost may
or
three
period
colorable
stolen
been
restore.
be allowed
hand,
After
this
makes
would
standingclaim
transactions.
such
has
what
purpose,
as
for the
action
of
promoting
of
owner
purchaser. Consequently
made
are
by the law
prescription
title
his
the matter
purpose
the
of
value
for movable
sale in
an
open
art 'cles
market.
"
possessed
TRS.
ETHICS
310
makes
prescription
establishment
re-
it
be found
titles to
; the
ownershiphave
in the
originally
usurped has
was
of
destroyed; what
time passed through
of
course
the hands
in
been
turn
perhapslargelyincreased
In
such
its value
by
their
the
to a situation the
publicauthorityto give a legalrecognition
due to violence and
usurpation. Here
originof which was
of
is a method
settlement made
prescription
necessary by the
The
need
of recognizing
force of circumstances.
such
some
method
becomes
land
of the
apparent if we
more
occupiedwas
primitivepeopleswho
the
from
even
now
lost
at
one
dwelt
remember
time
on
taken
it.
that most
by violence
; the
has
long ago
is to be found
from
Prescription
(a)The possessorin
the
2.
free from
conscience
another,
right.
In such
If,by
lost
The
law
of
has
is not
made
to
limitation,it forbids
seen,
an
is that commercial
of occupancy.
of the possessor.
residuaryheir
are
not
in
restoringthe possessionof
to enforce his
legalmeans
help the
be without
or
no
view
his
of
duty
owner
it would
case
point of
faithand
the
if the
even
acts
have
we
bad
in the duration
possessor
in bad faith.
whatever.
any justification
the rightful
for
to sue
owner
appointed time,
the reason,
transactions demand
this
as
"
it
is not
to abet
session 47.
(b)With
regard
generally allow
47
English
condition
for
to
that
the
he
law
apparently does
prescription. TRS.
"
avail
may
not
himself
of
prescription,
faith
as
THEORY
OF
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
311
two
claimed
his
cases
(i)It
goods within
the opportunityof doing
Presumption
The
shown.
to
practice
may
that the
we
of
is
is the
why
he
allowed
Here
action.
of his
It
right. He
follows,then,
the
intention,
consequence
himself of pre
as
avail
in
does not
owner
know
of his
the stated
presumption
no
owner
present possessor
has
had
is
it.
in
possessor
scription,(ii)It may
who
appointedtime, althoughhe
His
aware
renounce
the
not
so.
renunciation
say, to
that
has
renunciation
owner
happen
may
the
of renunciation
Is the
exists.
suffer
would
It would
that he is not
seem
injury. Why,
some
we
if by
latter who
himself to be robbed
possessor
is bound
injuryto
no
himself
or
himself
goods
his
; for if
It
merely be enriching
not, he would
of the owner,
which
owner
restitution,
we
to
at the expense
of stolen
been
has
he
restoring
instance, in the
as, for
has
case
acquired
gratuitously.
96. III. The
Right
to make
Will."
The
rightto
make
will is
some
He
purpose
may,
tion.
By
that
will not
be
realized
take steps to
accordingly,
so
doing he
rational creature
is not
will be
made
he must
secure
realiza
an
eye
to the
future, and
ETHICS
3i2
not
his
to
of
especially
follow him,
to his
legitimate.It
it is
for
goods
it is
who
has entrusted
part of his
the
why
to look to the
nature
is not
personalexistence
respectedby all,and
reason
no
would
brief,man
In
time when
be
to
are
make
disposalof his
may
he shall himself have passedaway, since
be violated.
should
of those
Providence
whom
must
furnishes
of its author
death
those
that
to
care.
secure
alone, but
future
own
co-terminous
with that
'
The dead
says,
They have moulded
Taine
of his desires
rightsin
the
the character
societyof the living.
this society. We enjoy the heritage
they have left,only on
of
and
intentions.
condition
As
that
consider
may
of goods,it is
We
ance
of the
cannot
act of
not
is
To
that
arbitrarymanner,
partiesis essential. It
that
of the other.
The
is
is,then,
mutual
no
consent,
of the
simultaneous
of
consent
if the
enough
wish
legateehas
the
are
we
his desire
expresses
the part of the
that
consent
case
When
answer,
we
mutual
presupposes
be said to exist in the
no
this
Every convey
i.
the
acceptanceon
the
'.
objections:
longerliving. There
consequentlyno conveyance
former
and
argued,
the time
bequeath,the
to
certain
parties.This
considering. At
their testament
out
carry
we
have
action of
of the testator
the
two
follows
one
continues
to hold
good, supposingno
last moment
of
the
legateemay
legateeby
his
testator.
We
has not
been
for
neous
claim.
acceptance givinghis
have
transfer
of
But
be
to
property
of the
parties
to be simulta
it needs
that
of the
to the wishes
consent
onlyto
simultaneous.
Mutual
be
legitimatemust
proved.
2.
Another
force
until the
disposeof
a
has
man
for the
A
objectionmay
use
his
goods at
who
to do
power
of the livingand
has
testament
urged
that
since
will has
no
dead, he is in reality
intending to
time
no
person
is
testator
be
when
he has ceased
to exist.
is
an
completecontrol
be controlled
act
over
of
by
are
the dead.
by a
property.
made
disposition
himself and
But
his
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
AND
DUTY
313
in denyinga
justified
he has ceased to
the
man
be, and of
end
his
lifetime.
own
If I sell some
immediately afterwards,
law
the
changed hands
and
definitely
fact that
made
The
new
I who
could
owner
for ever,
the
is
the legalvalidity
of
nullify
not
effects continue
dead.
character
death
man's
These
is
who
one
does
now
what
uprightand legitimate,
that
inviolable
acquired an
intention
necessarily
character
and
this
which
on
equallywith the reasons
rightI have given you by leaving you my
continues
it is based.
the volun
rightto
involved, has
his
Because
he
ever
independentlyof the
alreadypassed away.
deceased.
now
long
of my
property and die
will consider that it has
bargainhave
appealin support of
will continue
The
to exist
We
conclude,
testament.
3. The
further
yet belongto
on
legateewho,
we
be raised,that the
after his demise
him
suppose,
may
property of
nor
does
it
is ignorantof the
will.
as
objection
may
not belongto
The
State.
legateethe rightof
This righthas
acceptingthe offer that has been made to him.
been assigned
to him by the testator when
actingin
exclusively
It follows, then, that the
the full possessionof his faculties.
We
that
answer
property is not
at the
the
the State.
the
of the firstchance
comer,
nor
It is
strict sense
on
ear-marked
alreadydefinitely
legatee. Unquestionablyhe does not yet enjoy
of
disposal
in favour of the
of the
or
ship ; or more
as
we
strictly,
accepting the offer that has
have
been
the
ETHICS
3i4
bound
to be
being classed
The
does
value
effect
not
word
of
a
a
it is
since
acceptance
the
on
property
nullius.
res
as
all others
respectedby
the
rightof
legatee.
of Inheritance.
Right
"
The
rightof
inheritance
is
that which
another
Two
theories
The
first makes
presumed
that
it
exist
of the
It presupposes
his wish to leave his patrimony to his children,or,
intention
was
deceased
person.
presumption is fully
to be found
affection which is generally
of the same
members
family. The rightof inheritance
among
a will.
is,then, directlyconnected with the rightto make
The second theory asserts that the father of the familyis not
of the familypatrimony. These possessions
the sole owner
are
both
whose
members
the ends of a society
intended to serve
are
parents and children, and not the parents only. Thus, the
failingthem, to the
justified
by the mutual
father
is not
next
of kin.
This
is the
able, although he
interests alone
property, to disposeof it in his own
divert it from its end, which has a social character
duty
which
of
it
administering
he is at
the head
once
is not
consequence,
and
all the
alreadyhave
of
property, in
it is
group.
certain rightto it
joint
And
during
rightis suspendedwhile
the father,
them, but especially
this
parents
have
the
the
is the
of
; he has the
the
are
Both
of the
; he cannot
community
The
possession
;
members
parents. But
alive.
of the
protector.
his exclusive
possessionbelongingto
the lifetime of the
in the interests
of the
administrator
the
rightof inheritance.
From
this theory importantconsequences
follow : the father
is found
of the family
wanting in his duty as administrator
patrimony if he dissipateshis fortune, and in this case the
of the law.
children ought to be allowed to claim the protection
is another
There
of no less importance : that a
consequence
father has not an absolute
liberty,which leaves him without
any
within
that
nature.
limits
the
is
family
fulfil
when
responsibility
under
injures
duties
of
protector
the
his
will.
rights
which
of
his
he
who
children
is
315
He
of
father
The
to
DUTY
interests
the
by
guardianship.
his
AND
makes
he
imposed
patrimony
the
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
bound
is
the
free
only
community
dissipates
and
by
does
the
the
not
law
of
CHAPTER
RIGHTS
OF
sum-total
and
children
on
defined the
of
husband
FAMILY
THE
OF
MEMBERS
THE
have
98. We
II
those
wife
the
on
hand, and
one
parents and
between
contract, yet
Those
The
which,
one
constitute
which
fact of the
other.
shall see,
we
as
the second
their
have
originin
OF
INSTITUTION
THE
MARRIAGE
OF
The
the
and
man
each
wife
as
perfection
the
of the
Family
united
are
in view
their
well
own
as
dividual
The
by
as
When
Spouses."
is the
moral
being
another, each
one
by sharingin
their in
of
resources
common
of
for
It is in their
inasmuch
as
some
children.
means
wedlock.
in
natures.
element
most
end
double
marriage,they have
well-beingand their own
of the other
and
conjugal
the
of
bonds
of their
that
of the
Good
individual
satisfaction of human
nature
an
The
the
by
complement, as it were,
physical,intellectual
the
reason
the very
procreationof children.
I. PURPOSE
and
annulled.
be
cannot
it
important
measure
case
an
accompanies
functions
the
element
the
of human
in their
fulfilment
life,and
of
in
perfection
one
tends
of
to
of passion. However,
importunities
316
is
the
allay
this
element
OF
THEORY
have
not
must
RIGHT
DUTY
AND
317
preponderating influence.
Sensual
must
to a highermotive,
gratification
always be subordinated
for if this is sought as an exclusive end, the worst excesses
may
result. The union of marriage is not that of merely material
To be of one
natures.
organisms but of persons with spiritual
flesh is but
of human
100.
to
means
closer union
of soul.
This
the
dignity
personality
requires.
Second
of the
End
Family
The
of Children
Procreation
their
youth
Education.
be
must
To
of
one
parents above
and
tectors
The
"
guidance.
all others
falls the
of their child.
educators
of
duty
This
being the
is not
pro
difficult to
in bring
Together they have been instrumental
being a human
person like to themselves, possessing
and
right both to life and perfection
imprescriptible
understand.
ing into
the
same
turn
one
unless
to
obtain
to
the
those who
assistance
the
are
To
to
which
of his
authors
such
should
whom
he
has
being ?
right
their
To
into being
his life is due ; by bringing him
instrumentality
they have taken upon themselves the duty of providingthe
for his
means
what
given
life that
and
weakness
the
parents
dictate of
intention
the
been
were
abandoned
is not
in this
of Nature.
we
Not
the heart
vocation
understand
them
the
the natural
education
The
his
former.
law
his natural
to
the law
procreation.
latter, they
is the
This
of
without
great purpose
instincts
impellingthem
reason
see
of the
of the
she
has
in that
to
of
seek
welfare
given the
A child is not
responsiblefor the
of
responsibility
before
once
premature death.
in fact
logic,and
implantedin
to
at
from
naturallyand logically
the
Furthermore
be
may
devoted
shirk
cannot
can
he
child follows
As
development. Such is
begun
undertaking once
his full
must
of
preservationand
of their
318
ETHICS
than
more
affection
solicitude
them.
such
to
is
mother,
nascent
Indeed, do
not
"
in their
indeed,
Who, more
of
entering into
aspirationsand
inherit
the
soul
children.
their
of
of the
To
the
but
are
very
even
be
to
the
the
are
the masters
most
of
that
the
delegatesof an
opinionsthey are
whose
their
of
; but
continue
course
doubt
No
of others
and
child, of
character
very
not
greater
father
directingtheir
bring
than
the
of
reciprocated
turn
will
Who,
children
they
are
receive
task ?
capable
diviningits
parents
and
other
any
from
authority
bound
to
respect.
preciselydoes
But
what
101.
Education
the
to
education
of
nature
religious.
Physicaleducation looks to
provide a healthyenvironment
with
the body,
exercising
of constitution
nesses
normal
body. They
life.
moral
faculties
and
do
have
Whilst
and
so
of the
and
It must
body.
of
method
weak
harmonious
furtheringthe
and
parts.
simply
also
the
on
relaxation
affordinga
regard
strengtheningany
to
reaction
faculties.
may
wiselychosen
contribute
not
we
directing
aesthetic,moral
and
the health
of its various
development
Physicalexercises
the
these
view
Religious.
child's natural
physical,intellectual
as
and
sense
the development of
furthering
According
comprise?
of education
Moral
Physical,Intellectual,
is
the work
to
to the
health of
intellectual and
the
mind, they
to
passion.
Intellectual education
those
faculties that
beautiful.
and
garded
in this latter
in
help
to
on
truth
the
to
other
development of
object the
to
true
foster
and
many
the
on
Re
is called instruction.
faculties
one
the
aesthetic
acquisitionof knowledge.
the
the
the
with
give and
aspect education
co-operation of
of
acquisition
memory,
for their
have
It is its function
tastes
The
is concerned
hand
is
required for
the
and
the
the
The
intelligence.
senses
first
supply the
upon
then, have
the
this
For
does
not
consider
he
reason
or
senses
the
that
he
first,
recognize
neglecting
must
Whilst
to
principally
of the
319
activity.The
trainingof
development of
the education
will look
DUTY
the teacher
order
an
place,and
subordinate
AND
the
which
data
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
not
the memory,
he
the intelligence.
has
fulfilledhis
character.
On the
duty by givinghis teachingan encyclopedic
contrary, his first care is to avoid overburdening his pupilwith
would
of facts and studies which
make
it im
multiplicity
possiblefor his ideas to develop. Development is a slow
Reflection takes place
quietudeof mind.
process and requires
of matter
normallyin inverse ratio to the amount
put forward
life is short and the field of knowledge
Human
by the teacher.
To try to learn everythingis to court
is immense.
the risk
of
The
the
but
moment
erudition
but
of education
which
then
we
of habits of
It must
enable
his natural
his
and
one
of
judgment.
with
account
the
pupil.
utilitarian point of
The
means.
some
him.
The
the
day
inclinations and
life lead
for
view
formation
not
cases,
that any
?
By no
to follow
one
abilities and
positionin
must
for
each
is not
of
capacities
of education
thought is not
formed
for the
effort of reflection,
due
to understand
is to be left out
enriched
the
to the
course,
be
be
of human
necessitate
beingpaid,of
Are
it
make
to
the branches
among
those
memory
would
not
mind
primary purpose
would
the
knowing nothing ;
to which
career
the circumstances
schooling that
is
of
given
each
especially
accordingas
the liberal professions.
which
form
possess certain rudiments
the basis of all intellectual culture and are one of the conditions
Nevertheless
for
sharingthe
minimum
life of
which
children.
the
all must
And
parents are
it would
rightto interfere in
rightof
civilized society.This
the child
in
seem
In
bound
that
publicauthority has
of
such
as
they are,
the
or
theory scarcelyanyone
deny
But
in order to
remissness
to
this.
to procure
it remains
to
would
of the modern
here
safeguardthe
selfishness
inquirewhether
the
for their
duty
againstany
constitutes
as
on
the
be found
a
matter
State
of compulsoryeducation, as
principle
being
it is
ETHICS
320
does
imposed by law,
In such
interests.
that
imperil certain
not
resistance
case
would
to
seem
Whatever
be
lawful
answer
may
deal
abilitiesstands
opposed to
legalcompulsionin
any
this delicate
matter.
is
Lastly,the heart of man
moral aspirations.
Education
is indeed
which
his nature
the
of religious
and
well-spring
then develop this side of
must
highest of all. As moralityis
the
he will be shown
taught how
be
the second
he will be shown
sovereignsanctions
the
it,and
to
strengthenedagainstthe
will be
by
to conform
must
allurements
the
august
the
senses;
it rests.
which
on
of
Parents
owe
to
and
of
102.
Corollary.
authorityhas
is not,
"
been
It follows
from
therefore, absolute
above
the
are
parental
of the children.
It
restrictions upon
it
good
there
that
providedthat
wisely tested. A
child
allowed
the
who
parents may
counsellors.
put
this vocation
man
young
free choice of their
is to
an
share
has been
and
own
career
must
woman
young
; if
fortunes
the
in life of their
calling
indicated and
clearly
of the natural
of
their
life.
veto
on
the
choice
of their
to
partner
Undoubtedly
only as
they
may
children.
They
absolute
be
but
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
AND
DUTY
321
not
must
of
motives
of those whom
to the end
to his
entrusted
Divine
Providence
be
providedfor.
their children
impliesas
guardianshipmay
parents towards
counterpart the rightsto obedience, respect and
The
of
duty
has
its
affection from
them.
II. PERPETUITY
MARRIAGE
THE
OF
BOND
"
of the
worthy
dignityof
Such
man.
love
is not
superficial
;
beingunder
of
should
without
condition
sentiments
the
another.
one
date
never
The
creation
an
requires
father and
a
mature
These
reserve,
precisely
are
devotion, as is fitting,
they plighttheir troth
to
idea of
The
regard
of
the
the
the
As
very
second
union,
end
as
dallyingwith
becomes
manifest
of
on
co-operation
the
part of the
This
periodof
many
years,
few may
life,however
be the
new
births at different
put upon
justice. Hence
gettingof
them
them
the
children
treason.
more
intervals in the
of
future
some
constant
mother.
at
their mutual
they make
entertainingof a thought,
conjugaltie
upbringing of
active and
of the
the
future
some
couple when
young
possiblerupture
their minds.
consider
and
without
vague,
we
sovereignlove.
it
is that
nature
self-surrender
animate
perpetuityof
still if
Its very
with
crosses
however
over
they would
vows,
it is
that
sincere mutual
enduring.
demands
It
last.
is
that
substance
to their
parents. The
claims of
at the age
all lawful
gratitude
imperious obligationsbinding
parental societyconstituted by
is
perpetual. Hence
necessarily
in strict
the
be
too
the
ETHICS
322
is the
conjugal societywhich
dissolution
The
well.
perpetualas
basis of the
of the
foundations
the very
104. Divorce.
bond
ask,
having
of the economy
of the
The principle
"
been
certain
be
must
latter would
shake
of the former.
of
perpetuity
the
conjugal
established,is it permissible,
we
thus
disturb it under
to
former
given circumstances
must
Many
have
legislators
thought so.
We
divorce by mutual consent, divorce
distinguishbetween
for incompatibility
of temper, and again divorce for adultery,
crueltyand ill-treatment. It is evident that divorce by mutual
of temperament,
not
incompatibility
it,is nothing
withstandingthe legalformalities that accompany
of the per
short of a direct negationof the whole
principle
petuity of the marriage tie. For matrimony would then
that
in part,any other contract
or
resemble, entirely
certainly
consent,
for
or
is rescindable
the
to
the
from
that
of
possibility
engage
Reason
in wedlock
under
as
such
play a
be
such
very
have
lesser
would
consequences.
be to expose
It would
en
engagements
separationlater
would
passionwould
upon
it
greatest possibleextent
of the
of
treat
baneful
most
contracted, and
would
To
will.
at
societyto
courage
mere
lightly
Aware
those
on,
intendingto
of love.
deceptions
predominant.
conditions
would
entered
marriage once
assuredly stand con
of
less chances of endurance.
As soon
as the burdens
siderably
conjugallife began to weigh heavilythe thought of freedom
of obtainingit
would
be quick to suggest itself ; and the means
would
new
be at hand.
union
oppositionin
violence
or
for divorce.
make
to
a
the
thousand
other
And
It would
ways,
misdemeanours
how
perhaps
even
that could be
would
to
force acts
urged
desire to
as
of
plea
a
again
new
marriagebe reprehensiblewhen it was aiming merely to
bring about a situation that was
perfectlyregularand sanc
If both
tioned by the law ?
to them
partiescould reserve
of
of going back on their word in the event
selves the power
their failure to find the happiness they had anticipated,
we
should have to recognizethat they have the rightto entertain
in
and to dream
such a possibility
of some
happier partnership
Thus the wicked thought could find a free entrance
the future.
there and
into their minds, nothingwould prevent it lingering
the
contract
OF
THEORY
RIGHT
AND
DUTY
323
an
plea for
As to the
crime,
grave
the
certainly
stake.
Divorce
in the
but
at
party, condemned
innocent
But it is not
in
case
lesser of two
other
ofadulteryor some
first sight to admit
it. For
account
on
is inclined
one
the hard
under
divorce
by
The
claim
on
our
person
to be
everyone
life
solitary
sympathy.
experienceof
well
are
her
clearlyjustified
centuries has
that
aware
evil ;
always an
pointwe
evils.
one
to live
when
is
divorce
the
name
And
action.
We
sanctioned
once
the
by
law it
a
practicein all classes of
slowlybut surelybecomes
society.It works as a germ bringingsocial dissolution and
In vain
death.
does legislation
attempt to restrain the
the restrictions
when
growth of the evil. The time comes
thought to be capableof opposing further developmentsare
swept away by the impulseof passion. So great is the violence
of human
that in
inconstant is the heart of man,
so
passions,
based not on
these matters there is need for absolute principles,
divine
laws.
It
laid
Christianity
for this
was
down
the
on
that
reason
'
the
authorityof
the
Founder
God
principle,what
togetherlet no man
put asunder '.
Furthermore,though divorce may bringsome
of
joined
hath
alleviation in the
of the innocent
case
The
by
criminal union
his crime.
And
most
all who
FAMILY
Relations between
amily is
M.S.P.-VOL.
bound
ii.
example, only
feel within
too
easily
their breast
the
III. THE
105.
baneful
to
civil
the
AND
Family
societyby
THE
and
many
STATE
the
State.
"
Since the
relations,
juridical
Y
ETHICS
324
has
society
of
result
legislation,
created
is
taneously,
is
of
tions
free
less
law,
so
then,
said,
it
they
have
right
of
is
is
the
relationship
also
the
rights
quite
are
of
the
to
be
office
overridden
right
of
to
duties
of
that
the
sole
the
parents
choose
if officialdom
of
nor
the
of
teacher
those
to
of
bring
who
arrogates
any
their
themselves.
from
parents.
child.
their
shall
to
These
of
assist
itself
due
not
this
to
mutual
State
the
it
up
parents
is
Hence
the
origin
generation
son
must
the
way
law.
the
arising
family,
obliga
between
and
it.
mutual
positive
fact
father
of
the
the
for
authority
claim
and
in
very
independent
autonomy
the
education.
from
settle
parties
existing
may
pecuniary
have
They
law
marriage
in
not
spon
civil
the
the
is
and
man
acts
the
for
it
origin
of
then,
sanction
yet
Marriage,
Love
that
relations
their
have
love.
contracting
the
the
its
lay
the
not
its members
love
provision
As
the
substitute
is
of
its
to
above.
obligations.
of
derived
relationship
respect
these
juridical
the
are
offspring.
the
duties
order
parties,
of
cause
do
in
it, and
with
children
relations
family
Although,
make
engagements
their
and
obedience
mutual
of
essence
contracting
or
Still
the
public,
as
the
foundation
the
and
the
on
formalities
connexion
in
ments
the
considered
have
we
command.
certain
recognized
be
of
by
not
ordain
may
of
rights
resting
contract
Freedom
wife.
what
from
follows
said,
we
the
are
nor
for
family
it.
by
This
the
on
institution
the
Nevertheless
laws.
in
claim
certain
must
endeavour
It
must
As
we
children,
them.
a
to
not,
have
and
This
monopoly
III
CHAPTER
THE
NOTIONS
I. GENERAL
and
Definition
106.
Rights of
The
Division."
juridicalrelations
all those
by
constituted
STATE
THE
OF
RIGHTS
the
which
State
form
the
should
it
What
the
are
duties
of the
relations
with
citizens
of the
should
principles
What
State ?
the
functions ?
in viewr of these
assume
rightsand
the
the
unite
governedto
are
What
What
What
regard
are
to
the
?
society
this
inasmuch
as
they not only concern
questions,
of a general import,belong to
state but are
that particular
or
Various solutions
the sphereof the philosophyof Natural Law.
All these
have
offered.
been
Absolute, which
regard
Some
is to
the State
identified with
be
an
as
the
aspect of the
of
substance
as
shall
an
now
the whole
of nature.
institution at
examine
each
once
II. PANTHEISTIC
107. The
others recognize
Whilst, finally,
divine.
and
We
natural, human
THEORY
Spirit-State." This
political
philosophyof
its chief
Plato
STATE
Plato
coloured
in ancient
the
and
exponents.
borders
325
THE
idea
pantheistic
old world.
the
are
OF
on
pantheism
in
more
ETHICS
326
respects than
universe
teaches
with
informed
are
that
teaches
universal
that
Thus
parts of the
and
psychic principle,
is but
emanation.
an
universal
the
to
the different
of
kind
this the
also
He
one.
ideas
And
there
of
of
he
correspond
is contained
in
pantheism
of ideas
the theories he holds concerning the objectivereality
of human
and the constitution
beings. The theories put for
but a logicaldevelopment of this
ward in The Republicare
Every philosophywith pantheistictendencies is bound
germ.
essences.
germ
to
sphere of politics,
lead, in the
the
absorptionof the
individual by the State.
Indeed, pantheism is by its very
definition the negation of human
personality.
Plato is led to this theory of State absolutism by another
train of thought, namely, his conceptionof the moral
ideal.
with harmony and unity. It is found in
Justiceis synonymous
to
the individual
when
the
holds
reason
sovereigncontrol
over
when
the
faculties ; it is found in the city-state
wills of all and each of the citizens are in absolute subordination
all the
other
of the
that
to
superiorbeing
unity of
theory is to
and
of
with
the social
efface
property,and
goods.
In
State supreme
city-state
may
is the
Such
nothing
He
does
existence
more
in the
is the
is led
to
to substitute
breaks
source
of
is,as
abolish
family and
private
for them
of education
well
as
as
of conscience,
unityof
the
perfectas possible.
families
autonomous
the
in all matters
as
it were,
this
be
this
precisely
possiblethe personality
keepingwith
that with
in order
which
the State
body.
completelyas
The
is
of its own,
namely, the cohesion
Hence
the aim of Plato's political
he says,
city-state,
privateproperty
Consequently he
bodied
as
of the State
that
seen
end
an
individual.
the
within the
of
it is
Thus
subordination.
aim
The
State.
State.
He
that
emphasize the principles
customs
not, however,
and
institutions
the
identify
State
of Greece
reallydoes
were
and
em
Rome.
deityof the
into har
possible
with the
THEORY
RIGHT
OF
AND
'
professedthe completestpantheism.
'
is the
ness.
social
that
substance
DUTY
The
arrived
has
...
terrestrial
divinity48.
'
Here
find
we
327
State ', he
says,
self-conscious
at
for itself
it is
.
the
State
has
become
an
common
individual
which
minations.
in the
the
beings
of time
being at
so
assumed
so
that
preciseperiod.
monarchy, appears as
constitutional
deter
or
different manifestations of
many
of these forms had necessarily
to come
are
into
modes
many
which the State has
different forms
The
course
but
are
Yet
the
the
as
latest,namely,
best.
thus
Hegel
progress towards
what
is better.
The
State
thus
blended
with
the
seau
have
being founded
it.
it is the
substance
institution,such
It is anterior
them
by
eternal
Rous
as
to individuals.
from
Far
of
principle
very
of the
their sub
sistence.
Since the State
end
own
superexaltedabove
all other
self-destruction it cannot
use
interests of individuals.
Yet
their
libertyand
State must
be viewed
subsistence
own
their
Again, since
as
as
source
againstits decisions
the
subserve
its function
to
protect
is that
end.
divine
of all
being,its
rightsand
individual
no
own
the
Hegel'sanswer
organicand livingunityhaving its
an
its one
its
Without
authorityto
is not
goods
it is the
law, the
sovereign
its
ends.
it has its
be of any avail.
All these logical
consequences
on
the
Therefore
all duties.
rightfounded
of
be
will must
nature
can
pantheism,alreadydeve
ground
on
againstpantheism
substance
of the
account
of
in
general.
beings,if human
it becomes
appearance,
not
the supreme
law
criticisms
same
If the
Absolute
that
the
brought
are
is not
than
is more
personality
manifest
nor,
that
will of the
consequently, the
source
the real
mere
State
of
rights.
48
1896)
is
our
ETHICS
328
III.
STATE
THE
INSTITUTION
AN
AS
POSITIVE
OF
DIVINE
RIGHT
This
from
the
jurisprudenceof the
in its logical
is it
seventeenth century. Especially
implications
The
ruler
closelyallied to the theory we have just noticed.
impersonatesthe State, whilst he himself holds his office by
to God alone
direct divine right. He is then responsible
directly
and need give no account
to his subjectsfor his government.
interest of the monarch, namely, the consolidation
The political
108.
and
theory
as
the individual
rightsof
The
interests.
'
is known
the
conceptionthat
absolute
is
monarchy,
of the
theocracies
incorrect
'
of his power,
dominates
all other
the
raison d'Etat '. Before his
extension
the
comes
All power
Its
originis
its behalf
from
cometh
yield.
under
State, existing
must
East.
appeal in
to
superiorclaims
the form
He
God
',because,
of
words
the
to
as
shall
we
an
ancient
Christian.
not
of
It is
St. Paul,
see
later,
these words
have
established,but what
was
IV.
109.
its claims to
are
THEORY
THE
SOCIAL
OF
our
obedience.
CONTRACT
According to
"
this
individualism.
Hobbes
these
devoted
himself
interpretations
; the
Owing
Rousseau.
to
other
of the
development
two
from
come
great confusion
the
to
the
first of
writingsof
thought dis
the
of
also
of
the
absolutist
tendencies
of
certain
democratic
First
monarchy
as
was
Interpretation
viewed
by
divine institution.
of the
the
Contract-Theory." Absolute
of
legists
Hobbes
made
the seventeenth
it
human
century
institution,
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
on
an
contract, and
original
grounds.
As
founded
is at bottom
man
warfare, which
egoist. The
an
he
of nature
state
to all thingsinvolved
rightof every man
To put an end to this reignof anarchy
contract
found
to
instincts remained
permanent
Power
in
menace
sovereign.
irresponsible
the
as
or
norm
backs ;
of
type
the ruler
complete submission
gain the
once
be
must
given to
free
were
strong
and
single
appeared
thus
it had
its draw
authority. Yet
his
abuse
doubt
No
government.
might
breast and
monarchy
Absolute
nevertheless selfish
repress them
restingin the hands of a
a Power
required,
was
primeval
agreedby
men
human
of
state
incessant conflict.
an
But
commonwealth.
was
impossible.The
all progress
made
329
it on utilitarian
justified
started with the principle
that
said,he
have
we
DUTY
AND
even
so,
to a state of
upper hand, you have a return
is the worst of all evils. Far better,all things
warfare, which
than the re-establish
considered,to have the abuse of authority
of the
ment
original
anarchy.
Interpretation. Under
111. Second
"
societyis due to
this time
interpretation,
contract
new
primordial
in favour
of
the
had laid down
Rationalism
libertyand individualism.
It
in philosophythat the individual is autonomous.
principle
mind from
appeared as an attempt to emancipate the human
all authority
of thought and morality. From
alike in matters
the spheresof religion
and philosophythe individualistic con
science. There it fostered
ceptionpassedinto that of political
liberalism,and drew
which
contract
Since
conclusions
free,the social
it imposes upon
obligations
of nature.
state
of
to offer
In this
front
men
cannot
us
theory the
which
felicity
common
the
opposed to
directly
were
is born
man
from
state
were
theory of
those
state
of Hobbes.
with
the
be considered
manifold
as
state
as
represented
giveup in order
is
of nature
compelledto
againstthe
the social
them
from
without
state
to
which
idea.
Rousseau
as
man
primitive
(1712-1778)had alreadyrepresented
perfectly
happy
and
completelyfree
to
ETHICS
330
for in them
instincts,
of
advent
there
trace of evil.
no
But
with the
mutual
societycame
self-interest
was
and
every
became
State
corruptedby the very fact of social education.
authority,
by opposing in countless ways the instincts of our
nature, has vitiated our whole being.
Nevertheless
self
his life to
expose
is
commonwealth
is
indispensable.Left to him
struggle against the forces of destruction
cannot
man
which
peril.
constant
evil,but
It follows that
the
evil to which
humanity must
submit if it is to survive.
It is a burdensome
without
necessity
doubt, yet one that is inevitable. But although the primitive
the less they
conditions of our race
can
no
longerobtain, none
remain
far as
ideal to which the political
state should
as
an
as
conform.
And this is the reason
why government is
possible
founded
From
an
freedom
on
and
must
an
in reference to the
in reference
assure
has
basis
juridical
deduced
of
one
principles,
the other
publicauthority,
two
to its purpose.
'
The
of
free consent
expressedthus :
and only source
of all lawful authority'.
one
If man
is by nature
independent,if it is contrary to his nature
to submit
to the authorityof another, laws have no
obligatory
the
In
other
force except by his own
consent.
no
can
way
rightsof power be reconciled with those of liberty.Since the
consented to by
political
regimeis the result of a contract freely
all the citizens,
in obeying its behests they are in reality
only
themselves.
obeying
the function of the public
The second
principleconcerns
has
made
man
independent,and
authority. Since Nature
of his thoughts and acts, the publicpower must
absolute master
As it is
the greatest possible
freedom.
guarantee to everyone
of rationalism to accept any guidance
contrary to the principle
from constituted
authorityalike in matters intellectual as well
The
first may
individuals is the
as
moral,
so
State is not
be
it is consistent to assert
in any
way
to direct the
that
inglythe
function
would
of the
function
action of individuals
as
of the
but
State is not
protected. This
the
that
is the train of
to
libertyof
thought in
but
civilize,
the
the
only to
citizens shall be
writingsof
Kant.
As
an
advocate
the
givesus
rightsof
OF
THEORY
RIGHT
AND
of
principle
conceptionof the State
of the
the
as
DUTY
autonomy of reason,
the mere
guardian of
Interpretation. We
"
the contradictions
in
us
justify
schools of
abound
which
consideringhim
thought, the
as
alreadyremarked
have
in
the
the
writingsof
founder
the
one
individual and
must
libertywill
of two
opposite
favour
He
teaches, it is
the
of
liberty
; but
the law
be realized whenever
that
Rousseau
the other
favouringliberty,
General
he
the individual.
112. Third
of this
331
the
the conditions
expresses
to
the
be
reality
obeyinghimself. And
the will of the majority,
he attributes an absolute sovereignty.
of the people,
he tellsus, is not only inalienable
The sovereignty
and, consequently,
regime ;
incompatiblewith a representative
it is also incorruptible.
Whilst
Montesquieu suggests that
those in power
are
men
easilyinfluenced by prejudiceand
passion,and that therefore guarantees are requiredagainstthe
abuse of authority guarantees which he thought would
possible
be found in a distribution of authority Rousseau
expressly
formulates another
view : the will of the
sovereignpeople
is indefectible ; it must
of necessity
tend to its end.
Just as
must
will his own
a person
good,so the generalwill,
necessarily
which is expressed by the majorityof the votes of the people,
cannot
deviate from the good of the community. Accordingly
this will is infallibly
rightand just. How, indeed, can it stand
in oppositionto right,
of all right? Rous
since it is the source
the
makes
seau
the juridicalorder to spring entirelyfrom
becomes
order.
The individual
political
a
being with rights
and
this
duties only by his taking part in society. From
nature
he renounces
moment
in their fullness the prerogatives
has conferred upon
him
by leaving it to the State to define
what
shall be his. In virtue of these being defined by
power
the law they acquirea juridical
character.
Liberty exercised
"
"
'
'
within
the
limits
It is therefore
majority,that
the
disposeof
he renounced
his
law
creates
property. In the
to
prescribedby
state
or,
more
the
becomes
the
accurately,
rights,and
of nature
civil law
especiallythe
the individual
of
earthlypossessionsregardless
this power
by
the social
compact
was
Right.
will of the
right of
at liberty
ETHICS
332
which, Rousseau
total
transfer
community
dominion
'.
'
says,
of each
reduce
associate,with
all his
rights,to
the
over
State and, in
namely, the
to one,
the
Hence
of all
citizens
case
themselves
general,for
goods.
In all this
find
we
all the
of the collectivist
pretensions
all attempts of publicpowers against
of privateproperty.
principle
has
By becoming a citizen a man
the
existence.
For
Rousseau
lost his
even
informs
us
that
'
own
the mission
is to transform
each individual,who by
legislator
unit, into a part of a larger whole from
solitary
individual in
certain
measure
receives
individual
of the
himself is
which
his
this
being'.
The
to have
pantheistic
conceptionof the ancient state seems
said.
to be
more
inspiredthese lines. But there is even
the independenceof religious
in asserting
from civil
Christianity
authorityhad liberated the human conscience from the yoke of
the State.
would replacethat yoke. Imbued
like
Rousseau
the philosophers
of old with the idea of unity,he even
con
of
officialbelief which
an
impose
absolutism
Criticism
the State
ought
to
of the State.
of
attemptingto reconcile the natural liberty
the individual,supposed to be unlimited, with the authority
possessedby the State, Rousseau
utterlyfailed in two points.
all
he made
First,by misconceivingthe social nature of man,
is not
his rightsdependent upon
the body politic.If man
naturallysocial,the relations arisingfrom the mutual rights
which
bind
in the human
In
Consequentlythere
law reignssupreme.
conclusion
that
is
no
In
Rousseau
no
foundation
in nature
but
are
himself
formulated
draws.
place,another
'
my
line of
'
be any
my
former
one
which
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
AND
DUTY
333
some
it is
tracted, then
longer
no
obligations.Their
be
must
source
principle.Rousseau
where he
is possible
obligation
the
was
binds
who
creates
elsewhere, in
quite
scendent
Fichte, who
good-will that
my
failed
to
is but
my
tran
some
that
see
no
bindinghimself.
he
caused
that
reason.
It
contract
in order to guarantee
that demanded
from
was
reason
reason
Yet
its terms.
founded
was
Kant
had
the
?
personality
of human
THEORY
V.
113. Statement
organism
influenced
It is
OF
and
their
rightto speak
of
social order
the absolute
set up
SOCIAL
autonomy
Criticism.
idea that
The
"
ORGANISM
societyis
an
That
Plato
was
altogethera novel one.
in the State, as in
by it we see by his distinguishing
of
his
nutrition,defence
teachingsof
disciples
; but
in
our
put forward
and
elaborated
in all its
writingsof Lilienfeld,SchafHe
We are told by Spencerthat
of evolution.
Under
consolidated
to form
of lifearose
and
the
clearly
in the
details,especially
the
more
Spencer.
phenomena
its force
the
control.
time, under
own
Herbert
all
and
and
Physiocrats,
the
became
of
is not
Hegel and
law
rights; it
certainly
questionable.
the
THE
protectionfor
on
governed by
primitivenebula
are
from
spontaneously
under this same
Now
types graduallygave birth to all others.
law of evolution individuals are brought togetherto form social
of Spencer have, we
organisms. And these expressions
may
well believe,much
than a mere
meaning. For
more
figurative
he viewed
the
the life of
organic life of
societyas
man,
not
different from
essentially
proceedingfrom
the
same
factors,
ETHICS
334
developingitselfaccordingto
the
the
laws, and presenting
same
essential functions.
same
It is easy
mutual
The
dividual
to
mere
less than
no
of
the
unit
in
an
aggregate
materialism.
is
whole, he being
to
no
with
this
theory the
individual and societyshould be
social organism reduces
the in
pantheism,impliesthe
individual
: the
sonality
accordance
the
of the old-world
statement
social
between
theory
a
in
how
see
relations
stated.
ism,
to
than
more
We
it is
see
denial
an
societyjust what
simply a
re
that material
of human
per
lost in the
atom
cell is in the
the
exorable.
If
aggregation and
isolated, that
assured
are
we
concentration
social
life in
by
the
State is the
that
of
the
phases
consists in the
progress
units which
at first
were
course
as
that the
the
of
its
absorptionof
evolution
goal of political
being,it
in the
plified
fact
in
in
the
the individual
In the
earliest
substance
of
complete,the
an
is
development
cells
autonomous
livingsubstance.
are
whole
so
to
societyas
will be measured
proportionto
of the human
the
body.
The
discussion of this theory really depends on
opinions
the
is
whether
The
whole
to
belonging psychology.
question
individual,who is also the social unit, is not something more
than
us
AND
such
aggregationof cells,
mere
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
DUTY
335
materialists
as
would
have
believe.
further
radical
most
sophy
of man's
VI.
114.
Himself
Individual.
"
traditional
philo
fall together.
OF
STATE
THE
The individual is
by
nature
social
being.
personalbeing: He
excels
which
or
the
CONCEPTION
CHRISTIAN
of the
personaland
is
stand
nature
spiritual
THE
Nature
Man
Liberty and
absolutism.
other
every
inasmuch
,
of mankind.
He
as
Such
an
has
been
created
for
an
is the
end
objectof
the
end
God
knowledge and
love
perfectionand
because
his perfection,
the
impliesthe
the
happinessof the rational creature :
knowledge of God is the highestto which we can attain,and the
is the most
love which this inspires
noble of all ; his happiness,
because the possessionof this objectappears
the goal of the
as
of the human
soul.
We see, then, how the
deepestaspirations
of man
is logically
idea of the personality
bound
of
up with one
the essential dogmas of the Christian religion,
namely,the dogma
of his supernatural
Father
destiny. Being children of the same
who is in heaven, redeemed
Saviour, called to the
by the same
celestial inheritance,men
same
of the
Man
all brethren
essential
rights. In this we
personality.
is likewise a social being: This
same
human
are
the Doctors
totle and
of the
Plato but
have
possessors
the true
is the
and
not
idea of
teaching of all
only with Aris
of Christi
Civil
societyor
the State is not a superiorbeing, some
transcendental reality
having an end of its own 49. It is constituted by the personal
members
the
who unite to form it ; but yet it is not exclusively
product of their individual wills. Its foundation is indeed in
49
The
See
Pope
and Foundation
of Civil
Society.
"
especiallyReturn
Novarutn,
trans.
ETHICS
336
nature.
human
Nevertheless
nature.
does
nature
determine
not
the
form
august than
more
disclose
necessarily
nature
social
of
For
nature.
designsof
the
organization.
societypresupposes
the
exigenciesof
the Author
of nature.
The
therefore obedience
of
Yet
He
does
its
subjectsto
is
necessary
intervene
not
authorityis by
in any
condition
the
of its
specialway
to
It is for men
to
authorityshall assume.
settle in accordance with particular
circumstances.
Any form
of government is lawful so long as it is properlyadapted to
what
form
fulfilthe mission
117. Role
of the State.
of Public
Authority.
"
Civil
composingit.
is indispensable
to them
which
various
needs
of their existence
generalconditions
ment,
conditions
to
personality
for
if
the
happinessand
our
which
we
cannot
to look to the
they are
the earth
on
for the
societyexists
and
develop
provide the
develop
perfect
to
full. To
for
our
establish and
maintain
of civil society,
namely, the
by
common
societyis
As the public
other than to direct it towards its end.
none
good impliesthe reignof peace and concord and consequently
is to
the first function of authority
a mutual
respectof rights,
that our rights
secure
are
respected.But it has a further duty
to discharge
weal consists
as
part of its mission : the common
not only in the absence of injustice,
but it also presupposes a
weal.
state
Hence
of affairs such
individual's
faculties.
To
will favour
as
rightsand
further the
bring this
publicauthorityand
in
publicauthorityin
about
the
the
development of
on
duty incumbent
proper
is the
proportionas
its power
is
his
the
greaterthan
all
118.
having
as
Limits
tensions
'
civilization
"
of absolutism
is meant
'
as
337
when
the State is
its mission.
its insistence
by
DUTY
Christianity
opposes
Sovereignty.
of
AND
This is what
privateinitiative.
described
RIGHT
OF
THEORY
the
on
the
pre
the
rightsof
only in
which
God
so
is the
rather
tion of the
they
as
of
expression
than
conformity with
in
are
the natural
law,
It is better to
obey
men.
rightspossessed
by
obligatory
be
rightsmust
respectedby
the
the
family,it
publicpower,
very
purpose
of
'
members
of the familyare like
rightspossessedby|the
wise not created by the State.
Marriage accordingto the
Christian conceptionis a free contract givingrise to certain
The
inviolable engagements
positivelaw
children
and
are
also
on
independentof
the
that
have
the
relations between
sanction
parents and
claim to mould
and
Plato
vocation
divine
their
Founded
natural.
highest sense
existence that is
family enjoys a juridical
in
the
It has
its
own
end
dissolve it and
of
proper
to
power
makes
to
no
Aristotle
It respectsthe natural
the education of
leaves to them
parents and
their children.
on
by Christianity
the power
ETHICS
338
of
State.
the
civil
exercise
the
to
is
individual
tainly
it
whose
influence
act
of
liberty
The
of
Caesar
are
not
teach
the
'.
act
of
laid
has
and
of
spiritual
but
voluntary
per
in
the
character
foundations
the
one,
of
State
the
the
Cer
power.
constraint
essentially
the
Christianity
this
of
faith
of
the
sword
twofold
that
that
but
He
by
sent
the
how
and
Caesar's
His
Founder
the
read
we
are
and
jurisdiction
from
come
Scriptures
things
', and
the
by
one
hand
of
true
conscience.
the
God's
and
of
incompetence
the
soul
faith,
In
religion.
not
this
but
power,
their
one
secular
the
however,
conscience
the
of
and
entrusted
the
on
way
yoke
essentially
the
State
this
another
proclaiming
separation
nature
to
of
under
is
of
the
the
and
spheres
the
In
from
it
By
governance
bodies,
authority
Christianity,
respective
other.
freed
brings
suasion.
of
the
on
religious
hands.
same
distinct
two
Church
the
their
denned
clearly
has
in
rested
power
times
pre-Christian
In
apostles
preaching
of
Jesus
God
to
to
of
the
the
voluntary
the
Christian
'
said,
the
things
the
conquer
word
Render
'
that
world
Go
and
OUTLINES
OF
OF
PHILOSOPHY
THE
HISTORY
INTRODUCTION*
1.
It
Introductory.
"
is
obviously a
of
matter
little
no
the historyof
of a summary
to present in the form
difficulty
of different philosophers
the very varied teachings
and systems.
intended to be only an outline to be
The following
pages are
and on
this account
critical
filled in by oral instruction
a
of
examination
1.
omitted
criticized or
various
should
Reference
doctrines
be
made
has
to
been
designedly
treatises in the
the
where
Manual
the
and
2. Meaning
of
or
By
analysis
Philosophy.
"
and
a statement
History of Philosophywe mean
of the genesisof the different philosophical
systems which have
This inquiryinto their logical
been put forward.
antecedents
the
and mutual
obtain
Books
connexions
of what
thoroughlycomplete grasp
for
(a)if we
the
wish to
great minds
of
:
study or consultation
History of Philosophy (Ginn, Boston, 1903). A concise manual
for the whole of the history.
A
WINDELBAND,
History of Philosophy (trs.Tufts, Macmillan, London,
A
work.
larger
1901).
Greek
BURNET,
Philosophy, 2 vols.
(Macmillan, London,
1914) ; or his
shorter work, Early Greek
Philosophy (London and Edinburgh, 1908). For
the special epochs of Greek
philosophy, see also Zeller's works, various
W.
"
TURNER,
volumes, translated.
DE
WULF, History of Medieval
Philosophy(trs.Cofiey,Longmans,
London,
1909).
HOFFDING,
History of Modern
Philosophy,2 vols. (trs.Meyer, Macmillan,
London, 1900),Modern
Philosophers(trs.Mason, Macmillan, London, 1915).
MERZ, History of European Thought in the Nineteenth
Century, 4 vols.
alreadypublished (Edinburgh,
1
Most
of the
statements
philosophyhave
in the
especially
footnotes
The
the
been
one
most
translators
1904,
given in
developed and
mentioned
important
etc.).
following outlines of the history of
justifiedin the author's larger works,
the
above.
In
this Manual
philosophical works
of
the
he
has
different
added
as
writers.
made
additions
to
the list with
some
regard to the
English philosophers; and they hold themselves
responsiblefor indicating
the English sources
for the further study of various
In
systems and writers.
some
cases
to Dr. Turner's
they are indebted
History of Philosophy, as they
also for some
are
ideas incorporated,and approved by the author
of these
Outlines,in paragraph 164. TRS.
have
"
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
341
Z2
OUTLINES
342
world
the
as
seeing
aid
great
to
(c) It
is
of
neo-Scholasticism
by
us
better
in
an
its
judge
to
allows
shall
works
side
with
it, and
thus
in
Finally,
(d)
better
it
enables
which
philosophy,
on
attaching
out
system.
by
be
is
sift
to
us
side
set
we
are
doctrine
contradict
value,
degree
increasing
ever
which
modern
understand
to
to
systems
doctrinal
It
philosophy
on
of
philosophical
each
us
reality
rival
with
comparison
position
of
(b)
in
help
or
setting
it.
of
will
views
question
historical
contained
which
PHILOSOPHY
OF
special
any
the
that
truth
means
on
appreciation
an
elements
the
HISTORY
thought
have
whole,
THE
OF
importance
to
history.
3.
of
Division
Following
Treatise.
the
"
of
cession
four
in
periods
will
treatise
Philosophy
and
day
the
fall
II.
Mediaeval
and
Appendix.
the
mention
of
history
into
general
of
the
Parts
Latin
and
Greek
cycles
IV.
features
chief
we
I.
Modern
of
systems
accordingly
Indian
Philosophy
and
III.
in
vogue
at
this
Chinese
Patristic
A
Philosophy.
philosophy
suc
distinguish
may
and
philosophy,
main
four
Philosophy
of
summary
philosophical
different
historical
the
the
will
brief
present
form
an
PART
The
Philosophy.
"
India
of
Philosophy
4. Indian
of all
form
dominant
The
China
and
Indian
1000-500
B.C.
B.C.
5.
of the
Hymns
Rigveda.
The
"
ancient
which
the manifold
6. The
Indo-Germanic
of the universe
phenomena
and of the
the Brahmanas
of divine
forms
which
various forms
the numberless
itselfunder
Philosophy of
as
pantheism accordingto
civilization,
developsa cosmic
single
being manifests
Indians
of the
monument
collection of
is the
Veda
Period,
day.
sacred
of it and
Hindu
or
present.
Upanishads.
"
Upanishads,two other
form :
parts of the Veda, pantheism takes a psychological
what constitutes our individuality
(atman) and
fundamentally
the
that of all things is absolutelyidentical with Brahman,
and
eternal being who
is above
all time, space, multitude
In the Brahmanas
becoming.
they
are
later
and
is the
Brahman
all absorbed.
with
down
soul.
to
Atman
To
with
contact
alone knowable
with which
man
arrive
so
at
See MAX
1887) ;
DE
the
the whole
one
and
it is not
infinite atman
essence
the
in him
is
consciousness
plants,until
of nature
it
is endowed
sufficient to be
in
or
by sloughingselfhood
to
and
MULLER,
The
Systems of Indian
Philosophy (London, 1899) ;
York, 1884),Hindu Heterodoxy (Calcutta,
POUSSIN, The
(UniversityPress,
Way to Nirvana
Six
Philosophy(Funk, New
LA
monistic
earth, and
atman
things and
the
identifying
BOSE, Hindu
or
that
of all
source
in the
on
VALLEE
Cambridge, 1917).
343
OUTLINES
344
The
7.
HISTORY
the
of
Systems
systems which
numerous
spiritof
the
THE
OF
orthodox
the
Hindu
PHILOSOPHY
Period.
Amongst the
conformity with
"
developed in
were
called
books, and for this reason
are
Vedanta, Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Sankhya,
Vedic
(Mimamsa,
Yoga),the
OF
The philosophy
important is the Vedanta.
of this is that the phenomena which inferior science knows
are
in
Brahman
in which all
or
merely illusions ;
realityatman
and without attributes.
thingsare confounded is unknowable
The
end of life is the higherknowledge of our
identitywith
Brahman.
This knowledge is obtained by mysticalrevelations
and alone can
free us from the transmigration
of souls.
of
Alongside these orthodox theories we meet a number
heterodox
systems which set aside the teachingof the Vedas,
and of these the most
This doc
widespread is Buddhism.
is connected
of Sakya-Muni,
with the name
trine, which
reduces itselfto a moral pessimism ; it teaches that in order to
get free from the miseries of life and also from metempsychosis
have to look for happinessin an impersonalrepose.
This
we
of all Oriental philosophies,
does not
repose, which is the dream
consist,as in the case of Brahminism, in the absorptionof the
soul in God, but in what is vaguelycalled Nirvana
or extinction,
and
most
which
consists
according
and accordingto
personality,
happiness.
8. The
Philosophy of China.
philosophical
systems
1.
a
The
doctrine
is
in
another
state
some
find in China
We
"
of
in annihilation
view
one
of
three
positive
principal
(born in
of Lao-Tse
first,intelligent
Being
teaching
to
from
completed by
B.C.
the world
whom
moral
recognized
604),who
theory
emanates.
of
His
irreproachable
purity.
2.
The
(born in
doctrine of Confucius
collection of moral
dicta which
B.C.
contain
551),an
incoherent
littlethat is remark
able.
3.
which
Buddhism,
into China
seventh
the
century
beginning of
A.D.,
and
our
which
mysticism of
of Eastern
philosophies
thought
The
at
from
banned
was
of the
Those
by outside contact.
to-day are an unbroken and
greatest antiquity.
era
India
and
introduced
and
the lamas.
Asia have
which
pure
are
remained
to
be
met
tradition from
uninfluenced
with
times
there
of the
PART
Greek
9.
Periods
of
Greek
II
Philosophy
Philosophy.
six
"
The
centuries
period
before
and
of
Greek
the
six
be subdivided
into the four
may
the basis of the successive dominant
points
following
periodson
of view
1.
From
Thales
of Miletus
to
Socrates
(seventhto
beingmainly cosmological.
tury),
and
Aristotle (fifth
2. Socrates, Plato and
mainly psychological.
3. From
School
the death
(from
A.D.),when
4. The
end
of the
fourth
century
B.C.
to
the
third
ethical.
were
neo-Platonic
School
of the first"
century B.C., to the end
the sixth
centuries),
the tendencies
includingthe
end
the
fourth
fifth cen
century A.D.),marked
by
345
of Greek
tendencies
to
Philosophy in
mysticism.
CHAPTER
SOGRATIG
PRE
Thales
(From
Socrates, seventh
to
Characteristics
10.
philosophers
non-ego,
the
questions
changes
what
or
was
did
raised.
succession
the
constant
it
enter
of
during
later
particular notice
Heraclitus
things.
Hence
(fifth century).
first
comprising
First
11.
Group
looked
lonians
infinite
air
endowed
of which
for
Pre-Socratic
the
foundation
THALES
schools
the
of Heraclitus,
second, the
; the
be
(about
(about
588-524),
DIOGENES
of
APOLLONIA,
OF
fluidityand
the
capable
concrete
MILETUS
OF
elements,
in
MILETUS
OF
to
things
ANAXIMANDER
intelligence for
thought
were
of
ancient
The
Schools."
MILETUS
OF
ANAXIMENES
(about
Pythagoras
from
Samos
notably
His
doctrine
lonians
See
of
for
with
and
his
School
of
explaining
mobility
genesis
the
things.
12.
went
Eleatic
the
respective cosmic
the
of all
and
for
(cwretpov)
matter
611-547),
were
for
Water
principle.
School
of
time
the
to
only
view-point
the
groups
up
B.C.
School.
Atomist
air
lonians
are
succession
shifted
two
there
chiefly engrossed
manifest
who
find
Here
centuries,
of the
one
world,
discover
to
attempt
which
sixth
taken
we
old
the
Pythagorean
the
and
the
was
to
them.
second
seventh
the
concern
among
the
was
Greek
psychological aspect of
to investigate
was
beings, and
element
attention
was
chief
external
the
to
the
upon
earliest
The
"
attention
Their
the
questions;
two
their
not
to
Subdivision.
and
confined
and
the
PHILOSOPHY
to
his
BURNET,
Italy.
sojourn
marks
that
larger work,
to
of
Early
Greek
580
the
the
Greek
in
story of his
The
Egypt
Eleatics.
All
Philosophy
vol.
346
are
to
travels
teaching
can
and
(London
I, Thales
century)
established
the
things
the
numerous
not
from
transition
Philosophy,
of
end
to
570
or
Plato
be
facts.
of
the
reduced
Edinburgh,
(1914).
1892),
to
or
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
numbers
born
thingsare
is the
number
harmony
determined
and
indeterminate
347
or
fixed
of
mixture
odd
and
of
even,
determinate.
in addition to
Pythagorasfounded a school,and his disciples,
of science, were
moralists and
being philosophersand men
mysticsinitiated into secret rites.
with being in the
13. The
of Elea identified reality
School
with the logical
abstract,being that is universal and endowed
of unity, eternity and
attributes
immobility. Changing
phenomena
but
are
an
illusion of
conceptionof the
decisive
(born
PARMENIDES4
nothing becomes
or
ceases
544
ZENO
OF
with
being has
does not
very
or
be ;
to
This
senses.
its appearance
makes
world
about
the
of the School.
(about 490-430) is the apologist
ELEA
He
defended
the
14. Second
(i)The
Group
Ionian
Schools.
of Pre-Socratic
dynamism, or
This
the
includes
by
the
new
(2)the mechanistic
Atomist
School, (c)of
"
Anaxagoras 5.
The system of HERACLITUS
original
pantheism. Par-
(about 535-475)was
blendingof
and
an
phenomenalism,dynamism
menides had asserted that nothingchanged ; Heraclitus now
declared that everythingwas
changing (Travra
p")
continually
and he saw
a
symbol of this perpetualflux in that mutable
element par excellence
of internal activity
fire. A principle
animates the incessant flow of the
fire phenomena ; what
becomes
ever
is itself the
principleof its appearance
and
is
development. Moreover, this primordial element
endowed
with unity and intelligence,
and regulatesits own
,
"
'
'
'
'
evolution.
EMPEDOCLES
*
Ilepi
"
See
OF
AGRIGENTUM
Ilepi
mechanism
in
general.
OUTLINES
348
OF
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
this
Abdera,
authoritative
whole
is
corpusclesor
atoms
differentiated
by
for the
is that
'
of
composed
which
are
their form
and
of cosmic
whole
whirling motion
of empty
space
which
made
of
an
in the
only
LEUCIPPUS
was
DEMOCRITUSS
exponent
of matter
account
of which
founder
the
treated
adequately
was
school
and
of
its most
multitude
of
homogeneous, but
qualitatively
size,and by their combination
becoming. Atomic movement
',and
the action
results from
the existence
of
are
There
are
agency
up
minute
these
and
homceomeries.
particles
determines
which
the
diverse
The
of the universe.
Aristotle
moving
has
and
combinations
called
guiding
of matter,
and
showed
that
it leads to the
known
they became
as
destruction
Sophists.
of all
scepticism has
it is inspiredonly by
Their
Hepl "f"6aeus
',
Ilept
knowledge
The
about
no
the
chief of
480) and
II
CHAPTER
FROM
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
SOCRATES
TO
ARISTOTLE
of Greek
16. Characteristics
"
The
Greek
Philosophy during
its
genius reached
Hitherto
centuries.
fourth
SOCRATES
in
maturity
had
philosophers
Period.
this
fifth and
the
studied
only the
investigations
their
Henceforth
external world, the non-ego.
and
concerned
were
they studied
primarilywith man,
external
world
the
dependent on
as
the
knowing
faculties of the
subject.
17.
of
Philosophy
glory under
He
Socrates.
Athens
when
and
Acu/zwi/^
denouncing the
condemned
Socrates
rests
on
to
he
vices
drink
the
is known
(born about
470)
zenith
of its
the
nothing
inspiredfrom
ceased
of Athenian
to
be
on
the
of his life.
high (the
'gad-fly',
society. In
399
he
of
His
method
was
hemlock.
taught under
what
little or
moralist
never
10
risingto
was
know
We
Pericles.
Socratic
SOCRATES
"
as
the
form
dialogue.
the cardinal
of concrete
10
experiencesof
ZELLER, Socrates
and
our
349
(trs.Reichel, London,
1885).
OUTLINES
350
The
OF
HISTORY
THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
and
II. PLATO
18. Life.
At the death
"
of his master
sailed for
347) went
Cyrene.
Socrates, PLATO
Egypt
(427-
later for
and
After
On
his return
to
school in
the
19. Dialectic
Plato's
called
is the
"
Theory of
or
Ideas.
Dialectic
"
"
the word
is
science
Idea
the
the
sentations
At
of them.
is enthroned
essences,
the
the
Idea
is the final
of the
apex
Good,
of the
and
cause
ascending scale of
'
the
the formal
of the
sun
cause
of
all things.
11
Plato
has
left
thirty-fivedialogues.
His
Uorgias,the
the Older
Thecetetus, the
Academy
Sophist,the
(trs.Alleyne, London,
New
York,
the
Parmenides.
principal
1888) ; JOWETT,
1892).
works
are:
the
of the
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
relations of the
The
God, the
world, such
Plato
describes Him
obscure
problems of
as
of the most
with
able to maintain
Physics.
20.
the
regarded as
The
i.
"
It
laws
of the Idea of
Ideas ;
the
prefer
seems
and
one
independentsove
of change ; and
that
of all things,
the
cause
providentruler
Ideas
directs the
two
formal
Platonism.
the
the Good, to
Timaeus, present
the co-existence
Hermann
reigns,both
in the
of
and
Good
the
351
sense-perceived
only partialand incomplete
He explainsthingsby matter
of the Ideas.
manifestations
is the
Matter or non-being (^ "/),which
and world-soul.
shapelessand invisible element, the receptaclein whose
bosom
sensible phenomena are
evolved, is space, or place
devoid ofall content 12. The Soul of the world is an alloyof two
'
'
elements
which
calls the
he
probablythe
Qdrepov),
link between
Idea and
sensible
the
of
visible
body
circular movement,
ancients,and is endowed
(ravrovand
other
is the
connecting
and
thus
He
the supersensible.
huge animal (fwoi/)
composed of a
the world
by
the
Matter, and
makes
and
kind
and
one
the
symbol of the perfectamong
with intelligence.
2. Structure
of the corporealworld. Corporeal substances
consist of configurations
of simplebodies (water,air,fire,
earth),
the
which
as
are
be considered
to
pure
material
differences in arrangement
motion which determines their
must
so
of
and
small material
as
pure
are
not
come
from
surfaces
these
are
the
outcome
of
the boundaries
the
of
world-soul.
the
but
masses
this Plato
them
shows
himself a mechanist.
21.
to
centre
round
theory of
intellectual
throughout
by his dialectic of the
I. Theoryof knowledge. Since
in
11
Historians
'
are
in Plato's
not
agreed
as
philosophy.
to
the
man
may
be said
inspired
cognition,
Ideas.
the Ideas
matter
on
"
of
proper
are
not
immanent
phenomenal thingscan
interpretationof
the
term
OUTLINES
352
lead
never
have
to
us
HISTORY
THE
OF
OF
of immutable
knowledge
reality.But
infers that
Plato
knowledge of this reality,
PHILOSOPHY
face in
as
we
have
we
previous
as
existence ; and he regardssensible perceptions
servingonly
dormant, previousknowledge and as exercising
to re-awaken
no
properlyso called on the acts of our intelligence.
causality
2. Nature
ofthe soul. The body is a hindrance to the free con
templationof the Idea. The soul here below suffers a state of
to set itself
and is ever
violence contrary to its nature
striving
contemplated the
Man
free.
face to
to the charioteer
be likened
thus
may
of Ideas
world
drives
who
team
horses,
and
22. Ethics
or
Aesthetics.
The
"
Ideas
Plato
the
he
It is the
it.
same
of
by
the
soul
of art
consequentlybut
the shadow
are
state
of
background the
imitations
aspects. Works
in
as
consists in the
man
leaves in the
The
end
of
as
which
it is
form
of its
one
things,and
(Ethics,107)
of sensible
shadow
III. ARISTOTLE
23. Life.
"
ARISTOTLE13
Stagira(whencethe name
384, and for twenty years studied philosophy
The
second important fact of his life
Plato.
in B.C.
Stagirite)
at the school of
is his
18
and
sojourn at
the
born
was
of
court
at
Macedonia,
he
whither
was
vols.' (trs.Costelloe
2
See~ZELLER, Aristotle andithe~:Earlier
Peripatetics,
chief
works
I.
His
are
:
London,
Muirhead,
Logic, collected later
1897).
the
tion ;
the
name
two
"
"
"
Constitution.
work
of his
The
Greater
pupils.
See
Ethics
various
and
the
Eudemian
translations.
Ethics
are
probably the
GREEK
PHILOSOPHY
353
summoned
It
was
School.
patetic
He
General
was
forced to take
after
flight
Character
and
Division
the death
of
322.
of his
Philosophy.
its
full value, and
speculative
knowledge
to
Aristotle gave
elaborated a complete
philosophical
system,based
"
on
the two-fold
of
"
'
which
'
(Logic,
49).
To
from
joinideas by deducingthe particular
to subordinate
conclusions
the
according
OUTLINES
354
THE
OF
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
"
'
of which
the
two
'
fundamental
are
substance
and
(ovo-to)
accident
an
'
TO
state
to
actual
an
state
112 fL).
(Gen.Metaphysics,
Three
important theses
follow from
the
compositionof
The
called
of
the
motion
or
movement
Peripateticmetaphysics
and potentiality
:
actuality
form (28),the compositionof
and
is
theory of
theory of
the four
causes.
and
matter
takes a
to physics,
originally
of change as such.
it is an explanation
Movement,
or
change,
substrate
(matter)
requiresan amorphous or undetermined
determination
which receives some
(form). The first of these
of all that is potential
elements is the principle
; the second, of
14
Concerning
KeurOai and
fa"
see
Logic, 15.
GREEK
PHILOSOPHY
is eternal, and
Movement
355
of its unity.
beingand especially
is in
matter
also
consequence
eternal.
2.
universal is not
The
in individual
immanent
anythingexisting
by itself; but it is
thingsand is multipliedin all the
of
minds
our
3. A
(29).
exercises
is whatever
cause
real and
influence
positive
the
efficient causes
has
is
generation
commenced
never
eternal and
not
account
never
activities of
by
which
and
The
the
cause,
attraction
which
matter
will
end ;
is its subjectis also
and
is drawn
in
the
finality
of the
is the
given
regular
phonomena
inexplicable.
27. Pure
Actuality. Over and above all beingssubjectto
and potency, there
change,which are admixtures of actuality
immutable
one
reignssupreme
Being, the purely Actual
of natural
would
recurrence
be
"
(rbrt
The
77v
eti/cu
TO
irpurov).
principal
proof of
necessary. Since
nothingcan
save
actuality
the action of
first mover,
by
itself not
series of motor-causes
first motor-cause
be raised from
a
mover,
subjectto
any
were
from
is drawn
mover
or
is
to
potentiality
there
no
becoming, an
single
infinite
eternally
quiescent
; it is substantial and indivisible thought.
God has no dealings
with the world of changingbeings,
except
that He draws them
i.e.by
finality,
to Himself
with
an
attraction of
irresistible
His
desirability.
Physics, accordingto Aristotle,is concerned with the
to movement.
studyof natural bodies in so far as they are subject
28.
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
AA
HISTORY
THE
OF
OUTLINES
356
OF
PHILOSOPHY^
genesisand disappearance
of substantial compounds, qualitative
change or alteration,
and
decay,and local movement.
quantitative
change of growth
their generationand
Since terrestrial substances
dis
owe
There
are
their transformation
to
appearance
that
necessary
should
there
into
in them
be
another, it is
one
a
permanent sub
(q -rrp^rrj
{;%?),
namely first or
primary matter
identical throughout the various stages of the
stratum,
another
principle
peculiarto
substantial
form
(etSos)The
.
each
of these
one
becoming
of
and
process,
stages,namely
forms
in matter
is
regulatedby
clear
no
an
conception.
Of substances
and
there
classes,celestialand terrestrial,
two
are
of these is different.
More
perfectthan ter
restrial bodies, celestialsubstances (fixed
stars and planets)
are
swayed by a circular movement
(themost perfectaccording to
and not subjectto genera
the ancients)
immutable
; they are
tion or corruption. The special
natural element of which they
in
constituted is ether,a substance which is purelytopical
are
its nature
(Metaph.,VIII, iv, I044b.),and therefore cannot
the
nature
be classed
as
fifth element.
whose
transformation
explain
are
productions
and admixture
is finite,
singleand
fire are
The
world
eternal.
in particular
sublunarybodies, organismsand man
a
specialplace,and thus we are led to Aristotle's
occupy
psychology.
29. Psychology.
its originas a science to
Psychology owes
Aristotle. To him the soul appeared as the first actuality
of a natural
(entelechy)
possessedof life
body potentially
Among
"
0? $VX*1^(TTL e^TfXc'xeia
77 TT/OCOT??
o-w/mros
it is the substantial form
of the
livingbeing,as
the
II,i)
',
body
is
of the latter.
Though radically
one,
the
expressionthrougt
of all specific
principles
""WIKOU. De Anima,
are
the
rational
knowledge
tb
knowledge,whether sensitive or intellectual,
requires
of an objectand the subject,the first exercising
:
concurrence
All
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
357
"
"
senses,
sensible
the
common
sense,
the memory,
or
the
and
us
imagination presents
particular
of things; whilst the intelligence,
by a
contingentproperties
their reality
apart from their
process of abstraction,perceives
individual characteristics and the limits imposed by time and
This is the reason
them.
why, along with the
space upon
which receives a stimulus from without,
passiveunderstanding
the
there is
an
to
"
active intellectwhich
in
with the
concurrence
sense-
active intellect is im
The
alone
intellects
two
form.
is
difficulties.
and soul.
the
reason
of the functions
of
commentators
difficulties
which
which
Aristotle
it
controversies ;
endless
the
the
completeseparation
makes
between
the
immortality.
30.
Ethics."
ordinate
to
Practical
philosophy makes
The
knowledge sub
subject-matterof
to his
relationship
last end, and the latter consists adequately
in the harmonious
exercise of all the faculties (including
the sensitive faculties)
and formallyin the development of the highestactivities,
namely those of the intellect.
Aristotle givesa twofold series of virtues,tke dianoetic or
of the individual
in their
and
reason,
of
elements
ethical
His
a
the
Wealth
reason.
This
the
but
is
is
the
study
(fa'a-ci
State.
he
of
PHILOSOPHY
speculative
depend
does
gives
not
them
on
exclude
a
theoretic
or
the
practical
from
secondary
being
place.
eudaemonism.
rational
the
on
he
pleasure
happiness,
OF
which
virtues
and
being
is
depend
moral
system
Politics
sociable
society
which
virtues
intellectual
HISTORY
THE
OF
OUTLINES
358
social
-n-oXiTiKov
activity.
fwov),
and
Man
the
is
perfect
by
nature
form
of
III
CHAPTER
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
ARISTOTLE
TO
THE
RISE
PLATONIG
(From
the end
General
THE
FROM
DEATH
OF
OF
THE
NEO
SCHOOL
to the third
Division.
and
century A.D.)
The
predomin
of moral speculation
is the fundamental
feature of philo
ance
with
sophy after the death of Aristotle,and this deals chiefly
thus
questionsof personalconduct, theoretical speculations
taking a subordinate place.
The beginningof the third century B.C. shows us four great
schools in existence : the Peripatetic
School, the Stoic School,
the Epicurean School, and the New
Academy which perpetu
31.
ated
the
Platonic
For
tradition.
"
century and
half these
32.
The
Centuries
ran
side
Philosophical Schools
B.C. 15.
"
I. The
immediate
School.
Stoic
Third
the
of
of the
and
Second
OF
CITIUM
ZENO
"
school, CLEANTHES,
his
(about
who popularizedand
j 281-208),
systematized Stoic thought,
I were all principally
the
moralists, although they advocated
successor
(about 331-251),
as
CHRYSIPPUS
it is related to ethics.
Stoa
is
Material
materialistic,dynamistic,
bodies
Sceptics;
and
are
the
Eclectics.
only
real
OUTLINES
360
OF
HISTORY
THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
: and
beings(materialism)
by bodies we must understand not
etc., which
cognitions,
only substances, but the properties,
affect them, so that the Stoics admit interpenetration
of bodies
in the same
of internal
SAwv). A principle
place (jcparisSi'
force inheres in matter
air or
(dynamism), namely, warm
the different degreesof
; and
atmospheric currents (Trveiyxa)
tension (TOVOI)
of this heat
explainthe different changes of
bodies.
This Trvev/xa is one
throughout its manifold activities
(monism) ; it is the supreme plasticforce (AoyosorTrc/a/mriKos
and its generative
action producesin the world a closed system
of necessarily
connected
phenomena, each of which is repre
sentative of a certain stage of a fatalistic evolution (deter
minism).
of all our
Sensation is the source
thought being
cognitions,
elaborated
collective sensation.
The
or
nothing but an
is the convincing force or
of certitude
criterion
power
which
of
a
winning our
(KaraX^TrrLKov)
representation
possesses
firm adherence.
Human
acts,
determined.
all other
just as
The
soul is
human
cosmic
events,
ephemeral emanation
an
compels him
to submit
regard to
contrary
from
the
one
Virtue is
conformitywith
Between
does not
good
admit
The
significance.
wise
motive
he
his
reason
suppresses
of the
man
that
to which
fate
self-determination
evil there is
true
will
radical
degrees,and
the passage
Virtue is obligatory,
and
of
of
knowledge of the
The only evil is to
our
other motive.
any
to reason.
which
opposition,
himself.
fatally
are
it has
of man,
activity
professesan
has
not
passionsand
its
absolute
in the
source
becomes
apathetic,
i.e.passionless.
33.
a
II. The
school
of
influence
ism
philosophyat
over
a periodof
preservedunchanged
founder.
favour
At
De
the
end
Return
(94-54)was
Natura,
EPICURUS
"
more
and
a
second
the
an
six centuries,Epicurean
than
the form
(342-270)opened
Although it exercised
Athens.
of the
LucRETius16
18
School.
Epicurean
century
Roman
B.C.
world.
it
gained
The
discipleof Epicurus.
its
poet
Still
GREEK
PHILOSOPHY
361
of Democritus.
And
yet the
movement
is not caused
of atoms
exclusively
by the action of their weight. He was influenced
and conferred on
the freedom of man
by the need of explaining
of turningaside
the clinamen
the atom
a discretionary
power
of Lucretius
owing to which it swerves
slightly
accordingto
its whim, from the vertical direction which is givento it by the
action of gravity. All knowledge both in its originand its
"
"
but
is sensible,and
the
mechanical
soul, and
of the
movement
us.
it is free.
Will is
Unlike
the
Stoic determinist
"
"
"
tions, with
one
other
or
of the four
tendencies
principal
of
post-Aristotelian
philosophy. In the selection of their theories
the Eclectics of this
them
towards
the
periodwere
the convergence
of life ; and for them
guided by
ends
practical
of
the
criterion
supreme
sciousness
dependently
voice
is
This
reminds
With
of
us
of
17
tonism
; with
of
ANDRONICUS
from
60
Tyrannic
grammarian
and
master,
posterity has
A.D.), whom
although he dissociates himself on
and
Aristotelianism
35.
end
The
leans
Scepticism
Pla-
and
of
B.C.
towards
the
that
; to
Athenian
of the
with
some
works
APHRODISIAS
the
called
the
as
school
in collaboration
OF
of
Aristotle, such
of the
complete edition
200
18
mind
leader
all ALEXANDER
above
philosophy
Stoicism
on
published
who
B.C.,
40
Latin
the
the
RHODES,
OF
to
to
of commentators
group
associate
may
Academy, CICERO
(106-43 B.C.),
had a talent for accom
originality,
having any
modating Greek thought
Peripatetics,a
eclec
the
without
who,
of
interior
again
it in
peremptory
are
we
con
of
An
in this
and
eclecticism
of
forms
that
have
we
its dictates
and
: with
prominent names
SENECA
(d. 65 A.D.), an
some
immediate
our
conviction
subjectivism;
scepticism.
different
the
is
objectivityof knowledge.
itself heard,
commands.
PHILOSOPHY
OF
convergence
instinctive
of all real
makes
ticism
this
of
it, the
of
HISTORY
THE
OF
OUTLINES
362
the
of the
(about
Aristotle,
second
materialism.
neo-Pyrrhonic
School.
scepticismreappeared
with
"
At
the
AENESI-
19,who
together
in
scepticschool
of
arguments
17
Letters
animi
18
to
some
Lucilius,
tranquillitate,De
Academica,
malorum,
De
complex
De
Quaestiones naturales,
ira, De
of the
ill arranged,
consolatione, De
dementia.
natura
De
officiis,
De
work
deorum,
republica,
19
Tlvppwveioi\6yoi.
20
Phyrrhonii Hypotyposes.
De
De
divinatione,
legibus.
De
finibus
bonorum
et
IV
CHAPTER
AND
NEO-PLATONISM
THE
TO
LEADING
the
(From
becomes
God
theurgic
in
human
soul.
and
of
agency
Under
of this
period
their
up
thought
full
in
neo-Platonism,
of Greek
of systems
group
century
37.
of
which
leading
neo-Platonism
the
Alexandria
at
fruit
of
of
current
Christian
of
the
with
the
of
and
Judaic
second
philosophy
grouped
The
up
to
it,
traits
the
of
great
their
gained
three
last
the
in
in germ
them
end
the
at
the
of
of
the
first
Platonism
There
philosophy.
still
and
the
remind
combined
eclectic
with
also
was
in the
more
other
the
thought
in
the
third
should
(42).
Platonists, produced
eclectic
us
comprised
;
of its
trend
philosophy
like the
that
the
philosophy,
Pythagorean
for
developed,
of Greek
current
ideas, which
Patristic
doctrines
Among
advent
the
philosophy
Pythagorean
which
Peripatetic traditions,
speculation.
one
Before
"
of
century
neo-Pythagoreans,
blending
neo-Platonism.
currents
:
revival
Graeco-
last years
to
up
two
neo-Pythagoreanism
be
led
the
teaching
Alexandria,
find
we
between
B.C.
Systems
mainly
but
means
religionswhich
dominated
philosophy
for
oriental
These
which
by
the
tendencies
these
at
time.
with
rank
infatuation
the
it
intermediary
the
their
of
abode
this
at
by
take
an
permanent
of
centuries
who
especially for
metropolis
power
and
places
other
God
about
brought
now
it
the
on
inscrutable
is
conceived
hand
one
reason
influence
the
century A.D.)
Philosophy
"
the
of this
beings
new
God.
taken
On
intuitions
mystic
religiouscharacter,
had
Division.
communication
numerous
and
thinkers
a
This
the sixth
to
human
to
communication
direct
ecstatic
and
religious.
and
IT
B.C.
firstcentury
inaccessible
heights
admits
man
the
Character
General
36.
of
of
end
SYSTEMS
of
Platonic,
theurgic
Platonists
we
and
must
Stoic
and
religious
mention
OUTLINES
364
PLUTARCH
APULEIUS
the authors
of
work
the
of
subordination
infinite God
been
(about 160),
datingfrom
handed
down
at
the end
under
of the
the
name
series of
of
Judaictheologyand
PHILO
the
Jew
Greek
philosophy
He
absolute
action
God's
the world
on
takes
intermediarypowers
Aoyo?,which
Divine
lectures Galen
have
completefusion
proclaimedthe
works, MAXIMUS,
TRISMEGISTUS.
of HERMES
was
whose
ALBINUS,
of the well-
author
minor
numerous
series of works
of
in
Smyrna
at
PHILOSOPHY
OF
(48-125A.D.),the
MADAURA,
OF
tended
HISTORY
CHERONEA
OF
biographiesand
known
and
THE
OF
angels of
the
of
the
Judaic
enable us
may
38. Neo-Platonism.
states
Platonism
and
to
God
see
Plotinus.
such
"
as
He
is in Himself.
dominant
The
idea
of
neo-
from
withdraw
religiousmysticism. Man must
the world of sense, and approach God by a series
is
conquer
At
ism.
the
time
same
neo-Platonism
is
an
of Greek
cretism
which
or
mixture
originalsyn
philosophy,
precededit.
PLOTINUS
(205-270 A.D.)
was
the
founder
and
the
most
of neo-Platonism.
An
Egyptian by
representative
His works,
circle at Rome.
birth, he directed a philosophical
after having undergone a previousrecension at the hands of his
Eustachius, were
publishedby Porphyry under the
disciple
The
of Enneads.
name
philosophy of Plotinus evolved
gradually. Considered in its most syntheticform we may
brilliant
it up in two
sum
fundamental
ideas.
21
The
Commentaries
on
the Old
Testament.
an
eternal
source
of
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
all reality.The
of all
descendingscale
reality
reignsThe
Transcendent
Essence.
preme
an
ineffable
of emanations
in its nature,
One
or
the Su
it possesses
degree (positive
theology);
the other
on
the
One, Intelligence,
The^World-Soul, Matter.
The
are
degreesin
365
notes
we
attribute to The
all
but
One
we
analogical,
are
One
The
'
or
of
or
final necessary
that beyond
reality,
anythingless real.
If we
inquirewhether
this
philosophyis
there cannot
form
be
of pan
the One
which
say that it is so if Intelligence
: in any
begets is regarded as one of its energies
voluntarily
effusion from Intelligence
is a necessary
the rest of reality
case
theism,
and
2.
we
may
the
gradually mounts
activity.The mind
ascendingdegreesof metaphysicalreality.First of all it sees
only the world of phenomena, then it attains to contempla
tion of the vovs, and finally
rests in ecstatic and unconscious
of knowledge is pro
union with The One.
The perfection
the world of the
from
portionateto its purification
(KaOapo-is)
and the fullness of knowledge brings about
senses,
supreme
of
intellectual
OF
OUTLINES
366
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
that
his
continued
successors
the most
and
one
the
same.
Plotinus
He
remarkable.
to
more
of
disciples
"
PORPHYRY
and
more
popu
emphasized its
and ascetical character
between
man
religious
by establishing
and
The
One a series of intermediarydeities. He also em
phasizedthe confusion we have spoken of between philosophy
neo-Platonic
survival for many
and
a
religionwhich was
the first of a long line of neo-Platonic
He
centuries.
was
commentators
Aristotle : his introduction to the Categories
on
23
of Aristotle
acquired a great celebrity.Neo-Platonism,
indeed, regarded the study of the Organon of Aristotle as an
introduction to the philosophyof Plato.
40. End
of Greek
re
Philosophy. Porphyry's successors
tained nothing of neo-Platonism
but a mystic craving after
the supernatural.The Syrian Jamblichus, for example, built
the foundations
of neo-Platonism
international pantheon
on
an
of pagan
took an
deities. Later neo-Platonism
encyclopedic
larized
the
teaching
his
2Z, and
master
"
character
and
its attention
confined
the commentaries
to
of
Aristotle.
The
philosophersof
the three
chief centres
Athens, Alexandria
the
gatheredtogetherin
empire : Constantinople,
last centuries
of the Eastern
worthy of
century, is the onlypersonality
Constantinople.At
thinkers
were
the
PROCLUS
school
note
of Athens
the
in the school of
most
brilliant
who
systematizedthe
(410-485),
and
emphasized his monistic and
24
philosophy of Plotinus
and SIMPLICIUS, a
mysticteachings,
commentator
on
Aristotle,
by Justinianin 529
celebrated
migrated to Persia. The most
philosopherat
After him,
of Proclus.
Alexandria
was
AMMONIUS, a disciple
under the influence of JOHN PHILOPONUS,
at the beginningof
who
when
the school
the
sixth
century, the
evolution
22
13
84
'
towards
A0o/tytaiTrpis
ra
Wvayuyr) els ras
of Athens
school
was
of
closed
Alexandria
underwent
Christianity.
voyrd.
called
'A/)t"rrorAous
KaTrjyopias,
also
T"V
irepl
Trtvre
an
PHILOSOPHY
GREEK
influence
The
mediaeval
philosophy,
in
directions
which
Accordingly
Western.
Fathers
in
philosophy
Byzantine
the
"
the
Greek
of
of
between
the
Middle
Ages.
the
Church
Greek
367
we
which
philosophy
be
may
it showed
itself
philosophy,
in
find
it in
marks
and
the
throughout
seen
in
the
three
principal
Asiatic
and
philosophy
of
in
the
the
transitional
period
the
philosophy
of
the
PART
III
Philosophy
Patristic
General
41.
speculations
of
fragmentary
as
served
the
of
religious philosophy
and
We
divide
first three
to
Council
of
In
mental
of
dogmas
of
manner
extended
from
into
philosophy
Council
of Nicea
of doctrinal
42.
Gnosticism,
current
to
which
See
the
of
God
SCHMID,
St. Louis,
thought
periods,basing
two
of the
period
seventh
the
included
Church
to
the
funda
from
century,
the
period
second
The
(692),and
Council
rise to
gave
in which
fixed.
the
Trullan
Lives
was
time.
The
and
of
Works
Three
principal heresy
syncretic alloy
matter,
way
of
the
dualism
essential
producing by
Manual
and
the
First
the
during
was
principle of good,
DENHEWER,
to
Philosophy
centuries,
at
evolution
the
faith became
the
Greek
the
the
was
era
development.
Patristic
Christian
was
fourth
the
re
ancients.
325),
the
other
with
permeated
Nicea
The
essentially
was
dogma.
their
by them,
Patristic
centuries
the
philosophy
the
on
and
unity
confound
which
religious controversies
The
first period, which
speculative discussions.
division
our
establish
accentuated
Church
the
civilization
of the
colouring
may
in
of
and
religious questions.
subservient
influenced
were
the
kept
of
Fathers
the
religious
to
want
way
to
of
speculative aspect
philosophy
a
neo-Platonism
from
inherited
and
maintain,
than
eyes,
this
the
to
to
their
in
patristic period
The
tendency
hence
25, incidental
upon
in their
truth
philosophical
origin
called
were
purpose,
dogmatic
fullness.
with
they
The
"
Church
their
owed
were,
other
no
defend
and
they
Division.
of the
Fathers
the
which
controversies
they
and
Features
the
Centuries."
of
the
Greek
of
principle of
of emanation
early
ideas
God,
the
evil ;
the
series
of
St. Louis,
1899) : BARof Patrology (trs. Schobel,
Shahan,
Herder,
Church
the
Fathers
(trs.
of
of the
1908).
369
370
OUTLINES
Eons
less and
less
HISTORY
THE
OF
perfect;
the mixture
in the world
material elements
PHILOSOPHY
OF
such
of the divine
the
are
and
the
theories
principal
metaphysicand
of the Gnostic
cosmogony.
third century Gnosticism
was
violentlyopposed by
Christian school of Alexandria, of which the leaders were
In the
the
OF
ALEXANDRIA
man.
43.
St.
Augustine.
"
sophy belongthe
ST.
GREGORY
St.
of ST. GREGORY
names
sopherof
but
by
period.
St. Ambrose
celebrated Fathers
of the most
he also stands
the Patristic
to Catholicism
(331-394),
M
(about
above
Church,
NYSSA
OF
ST. AMBROSE
(329-390),
of the
second
the
NAZIANZUS
OF
340-397)and
To
out
Born
as
baptizedhim in
Hippo (395),where he held
of Milan, who
renown
in
430".
Augustine gatheredtogetherand reduced to a concise
and he is one of the
of antiquity,
form the intellectual treasures
destined to be passed
chief media by which these treasures were
He was
well acquaintedwith neoworld.
down to the modern
of
his method
Platonism, and to it he owed his psychology,
consciousness,his excessive dis
investigation
by the human
and a great
tinction between the sensible and the supersensible
number
of his teachingsconcerningGod.
Before reachingits completeform the philosophyof Augus
St.
tine,
as
he
himself
tells us,
underwent
progressive
; 2
Ilai5ayuy6i
*7
TLeplapx"v.
ministrorum.
officiis
from a philosophicalpoint of view are : Confessionum
libri II I
libri XIII,
his autobiography (about 400
A.D.); Retractationum
he had at
doubts
whose
Contra
A cademicos, directed
against the neo-sceptics,
animae ;
de immortalilate
time
shared
one
; Soliloquiorum libri II ; Liber
anima
et ejus
De
arbitrio
De
libero
De
De quantitateanimae
;
magistro ;
;
of
St.
works
Trinitate.
all
the
Augustine
and
Dei
De
Ciiitate
De
Nearly
origine
;
have
been translated
(ed. Schaff, Buffalo, 1886-92 ; Library of the Fathers,
Oxford, 1844-47; etc.).
28
Hetaemeron,
8t
His
De
principalworks
PHILOSOPHY
PATRISTIC
37I
in the mind
corresponding
or
of its
norm
and
reality
of
God, and
the ultimate
of its intelligibility.
physicsof
form.
But
St.
Augustinewe
matter
find the
is described
theoryof
sometimes
matter
in the Aris
broughtforth from
nothingby the act of the Creator. In matter God has placeda
hidden treasure
of active forces, which
St. Augustine calls
rationes seminales ; and to the gradualdevelopmentof these
seminal principles
be ascribed the different
must
or
germs
of corporealthings.
species
The human
St. Augustinewas
also a great psychologist.
soul is spiritual
and immortal ;' but concerningits originhe
unable
was
to
as
decide between
chaotic
mass
traducianism
and
creationism.
the
intellectual
of the exterior world.
representations
mate
ideas
to
and*itTisin this
texts in which
M.S.P. -VOL.
n.
sense
St.
that
we
therefore to
must
of
our
;
reality
objective
understand
Augustinespeaks of
ulti
The
the Divine
of the
many
illumination
BB
of
OF
OUTLINES
372
souls.
our
departurefor
be taken
in
us
are
passages,
lightwithin
divine
celebrated and
many
elements
to refer to other
notably to
drawn
HISTORY
There
of the
diation
THE
his
theory
OF
PHILOSOPHY
is the
which
us,
of St.
Augustine's
teaching,
For
from
as
the inmost
occasion
point of
endless controversies,must
origin of ideas.
of the
this irra
however, where
ideas
are
implantsthem
the
senses
are
of their
genesis(Plato).
The will playsa more
predominatingrole in our psychiclife
than the intellect,
inasmuch
as
purityof its desires is a con
of some
truths the
dition of knowledge,and because in the case
be secured only by the will's intervention.
mind's assent
can
The
will is morally free. Evil is not a real element existing
side by side with the good (Manicheism),
of
but is the privation
only the
the
good.
St.
human
is the
ardent
44.
of
Augustine'smanner
freedom
the
reconciling
of the
controversy.
Writers
Dionysius.
"
The
Century. Nemesius.
Nemesius, Bishop of Emesa, wrote
of the
Fifth
Pseudo-
an
From
most
eclectic psychologyand
the
point of
view
important writer
of
Grecian
mode
of his influence
the
of
on
fifth century
thought.
the
future, the
is the
author
the
of St. Dionysiusthe Areopagite,
known
by the name
falsely
discipleof St. Paul. Long controversies have been waged
that we
concerningthe real identityof this writer. It seems
must
placehis writingsat the end of the fifth or at the be
ginningof the sixth century. They did not appear before the
The
conference
at Constantinople.
time of the great religious
treatises of the PsEUDO-DiONYSius
The Divine Names, Mystion
The CelestialHierarchy,
The EcclesiasticalHierarchy,
calTheology,
to the
largelyinspiredmysticism and scholasticism down
The
time of the Renaissance.
philosophywhich we find in
and of
the thought of God
these writingscentres
around
influences are mani
Neo-Platonic
mysticalunion with Him.
of particular
fest not only in a great number
teachings,both
but also in his terminology and
and mystical,
philosophical
and his
Nevertheless the author rejects
formulae.
pantheism,
PHILOSOPHY
PATRISTIC
based
mysticism,
the
which
the
among
them
The
in
an
of
thinkers
orthodox,
the
their
to
mediaeval
race,
Middle
times.
than
mode
The
written
Ages
in
sometimes
their
Christian.
had
Pseudo-Dionysius
later
of
is
grace,
philosophers
account
belong
on
373
the
of
who
veiled
caused
fifth
thought
confusion
sometimes
heterodox,
interpret
sense.
century,
and
in
terms
their
both
on
influence,
PART
IV
Mediaeval
General
45.
and
Remarks
Scholastic
Middle
and
largenumber
of
unfortunate
to
which
We
mention
may
mediaeval
between
were
only in
Though
West
indeed
the West
and
the
of
have
also at
Scholasticism
with
Ages, at
whether
which
was
we
may
that
throughout
at
East also
course
of the Middle
philosophical
systems that were
anti-Scholastic or, if
teaching was
produced
nothingat
all in
Scholasticism with
mistake of
new
length in
in the
view
of
Middle
Scholastic
of Scholasticism
the
in Italian
outlined
and
375
the
Middle
To
you
West
and
which
op
the
had
confuse
Ages is the
whole.
philosophy
Byzantium
Scholasticism.
philosophyof
the
consider
Ages systems
the
with
we
that
with
DE
Historyappeared
if
common
confusinga part
Confusion
same
the
deal with
to
posed
it, whose
prefer,non-Scholastic. This is true
alone,but we must
also remember
the
East.
to
by
in the
philosophyin
dominant
the
was
this not
whatever
ticism had
The
closely
some
and
Byzantium
Middle
in the
of many
Ages. This is so true
80
ones
the most
out
at
that
very
but
that
shown
philosophical
systems,
many
others
interrelated,
2.
the chief
philosophyand Scholastic
have
which
recentlybeen
historical works
"
to have
Ages
dispelling.
need
names,
Middle
philosophy.The
Ages
of the
Philosophy
"
confusions.
Confusion
1.
the
on
Philosophy.
Ages
Philosophy
and
Scholastic
followingpages is discussed
Philosophy, trs. Cotfey ; cp. also
New.
Enlarged editions of the
in the
German.
OUTLINES
376
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
the
Their
causes.
century.
What
has
had
the
Scholastic
ordination, inasmuch
of in
philosophical
arguments
apologetical
purposes, and on
as
theologyfor
although it existed
philosophy,
use
tributed
method
of
in
or,
theologyto
as
rationcs,as
form
as
an
what
Of
were
co
made
this account
science, con
autonomous
is known
but
own,
as
the dialectic
Of subordination,since philosophy,
whilst
method.
scripture
with the positive
of a dogma,
demonstration
having no concern
contradict any dogma : a thingwhich
might never
negatively
of the Universityof Paris expressedby for
the regulations
contra
of philosophy to
determinare
bidding any master
fidem.'
Nevertheless, these connexions between theologyand
difference
philosophydo not at all detract from the real specific
'
in the
81
Thus
nature
of the two
it is that
Scholasticism
we
hear
of
(Carra de Vaux)
sciences,and in order
a
and
Jewish
of
Scholasticism
Protestant
to
bring home
of
(Zeller),
Scholasticism.
an
Arabian
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
377
to ourselves how
the
many
the
on
Scholasticism
of mediaeval
that
have
the
Ages,
great
direct
no
but
hand
other
philosophy,
is evident if we
concern
hand
one
idea of
glance
those
even
all
that
that
to establish their
opposed to Scholasticism, endeavoured
agreement with dogmatic truth.
Scholastic philosophyand an ancient
3. Confusion between
Scho
philosophical
system. The prejudicethat would make
were
"
lasticism
been
has
mere
was
now
very
channel
by
passedon.
which
neo-Platonic
Not
mention
of Democritus
to
and
teachings to
the
sy st ematization
Platonism
especially
made
great benefit
which
false
or
put down
one-sided
as
held in honour
was
mechanism
of
traces
its
characteristic
own
schola,school),came
views
date
from
the Renaissance,
and
theologians
all the
Middle
it thoughtit knew
as
show
were
tongue, etc.32.
of the
philosophers
or
thought
"
These
both
use
of
Scholastic
between
4. Confusion
methods
its formal procedure,
its
the Latin
of
the
Pythagoreanism,
Scholasticism
their influence.
tendencies
at
'
to have
contemptuous
meaning
at
the
in some
way
signify
vague
sneered
at
whose
language people
any philosopher-theologian,
and of whose teachingthey knew nothing. The same
happened
in architecture with
the epithet 'gothic'. But
owing to
which
recent
historical works
these long-standing
prejudices
were
so
unjustto the philosophyof the Middle Ages are now
all but dissipated.
fortunately
"
One
Greek,
of
or
might
as
Kantianism
certain
Scholasticism.
well
define
Grecian
to
Philosophy as
can
the
philosophytaught
conceive
with
in
the aid
only
such a definition for
be studied
OUTLINES
378
of
philosophy
West,
the
of
but
all
different
the
in
philosophy
of view
point
marked
teenth
but
which
decadence
of the
and
until
more
distinguished
regain
for it the
without
success.
the
falls into
to
of the
end
the
teenth
century)
of
half
fifteenth
mediaeval
fifteenth
With
the
East.
periods
century)
these
history
seventeenth
divisions
of
all
it had
that
the
to
of
;
modern
sides
their
by
new
to
were
philosophy
of its
the
ninth
glory (thir
(fourteenth
philosophy
middle
efforts
(from
of
the
century
mediaeval
(4) period
of
Philosophy.
sixteenth
decadence
duration.
the
Modern
(2) period
its
of
languished,
all
lost, but
thir
the
signs
Scholasticism
the
this
briefly
long
From
of
century
in
were
on
the
trace
to
riches
of
there
in
of
it may
the
not
of
and
From
this
thirteenth
fifteenth.
century)
(3) period
philosophy
to
tried
East
divisions
the
twelfth
;
able
elaboration
assailed
was
it is clear
better
preceded
forerunners
minds
account
Period.
was
in the
predominance
above
four
glory
it
the
were
Some
From
which
seventeenth
because
so
which
systems
the
into
of the
century
about
came
fifteenth
the
Mediaeval
unfolded
fourteenth
the
the
in
in Western
; and
development,
painful
in the
Byzantine,
taking
renaissance
its
simultaneously
representative
are
The
Ages."
centres
most
of its
of
Middle
important
we
Scholasticism
time
the
Western,
by
and
long
the
in
Already
that
period
the
of
one
is
of the
scientific
the
century
genius
most
phases
general
epoch
an
called
be
the
Scholasticism
of
PHILOSOPHY
numerous
Therefore
age.
position
in
out,
far
by
Scholasticism
the
in
and
OF
developed
Ages
philosophies,
first is
the
of
central
three
of
Philosophy
Middle
the
these
philosophy
ideas
HISTORY
Byzantium
at
Oriental,
the
of
Division
46.
THE
OF
first
and
transition
from
(second half
of the
century).
of Western
philosophic thought
philosophy
at
we
Byzantium
shall
and
connect
in
the
CHAPTER
FIRST
PERIOD
OF
(To the
ART.
Period.
end
(andin
WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY
I. GENERAL
VIEW
of
new
demarcation
VENERABLE
neither
was
GREGORY
BEDE
branches.
By
called upon
races
to create
the
Ages,gatheredtogether
the Roman
nor
original
world.
At the
constructive,but
OF
SEVILLE
THE
for
GREAT
knowledgein
century there
was
definitedemar
againbetween
demarcation onlycame
of specialization
during
nor
philosophyand theology,
and
philosophy
as
scope of philosophy."
(about 540-604),of
34
MAURUS
and RHABANUS
(784(673-735)
the ninth
cation between
this
during
stands
856)35 philosophy
2.
and
left by
great heritage
their work
33, of
(560-636)
the
of the
now
degreethe Teutons),
In the
encyclopedic.
about
Scholasticism
relicsof
outset
minor
PHILOSOPHY
of the twelfth
century)
The
the
Gradual
i.
"
MEDIAEVAL
Characteristics
Main
47.
I.
the result of
This
slow process
centuries.
following
Gradual
formulationofthe problems.The
"
commencement
for
undue esteem
altogether
which alone was
dialectic,
taughtas such as a branch of the
debated many
liberalarts; but simultaneously
there were
and, after
natural theology,
problemsof cosmology,
ontology,
the eleventh century, of psychology.
3. Absence of systematic
arrangement. The solutions given
to these differentproblemswere
wantingin that convergence of
of the Middle
Ages
showed
an
"
Originum
84
De
De
36
natura
sen
Etymologiarum,Libri
rerum.
universe.
379
of the
synthesis
XX.
thirteenth
OF
OUTLINES
380
THE
century.
We
coherence
in the very
bear upon
Scholasticism
look
must
OF
HISTORY
for the
PHILOSOPHY
principalcause
of this in
were
brought to
preponderating
group
of Platonic-
crucible in which
materials
of very
varied
kinds
fused
were
together.
48.
Middle
and
Ages
there
in these
two
were
even
or
three
"
Far back
in the
or
the
for
claustri,reserved
exterior,open
the
monks,
and
the
schola
cathedral or
lay students ; (2)the episcopal,
capitularschools ; (3) the court or palace schools, scholae
of which
the most
celebrated was
the
palatinaeor palatii,
Palatine court of the Prankish kings. The celebrity
of these
schools dates from Charlemagne,who
encouraged their erec
who
tion,and from ALCUIN
(735-804),
organizedthem.
Amongst the most famous schools we may mention those of
York
(England),of Liege,Tournai (the Low Countries),of
Fulda (Germany),of Rheims, Tours, La on, Compi"gne,
Chartres
and Paris (France),of Monte Cassino (Italy).
In
to
schools
these
there
were
liberal arts,
the
works
exchange
we
of
natural
form
of
shall mention
views
between
and
master
pupils,made
its
appearance
tions.
the
"
This
time
became
systematization
of Abelard.
Cp. Mullinger,Schools
And
we
of Charles
must
the Great
dominant
note
how
feature from
philosophical
(London, 1877).
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
arguments and
49.
Philosophical Literature.
Organon
and
known,
was
about
Physics. Plato
known
other
hand
upon
Aristotle
was
there
of
writers
(470-570) and
DORUS
Greek
On
the
be
authors
were
or
Pseudo-Dionysius.and
the
the
greatest
considered
philosophicalthought of the
CAPELLA
of Carthage(middle of
38
of his
commentaries
numerous
were
had
line may
new
until the
parts of works of
considerablyused, and
of the Church
especiallySt. Augustine
his Timaeus.
Works
Lucretius
only the
evidence
have
The
etc.
translations.
and
Cicero, Seneca
which
Victorinus,
Latin
entiretynot
we
only by
Plato
and
Boethius, Marius
only in
this time
in circulation
were
those
Of Aristotle's works
"
this in its
read
intermingledwith
questionsare
theology.
belong to
381
Middle
the
fifth
Three
renown.
directingthe
Ages" MARTIANUS
century)37,CASSIOas
BOETHIUS
two
being ministers
"
philosophyin
the twelfth
(II).
order we
To this division accordingto a chronological
add another
division accordingto the ideas contained
systems of philosophy; in each of these two periodswe
make
and
distinction between
those
that
are
not.
This
the
objectiveconformity or
theories of a philosophyhave
of
the
Scholasticism
of
want
Satyricon;
88
De
artibus
of
shall
Scholastic
conformity that
the
in the
thirteenth
from
down
teachingshanded
40.
completedand crystallized
87
are
shall
the
nuptiisMercurii et Philologiae.
liberalism litterarum ; De
disciplines
the
tendencies
century, when
early Middle
on
Ages
the
were
De
ac
institutionc divinarum
litter
arum.
89
Translations
of the
Isagoge of Porphyry
and
of various
works
of Aristotle,
the
Organon
commentaries
on
the
382
OUTLINES
OF
II. WESTERN
HISTORY
THE
PHILOSOPHY
51. The
thought
i.
THE
OF
Scholastic
Question of Universals.
universals.
NINTH, TENTH
AND
Philosophy
"
problem of
follow step by step the gradual ex
can
different controversies,the development of a
the
were
PHILOSOPHY
CENTURIES
ELEVENTH
"
OF
We
pansion of the
psychologyand
main
problem
of discussion
outcome
reached
of the
of
solution of the
in the
twelfth
name
were
known
as
anti-realists.
(ninth century)41,
principalrealists werel|FREDEGis
REMIGIUS
OF AUXERRE
(tenthcen
(ninthcentury)42,GERBERT
a man
tury) *3,who was remarkable in his time as a logician,
of learningand a humanist, and ODO
TOURNAI
OF
(eleventh
century)44. They established a strict parallelismbetween
and to each
being and thought, and attributed to each species
shared by all the
universal essence
a
(subsistentia),
genus
The
subordinate
individuals.
41
De
42
Commentaries
43
Letters
44
De
nihilo et tenebris.
; De
on
Donatus
rationali
peccato oyiginali.
et
and
Martianus
rations uti.
Capella.
MEDIAEVAL
By anti-realistswe
followed
who
PHILOSOPHY
those who
mean
commonsense
ERIC
MAURUS,
RHABANUS
not
are
The
exists.
alone
opposed realism,those
agreed with Aristotle in
and
383
OF
thingsand
anti-realists of
AUXERRE
that the in
this
period"
(ninthcentury)*5, or
of the sententia
(born about 1050), the originator
did not get beyond the simple negativereplyto the
vocum
propounded by Porphyry. The last
incomplete dilemma
did not solve the problem of the relation
in particular
named
between the universal and the thoughtin the precise
that
sense
word
understand
the
nominalism.
We do not find
now
by
we
broached in the texts of his which we possess.
this question
dialecticians gave rise in some
The quarrels
quarters
among
at once
and
to
to argumentations
superficial degrading reason.
BESATE
Men
like ANSELM
OF
(eleventhcentury)*8 must be
rather than philosophers.
regardedas sophists
realism considered only the real element in our
Extreme
; anticoncepts and attributed to it an actual universality
ROSCELIN
"
realism
on
be summed
was
truth
by
which
destined
was
adequateformulae
were
to
found
become
Abbot
of
(1033-1109),
Archbishopof Canterbury,was the firstto
works
full
clear and
as
more
to clothe it.
his well-known
of
expression
the
47,to combine
Bee
and
afterwards
an
attempt, in
make
the truths
so
far reached in
47
Commentaries
Rhetorimachia.
on
dialectical
Monologium, Proslogium,
Trinitatis (againstRoscelin),De
De libero arbitrio,Cur
Deveritate,
problems.
Liber
apologeticusad
incavnatiove
Deus
homo
insipientem,De
fide
OF
OUTLINES
384
of
of God,
and
ledge;
of the
exemplarism, and
In
between
of
OF
He
was
the
and
thought, and
he
questionsconcerningthe genesisof
lines as St. Augustine.
the
"
53. John
Scotus
2.
Non-Scholastic
Eriugena
truth
know
and
treasured
frankly realistic in
sensation
PHILOSOPHY
divine
theories became
these
Scholastics.
mind.
HISTORY
THE
patrimony
his tone
of
essential distinction
dealt with
ideas
along
of
many
the
same
Philosophy
of Irish
(800/15-877),
birth
(Eriu-
His
"
"
the ultimate
as
an
the
of the Universe.
of God ;
as
a projection
psychologyhe regardsman
has
of cognition,
in addition to his ordinarymethod
man
of knowledge
intuitus gnosticusin which for the acquisition
follows a process parallel
to the evolutionary
reason
stages
2.
and
term
In his
Scholastic,inasmuch
God
and
His creatures
Scholasticism.
as
is
the
one
substantial
distinction between
of the fundamental
of
principles
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
indications
Other
found
in the
refuted
De
form
of anti-Scholastic
Mundi
Constitution
of human
385
teachingsare
of the
to
be
Pseudo-Bede, who
monopsychism upheldby
of his
some
contemporaries.
" 3.
54. Their
TheologicalControversies
Philosophyand
Bearing
The
Philosophy.
on
"
discussion of several
of the theo
questionswas the natural outcome
philosophical
transubstantiation
logicalcontroversies on
predestination,
of certain
endeavour
and the dogma of the Trinity. The
such as Berengariusof Tours
and Roscelin, to
dialecticians,
placedialectic beyond all authorityprovoked a reaction on the
part of a group of theologians Peter Damian, Otloh of St.
Emmeram,
Manegold of Lautenbach
(eleventhcentury) who
declared themselves
less hostile to all philosophy.
more
or
Peter Damian
notablywould not tolerate philosophyexcept as
of dogma, and it was
he who popularized
subservingthe cause
the much-abused
ancilla theologiae.Yet
principle
philosophia
it was
with Lanfranc, the champion againstBerengarius,
that
find developing a
we
more
accommodating tendency in
theologywhich was destined to issue in what became known as
He
the dialectic method.
was
ready to admit the value of
profane studies, but always requiredphilosophy to be the
of theology.
handmaid
"
"
III. WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY
"
55.
Realism.
character
and
on
i.
Scholastic
CENTURY
TWELFTH
THE
Philosophy
The
artistic outlook
features of
IN
of the
peopleswhich
West
were
and
to
now
the
moulding
predominant
the
take
national
life.
place in political
The
schools
of Chartres
and
intellectual tournaments.
century Chartres
the
was
graduallyeclipsedby
became
Middle
The
by
the end
In
the
were
centres
first half
of
that
of the
Paris
of
the
schools
of
of
the
stirring
twelfth
its fame
was
Paris, which
of the
century the first university
Ages.
time
was
one
of
extraordinaryactivityin philosophic
OF
OUTLINES
386
revival
of
complex and
took up with
the
logicfomented
on
realism
extreme
quite
vigourthe
books
new
the discussions.
the
During
PHILOSOPHY
very
Scholasticism
dissimilar movements.
of Aristotle
OF
displayeditself in
thought, which
problem of
HISTORY
THE
twelfth
century
WILLIAM
witness
we
a
4S
CHAMPEAUX
OF
he may
much
however
have been inconsistent in
(1070-1120),
his terms, taught,at Paris,that universals are contained in each
of which
individual thing,the essence
is identical in all and
universal in character.
At Chartres, which was
a
stronghold
49
CHARTRES
of realism,BERNARD
OF
(diedabout 1125)professed
a realism
very akin to the ancient Platonism, by attributing
and species.His disciple,
a real universal existence to genera
OF
humanist
movement
God
the
as
51
CONCHES
50
CHARTRES
THEODERIC
for which
later
Formulae.
of the
problem
faithful to the
of
Under
"
this term
of universals
set
collection
theory.
of
alike
All
the
many
brought
which,
principle
individual subject
from
out
the
the
theory
of the
status of WALTER
52,that of the
as
were
century and
twelfth
Boethius,
BATH
OF
respectusof ADELARD
those known
OF
or
MORTAGNE,
the
study
group
we
which
as
the
to
and
that genera
OF
applied himself
WILLIAM
ethics.
56. Anti-Realist
in the
the
famous, regarded
was
creature.
every
(about1080-1154)for some
physiology,
cosmologyand
forward
of
existential act
solutions
Chartres
of
soul
theory and
indifference
attack
realism ;
extreme
steps towards a
final solution of the question; their lack of greater precision
despitetheir
shades
will be understood
historical
was
57. Abelard
Liber
49
De
60
51
when
setting53.
death-blow
48
of difference,they
once
The
they are
who
one
were
placedin
gave
extreme
their proper
realism its
Peter Abelard.
as
(1079-1142),
sententiarum, treatises
on
critic of
more
than
ordinary
dialectics.
expositionePorphyrii.
Eptateuchon, De inventione rhetorica ad Herennium.
naturis
de
Magna
philosophic*,Dragmaticon
philosophiae,Summa
philosophorum.
moralium
62
De
58
See
ments
on
eodem
author
for further
develop
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
54,heaped ridicule
power
and on
peaux
realism marks
:
contemporaries
nominalism
the
no
on
38;
of
Roscelin.
Yet
the
on
of Chamhis
theories
antiof his
universal is not
the
vox
(Roscelin)but sermo, i.e. that which
mere
of several, natum
is capableof being predicated
praedicaride
mental
idea, not
pluribus.Between
didactic method.
new
The
58.
Realism.
(1076-1154) caused
55
PORREE
Moderate
of
Dawn
"
decisive
GILBERT
DE
LA
advance
in
the
'
essential determinations
number
of
realized in a
(diversaesubsistentiae)
union of the
individual beingsand it makes
a mental
realitiesin them
that
are
of
likeness,
form)
conformity (cum-forma, having the same
which we
call genus
or
species.His distinct contribution
towards the solution of the problem is the teachingthat it is
the similarity
of the essences
which furnishes the ground for
The
the universalizing
abstraction on the part of the mind.
of mutual
chronicler
OTTO
FREISING
OF
Gilbert's
56
disciples,
taught the
importancein the questionof universals
treatise De
anonymous
the twelfth century.
an
59. John
of
teachings.A
well-known
commentaries
on
calamitatum
5
Liber
II.
half of
figurein
death
the
et trinitate divina
TheologiaChristiana
Introductio
(hisautobiography).
sex
pvinciporum ; commentaries
Chronicles;Gesta Frederici.
M.S.P.-VOL.
in
emphasized
fully
Englishkingsand
1176 tillhis
theologiam,which
teipsum sen Ethica
'"
of
Tractatus de imitate
ad
its
1136,the confidant
Chartres from
was
of
on
Boethius.
CC
OUTLINES
388
OF
Chartres
He
and
HISTORY
57
works
remarkable
two
THE
as
inveighedagainsta
who
leader
the
elegant writer
the most
obscurantists
OF
PHILOSOPHY
of the
of the
humanism
of
twelfth century.
of cavilling
grammarians and
group
at the destruction of all learning(the
aimed
time
the
to
solve it than
earth
He
'.
the
also
Caesars
took
took
to
the
up
in its
et
Spiritu.
regard as
period.
60.
purest and
Anima
the
of ALCHER
manual
of Lille58
Alan
subtle
Salisbury,a
didactic form
most
of
is the Liber
which
CLAIRVAUX,
OF
psychologyfor
together Platonic,Aristotelian
and
formed
we
may
this first mediaeval
de
like
collected
John of
and
fused
neo-Pythagoreanelements,
the whole
but transformed
by a Christian conception. He
clothed all his ideas in a poetical
garb, and his style,
elegantin
its imagery,is often allegorical
and ill-adapted
to express his
thought clearly.His attacks againstthe Cathari in defence of
and immortalityof the soul form the most
the immateriality
His psychologyis drawn
entirely
importantpart of his work.
from St. Augustine.
of St.- Victor
61. Hugh
(1096-1141)presents to us a per
sonalitywhich is at once
philosopher,
dogmatic theologian
review
and mystic. His Didascalicon is a sort of encyclopedic
imitators.
His
sciences and
exegesisof
individualistic sense
the
the model
57
the
6t
Entheticus
the monistic
formulae
of
Tractatus
in
an
J. Scotus Eriugena.
out a new
phase in
as
he
renounces
experience.His
Polycraticus and
claudianus, de
numerous
corrected
Pseudo-Dionysius
for
MEDIAEVAL
"
is subversive
creature
Philosophies
-Scholastic
essential distinction
the
or
man,
Non
of
389
Philosophy. Every
of the soul,the personality
denies the spirituality
theory which
of
Non-Scholastic
2.
Forms
Various
62.
PHILOSOPHY
lasticism,and
must
Hence
of the
"
between
fundamental
be referred
to
God
and
the
of Scho
principles
other philosophical
some
the Scholastics
classifyamong
who
professesmaterialism, transmigrationof souls,
anyone
atheism or pantheism.
Materialistic Epicureanism manifests itselfin certain of the
in their
teachingsof the Cathari and the Albigenses,
especially
denial of the after-life of the soul ; but the principal
forms of
anti-Scholasticism belong to the pantheism which was
due to
the influence of J. Scotus Eriugena. Namely : (i) The pan
theism of the school of Chartres, represented
OF
by BERNARD
BENE
TOURS 59. (2)The pantheism of AMALRIC
and the
OF
system.
Amauritian
Sect
in all
manent
we
ideas survived
that
"
things.
Joachim
de
Amalric
we
exists is
of Bene
Floris
contact
with
"
theories
similar
schools
various
by
" 3. The
63. Schools
Tomis, id
councils
of Scholastic
which
and
is
have
more
expounded by
the Evangelium
DINANT
(closing
of
OF
is the
most
absolute
identical in all
Divisionibus,was
Movement
Theological
Scholastic
"
est de
is im
having recourse
errors
and
"
His work,
God
by the author
Aeternum.
(3)The pantheism of DAVID
of the twelfth century),which
years
God is the primary matter
materialism
De
and
one
deifyhumanity
point of
one
all that
him, and
to his theories to
than
cannot
things.
proscribedfor
lost.
now
of the TwelfthCentury
Theology.
theology stands
and the two queens
philosophy,
"
wisdom
enjoy an
absolute autonomy as two distinct sciences.
Theology rose to
a very notable
position; great schools developed,and progress
made
was
in two
important respects the codification of
libri senmaterials under
the form
of Sentences (sententiae,
dialectic method
',
tentiarum)and the introduction of the
tised side by side with what
be called the scriptural
may
of mediaeval
"
'
89
De
mundi
univevsitate.
OUTLINES
390
but
method,
method
THE
OF
HISTORY
it.
subsidiaryto
OF
The
PHILOSOPHY
object
to find out
of
dialectic
the
of every
dogma, so
that
auctoritates,
Scriptures,
might have the
rationes.
The distinction between
support of a true apologetic,
these two
terms
appeared first in the writingsof Peter of
later in those of Thomas
Poitiers and
Aquinas ; it is of con
was
of the
the authority
siderable
importance.
applicationof
The
rise to
and
controversies
ardent
some
dialectic method
the
theologygave
to
served
to
divide theo
logians into
These
regarded philosophy
who
one,
of
name
of
as
the
Master
Poitiers)
;
the
of the
true
the
forerunners
We
may
group
of the
was
(whose disciple
III),of
of Gilbert de la Porree
Mystic Schools.
science
the
the
is to
give an
"
The
aim
who
were
genius and
were
of the
thirteenth
century.
three
schools
Abelard
of
Ardens).
: Radulfus
(disciple
of mysticismas a speculative
of the relations
account
between
direct communication
sake,
own
Roland
St.-Victor at Paris
Melun), and
64.
round
these
was
Scholastic
the
great minds
them
it for its
cultivated
theologians.It
of
representatives
his
Peter
disciple
fullyrecognizedthe value of
itselfand
called academical
be
in the
Sentences, and
other, who
study in
philosophical
may
the
merely
: the
groups
being useful for
the
known
classed in two
as
bringingout
merit
be
may
the
soul
brought
and
about
God
and
by
to
ideas the
universal order of
reason
is able to know
God
of sensible
and
experience.But
with Him,
which
constitute
such
a
an
direct
phenomenon of
mysticismbelongs
is the central
Catholic
mysticallife. For this reason
Whilst
to the supernaturalorder.
in the eyes of theologians
mysticism is distinct from Scholastic philosophy,it is not
the
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
391
the
at
time
philo
sophers, dogmatic theologians and mystic theologians.In
of mysticismwas
the School of
the twelfth century the centre
and RICHARD
St.-Victor,where Abbots HUGH
were
conspicuous
were
same
leaders.
ART.
BYZANTINE
II.
AND
the decree
ORIENTAL
Banished
"
PHILOSOPHY
from
Athens
in 529
by
Justinian,Greek
(such as Photius
century),and it
had
schism
Greek
The
in the
the
in 1204 put
its
West, and
the
own.
misunderstand
of endless
source
from
the crusades
end
an
East
of
individuality
the
contact
civilizations
two
until
superficial,
marked
no
(858),the
ings,separated the
between
66.
and Syrians.
Philosophy among the Armenians, Persians
"In Armenia, we meet
the name
of a celebrated translator of
ARMENIAN
Aristotle,DAVID THE
(about 500 A.D.).
In
Persia, the
of
court
Chosroes
of
togetherthe last representatives
gathered
the
philosophy,
Anoshervan
the
Greek
of neo-Platonists
SyrianDAMASCIUS, SIMPLICIUS, and a number
driven from Athens, but the philosophical
created
movement
by these Greek scholars was destined to be short-lived.
The Syrianshad a direct inheritance of philosophical
thought
from
Greece, and
Edessa, Resaina
and
number
handed
Chalcis)
to the Jews,
indirectly
of translators
various
on
works
of
Arabians, and
to the
of Aristotle, Porphyry,
Galen,etc.
67.
Philosophy among
blend
of the
unbounded
and
a
Jews.
admiration, and
the
emanation
existence of man's
"
The
philosophyof
Arabians
their
own,
they had an
neo-Platonic
teachings. Their
the extraof the spheres and
philosophyof Aristotle,for
theories about
human
the Arabians
intelligence
gave
whom
colouring
specific
OUTLINES
392
OF
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
to
AviCENNA61
of those
The
to
who
have
processionof the
givea
the chief
monistic
claim
to be
spheresas
representatives
called Oriental
understood
to his
signification
philosophers.
Avicenna
by
and
philosophy,
tends
he makes
these pantheistic
tendencies by
tions ; yet he counterbalanced
he distinctly
a psychologythat is individualistic and
taught a
personal immortality.
In the West, the
of AVERROES
name
62
1020-1070),the
of
author
treatise Fons
tions
cosmic
these
matter
are
individual
the
thing.
With
derived matter
of the
the
name
MAIMONIDES
and
form, and
perfectionof
specific
of
Avicebron
each
may
the last
(1135-1204),
63
we
of Jewish philosophy.
great representative
"e
the
Commentaries
on
intellectu et intelligibili.
Posterior
DC
Analytics;
ovtu
scientiarum,
De
orbis.
""
Guide
of the Doubting.
II
CHAPTER
MEDIAEVAL
CENTURY
THIRTEENTH
General
Survey.
thirteenth
The
"
GENERAL
I.
ART.
68.
THE
IN
PHILOSOPHY
century
the
was
golden
of mediaeval
seen
philosophy and its greatest splendour was
held
the
in the
in the preceding century, France
West.
As
literature.
in art
and
well
in philosophy, as
as
hegemony
Towards
of the
the end
twelfth
philosophy
century Western
the
into contact
with
came
Arabian,
Jewish and Byzantine
age
philosophiesand
part played by
such
Samuel
as
65, were
mon
entirelyto
the
Ben
dormant
genius lay
Tibbon
until
West
the
and
Renaissance
the
; whilst
repeat Averroes
and
did
Scholasticism
not
Ben
Gerson
Falaquera,
64,
Jewish writers,
the
historical
The
advantage.
own
concluded
Arabians
to
content
its
Salo
Byzantine
produced only
the
triumph
battle
to
against powerful rival theories.
struggle ; it had
This chapter will deal with
(i) Scholastic philosophy (Art.II) ;
minor
(2) non-Scholastic
philosophies (Art. Ill) ; (3) some
the
about
(Art. IV). First, a word
philosophical currents
scientific
and
of
renaissance
philosophical
thirteenth
the
century.
69.
Causes
which
movement
of
i.
causes
The
Latin
most
the
The
Gate
the
brilliance
West
may
in the
first years
attributed
be
to
"
introduction
of
treatise
66
such
wide-spread
rapid and
on
Opinions
of the
into
from
treatises
the
through
West,
the
Greek
the
or
from
the
the
medium
Arabic
of
and
great number
important
64
in
This
"
with
century
translations
Hebrew,
Renaissance.
appeared
thirteenth
the
three
of this
of
Soul),
the
of Philosophers.
Heavens.
393
Greek
scientific
works,
the
OUTLINES
394
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
the Arabic
bulk
of them
Hebrew
or
the
were
are
of
work
lators,organized by Raymond,
1151),
best
the
GUNDISSALINUS
Michael
Paris,Oxford
the
Herman
creation
place
and
of
trustworthy. The
celebrated collegeof trans
Archbishop of
them
Gerard
the German
of the
66.
Toledo
(1126-
DOMINICUS
being
of Cremona
and, later,
also be mentioned.
should
those
universities,particularly
Cambridge,which
honour
less
amongst
GuNDiSALVi.
or
Scot and
The
2.
known
much
of
studies
gave philosophical
at the beginning of the
Though
facultyof
Aristotle into the course
of teaching. Thus
arts admitted
in
this facultythe scholar studied
philosophy,and after being
licentiatusand magister,
baccalaureatus,
progressively
proceeded
in the facultyof theology.
to his course
censures
came
3. The
foundation
Dominicans
and
members
overlooked
of the
the
the universities.
from
1255 the
Orders, the
great Mendicant
Franciscans, which
compelled their
two
sciences and
study the
to
and
established
themselves
at
The
of the thirteenth
prominent philosophers
bodies.
Followingthe lead
century belongedto these religious
and
Franciscans, and perhaps to
given by the Dominicans
counterbalance
afterwards
brated of which
the Sorbonne
was
ART.
II.
SCHOLASTIC
I. GENERAL
70.
General
philosophy,which
of thinkers
""
See
DRANE,
Characteristics
in various
RASHDALL,
and
(1253).
PHILOSOPHIES
VIEW
and
countries,reached
Universities
Christian Schools
in Paris
graduallybuilt
was
shortly
collegeswere
clergy,the most cele
Division.
up
by
"
Scholastic
the collaboration
its culmination
in the
Scholars
MEDIAEVAL
thirteenth century.
problemswhich
Dealingin
its wide
to each
it gave
PHILOSOPHY
its own
of
395
solution whilst
of the thirteenth
which
succeed
sequence.
I. The
the
century may
another
one
older Scholasticism
pre-Thomisticsystems.
"
teenth
century, while
of the
The
thirteenth
century,embracing
first Scholastics
acceptingthe
structural
of the
ideas
thir
of the
Peripatetic
system handed down in the translations of Aristotle,
held a largenumber
of the doctrines inherited from their pre
with
decessors,even
though several of them were incompatible
for example, the pre-eminenceof the good
:
Peripateticism
the true and, analogously,
of the will over
the intellect ;
over
the necessity
of an immediate
action on the part of God giving
lightfor the accomplishmentof certain mental activities ; the
positive
actualityof primary matter, independentlyof any
substantial
form
the
doctrine
of
'
rationes
seminales
'
in
bodies ; the
substances ;
hylomorphiccompositionof spiritual
the plurality
of the
of forms in organicbeings; the identity
soul and its faculties ; the impossibility
of the creation of the
world
ab aeterno.
Consequentlywe find in their systems a
certain
number
of doctrinal incoherences.
Scholasticism in
Peripateticism
as
Augustinianism,and the group of philo
the Augustinianparty of
known
to them
as
contradistinction to the Peripatetic
party.
There is no
The
body
has been
doctrines
known
sopherswho
an
of
held
doubt
Augustiniansource,
irreconcilable with
e.g. the
teachingsdid
come
from
'
illumina
of forms, special
yet since many others, e.g. plurality
tion of the mind, are alien or even
opposedto the philosophyof
St.
Augustine,we
Scholastic school
ever,
we
must
the older
of
designation
of
the Augustinianschool '. How
weakening and discordant elements
to that
notice, the
'
'
OUTLINES
396
of these
OF
THE
HISTORY
systems became
Scholastics
less
OF
time
as
steadilyeliminated
from
PHILOSOPHY
went
and
on,
their
the
great
teachingall incon
opinions.
2. The
Peripateticism
of the Albertino-Thomistic School. A
in character, was
more
new
movement,
franklyPeripatetic
introduced
by the philosophyof Albert the Great. This St.
Thomas
developedinto a fixed and magnificentform, at the
of the theories hitherto held in
time overthrowingmany
same
sistent
"
in the schools.
honour
Scholasticism,for it rejectedmany
theories
as
issued in the
formation
of three
points,adherents
some
themselves
4. The
School.
"
from
and
5. A
71.
the
lines of the
last years
thirteenth
of
was
agreement
about
sum-total of these
a
we
founded
thought
older Scholasticism.
the multitude
varying degrees by
others,
thirteenth
the
"
century there
on
the Franciscan
and
and grammarians.
group of logicians
The
Scholastic
all the
Synthesis. Above
disagreementamong
in
views
system of philosophywhich
Peripateticism,
yet deviated
on
ways.
Scotus
Duns
Scotus, in the
century, formulated
traditional
of
of
Peripateticism
Duns
of eclectic thinkers,Thomists
in various
innovators
promiscuous
principles.The struggle
own
opponents of Thomism,
of Thomism, and finally
a group
on
of the current
was
all
call the
of
tone
common
alike, and
number
matters
there
mind, shared
reigned a
tacit
doctrines ; the
Scholastic synthesis,
which we
of the
cardinal
doctrines.
knowledge is now
systematizedin all its stages,the
sciences as the foundation, theologyat the summit,
particular
philosophyholding an intermediate place. The distinction
between
philosophyand theology,which we have already
spoken of, involves their mutual
independence and the
Human
autonomy
distinction
of the elements
still allows
proper to each ;
the subordination
philosophyto
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
397
theology. The
and
and
existence ; the
individual, of essence
of the
alone exists,and the universal character
universal
individual
mental
The
concept is due
to the action
science of natural
theology is closelyassociated
finite to the
of the mind.
existence
in the
with
from
of God
the
contingentworld
of
Infinite is made
clear
by
the
theories of
nor
eternal,and God
was
able to create
the
universe
perfectthan it is.
Psychology is regarded as a subdivision of physics. Man,
composed of body (matter)and soul (form),excels all other
of the higher activities
of the possession
beingsby his privilege
is
of intellectand will. His knowledge of extra-mental reality
for man
knows
sensible or intellectual,
not only the concrete
more
and
individual
abstract
All
our
and
by
universal
by
our
means
their
senses
(thisoak)
of his intellect
originin
also the
but
(theoak).
the sensible
'
'
"
nihil
but we possess
priusnon fuerit in sensu
a
faculty of understanding (passiveintellect)
besides
of his
means
"
OUTLINES
398
THE
OF
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY
OF
intellect)
facultyof abstracting(active
by
sensible
individual
and
of which
(e.g.
representation
is strippedof all the
determinations
concrete
the power
that
found
are
in the
of will follows
'
act
"
nihil
'
volitum
appetitionis,under
makes
of his
master
man
thought.
or
destiny. Indeed,
in
or
"
Rational
this freedom
like every
natural
turn
Man's
are
to
it.
natural
development of
happiness
his
be
must
result of the
the
higheractivities knowledge
"
full
will ; it
and
God's
was
works
and
nature
its forces ;
but
have
the
thirteenth
doctrines
we
have
abstraction,by
moral
the
as
from
though stilldistinct
The
of
Thus
century
has
possibility
been
not
the work
this
direct intuition
philosophyis regardedin
avenue
to
moral
are
only an
theology,
it.
sketched
briefly
abstract
Ages.
of Scholasticism.
Descriptive
definition
ticism is a pluralistic
philosophy,not
The
substantial
distinction between
and creatures,
ality,
makes
potentiality,
theism.
We
cannot
Scholastics took
the
tenets
which
borrowed
from
compositionof
matter
and
universal, the
substantial
monistic
God, who
system.
is pure
Actu
emphasize
to eradicate
and
compositionof actuality
of pan
uncompromising enemy
are
it the
"
too
much
the
great
care
the
tendency from
every pantheistic
the Arabian
philosophers.The
form, of the individual
distinction
between
the
and
the
subject
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
knowing
the
who
God
and
between
and
object known,
399
the
beatified soul
Scholastic
many
and are rather
incompatiblewith monism
teachingsabsolutely
express
which
into
came
Averroes,
direct
In
conflict
with
the
account
metaphysicsthe
of substance, which
of
of the many
for establishing
man's
on
especially
of individualism
declarations
so
an
individualism
monopsychism
lines of argument
in the
sovereignty
Scholastics
is very
far
the doctrine
professed
from
removed
exaggerated
it is accidental
to
of
its nature
it be
that
other,
known
by us.
regardscontingentbeing is
metaphysicalstandpointas
and form,
and potency, matter
a moderate
dynamism (actuality
and
essence
existence),and this dynamism regulatesthe
From
and
disappearanceof natural substances.
appearance
another
point of view they give the world of matter an evolu
their evolutionism
: but
interpretation
tionaryand ideological
form and does not extend to the formation
is onlyof a mitigated
reconciles
of specific
essences
; the doctrine of innate purpose
the immanent
tendency of beingstowards their ends with the
Theodicy is creationist and
providentialgovernment of God.
the first beginning
to be infinite,
personalist;God is shown
and last end, the controller and judge of each, the principal
efficient cause
of all things,and notablythe co-operator with
in his acts of thought. In psychology this telic con
man
optimism of the Scholas
ceptionexplainsthe epistemological
Their
tics : man's
intellect,since it
was
made
the
character of
abstraction
of moderate
nature
is based
intellectual representations
our
; and
again we
realism
inasmuch
as
beingswith
correspondto them.
of extra-mental
conceptswhich
observe
their
on
standpointto
it reconciles the
be that
individual
mental
of
our
spiritualism
ideological
OF
OUTLINES
400
of the
OF
PHILOSOPHY
as
HISTORY
THE
and
its origin
and
immortality,
in such
matters
Their
based as it is on
their psychological
and meta
logic,
value
the
physicalteachings,placesgreat
analyticoupon
ethical
Their
method.
and
synthetic
philosophyis libertarian,
in their eudaemonistic
its optimismis expressed
tenet that the
is attained through the highestactivities of his
end of man
higherfaculties.
All these characteristics are
mutuallycomplementary and
bound
are
another, for the doctrinal
inseparably
up with one
departments which they severally
portray form one whole like
the members
of an organism. Few are the historical systems
of philosophy
which can
claim to be such a studied endeavour
such a bid for unity,
to obtain harmony or make
which indeed
of quietudeto the human
mind.
is the source
To attain this,
Scholasticism looked for the goldenmean
between extremes
in
all the problemsit strove to solve ; and this moderation found
in their realism,their dynamism, their evolu
its expression
their theoryof the union of body and
tionism,their ideology,
between
and
soul, of the compatibility
duty and happiness,
their conception,
at once
objectiveand subjective,of the
beautiful.
If
we
can
the
appreciate
of the
THE
"
OLDER
name
of
'
Scholasticism '.
SCHOLASTICISM
DOMINICUS
GUNDISSALINUS, whom
we
67
was
"
De
mundi, De
of a genuine onward
starting-point
division
philosophiae,De
unitate,De
amma.
immortalitate
movement
anitnae, De
alike
procession*
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
and
didactic and scientific,
led to the
philosophical
study such as we
Great and Thomas
Aquinas.
M
WILLIAM
OF AUVERGNE
(t1249)should
the elaboration of the new
as
representing
of
but
lacks cohesion.
his work
and
actuality
but
potentiality
theory. He
the emanation
of psychology; he gave
useless and had recourse
73. Alexander
of
made
be
coupledwith him
teach
Peripatetic
acceptedthe theory
certain concessions
to the
to
Hales,
to
Augustinianschool
specialillumination
of
principles
of the
knowledge
our
He
adhered
division of the
exact
more
of
branches
ings ;
401
he
thought
of God
for
demonstration.
(f 1245), may
Franciscan
be
Theologica
regardedas the first great Scholastic. His Summa
and philosophical,
which
was
a
synthesisat once theological
of nearlyall the philosophical
made
use
thought of Aristotle
and the Arabians, yet was
wanting in that unityand harmony
of teachingwhich
characterizes every reallygreat work.
In
his metaphysicswe find the two importanttheories known
later
the Franciscan
theories,namely the compositionof matter
as
and form of all contingent
substances
beings,even of spiritual
(Avicebron),and the pluralityof substantial forms. His
to
psychologyrepresents a vigorous but fruitless endeavour
the traditional doctrine of St. Augustineconcerning
harmonize
human
and
nature
Aristotle and
JOHN
DE
the
LA
of the
renowned
new
of the
of
disciples
numerous
also in touch
was
with
Franciscan
ROBERT
school
important place in
the
at
and
The
Oxford.
of
numerous
as
from
it.
the
most
of Hales, and
70,the organizer
GROSSETESTE
progress
commentaries
translations,
Alexander
in
man
latter held
an
metaphysicsand psychology.
74.
St.
Bonaventure
representativeof
the
(1221-1274) was
older
Franciscan
the
brilliant
most
school,
taking
his
in theology
time as his friend St. Thomas
at the same
mastership
(1257),and afterwards becoming General of his Order and
Cardinal.
Whilst upholding the old traditional teachingsof
""
De
""
De
70
De
trinitate,
universo, De
anima.
See DE
MARTIGNE,
1888) ; STEVENSON,
La
Robert
immortalitate
animae, De
anima.
OUTLINES
402
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
The
immediate
MATTHEW
successors
1240-1301),JOHN PECCHAM73
74
TOWN
the
are
lastic
of
75
WARDBY
TAISE76.
the
Franciscan
were
condemned
drew
up
body
'
humani
73
74
75
'"
anima
per
at
the
rationalis
se
and, later,RICHARD
As
add
the
old
the
names
or
MIDDLE-
OF
belongingto
may
(1235
Scho
of the first
KIL-
Council
of Vienne
definition of the
seu
doctrines
it
1311, when
union of soul and
in
intellectiva est
forma
corporis
et essentialiter '.
in
IV
lib. sententiarum
P.
Lombardi
;
Quaestiones dis
mentis a c
paupertate); Breviloquium ; Itinerarium
artium
De reductione
ad theologiam.
;
Commentaries
the Sentences
on
; Quodlibet,Quaestionesdisputatae.
Quodlibet,Quaestionesdisputatae.
Quodlibet,Quaestionesdisputatae.
De ortu et divisions philosophiae.
De
(especiallyDe
unitate formae, De
voluntate.
77
AguASPARTA72
PETER
well-known
the
Commentavii
putatae
72
Dominican
OF
TARANOF
Archbishop of Canterbury,and PETER
And
intellectual tendency
finallyto this same
belongsthe
Deum
known.
tendency of thought we
Masters
71
best
of his
Quodlibet.
materia
caeli,De
aetevnitate mundi,
De
intellects et
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
PERIPATETICISM
III. THE
403
ALBERT
OF
GREAT
THE
AND
ST. THOMAS
Dominican
The
and
Bollstadt
ushered
much
constituted
definitely
that
and
Preachers
in
was
by Thomas
teachingof
into the
new
generalinto
the
schools
of the
of
Aquinas,
the Friars
thirteenth
its superiordoctrinal
more
from
labour, Mediaeval
possessionof one of
speculative
thought.
75. Albert
consecrated
Thomas
was
Dominicans
longer from
no
Aristotle.
Europe
of
St.
As
the
into
came
constructive
(about1193-1280).After a longcareer
to teaching,principally
at Cologne where
St.
his pupils,
Albert became Provincial of the
among
in Germany and later Bishop oflRatisbon. The
the Great
"
Aristotle
to him, and
chiefly
erudition
prodigious
he
78
was
held in
was
but also
as
only for
not
renown
of the most
one
due
was
his
remarkable
'
lies less
of science of his age.
Albert's claim to renown
in the construction of an original
system of philosophythan in
men
the
the
geniusand industryhe
mediaeval
world
in
of letters all
bringingwithin reach of
the previouslyacquired
and
vigorous
fertileintellectual movement
and in winning
in his lifetime,
Middle Ages 79.
to Aristotle the best intellects oPthe
treasures of human
and
showed
knowledge,in startinga
new
'
over
Whilst
older
Ti
Albert continued
Scholasticism,at
Paraphrases :
De
to hold
the
mundo,
De
natura
time
same
locorum, De
he
accepted
De
praedicamentis,
De
praedicabilibus,
Perihermenias,
Analytica, Topica, Libri
many
sex
some
principiis,
Physica, De caelo et
De generationeet
elementorum,
proprietatibus
elenchorum
"
De
ro'istas,
Philosophiapauperum
mentaries
?9
Summa
Summa
Theologiae, Summa
naturalis,or
philosophiae
de
creaturis ;
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
DD
Com
OUTLINES
404
OF
THE
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY
OF
neo-Platonic
elements.
of his
ULRIC
was
disciples
76.
Thomas
St.
of Scholastic
Order
can
we
OF
Aquinas,the
notable
most
80.
STRASSBURG
Aquinas
philosophyand
in
and
in
1243
having taken his
at
summoned
him
General
to assist
at the work
of the
Council.
his chair
that drew round
exposition
crowds
of seculars and regulars
alike is particularly
apparent in
his largerworks.
His language is always clear and simple,
and
rigidlyprecise; his method systematicand free from glosses
and
the
short
and
to
digressions; his explanationsare
receive only the attention they
point; minor considerations
and steadfastly
deserve, so that his thought can travel straight
towards
its end, and to this end
he makes
everythingelse
converge.
The
essential tenets
of St.
treated
place in
in their proper
Philosophy,and
them
it would
synthesishave
Thomas's
the
therefore
course
be
been
of
Manual
of the
to repeat
superfluous
here.
The
most
consists in
synthesis
noteworthy feature of the Thomistic
of
the several doctrines,
the harmony and unification
Summo
80
De
$1
Summa
bono
Summa
theologica
;
Summa
theologica.
philosophica contra
on
disputatae,Quodlibeta; Commentaries
interpretation,Analyt. poster.,Physic., De
rupt., Meteorum,
Commentaries
Boethius
De
on
De
the
anima,
Book
hebdomadibus
Parva
several
caelo et mitndo,
Quaestiones
treatises
Generat.
De
et
De
cor
of Causes, on
the
and
De
Trinitate ;
Four
Books
of Sentences,
on
substantiis
aeternitate mundi, De
unitate intellectus contra Averrotstas, De
De
mixtione
natura
elementorum,
materiae, De
De
regimine principum.
See VAUGHAN,
Life and
in 2 vols., Longmans,
work
Gentiles
Aristotelian
principio individuationis;
De
Gates, London,
Life
of S.
also La
1890, and
Thomas, by Pere
philosophic morale
(The original
abridged form, Burns "
Publication
Catholic
Society, New
York.) Also
Philosophes;
Sertillangesin the series Les Grands
de Saint Thomas
d'Aquin (Paris,1916).
Labours
London,
of S. Thomas
1871 ; or
of Aquin.
in
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
405
in the
Scholasticism and
to
elements
new
new
breaks
with
calculated
these
By introducing
the
he
of the
substance
soul with
its faculties he
advocates
that
of
inan
against his voluntarism
tellectualist conceptionof the psychic life. And
we
might
other
is
well.
mention
He
bold
and
as
questions
many
logical
consequences
At the
of his
sure
no
matter
ground, fearless
whither
same
and
time he is moderate
never
they may
to
lead.
Bonaventure
and tolerant,and
tries to propagate
his views
auctoritate
.
est
infirmissimus).He
Augustine.
of the
406
OUTLINES
IV.
THE
THE
OF
CONFLICT
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
THOMISM
BETWEEN
AND
OLDER
THE
SCHOLASTICISM
and
Adversaries
77.
introduced
novations
in
Scholasticism, and
of WILLIAM
Thomae
of individuation
along with
in the
the
unity of
The
is
opposition cul
of the
year
his
condemned
the
older
MARE
LA
This
TEMPLIER
(March 7)STEPHEN
For at Paris
DE
in
strong op
of tracts.
notably those
in officialcensures,
minated
violent storm
The
"
brought up
teachingon
masters
againstThomism.
manifesto
veritable
aroused
his
particular
CorreptoriumFratris
Thomism.
of
St. Thomas
occasioned
form
substantial
by
part of the
the
positionon
Supporters
1277.
theory
of the
Averprincipal
the name
thus associating
of
ro'ists,
by an unworthy manoeuvre
in a common
with his adversarySigerof Brabant
St. Thomas
And at Oxford (March 18) Robert Kilwardby
condemnation.
and then John Peccham
(in1284),both Archbishopsof Canter
the masters
urge
teachings.
called
uncompromising opposition
This
of St. Thomas's
resolute advocates
Dominican
the whole
In the
same
year
unitate Formae
wardby
and
the
thirteenth
LESSINES
OF
defend
to
Oxford
him
masters.
forth
numerous
and
notablyfrom 1278
Thomistic
philosophy.
wrote
treatise entitled
withdrawn, and
were
Thomism
Communis.
78. Eclectics
death
steadily
grew, until by the close of the
honoured
with the title of
century Aquinas was
of
prestige
Doctor
censure
espousedthe
Order
GILES
cause
to
of his
number
De
to
errors
of Paris
"
to the
of St. Thomas
commencement
of the
teachingof
of the masters
of the Universityof Paris,
many
M
(died1293),Godfrey of Fontaines B
notablyHenry of Ghent
Duns
Scotus
Thomism
was
GODFREY
intellectualism,even
more
Summa
in
most
FONTAINES, who
than
St. Thomas,
OF
theologica
; Quodlibet. See
(Louvain, 1894).
"2
DE
WULF,
Etudes
sur
sympathy
emphasized
but
parted
Henri
de Gand
83
Quodhbeta.
Quodlibeta,De ente
philosophiaeessentialibus.
s*
et
essentia, De
regimine principum,
De
pariibus
MEDIAEVAL
with him
PHILOSOPHY
407
on
V.
79. John
Duns
at
DUNS
JOHN
whole
line of
new
Franciscan
into fashion
Scoxus
Scotus85 (1266 or
at
professor
became
Cologne (1308),
the
the leader of
thought in
Order
which
his power
powerfulschool
for
some
centuries
entangled. He brought
sui generis; his personal
became
that was
Peripateticism
to the
geniusgave an originalstamp even
theories which survived in his philosophy.
Endowed
earlier Scholastic
Scotus employed
great criticalacumen,
in demolishingother systems. The
positive,con
with
very
the
as
philosophyis
indeterminate
common
(materiaprimo prima),to
less
element
be endowed
of
with
contingent beings
real unity though
matter
numericallyone, since every being has its own
of forms in
(against
Avicebron). He also admitted a plurality
the same
being : of forms, that is to say, subordinated to one
and the same
another, constituting
thing,but according to
one
a
irreducible 'formalities',
which differ by a distinctioformalis
not
parte rci
"
but
88
distinction that
partlyboth.
This
is neither
celebrated
simply logicalnor
distinction of Scotus
Commentaries
Oxoniense,
on
Aristotle, Opus
Theoremata, Reportata Parisiensia, Quodlibet.
De
rerun
real
points,
principio,
OUTLINES
408
in
or
and
one
the
any
alone appears
in such
way
with
together
a
of white
form
'
formal
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
same
forms
objective
reallyin it,indepen
realized in it,and
86. In real nature
act of the mind
formalities that
dentlyof
THE
OF
or
are
and
disappears,
that
the
in it the formalities
constitutes
one
'
thing is
only
the individual
same
with
one
are
united
unityof individuation
way that the specific
the
nature
of colour '.
'
distinction in the
will
over
the
intellect.
He
considers
that
there
is in
man,
which
corporeitatis
forma
gives
the body
organicperfection
; and regardsit as impossible
the immortalityof the soul by the Peripatetic
to demonstrate
a
its
arguments.
characteristic and
element
in the philosophyof
original
Duns
Scotus, and the key for the understandingof his system,
is its formalism ',which colours his Peripatetic
teachingsand
not
impregnateshis whole system. By it he took up a position
of
but also againstthe representatives
onlyagainstSt. Thomas
school.
The
the older Franciscan
metaphysic of Scotus is
mainly a subtle analysisof the individual being, and the
positionhe takes with regard to the pluralityof objective
what
realities is an endeavour
is real
to interpret
or
principles
Scotus and
in the singularbeing. Despitecertain differences,
Aquinas are much allied in thought in this and also in many
other questionsconcerningwhich the divergencyof teachings
in these two
princesof mediaeval Scholasticism has hitherto
been much
exaggerated.
The
'
VI.
80.
Petrus
A number
of
attention
to
the
Hispanus
GRAMMARIANS
AND
and
Speculative Grammarians.
the
"
great controversies.
PETRUS
""
LOGICIANS
HISPANUS.
This
81 ;
The
most
curious
I, 170.
celebrated
invasion
of these
of grammar
was
by logic
MEDIAEVAL
is
of notice.
worthy
duced
PHILOSOPHY
Towards
the
end
409
of the
century it pro
real
Paris
of language. Some
of the
philosophies
speculative
grammarians like Sigerof Courtrai and Michael of
Morbaix
went
beyond reason, but the treatise entitled Grammatica Speculative*
of Duns
Scotus and others of the kind are
achievements
not to be passedwithout
notice.
certainly
at
81.
NON-SCHOLASTIC
III.
ART.
Averroism.
Latin
The
"
PHILOSOPHERS
most
complete and
important
mind
true
of Aristotle in the
of the
commentaries
Arabian
things;
Providence
in the
of
government
and
men
and simple,can
being immaterial
and
produce immediately only a singlebeing,an intelligence,
this producesanother, and so on.
is the
The world of sense
productof the last celestial intelligence
; wherefore God has no
for a world that is not immediatelydependenton Him.
concern
These
theories
destructive
are
creation,providence,the
of the
concurrence
(4)All
causes.
with
God.
This
world
and
(5)A
cosmic
is
also of
first cause
these
with
productionsare
denial
the
of
doctrine
of the Scholastic
of the
freedom
the
of
action
necessary
and
secondary
co-eternal
of the
contingent nature
of the
of God.
creative act
another
there
is
an
and
on
the earth
endless
and
of civilizations and
repetition
system of Scholasticism.
(6)The
race
religions,
of
recurrence
overthrows
theory
of
'
the
',by which
truths
two
ing that
vice
THE
OF
OUTLINES
410
they
is true in
what
This
versa.
HISTORY
OF
divorced
it in order
(f before
Siger of Brabant
Latin
schools
1300) was
leader
of the
followed by Boethius
1270, and was
Bernier of Nivelles and several masters
of the
and
facultyof
of the
about
Averroism
the Dacian
of the
denial
they held.
to
and
theology,
their
to make
faith,assert
be false in
is tantamount
of contradiction,as well as
principle
mutual
relations of philosophyand
introduced
from
reason
philosophymay
theory
PHILOSOPHY
arts
Paris.
at
of the
soul
The
agitationsin the
of Averroism87,
brilliant
'
Averroism
that it
so
condemned
was
in 1270 and
to refute it.
the
appearance
later.
ART.
MINOR
IV.
83. Neo-Platonic
this current
Aristotelian
Platonic
Direction.
as
have
we
and
that
of
essence
all alike
Yet
times
writings,is
in,the works
Platonists ;
we
opposed
positively
OF
FREIBURG,
series
of
works88
*T
De
anima
De
luce et
gntium
not
which
master
at
reveal
Thomistic
more
is
only
him
The
and
neo-
less with
great difference,
neo-Platonism
theory, which
regard
Paris
in
or
absent
of the thirteenth
individualism.
to
DERIC
88
may
not
as
ancient
the
the monist
combated
expressly
hence
represent
moulded
were
there
between
already said,
well
as
harmonize
to
theories.
Proclus's
CURRENTS
who
philosophers
the world
made
of mediaeval
re
elements, but
settingand
The
"
conceptionof
certain Alexandrian
we
PHILOSOPHICAL
of ideas admit
century, and
thirteenth
1277, ano^ a^
Nevertheless
their
is the
from, but
century
neo-
philosophyas
Dominican
THEO-
about
as
separatorum.
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
411
newly
philosopher.Whilst vigorouslydefendingthe teachings
all in a neo-Platonic
introduced by Thomism, he systematizes
of which
he takes from Proclus : beingsare
the setting
sense,
and its
producedby intermediaries ; in our soul all is activity
is the intellectusagens, produced by God, multiplied
principle
in individual men
(againstAverroes),knowing in God, its pro
of all things(divine
Further,
ducer, the reasons
illumination).
theories,given in the mode
find neo-Platonic
we
in
men,
century, named
89,and
optics
on
84.
philosopherof
the
of
Silesian
probablyalso
most
Experimental
Direction
of
of the
middle
treatise De
Bacon.
Roger
twelfth
books
remarkable
some
who
(about 1210/15-1292/94),
Franciscan
of the School
"
Intelligentiis.
This celebrated
his life to
devoted
displayed
studyand is remarkable for the boldness of expression
outlook
in his writings
90,belongsin his generalphilosophical
to the earlier Scholasticism,but by pushing certain traditional
fundamental
doctrines to extremes
and by introducingsome
ideas of his
he built up
the
that he knew
own
bear in mind
was
more
his
observer
acute
contemporaries,and
of
experimentalsciences
of natural
that he
phenomena
brought about
observation, we
we
better and
than
real
of
any
apprecia
shall understand
that he
of thebest known
one
what
is
veritable traditionalism
God
alone
can
have
taught
philosophize,
by revealingthe truth to them, and it is
who is the only intellectus agens of our souls, illuminating
to
men
God
them
borrowed
the
forms
from
of
the
'
theorysimilar
Roger Marston
89
"
experience'.
But
regardedas
of
one
by endowing
each
of his own
a
possibilis
generalto that of a fellow EnglishFranciscan,
the
he took care
to free his philosophyfrom
in
he
older Scholasticism,he
internal
individual with
This
proper
intellectus
"
Perspectiva.
Com
naturalium,
Opus majus, Opus minus, Opus tertium, Coninnmia
Bacon
:
See
Roger
pendium studii philosophize,De multiplication
e specierum.
FLEMING,
Commemorative
1914)
Little
ed.
Oxford,
;
Press,
(Clarendon
Essays,
Ncoscolastica,
Ruggero Bacone e la Scolastica (reprintfrom Rivista di Filosofia
90
Firenze,Florence, 1914).
OUTLINES
412
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
charge
of Averroism
well
is intuitive,
for the universal elements
sensible,cognition
as
yet
existingin individual
in
philosopherof
other
hand
intellectual,
as
extra-mental
universal
minds
our
the
on
objectsproduce directly
determinations
No other
(species).
the thirteenth
century dared
to approve
of this
return
aimed
Bacon
and
originality,
at
his
mentalityis profoundly
of the
his solution
of the
Scholasticism
entirely
personal. He reduced philosophyto
and in spiteof his professed
an
apologetic,
respect for Aristotle,
of his philosophyor assimilated
imbibed the true spirit
he never
In spiteof all that has been
tenets.
any of its fundamental
written in his favour, we must
recognize that both the philo
sophy and the theologyof Bacon laggedbehind the intellectual
with
character
of his time.
movement
With
scientific works
the
of Peter
those
of
of
Roger
EnglishFranciscan
whose
Roger Marston,
be grouped
may
and of the aforesaid
Bacon
work
presents many
similarities.
85.
Raymond
Franciscan,
'
demonstrate
one
would
then
have
foundation
for the
Ars Magna
The
was
questionwhatsoever.
but also to yieldnew
intended not only to aid the memory
from
the
positiveknowledge ; in this it differs essentially
method
of Scholasticism,which guidesus
analytico-synthetic
to create
in the pursuitof knowledge but makes
no
pretensions
solution
of any
knowledge.
91
Declaratio
per
modum
sequaciumopiniones;
Ars
dialogicontra
magna.
aliquorum philosaphorumet
eorutn
CHAPTER
III
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
AND
FOURTEENTH
DURING
FIRST
FIFTEENTH
Outline.
General
86.
century and
fourteenth
settled down
1453
the
GORAS,
lethargiccondition.
VI
of
Latin, notablyLEVI
the
south
translatingAverroes
BEN
and
CANTACUZENUS
Jews livingin
The
their work
Devoid
of all
Emperor JOHN
CABASiLAS93.
tinued
CENTURY
PALAMAS92
GREGORY
THE
OF
on
furnished it with
were
HALF
Byzantinephilosophythroughout the
until in the fall of the Greek Empire in
into
it went
originality,
who
"
THE
(born about
GERSON
NICHOLAS
of France
from
GRE-
con
Hebrew
to
1288).
Western
I. THE
87. Decline
followed
of Scholastic
combined
to undermine
the Schoolmen
from
or
abused
that
closelyon
did
of these
not
methods
nothing to
check
its influence
times, who
the
growth
departed
originality,
synthesisthey had inherited,
teaching and
the
of its greatest
understand
of
PHILOSOPHY
SCHOLASTIC
lacked
technical
of
an
language, and
excessive
attention
did
to
"3
It
was
the age of
Wpo"r"j)-rroiroLta.
refutation oi the Hypotyposes Pyrrhonienses.
413
OUTLINES
414
OF
THE
OF
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY
rise of other
facilitygranted for taking degrees. The
of philosophic
the current
universities dissipated
thought so
that Scholasticism,whose
development was intimatelybound
of Paris,was
involved in its fall.
up with that of the university
of new
(3)The gradual encroachment
systems which assumed
attitude towards the philosophyof the Schoolmen.
an
aggressive
and
At the beginningof the fourteenth century the Thomist
Scotist schools monopolized attention,but a third school was
to rival both
soon
88. The
the Terminist
"
Terminist
School
School.
As
of Ockham."
; William
reac
denied
distinction
the
the
between
universal
and
the
in
The
mind
real value
no
elaborates
outside
in
place(supponere),
we
has
intuitive
knowledge
with
a
of
the
things to
as
of
in the
case
of the
world.
sensation,puts
us
in
Every cognitiverepre
signor
place of the
is free,and
activity,
"*
merely holds
the extra-mental
sentation is
soul which
universal
; the
these
attribute it ; this is
which
an
the
us
concepts but
abstract
is not
term
distinct from
its faculties.
the
The
essence
of the
immateriality
Commentaries
Super guatuor libros sententiarum, Quodlibeta,
(Expositioaurea
super totam avtem vetevem), Tractatus logices.
on
Aristotle
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
415
and
the
prepared
way
his
terminism,
conceptualist
excessive emphasis he laid
consist in his
the
and
on
theory of
logic,the
the
sign
scientia
rationalis.
89. The
Ockhamists.
teachingsobtained
noveltyand
reaction Ockham's
success
which
fifteenth centuries
and
teenth
As
"
chief Ockhamists
The
after
Paris
at
advocated
1359),who
deter minist
OF
wrote
commentary
noteworthy chieflyas
physicsand mechanics.
90. The
Scotist
the
School."
on
of
university
With
(1350-1425).
ALBERT
OF
Ockham's
logicbut
numerous
works
author^of
Scotus
Duns
INGHEN
of the
(died
psychology which
; MARSILIUS
first rector
the
became
(died1396),who
JOHN BURIDAN
were
the
became
is
on
official
of the four
Order, but his disciples
Francis of Mayron,
teenth and fifteenth centuries,particularly
teacher in the Franciscan
his formalism
accentuated
At
the
time
same
like
confusing,
their
multipliedhis abstractions.
and
cumbersome
language became
and
their method,
they contributed,
and
"
fifteenth centuries
the
best
The
Cistercians,Carmelites
and
"6
"
17
""
Summa
many
followers.
traditions
OF
Commentaries
logicac,
Quaestionessupra quatuor libros sententiarum.
on
on
the
Dominicans
NEDELLEC",
de dialectica,Compendium
Commentary
Commentary
Sentences, Tractatus
de anima.
teaching.
of Scholasticism.
the
especially
HERVE
less
and
brought it
of Scholastic
no
on
JOHN
Aristotle.
OUTLINES
416
OF
CAPREOLUS"
HISTORY
THE
OF
CARTHUSIAN
Princeps ThomisDENIS
THE
(1389-1459),
l
GERSON
(1364-1429)were
10"
FLORENCE
OF
and
(1402-1471)
of
philosophers
real merit.
The
is
fifteenth
monumental
The
centuries.
took
placein
part in the
the fourteenth
Libri
of
reperto^
two
called
(about 1380-1444),
PHILOSOPHY
Defensionum of Capreolus
all the teachings of Thomism
the Scholasticism
mar
of the decadence.
of Thomism
appliedthe principles
that had recentlyarisen, and his
for the history of the economic
fourteenth
and
92. The
fourteenth
the
various
social
questions
contains valuable
work
and
social theories
data
of the
fifteenth centuries.
Aegidian School.
in
to
St. Antoninus
"
As
offshoot of Thomism,
an
there
arose
93.
This
an
Fourteenth
of the
Mysticism
Fifteenth
and
epoch of a vigorousawakening
the
was
century
the
teaching. The best known
among
Bl. John Ruysbroeck (1293-1381),
and
and
Denis
the
Carthusian, mentioned
II. NON-SCHOLASTIC
94. Latin
formidable
Averroism.
"
"
of
above.
PHILOSOPHIES
Averroism
rival of Scholasticism
Centuries.
continued
to be
the
most
despitethe
of
censures
authorityand
99
100
Libri
dcfensionum.
Commentary
on
the
Sentences
fideicatholicae, Compendium
de fidecatholica.
Summa
1
Centilogium de conceptibus,De
logica.
physicaecum
and
on
the
De
philosophicum
modis
consolatione of Boethius,
and
theologicum,Dialogon
De
significandi,
concordantia
meta-
MEDIAEVAL
of Averroism
undisputedleader
JOHN
JANDUN
OF
in his
who
or
in the
John
fourteenth
century
was
(deGenundo,
Ganduno),
expounded its theories, especially
truths, with
two
417
of Ghent
works
numerous
the
of
that
PHILOSOPHY
de
undisturbed
frankness.
He
makes
no
fourteenth
the
century
"
indeed
and
until the
the
end
of
seventeenth"
Italy,and
of
the
of this school.
Development of Ockhamism.
95.
in germ
contained
by
by
him
but
philosophyof Ockham
and
seized upon
were
his terminist
Thus
others.
The
many
formulated
never
"
theory of the
were
developed
sign served
as
of
radical subjectivism,
most
a
development
which asserted that we know
only the mental sign or term and
Such
not the thing signified.
teachings as these show us the
from
was
reason
why Ockhamism
proscribed
by various censures
moreover,
1339 to 1346. Many heterogeneous elements were,
admitted
The
who
important system
most
of THOMAS
BRADWARDINE
taught
man's
he
NICHOLAS
the
was
the
theistic determinism
at Oxford,
a professor
(1290-1349),
of
is the sovereignnorm
free-will of God
3
actions ;
of all our
cause
necessitating
destroyed human
libertyby reducing freedom to
and
the
volition.
spontaneous
and
the
that
nature
thus
thought.
OF
of
promoter
condemned
in
AUTRECOURT,
an
master
most
radical sub
Guido
that God
is
even
the author
of sin.
in
at
certain
of Medonta) professed
an
pantheism.
explicit
(Aegidius
Commentaries
De
causa
Dei
on
divers
treatises of Aristotle
and
Averroes.
ad suos
Mertonenses
Pelagium
the
on
Commentaries
Treatises
mathematics,
on
1346),
scientiarum.
theologicaor Sutnma
contra
et de
virtute causarum,
OUTLINES
4i8
THE
OF
III.
HISTORY
OF
CURRENTS
MINOR
PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
OF
Eckhart
Master
German
Mysticism.
MASTER
"
a Dominican
(about 1260-1327),
of Hocheim
HART
and
of
ECK
Cologne,
he
maintains
Eckhart
Master
popular mysticism,known
with which
we
was,
as
associate such
may
Suso
God
that
moreover,
the
men
'
as
German
BL.
HENRY
theism.
The
consciousness
Docta
our
Ignomntia.
contradictions
own
God
will be
Mysticism',
(1290-1361)
TAULER
(about 1300-1366).
97. Nicholas
of Cusa
(1401-1464),whose
the coming break-upof the world
foreshadowed
invented
a
farrago of mysticism,theosophy
and
is their very
the promoter
work
almost
of
speculation,
and
quasi-pan-
reason,
and
this
found
to
(coincidentia
oppositorum).The
merge
and
universe
coincide
contains
in
Him
explicitly
'
God
contains
in German,
and
of sermons
an
important Latin work
great number
Liber
the
propositionum)
tripartitum(comprising
Opus
*
docta ignorantia,Apologia doctae ignorantiae,De
De
conjecturis.
4
CHAPTER
IV
THE
RENAISSANCE
OF
PHILOSOPHIES
century to
(Secondhalfoffifteenth
98. General
6.
Sketch
"
PERIOD
seventeenth
century)
by the
capture of Constantinople
The
in 1453 is generallylooked
as
upon
of the word.
Middle Ages in the strict sense
Turks
the
close of the
In
the
reality,
episodein
of
the whole
various
nationalities
under
considered
science
second
society.The
modern
as
civilization and
of mediaeval
put
out
buildingup.
were
its three
The
Renaissance
the Middle
prized.
Almost
contemporaneous
tion of the
Renaissance
as
These
another
Not
the Reformation.
factors
new
point
of
were
view
they
were
product of
the
from
past.
with
"
remark
the transitional
See HOFFDING,
M.S.P.-VOL.
n.
EE
OF
OUTLINES
420
HISTORY
THE
connexion
I. NEW
General
99.
PHILOSOPHIES
and
Features
dence
governed almost
sance
gave
Scholastic
of
which
the
to revive
the
their archaic
link
furious
for this
the
which
to
systems
Renais
against
war
purelynegativepoint
schools, which
these
between
varied directions.
the most
the
attempts
yearningfor indepen
"
all declared
no
under
first,
Antiquity
forms.
of
impetus
the
introduced, there
Renaissance
of
philosophies
besides
But
Nature
time
other
systems
set
and
Greece
close connexion
were
under
Rome
to the
this return
up
for
admiration
blind
past, there
almost
same
was
RENAISSANCE
THE
Division.
philosophy. Except
developedin
At
OF
all the
birth, and
contact, there
con
of Scholasticism
forms
con
shall
Renaissance, and
systems of the
new
was
the
philosophy. We
tinuation of mediaeval
the
what
for modern
philosophy;
way
with
what
preceded,they are a
in relation with
viewed
PHILOSOPHY
OF
made
the
At
between
the sole
as
religionand philosophy with, however, reason
beliefs.
arbiter of religious
at length as a
Scepticismcame
of Renaissance
final phase in this long and painfulparturition
ideas.
100. Revival
of the
leadingforms
The
Systems of Antiquity.
"
in which
i.
an
Cult
of Classical Philology.The
Renaissance
"
who
called themselves
'
of
representatives
the
of
',enamoured
humanists
'
'
unable
were
think.
'
The
to
humanists
dialectic ',which
constructive
write
aimed
at
replacing
'
unable
scholastic
'
at from
view
rhetoric ; looked
their work is valueless.
the
humanists
LORENZO
VALLA
for them
point of
philologists
amongst
also, in consequence,
were
Dialecticae disputationescontra
meant
Anstotelicos.
were
The
to
by
a
chief
7
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
421
AGRICOLA*
(1407-1459), RUDOLPH
(1442-1485)and
ViVES9 (1492-1540); and the most
PETER
influential,
RAMEE10
(PetrusRamus, 1515-1572).
Platonism.
2.
PLETHO
DE
LA
From
enthusiastic
1450 to 1550 Italybecame
for Plato.
GEORGIOS
GEMISTOS, later known
"
in its admiration
as
Louis
(1355-1450),
inspiredCosmo
Platonic
Academy
(1433-1499)became
Florence, where
at
brilliant
later MARSILIO
figure. But
FICINO
a
ia
this Platonism
of these two
so
disciples
pertinaciously
Aristotle
to
was
opposed
generallyonly a badly devised neoBessarion13 (1403-1472)looked for a
Platonism.
Cardinal
of reconciling
the differences between
Aristotelians and
means
Platonists by urging that the great Greek
differed
masters
rather than by the substance of
from each other by the method
their teaching: an idea which has often been defended
since
which
the
numerous
that time.
Aristotelianism.
3.
"
Against Plato
another
pitted
party
they
considered a mere
travesty,but the true Aristotle ; in reality,
of Aristotle's teaching. And
they gave only an interpretation
themselves
into two groups, one interpreting
further,they split
him accordingto Averroes, the other according to Alexander
of
Aphrodisias.The question of the immortality of the soul
provided the chief bone of contention, the former who were
upholders of monopsychism (81) advocating an impersonal
the
immortality,
perisheswith
of
freedom
the
of the
human
will.
The
soul
entirely
the dissolution
as
well
school at
Averroist
as
the
Padua
represented
beginning of the sixteenth century was
AcmLLiNi14
chieflyby ALEXANDER
(1463-1518),ZIMARA
(t 1532) and NiFO15 (Niphus,1473-1546).The last carried on
the
at
8
8
10
11
inventione dialectica.
corruptarum artium.
Dialecticae institutianes.
De Platonicae
atgue Aristotelicae philos.differentia.
causis
Theologia Platonica
13
In
calumniator
14
De
De orbibus.
intelligentiis,
16
De
intellects
14
at
the
(1462-1524),
Bologna.
De
De
12
works
16
em
et
de animarum
immovtalitate.
Platonis.
demonibus, De
immprtalitateanimae.
of Averroes.
Tractatus
de immortalitate
animae, Defensorium.
He
also
edited
the
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
This
in
its ancient
form
OUTLINES
422
fc$4.Stoicism.
"
17
LIPSIUS
JUSTUS
PHILOSOPHY
advocated
was
who
(JoestLips, 1547-1606),
by
followed by
was
of theism.
representatives
many
and
The theories of Democritus
5. Atomism.
of PETER
GASSENDI
resuscitated in the works
Epicuruswere
18
(1562-1655)
p|101.
of
"
was
chief characteristics
which
amounted
the Renaissance.
It
"
should
displayedthree
phenomena
high praisegiven to occult
cult ; the
naturalism
of natural
observation
the
to
which
sciences
form
Movement.
special
product of
Naturalistic
The
supply
wanting in the
simple observation of nature ; the tendency towards pan
theism which by excessively
to deifyit.
exaltingnature came
features
These
fested in
in three
the
In
though
movement,
we
varying degreesby its devotees, whom
may
classes accordingas they gave prominence to
mani
group
one
or
DA
VINCI
artist and
an
of
science
stands the
of
striking
personality
(1452-1519),who, besides being a genius
LEONARDO
savant, led
mechanics
the
conceptionshe borrowed
ideas
(t 1390). His philosophical
in the form
of
elaborate
an
More
physics.
and
towards
way
from
scientific
than
was
of them.
other
as
to
common
were
what,
are
the
than
of
one
Albert
set down
modern
of
his
Saxony
casuallyrather
system.
The
called
founder
the
maintained
cold and
that
of
two
heat, make
the
naturalism
of
the
being
the
of these
contact
Renaissance,
centre
two.
And
further, each
that
of heat, and
their
originto
the
element, having in
is endowed
with
a
tendency to self-preservation,
by which it wards off the destructive influence
facultyof feeling
sensation
of the element
a
opposed to it : thus he made
itself
cosmic
each
17
18
phenomenon.
individual thing
accordance
In
is
compound
with
of
this
heat
ad stoicam
Manuductio
philosophiam.
Aristotelicos
Exercitationes
paradoxicae adversus
anticartesianae.
Epicurii; Disquisitiones
l"
De natuva
rerum
juxta propria principia.
De
theory
and
vita
that
cold, he
et
moribus
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
423
"
such
scientists,
21
(1493-1541)and CARDANUS22
thought.
system of speculative
PARACELSUS
as
to develop a
(1501-1576),
in
pantheistic
tendency of naturalism is exemplified
made
who
the creature
PATRIZZI M (1529-1597),
a continuation
of the being of the Creator, a divine
becoming ad extra
is a
with
the Blessed Trinity which
becoming ad
parallel
Mr a '. At the same
time he developedthe thought of Telesio,
regarding all individual beings as owing their originto the
This became
action of lightand heat.
a complete pantheism
24
God
BRUNO
in GIORDANO
entirely
(1548-1600),who made
3. The
'
'
'
immanent
in the universe,and
fellback
on
theory of
world-
the
explanationof the diversityfound among
of this one
accidents
various beings,
which he regardedas
and only substance.
The awakening of the spirit
102. Natural
and
Social Law.
institutions of Rome
of nationality,
the study of the political
within the
of patriotism
and Greece, the kindlingof the sense
different states, gave a stimulus to the growth of the philosophy
soul
for
an
'
'
"
of national
person.
In II
and
Principe of
State
was
not
an
end.in
the
itselfbut
the
study
of the
(1469-1527)and
MACHIAVELLI
noteworthy Discorsi,
more
on
mediaeval
an
human
his
theory that
institution
even
the
affordingmen
happinessin
criticism. In its place the
future life,encountered
a
severe
that the
from antiquity,
author
sketched
a
theory, borrowed
is
State is itself an
end ; that the prince,in consequence,
the conditions
not
bound
would
which
in his
enable them
ruling by
any
to
secure
considerations of honour,
partes quatuor,
philosophiaeinstaurandae, Realis philosophic
metapartes quinque, Universalis philosophic*seu
physicarum rerum
juxta propria principiapartes tres.
21
Opus paramirum, De natura rerum.
20
Prodromus
Philosophiaerationalis
12
De
18
Nova
varietate rerum,
de universis
24
De
monade,
numero,
De
subtilitate.
philosophia.
et
dei mondi.
424
OUTLINES
OF
HISTORY
THE
if the good of
crueltyor injustice,
should
that moralityand
religion
Machiavelli
had
in
especially
the state
raised
in
his
OF
PHILOSOPHY
the State
be
be furthered
can
subservient
vision
immediate
of Florence,
that
so
politics.
to
actual
events,
he
generaland philosophical.
real initiator of the new
The
theory of social right was
BL. THOMAS
MORE
(1480-1535); his Utopia25,an imaginary
with the ideas of Italian
ideal republic,
whilst being imbued
were
rather
than
political
independence of
attitude
on
the
aspirationsof
new
Church
and
his age
State, and
the
"
the
neutral
Churches.
GROTius26
or
deliberate
the
agreement
of individuals
to
create
welfare ; he
"
"
103.
Protestant
Philosophy
and
counterpart in
the
domain
of
Mysticism.
"
the Reformation
The
had
theo
their
principle
private judgment in
determining religious
philosophy.
The
1"
De
*"
De
sive de
nova
insula
Utopia.
MEDIAEVAL
PHILOSOPHY
425
(1483-1546) was
Luther
no
(1484-1531),the great
ZWINGLI
Swiss
reformer,
was
ardent
an
conceptions,
support his religious
particularly
and sanctification,
he had recourse
his theory of justification
humanist.
and
neo-Platonic
the
to
To
Stoic
of
philosophy,both
which
immanence
the deification of man
and
suggestedpantheistic
when
regenerated by the sovereign good. MELANCHTHON
creative genius but an
not
a
(1497-1560)was
adapter of
Aristotle to the service of Protestant
theology,an Aristotle
with Platonic and Stoic elements, and
interspersed
very much
he compiled from his Logic,Physicsand Ethics,
the manuals
remarkable
title of Pr
for their
order
clearness,earned
and
for him
the
acceptorGermaniae.
in God,
eternal dualism
The
necessary.
theism),and
or
evil,which
proper
soul
human
is
to
an
His
appearance
free-will may
with
being endowed
of
are
primordialqualities
104. Theism,
the
or
of the
conflicts born
and
nature
its
have
religion
God,
in
their
that
of God
to
turn
religious
Reformation
the
reality
content
is
(pan
good
being.
therefore
that
all forms
concerning
identical notwithstanding the
same
essential truths
27
""
Aurora
GnadenwAhl.
their
De
arbor
(1610),VierzigFragen
Von
Aer
THE
OF
OUTLINES
426
OF
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY
it was
that
Thus
matters.
unfoldingof all ideas on religious
of followers,not only among
theism gathered a vast number
Protestants, but in generalamongst all engaged in the Re
of Rotterdam
ERASMUS
naissance
movement.
(1467-1536)
if purified
Christ
of
the
that
teaching
propagated the theory
the religionof Plato,
from its accretions is identical with
COORNHERT
Cicero and Seneca.
(b.1522)in Holland reduced
to all
all the dogmas of Christianity
to elements
common
of names
A crowd
might be mentioned of those whom
religion.
this theism
105.
seduced.
Scepticism.
multitude
The
"
of
contradictions
in
re
led men
to doubt
and scientific questions
ligious,
philosophical
This scepticism
of the capacityof the mind to discover truth.
of the Renaissance
not
a
thorough and positive
period was
of attaining
criticism of the possibility
certitude,but rather a
of all existing
practicalconclusion against the sufficiency
systems of thought. It marked the stage of transition between
the Middle Ages and the development of modern
philosophy;
with
the sophism
of
in
it
and
had many
this
points similarity
constructive
of the Greeks, for both preparedthe way
for new
MON
thought. The best known
scepticsof this time were
w
CHARRON30
TAIGNE
(1541-1603). The
(1533-1592) and
philosophiesaffords some
bankruptcy of the Renaissance
explanationof the rapid spread of the ideas of Descartes and
Francis
Bacon.
II. SCHOLASTIC
106. General.
Except by
"
became
less and
reached
its lowest
For
this the
less
PHILOSOPHY
few brilliant minds, Scholasticism
depth at
Scholastics
of the seventeenth
the end
themselves
were
century.
largelyresponsible
in
attacked
opponents. When
all their positions
by the allied systems of the Renaissance,
because
they offered no defence, principally
they made the
by
double
mistake
philosophyand
107.
and
Ancient
of
ignoringboth
the
of the
progress
Scholastic
Schools.
Essays (trs.Cotton
80
De
stillcontinued.
and
Florio).
historyof contemporary
particularsciences.
the
Scotist schools
la sagessBt
their
"
Thomist, Terminist
Among the first,FRANCIS
The
PHILOSOPHY
MEDIAEVAL
31
SYLVESTRIS
commentary
(Ferrariensis,
1474-1528) has left
the
on
Summa
in the fifteenth
the
and
nominates
their
Summa
masterly
CAJETAN
they
via
teachingas
and
were
3'2
Theologica.The
universities,where
old
of the
Gentiles,and
contra
427
known
in most
moderni,
as
modernorum,
in
contra
Scotists who
representedthe
of the Ockhamists
via antiqua. The subtlety
at Paris provoked
reaction on the part of Jacques Lefevre
a humanistic
(Faber
and
his discipleJosse Clichtove
(1472-1543).
Stapulensis)
Scotism
continued
underwent
ciscans and
108.
nessed
favourite
be the
a
revival
Scholasticism.
Spanish
a
to
"
in the seventeenth
The
of the
brilliant restoration
teachingof
sixteenth
the
Fran
century.
century wit
"
81
on
Commentaries
Summa
St. Thomas's
contra
Gentiles,and
on
Aristotle's Post. Analyt., Physic, and De Anima.
12
De
ente
Commentaries
of St. Thomas,
works
various
on
predicam.,Post. Analyt.,
M
84
Commentaries
Cursus
on
De
Anima,
Sum.
Sum.
St. Thomas's
ad
philosophicus
exactam,
angelicimentem.
86
Dispittaiioncs
metaphysicae ;
De
veram
on
et
his
writing*
essentia, De
theol.
theol., I and
et
II-II.
genuinam Aristotelis et
legibus.
doctoris
OF
OUTLINES
428
THE
OF
HISTORY
PHILOSOPHY
divine
maintainingboldly againstthe theory of immediate
36
of the people constitutes the
right that the free consent
title of authority. Under the direction of P. FONSECA
original
the
Jesuitsat
commentary
Coimbra
carried to
the
on
successful
issue
immense
an
philosophy of Aristotle,known
as
the
Cursus
In
Conimbricensium.
or
Collegium Conimbricense
with
the names
of VASQUEZ37
Italy we meet
(1551-1604),
ALAMANNi38
MAURUS39
and
SILVESTER
(1559-1634)
(16191687).
The
a profound change, which
Spanish restoration worked
of Scholastic philosophywhen
was
a testimonyto the vitality
handled
by capablemen.
Unhappily this revival was neither
widespread nor enduring. And other groups of Scholastics
continued to compromise the good name
of Scholasticism by
rise to
an
ignorance of scientific questions,which
gave
lamentable
misunderstandings.
109.
and
Scholastics
Scientists in
Misunderstanding between
the Seventeenth
Century. The great discoveries of Copernicus,
and Lavoisier revolution
Galileo,Kepler,Newton, Torricelli,
"
ized
and
Leibniz
reconstructed
the
meant
mathematics
destruction
of
the
on
concerning
Middle Ages were
scientific theories
celestialand terrestrial
part and
When
the
parcel of
physicswhich in the
the acceptedconceptionof
Copernicusand
geocentric
system
discoveries
such
and
the
Galileo substituted
heliocentric for
of
of
new
stars, the
old
the
universe.
the
revealed
astronomy, and the telescope
the spots of the sun, the phases of Venus
as
existence
All this
basis.
new
are
conceptionsthat the
et
and
ingenerabilia
'
Such theories
as
these
interwoven, albeit
by long-standingtradition become
of
and loosely,
with the fundamental
artificially
principles
it seemed that
generalmetaphysicsand cosmology. To some
over
so bound
they were necessarily
up togetherthat to throw
had
the
ancient
s*
"
Such
James
I of
England
had
Disputationesmetaphysicae.
38
Summa
*"
Quaestionum philosophicarum
was
not
the
of the
necessary
arguments.
supported by theological
TRS.
*7
the abandonment
philosophica.
libvi IV.
MEDIAEVAL
science
observation
clear
relating
to
ness
followers
of
entirety
the
sacred
the
the
the
aberrations
philosophy,
or
fall
of
science
and
oak
because
latter
to
it
in
had
remove
of
keep
to
it
some
fell
defenders.
the
all
twig
through
off
both
on
want
to
its
the
the
of
of
vitality
stand
must
the
fell
but
to
giant
the
whilst
crown,
it
men
proved
foolish
deprive
might
be
Scholastic
and
tried
on
were
involve
between
former
it
cannot
the
inevitable
hands
if
its
responsibility
on
that
branches
rotten
withered
not
science
became
in
themselves
misunderstanding
metaphor,
We
the
declared
Scholastics
the
fought
Eventually
adherents
the
threw
ardent
would
upon
mediaeval
the
Thus
together.
irresistible
default
its
since
be
that
of
who
which
in
readi
as
edifice.
brought
they
zeal
defend
cosmos,
of
stone
ques
these
to
the
in
and
this,
the
whole
the
scientists,
new
of
and
former
the
of
of
that
then,
of
remove
downfall
complete
ridicule
the
to
show
attempting
conception
monument,
principles
to
to
was
and
Instead
in
necessary
principles
of
validity
of
constitutional
these
sciences,
persisted
Aristotelian
surprised,
all
Aristotle
was
mediaeval
groundwork
great
organic
of
latter.
the
renounce
its
the
solid
that
applications
everlasting
of
the
between
particular
the
ruins
All
philosophy.
to
the
sustain
to
arbitrary
quite
of
429
unimpaired
distinction
maintaining
its
of
tions
stood
sufficient
doctrines
many
midst
the
still
there
make
in
for
consequence,
PHILOSOPHY
pretence
of
its
life.
through
PART
Modern
110.
General
Character
Philosophy
and
Division.
of the
work
philosophical
philosophyis
negative,modern
feature of the
it
was
constructive
thought
Numerous
"
Whilst
Renaissance
marked
systems have
the
leading
was
that
chieflyby its
been developed,
an
independencefrom dogmatic control.
majorityasserting
stronglycon
Many of them had great influence and were
structed.
They varied much in character, for it is a mark of
the modern
thought. This
mentalityto prideitself on original
favoured by the growth
individualistic tendency was
especially
of language.
and diversity
of national spirit
A predominant place has been
given to psychology and
problem focusingthe chief
epistemology. The epistemological
of knowledge,
attention,the questionof the originand validity
which
the Scholastics solved by a metaphysicaltheory of
has
been
treated by modern
philosophy from an
finality,
has
analyticaland psychologicalstandpoint. Since Kant
orientation to the study of epistemologyand has
given a new
the
exercised
decisive
influence, we
Modern
best divide
may
the pre-Kantian(Chap. I),
431
the
post-Kantian
the
philosophyof
CHAPTER
MODERN
(Seventeenth
Outline.
111.
Descartes
of human
use
only
the
attaining
with
which
to
piricism
which
trines
Bacon,
the
of
system
Descartes,
quite
the
Cartesian
in
predominant
DESCARTES
Descartes40
scientists
of his
where
his
time,
an
teaching
And
Germany,
BACON
in very
at
with
Paris
a
but
very
of
Or-
is satu
direct
original
The
em
doc
(IV)
France
FRANCIS
only
met
in
(V).
was
funda
elementary
influence
(1596-1650)
of
(II).
offshoot
indirect
AND
not
the
in
way
rise
centuries.
clearly marked,
had
the
from
the
at
Novum
of several
(III) and
England
is
by
not
influence
the
century
spiritgave
which
Rene
Countries,
through
made
method,
mcthode
la
Descartes,
eighteenth
so
the
Scholasticism,
seventeenth
the
Leibniz,
I.
112.
of
of
spread
and
not
of
the
de
and
aimed
two
new
traditional
the
quickly developed
seventeenth
although
but
The
of
discovery
(Discours
thought
him,
from
systems
from
philosophy
the
the
gave
emphasizing
experiment),
knowledge.
the
certitude
to
The
ganon).
of
source
different
mentally
descent
by
were
namely,
purpose,
former
The
movement
(ffmciptaf observation,
sensation
rated
(I).
Philosophy
the
knowledge
tendency
same
Modern
of
Bacon
(ratio)in
reason
eighteenth centuries)
rationalistic
the
to
of
rights
Francis
and
impetus
and
founders
The
"
KANT
BEFORE
PHILOSOPHY
it,
find
we
the
where
from
in
that
of
close touch
with
also
Low
warm
in the
reception.
48
Discours
de
la mfthode,
de
Meditationes
philosophia, Principia
prima
Descartes
I'dme.
Consult
des
Traite
de
MAHAFFY,
philosophiae,
passions
on
and
London,
(Edinburgh
Influence of Descartes
1884) ; CUNNINGHAM,
of Meditations
Trans,
Metaphysical
Speculations in England
(London,
1876).
of
criticism
For
and
and
Ross
Objections, Haldane
(Cambridge,
1912).
Descartes'
17.
method,
see
Criteriology, 15,
432
MODERN
the
1649,at
In
went
Descartes
set
discover
to
method
new
this he
on
His
method.
new
Descartes
"
proceeded
sought
which
from
principle,
single
Queen Christina
of
Sweden, he
of
to
attaining
to build
his
up
philosophy.
entire
on
out
433
he died.
where
truth, and
all knowable
1.
invitation of
Stockholm,
to
PHILOSOPHY
base
to
it would
all
knowledge
to deduce
possible
be
To discover this
entire system of truths.
one
geometrico
of calling
into doubt
he used the method
(universal
principle
of
alike
internal
methodic doubt) all acts of human
knowledge,
etc. ;
consciousness, of external sensations,of first principles,
more
he
and
went
even
by
he
doubt
the very
upon
evil genius
certitude
the
'
'
said
some
he made
illogically,
most
doubt
this universal
was
throw
to
as
the faculties,which
of
capability
asserted
far
so
of his
exceptionin
one
existence he
own
thought
'
Cogito,
'
of his new
the firstapplication
he made
method, and
ergo sum
in this he found his criterion of certitude,namely, that a clear
thinginvolves the
and, he went
rationalism),
thing (realism,
distinct intuition of
and
which
consciousness
do, then,
to
to
to
appears
existence
fact of my
me
his
certain
my
'
existence
certain, he
am
Cogito,ergo
'.
sum
have
been
given
to
am
Himself.
God
by
me
the idea
could
have
not
distinct ideas
error
can
the
second
are
world, and
deceived
true since
beings can
who
has
Furthermore,
me.
they have
God
as
called
to
be
and
of himself.
substance, which
need
called
nothing
God
this idea
given me
all clear
the intellect.
him
alone
he defined
only inasmuch
In
of the nature
strictly
can,
as
that
which
created
substances
and
God
come
be
speaking,
so
external world.
of this external
of
of the
own
must
imperfection,
am
to
of God's
perfect,and
I
had
the
distinct
clear and
"
intuitions assured
argued,
as
of
distinct ideas.
The
distinct
certainty.All he
system of philosophywas
gathertogetherand
2.
act
absolute
givesme
construct
every
on,
clear and
as
of that
existence
as
they
are
HISTORY
THE
OF
OUTLINES
434
OF
PHILOSOPHY
Corporeal
independent of any other being besides God.
of
sensible
the
made
is
not
qualities(secondary
up
reality
in extension
but
consists
attribute to them,
we
(the
qualities)
it is something essentially
extended,
;
primary quality)
of his mathematical
divisible and continuous (evidence
infinitely
since the
and
bent) ;
of movement
notion
is not
contained
in
that
for him
which
or,
extension
Between
and
union
; the
patibility
with
is synonymous
thought
of soul
or
there
ego,
res
absolute
an
act.
incom
with body, a
cogitans
Hence
Descartes
one.
purely mechanical
displaysa tendency to reduce all psychicphenomena to states
and to lessen the part played by the will
of consciousness
this involves
; and
(supremacy of the intellect over the will)
of regardingall non-conscious
activities as
him in the necessity
extended and mechanical
phenomena (theoryof animal spirits,
animal automatism, theoryconcerningthe passions).
Bacon
after being raised to a high
113. Francis
(1561-1626),
positionunder Elizabeth and James I, fell into
political
extensa, is
res
devoted
disgraceand
two
chief works
new
method
His
1.
certain
which
41,in which,
which
on
method
new
he
for
to base
system
idols ',the
of
work
not
must
thought but
unknown
of
sources
to
the
common
data
of
he
proceeded to interpret
be judgednot by the content
and
by the accurate
precise
appearances,
of inductive
passingwere
or
applyingscientific induction
by
experiencestrippedof
His
nature.
corporeal
formulation
'
all phantoms
Next,
of his
looked
excluded
error.
like Descartes, he
of
only what
which
by
methods,
which
to the Scholastics
we
may
note
in
To these methods
.
absentiae,graduum.
praesentiae,
the
Bacon
laid down
2. In the construction of his philosophy
physics,
principlesof a materialistic naturalism, in which
psychologyand social philosophyalike show the domination
of a mechanical
necessitywhich excludes any teleological
he gave
41
See
De
the
names
of tabulae
organon
dignitateet augmentis scientiarum ; Novum
to the edition by FOWLER
(Oxford, 1889).
Introduction
scientiarum.
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
conception.Bacon's
II. CARTESIANISM
OF
scientificmethod
SEVENTEENTH
THE
CENTURY
Cartesian
114. The
In
Countries.
and
Clerselier,
Claude
Mersenne,
thought
the
quick to permeate
counted
developedthe
successors
advocated.
that he had
was
435
the Low
Descartes
Pascal ;
the
Jan-
among
publishedin 1662
also Huet,
and
the
Countries
witnessed
between
his
fideist.
The
universities of
contest
with
many
partisansand
Ley den
from
censures
115.
a
the
known
with
such
men
as
Cartesians,
in 1662
powerlessto
from
and
arrest
the
movement.
of the
of
congregation
Arnauld,
Oratory
and
at
his
(1638-1715),
correspondence
of occasionalism,
professeddefender
the
was
the
Bossuet
friendshipwith
for his
4a
MALEBRANCHE
NICOLE
Occasionalism."
member
counted
Province
1642 were
in
Province
the Northern
spreadof
the Southern
Aristotelian
of
their staunch
episodes
interesting
advocates
the
Low
the
thought,the attribute
influences
of actions
occurrence
productionof
other, and
the
41
the
body
Recherche
nothing more
that
are
is the
the
than
cannot
body
of
of the
the simultaneous
of
production
the
the
is arrangedand
correspondence
not
the idea of body comes
Further, even
de
itselfbut must
la vivitt.
Consult
be
given us by God
JOLY, Malebranche
; so
that
II.
we
(Grands Philosopher
series,Paris, 1901).
M.S.P.-VOL.
man
mutually independent;
occasion
be
their harmonious
governed by God.
from
one
are
mind, there
their mutual
of
FF
cannot
'
OF
OUTLINES
436
Mysticism.
PHILOSOPHY
'
OF
material
see
HISTORY
THE
"
PASCAL43
from
God is found also in BLAISE
directly
convinced
who, startingfrom Cartesian principles,
(1623-1662),
is incapableof arrivingat the complete
himself that reason
comes
truth and
faith
or
therefore
'
has
the heart
of which
reasons
lie in sentiment
must
the mind
itselfknows
the Talmud
Bacon
and
at
finally
the
In order
to
by his co-religionists
wandering life and settled
Excommunicated
Hobbes.
Bruno, Francis
views,
led
he
Hague, where
he died.
the
overcome
antinomy
between
extension and
in Himself
and
as
is the substance
infinite,
devoid of determination
(naturanatumns). But He
absolutely
exist onlyas assumingattributes that are necessary to Him ;
can
but we know
these attributes are very numerous,
only two of
them, namely, extension and thought, which appear side by
side though in varying degrees in all things,which are thus
expressionsof God
or
divine modes.
God
as
so
determined
to
an
43
Lettres
44
Ethica
modes
of
; Pensees.
provinciates
De intellects*
;
geometricodemonstrates ; Tractatus politicus
Consult
Wolf.
Hale
emendations
White,
trs.
: part
by Elwes,
(unfinished)
POLLOCK,
Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy (2nd ed., London, 1899) ; and
CAIRO, Spinoza (London, 1903).
more
MODERN
is
PHILOSOPHY
437
no
'
virtue
distinction between
no
and
force.
brute
With
Spinozaregardsthe
responsible
as
Grotius
Hobbes,
and with
passions,
of ending this. The reward
of civil societyas a means
ment
of a moral life consists in a
and crown
mysticalintuition '.
^Spinoza'sphilosophycontains many inconsistencies and is
not understood
; it was
by his
open to different interpretations
into favour only in the following
contemporariesand came
of the
the establish
'
century.
45
118. Leibniz
he
only with
but also
contemporaries,
not
conversant
was
and
the individualistic
towards
return
of
has been
his
thinker and
original
philosophyin Germany, marks a
who
(1646-1716),
with
totle,and
was
an
tendency
the
with
of Descartes.
philosophyof
that
Descartes
of Plato and
the
But
he
Aris
spoke
of in
ignorant
high praise. Further, he was by no means
the discoverer
science of his day, and is distinguished
as
of
terms
of the
appliedto mechanics.
life,and
time he was
activelyengaged in political
the
himself as the ideal of his diplomaticcareer
of the
differential
At
same
the
put before
calculus, which
he
In 1700
bringingtogetherall the various churches.
of Sciences at Berlin.
he founded
the Academy
The
leading idea of Leibniz's monadology is a dynamic
dream
of
conceptionof
the universe
and
are
thought
but
aggregate of monads
is ruled
ments
I.
The
monad
by
in
forms
or
De
151 ; Gen.
force,and
activity
;
the
extension
world
monad
is
an
move
is with
is immaterial
reference
to
the
and
rest
de la
calculo philosophico; Systeme nouvrau
Dieu
bonte
de
la
Essais
et
de
Theodicee
sur
(trs.Latta) ;
Critical
Consult
RUSSELL.
New
Essays (trs.Langley).
sen
; Monadology
engine du mal ;
Expositionof the Philosophy of
of its
is
force-substance
or
itself
scientia universali
nature
substance
final purpose.
and each
indestructible,
**
Leibnitz
(Cambridge,1900).
See
Psych., 117,
OUTLINES
438
THE
OF
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
perfectly
independentbeing,for the monads, as he expressedit,
have no windows
by which they can experienceor exercise
is impenetrable
influence ; the monad
both
; it is endowed
with
of resistance within
the limits of its being
a
power
'
'
virtue
(vis resistendi,matter) by
to
appears
by
of
which
virtue of which
it
it is, or
rather
purely internal
power
individual nature
(form,
soul,
each
state
of the
life is in itself
monadic
precedingand succeedingstates.
succeed
organicbond and
harmony, in such a way that
have
an
monad
the
all
these
representations
they
continuity,
any
all are regulatedby a pre-established
without
another
one
Because
expressive of
its
break
the end
of
of the monad
is attained ;
on
'
course
'
soul '.
the
Thus,
whilst
Leibniz
allows
that
we
have
an
empiricaland
The
order which
exists between
the monads
is accounted
for
'
'
'
to
one
another
the cosmic
no
causal
efficiency,
correspondwith, the
other, and there results a perfect
harmony in
in representing,
by virtue
system ; (3)their activity
changes in
changes in every
the
are
to,
parallel
or
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
of which
monadic
each
'
is
state
439
livingmirror
'
of the whole
universe.
3. Leibniz
different
have
direct influx
each
other, but
adjusted as two
clocks which keep perfectly
in time (Geulincx,Malebranche).
Besides
',which in the language of to-day
petites
perceptions
no
on
are
'
would
be
ideas,and
called
subconscious
mental
states,
has distinct
man
in this he is
To act
superiorto all simplemonads.
morallyis to follow intellectual representations
; these follow
a
harmony, and therefore Leibniz
necessarily
pre-established
he
The
beautiful
upholds a psychologicaldeterminism.
regardsas a dull and less conscious perceptionof the order
'
of the universe.
4
There
.
exist
must
monad,
supreme
non-
plea). He has
created
the
best
(cosmologicaloptimism).
of
Leibniz also endeavoured
the positive
to harmonize
religions
the various churches
with natural religion.
The whole philosophyof Leibniz displays
a powerfulunityof
the great
which makes
it worthy of a placeamong
conception,
philosophy. The trend of
systems in the historyof modern
of the eighteenth
thought amongst the German
philosophers
century was deeplyaffected by his system.
existence is inconceivable
Descartes'
(whichwas
possibleworld
III. ENGLISH
PHILOSOPHY
EIGHTEENTH
119.
by
General
Sketch
several currents
of Francis
sualism.
Bacon,
This
of
sensationalism, has
SEVENTEENTH
AND
CENTURIES
influenced
^."English philosophywas
thought,but
which
term,
THE
IN
Hobbes
with
together
reference
most
of all by the
took
the
empiricism
name
of
sen
sensism
its synonyms
know
the origin of human
with
to
or
objectivist
sensualism
also materialism)and subjectivist,
according
(called
which
this theory held to be the only
as
sense-perception,
of knowledge, was
source
regarded as establishingor not
the real existence
of things outside the subject
establishing
ledge,and
""
in this connexion
See LESLIE
STEPHEN,
appearedin
English Thought
in the
two
forms,
EighteenthCentury (1876
OUTLINES
440
THE
OF
HISTORY
perceiving. It developed
a
displaying
in
varietyof
vast
OF
PHILOSOPHY
England
shades, as
under
two
both
stages
forms,
of the
same
logicalevolution.
sensualism
Subjectivist
brought about a
the part of Reid and the
on
very strong reaction, especially
Besides these theories dealingwith questions
Scottish school.
notice also various theories on moral
of epistemology,
must
we
and religious
of the
questionswhich were the natural outcome
sensualist philosophy.
Hobbes47 (1588-1679),
120. Thomas
who
the friend of
was
also acquainted
Bacon, Gassendi, and Campanella, and was
with
and
Mersenne
Cartesians
other
at
Paris, endeavoured
to
ideas of Bacon's
naturalism.
1.
from
materialism
of Bacon.
Materialism.
"
(Descartes)without
sidered
psychology as
which
movements,
intervention
any
he
dealingwith
divided
of final
the
into two
He
causes.
human
body
and
con
its
classes,the theoretical
and
(sensations)
invested
officials with
state
sovereignauthoritythe
rights,even
to
the
tions,except where
individual
must
powers.
forego
Before
all his
this
own
convic
renouncinghis religious
government does not impose a state
extent
the
autocratic
of
religion.
; De
corpore politico; Leviathan, or the Matter, Form
LESLIE
Ecclesiastical and
Civil. Consult
Commonwealth,
of
Hobbes
Will and
Free
Four
STEPHEN,
(1904) ; Jos. RICKABY,
English Phi
losophers(Hobbes, Locke, Hume, and Mill)(London, 1906).
47
and
On
Nature
Human
Power
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
John Locke48
121.
and
Oxford
had
(1632-1704)
affairs,he
political
turmoil of
suite of William
founder
of
of
in
1689 in
the
be
must
philosophy. To
attemptingthe solution
sensist
the
before
necessary,
He
Orange.
the
escape
to Holland, where
England
to
at
To
himself
betook
and returned
he wrote
scientific education
Descartes.
and
Bacon
studied
441
regarded as the
him
it appeared
of any other philo
49. The
'
mind
of
sheet
mind
of the
clean
Aristotle).All knowledge
of
(tabularasa
paper
child resembles
new-born
is
from
'
'
'
'
modification
(Descartes):
he affirmed the
of bodies, such
primary qualities
he
the
admitted
existence
extension,
as
of substances,
althoughwe
complex representations,
as
remain
etc.
(112);
and
objectsof some
ignorantof their
nature.
inconsistencies
These
character
this
which
jectivism,
122.
the
or
"
The
sensism
objectivist
Berkeleyand Hume
Associationist
of
transformation
Essay
Christianity;
concerning
The
Human
Conduct
School."
system
en
49
According
idea
of
the
'
to
the
erected into
The
transitional
system.
association of
'
Understanding
of the Understanding ;
John Locke ; ses theories
terminology
'
ideas
',
into complex
simplerepresentations
of seventeenth
Reasonableness
of
Treatises on Govern
The
Two
et
politiques
'
and
influence
leur
eighteenth centuries,
'
for
the name
ideologue
knowledge
; hence
synonym
'
French
materialists
and
idealiste ' for sensationalists.
is
sub
towards
tended
Consult
BASTIDE,
Angleterre (Paris,1907).
ment.
'
Locke's
gave
'
for
some
OUTLINES
442
OF
of which
ones,
be
to
came
traces
the
confined to the
PETER
BROWN
OF
HISTORY
to be found
are
PHILOSOPHY
in Locke
and
others,soon
representationsand
HARTLEY50
DAVID
THE
of
JOHN GAY
(1704-1757),who
associationist school
volitional acts.
of
that
founder
the
was
of the
out
psychology in England, worked
these
conceptions,and found a constant
correspondence
between
and
antecedents
conse
physiological
psychological
of
quences,
JOSEPH PRIESTLEY51
(1733-1804)
gave
of
pretation
Hartley'spsychologyby
materialistic inter
his
teachingthat the
from the physio
state does not differ in nature
psychological
and that consequently
logical,
psychologyis merely the physics
of the
He
nerves.
tried
to
reconcile
his
theories and
these
'
alone
phenomena
exist
"
esse
percipi.
est
whilst
But
matter
of these repre
the subjects
which are
exist,spirits
God ; and because
sentations have an existence,and especially
does
He
not
exists and
before
has
and
given
arranged them
(cp.Malebranche, 115).
us,
and
in
there
has
Hume53
124. David
wrote
io
De
81
Hartley's Theory
motu,
sensus
order, these
born
was
; his treatise
et idearum
of
in
who
(1711-1776),
several
attractingattention
that
representations
all the
Human
on
not
Human
must
at
come
be true
Edinburgh
succeed
at
first
Nature, he tells
generatione.
Mind
on
the
Principlesof
Association
of
Ideas.
58
Treatise
Treatise
on
cerning
cerning
Human
Consult
LESLIE
the
Human
Nature, which
Understanding,
Principles of Morals.
STEPHEN,
later
Dissertation
op. cit.,and
on
he
recast
th"
Theory of
Philadelphia,
Enquiry
con
Moral,
RICKABY,
op. cit.
Essays,
into
New
MODERN
'
us,
from
felldead-born
struck root
his words
Paris in
443
he formed
1763, where
culminated
PHILOSOPHY
the
of time
visit to
acquaintance of Rousseau,
givingcertaintyof their
nothingat all about extramental
us
consciousness
natural law,
the law
In
associated
are
namely
of resemblance
dealingwith
causality.Thus
ternal substance
the
or
God
law
and
to
with
he
and
us,
teach
of
states
threefold
mind, and
of the
of
principle
Berkeleydid he reduce
the
but even
impressions,
regarded
ex
ego
the existence of
all
accordinglycondemned
reasoned
all but
primary
away
Hume
incapableof proof.
had
metaphysics; Locke
bodies
faint
contiguityin
further
as
qualitiesof
of
bundle
within
reality.These
contrast, and
only
itself 54,and
mind
of
of the human
not
existence
togetheraccording to
includingthat
even
the
are
phenomena,
purelypsychical
whilst
and
which
thoughts
or
in
substance
unknowable
the
which
they inhere
The
states.
of
the
to
teaching in matters
religionlaid his system
of his
baneful
moral, natural
open
in
consequences
and social law
and
charge of scepticismand
This
atheism.
resulted
reaction.
125.
Reaction
Scottish
The
Sensationalism.
against
from
""
"
The
sensist
experience but
Hume's
denial
of the
from
'
the
ideas
substantialityof
the
necessarilyexist
which
mind
distinctive
is his most
collection
psychology
perceptions united together by certain relations, and supposed,
with
though falsely,to be endowed
simplicity and identity '. Cp. Works
TRS.
(Green and Grosse's edition, 1890), I, 534.
"
See SELBY-BIGGE,
British
Moralists, 2. vols. (Oxford. 2nd ed., 1913).
The Scottish
Also McCosH,
from
all the writers of this class.
being extracts
Philosophy(London, 1875).
contribution
to
what
we
call mind
of different
"
is
simply
'
heap
or
OUTLINES
444
in the mind
THE
OF
of God
and
mind
in the human
PHILOSOPHY
'.
its effects
This
Scottish school.
of the
OF
are
far-reachingin
More
HISTORY
the reaction
was
the
on
part
directed
chiefly
againstthe
In place of
Hume.
was
ideological
conceptionsof Berkeley and
sensationalism this school professed a theory of
subjectivist
of dogmatic
innate ideas which
permitted the attainment
within us instinctive judgments,which
have inborn
truth : we
of
the truths
together form
common
and
sense
which
have
'
Reid
objectiveimport
as
"
with
ethics and
natural
tinguishedwriters
very
the
of
an
innate
to the
theory
an
of moral
innate
58
with aesthetic
An
69
60
Moral
some
of
improved
Inquiry into
of
the Human
; arid
man
sentiment
and
Philosophy.
made
(120)was
vindicated
once
on
the
of ad
group
the good to be
a
to be
one
Mind
on
our
60
HUTCHESON
FRANCIS
Principlesof
Essays on the Active
the
Analogy of Religion.
Inquiry into the Original of
at
'
Essays
68
law, based
sentiment
SHAFTESBURY
good
moral
inclinations
egoistic
objectof
of the
67
MORALISTS,
'
existence
sake.
""
of dis
number
selfish system
againstHobbes, whose
strenuouslyopposed. The Cambridge school
herents
own
whilst others
of Hobbes
Reaction
altruisticand
the
BRITISH
the
as
were
it.
upon
i.
known
the sensism
attacked
whom
There
law.
Ideas
(1694-1747)
Common
Powers
Sense
',
of Man.
Times.
of Beauty
and
Virtue, System of
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
aesthetic
an
reduced
their
development
with
Home
Henry
in
Parallel
taste.
445
the
were
beautiful to
agreeablesensation. Hobbes's
morality of pleasuremet also with livelyoppositionfrom
61
CLARKE
SAMUEL
for his con
(1675-1729)"well known
troversy with
Leibniz
"
an
who
for the
sought
basis of
goodness
in
the
'
'
'
'
welfare.
in
Sensism
its second
form
became
an
altruistic
utilitarianism which
be added
the founders
127. Deism.
than
the
that
of
Smith
and
Bentham
are
reckoned
amongst
political
economy.
"
English deism,
Renaissance, which
or
left
free-thought,went
further
and
tolerant
men
indifferent
81
81
88
For
of
Demonstration
STEPHEN,
84
66
"8
Attributes of God.
Vices made
Public
Fable of the Bees, or Private
Benefits.
Introduction
and
to the Principlesof Morals
Legislation; Deontology.
consult LESLIE
the modern
founded
English utilitarianism
by Bentham
The
Christianitynot Mysterious.
Christianityas old^asthe Creation.
446
OUTLINES
OF
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
orthodoxy.
With
made
deism
in the
universe,which
the
view
reconcile the
to
all theists
commonly
very
noteworthy attempts
some
eighteenthcentury
conceptionof
mechanical
associate
must
we
teleological
of Galileo
and
two
foes of the
claims of the
excessive
the
as
conceptionof
mechanical
the universe.
IV. FRENCH
PHILOSOPHY
128. General
Sketch.
(II)underwent
found
as
enjoy
to
universal
France
Cartesianism, which
lingered,and
the
On
mechanism.
became
in many
the
other
is
as
no
have
we
seen
longerto
be
in the
the
eighteenthcentury ;
to survive the longest
one
considerable
most
CENTURY
EIGHTEENTH
THE
profound changes,
many
of its tenets
some
and
an
"
IN
other
influence
was
that
of
nothing more
than
transformed
Essai
sw
de
I'origine
la connaisance
humaine
His
view
he
of
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
447
value
of sensation is a strange blending of
cognitional
he regards sensible qualities
sensism, inasmuch
as
subjectivist
with
as
dogmatism, for he admits the
having no reality,
objectiverealityof spatialdeterminations ; and he even
of
the immaterial
includes spiritualism
nature
by recognizing
find similar contradictions
in the theory of
the soul. We
68
BONNET
CHARLES
(1720-1793).
the
Materialistic sensism,which
2.
and
sensuous
to
are
be
found
strikingbook
in which
with
machine
L'homme
movement
of
LA
knowledge
no
principles
(i)in the
implications
METTRIE
(1709-1751),
with
is
there
These
material.
realitybut
no
he teaches
that
in the
in France
dominant
was
psychicphenomena
endowed
matter
except
nothing more
are
the
'
'
'
tionnaire Raisonne
publishedin
was
Arts
between
the
et des
years
Metiers)which
under
1752-1772
of
then
(1717-1783),
DIDEROT
arrogated to
(1713-1784). The
encyclopedists
en
themselves
the title of
'. (3) In the work
philosophers
which
titled Systeme de la nature
was
publishedunder the
in 1770, but was
chieflyfrom the
pseudonym of Mirabaud
the
direction
first
of
D'ALEMBERT69
70
'
of D'HOLBACH
pen
the
and
(1723-1789),
the
theories
mechanistic
of the
of
may
eighteenthcentury.
(4)In
scientists such
FON-
many
73
and
(1657-1756),BUFFON
(1708-1788)
who
those
(1735-1820). The
oppositionbetween
TENELLE71
mechanistic
view
logicalview,
'
of the universe
and
cause-finaliers ', to
70
Essai
7a
use
Voltaire's
periodboth
Pcnstes
;
philosophiques
Pensees
et de Diderot
sur
sur
la
teleo-
expression,
de
I'interpretation
(posthumous).
pluralitydes mondes.
Histoire naturelle generateet particulicre.
Entretien
held
in learned and
;
Palingtntsiesphilosophiques.
psychologic
preliminaire.
de d'Alembert
ROBINET
held
who
de
Discours
Entretien
71
those
as
la
nature
448
OF
OUTLINES
THE
HISTORY
and is an
circles,
unlearned
naturalism
evidence
eighteenthcentury.
characteristic
is the
which
PHILOSOPHY
OF
of the
of the
whole
that
all
the
hatred
forms
which
of Catholicism
became
dominant
the
in all
note
of
religious
philosophy.
BAYLE
the
1.
(1647-1706),
Religiousscepticism,PIERRE
laid it down
author
of the Dictionnaire historique
et critique,
as
all
revealed
but
that
not only
even
a principle
dogma
religion,
is as a matter
of natural religion,
of
every teachingin favour
Yet
he
fact and by its nature
incompatiblewith reason.
professedhimself
of
sistency
that
vice
what
believer,and
his
position
by the
is true in philosophymay
His influence
versa.
for
pernicious,
most
was
theologyand
false in
be
of his
many
made
to
became
rest
on
atheistic State
an
possible.
Theism.
VOLTAIRE
73
(1694-1778),
althougha very versa
tile and often a very
writer, takes his place in
superficial
He
of theism.
the historyof philosophyas a representative
popularizedthe views of Locke, and whilst he agreed in more
than one
pointwith the materialistic view, he did not hesitate
others.
After having taken upon himself
to oppose it on many
in particular,
to demolish
all positive
and Catholicism
religion
2.
he
elaborated
incoherent
an
tect
for
spoke
men
not
71
in the
exist,we
Lettres
sur
same
should
les
of Him
way
Encyclopedia.
as
be under
Candide
believer
God
as
in God's
the motive
existence, but
conduct
deterrent
de
la
philosophicde
Newton
sur
I'optimisme; Dictionnaire
after having quarrelledwith the other
ou
as
law-courts and
Elements
the Archi
as
for honest
order,and necessary
the
varied in
which
Nature, sometimes
as
of social
Anglais;
was
world, sometimes
the foundation
and
He
theory about
mis
la
philosophique
authors
of the
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
theories advocated
The
3. Atheism.
by
449
La Mettrie,d'Holbach,
of a
etc., raised atheism to the standard
and belief in God
which it is idle to dispute,
but
Ethics.
131.
by
to be
came
the
masses
deductions
ethical
The
"
also
demonstrated
of
endeavoured
he
dividual
'
of
sentiment
terialism
effect
French
many
'. The
honour
and
political
Law.
sensualist
(1715-1771),
; at the
same
selfishness of the
by
an
the
appeal to
ethical aspect of
classes,where its
growing
in
ma
only
with
discontent
the
social state
Natural
lower
the
aggravate the
to
the
of the
appealedmostly to
was
132.
welfare
the
with
reconcile
to
regarded
a
thing
as
the
thesis
The
"
movement
establish
to
the
in
75
(1689-1755)
point of view which MONTESQUIEU
had treated in its application
to political
philosophy,JEAN
76
JACQUES ROUSSEAU
(1712-1778)developedin its bearing on
of nature,
Natural Right and social philosophy. The
state
life ; the
in which man
is naturally
good, consists in a solitary
dividualistic
social state,based
of
on
labour, individual
him,
so
has
that
put
end
an
let
without
to
personality
to
develop his
may
built
sentiment Rousseau
he
hindrance
or
On
full.
the
this
natural
up
coming of
V.
GERMAN
General
PHILOSOPHY
IN
Sketch.
"
The
De
**
Lettres
'"
and
hastened
his
the
the Revolution.
(LEIBNIZ
133.
religion.During
of its
CENTURY
EIGHTEENTH
THE
KANT)
TO
philosophy of the
and depth, (i)In
originality
German
systems
were
derived from
Leibniz's
I'esprit.
Persanes
Lanouvelle
Heloise
Ethics, 74, 111 i;
De
;
des lois.
I'esprit
De
control
social; Emtle
ou
sur
I 'education.
See
OUTLINES
450
monads
theory of
sentimental
and
OF
HISTORY
THE
OF
the school of
; thus
of the
school,the advocates
PHILOSOPHY
philosophyof history
developedisolated,and
sometimes
No one
revived his system
secondary,theories from Leibniz.
in its entirety. (2) On the other hand, a reactionary
move
ment
against certain exaggerated principlesin Leibniz's
philosophy encouraged the development of an
empirical
the
of
due
influence
the
which
to
was
philosophy
English
schools.
(3)German
philosophyformed an earlyalliance with
and received a considerable impetus from a sudden
literature,
and assumed
a popularform.
awakening of artistic feeling
77
of Wolff."
WOLFF
School
CHRISTIAN
134. The
(1679-1754),
who
he fell
at Halle University(1706),where
was
a professor
I of Prussia and was
William
into disgraceunder
later rein
of Leibniz's philosophyand
ardent admirer
an
stated, was
of it. He started
endeavoured
to givea systematic
exposition
division of truths
Leibniz's
with
him
departed from
but
between
he
them;
of fact and
a
by asserting
maintained
that
eternal
truths,
distinction of nature
every
object
can
be
and
We
find
empirically
by way of pure deduction.
78
similar conception in TSCHIRNHAUSEN
(1651-1708),who
a
This
parallelismconcerning the
perhaps influenced him.
classifica
of knowledge he made to be the basis of a new
sources
tion of the philosophical
sciences,which in great part is still
admitted
to-day. According to this, the theoretical sciences
comprisegeneralmetaphysicsor ontology,and specialmeta
physics; this latter admitting of subdivision into natural
and
deductive
empirical
theology or theodicyand teleology,
and
the
natural sciences. This
psychology,rational cosmology
known
attempt
at
classification constitutes
marshallingof
Wolff
founded
philosophyto
individual
135.
The
Leibniz had
77
noteworthy
most
in itselfis
philosophy,which
to
ideas after
method
that
is often
pedantic.
times
most
the
school and
all
may
in the
be
called the
of
professor
eighteenthcentury.
Germany
his disciples
was
Baumgarten.
among
Aesthetic
placedthe
School.
"
aesthetic
In
the
human
The
consciousness
as midway
impression
between
philosophiapractica
Gedanken.
"
Medicina
mentis.
MODERN
the clear
'
it as
universe '.
Taking
aesthetics
as
study
logic. He
timism
wrote
Meier showed
work.
to
the
new
harmony of the
con
(1714-1762)
sensation
science
order
of
as
celebrity.The cosmological
op
the
imitation
of
nature
regard
as
several of his
Meier, Sulzer
Eschenburg,
of
(118),describing
the younger
step
the first treatise on the beautiful ",
and
sensation
and regardedthis
(cuerflcii/o/mi),
sister of
451
the confused
sidered
PHILOSOPHY
and
contemporaries,such
Mendelssohn
carried
as
his
on
that
of
beauty vanishes on the analysis
of the beautiful is
an
object; Sulzer thought that the feeling
connected
of representation,
with obscurity
and
Mendelssohn
regarded it as
136. The
Leibniz's
of
endowment
an
Philosophy
theory
of
'
of Sentiment.
'
dim
The
autobiographies.
and
feeling,
of lower
alone.
natures
As
"
an
outgrowth
flourished
perceptions
theory started
also
from
literature
psychology of
led
division of the
to a new
indirectly
tripartite
human
dim
faculties cognition,
These
conation.
feeling,
were
regarded rather as a state of the soul of
perceptions
or volitional
pleasureor of displeasurethan as representations
'
'
"
"
"
acts, and
the
the sentiment
was
ranged
as
one
of
of the soul.
This threefold division of
feelings
the
popularized by TETENS80
(1736-1805),
numerous
faculties
of the beautiful
was
modern
of Kant, and replacedamong
predecessor
very many
the old twofold
division into intellect and will.
philosophers
intelli
the noveltywas
carried so far as to despoil
Subsequently
the
gence of its rightsin order to allow individual sentiment
of knowledge. Here was
a new
triumph
primacyas sole source
for the
of
theory of the indistinct perceptions Leibniz.
surnamed
the Wizard of the North, and
(1730-1788),
of this tendency in
JACOBI (1743-1819)are the representatives
his first opponents
studies.
found
Kant
epistemological
inasmuch
these advocates of the philosophyof feeling,
among
he restored clear representations
to their placeof primacy and
HAMANN
honour.
137.
The
Philosophy
of the
first
of
developmentof the
of Leibniz.
disciples
'"
Aesthetica.
80
PhilosophischeVersuche
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
History.
"
monads
A
The
had
return
to
historical conception
been
the
Natur
by
neglected
the
view
teleological
und
ihre
Enturicklung
00
452
OUTLINES
HISTORY
THE
OF
interprets
historyfrom
which
PHILOSOPHY
OF
the
historyof
the human
evolution
necessary
138. Reaction
race,
the
and
past
and
the
this view
to the
endeavoured
was
and
whole
to show
it had
what
against Leibniz
religiouslife.
same
of the
that
by
to be 83.
Wolff."
protest
was
by
Leibniz
the
immediate
created, under
French
English and
of empiricalideas, which
current
was
a
philosophies,
hardly
and
confined
to
chiefly descriptive
original
psychology. The
English philosophyalso had an influence on a series of religious
which
less philosophical
however
in their nature
were
disputes,
than in England, because
in Germany men
less able to
were
throw
controversies
that
we
trace
It
was
in these
beginnings of
the
biblical
criticism.
139.
Philosophy
in
Popular
Form.
"
To
completethis
sketch
'
'
sense
'.
notably on
artists and
itself felt
writers,and
was
on
instrumental
in
81
Translation
of the New
Essays of Leibniz ; Erziehung des Menschcn
geschlects
;
TheologischeStreitschriften.
82
Auch
eine Philosophic der Geschichte
der Menschheit
; Philosophy of the
History of Mankind
(trs:Churchill).
88
Similar
ideas had
by the Italian philosopher
already been put forward
Vico
the
middle
the
In
of
(1668-1744).
eighteenth century there also ap
(1697-1770)
peared, in Germany, the first historians of philosophy Brucker
Tiedemann
and
(1748-1803)
"
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
philosophical
the
giving
men
of
eighteenth
eclipsed
Leibniz
with
century
by
between
At
of
Goethe
the
the
of
of
literary
great
further
philosophy,
works
the
awakening
(1749-1832)
and
poetry
which
the
of
giving
these
great
enjoyed.
genius
Compared
works
and
popularity
the
latter
characteristic
was
period.
the
alliance
the
cemented
the
the
(1759-1805)
Schiller
scholars
to
of
romanticism
German
the
that
veneer
productions
intellectual
453
the
giant
pale
all
German
other
into
personality
insignificance,
of
Kant.
philosophers
and
in
all
the
were
CHAPTER
PHILOSOPHY
THE
Critical Philosophy.
140.
berg,
where
II
OF
Kant
"
philosophyand
the
born
was
applied himself
he
in 1724 at
the
study
During the
to
sciences.
natural
KANT
of
Konigs-
theology,
first
part of
his
those
in the
when,
was
and
and
Hume,
midst
Rousseau.
of all these
The
second
stage
influences,the
conflicting
originality
developed84 ; after thirtyyears'
personalreflection this appeared before the world in 1770,
in which
given a public chair of philosophyat
year he was
Konigsberg. This he held until 1797. He died in 1804.
The new
philosophyof Kant was givenby himself the name
transcendental
of Critical Philosophy; it is also known
as
criticism. By the analysisof the concept of knowledge he
traits of his
claimed
to
own
find
out
what
be
must
the
of the
structure
cog-
nitional
'
'
141.
The
Kant's
of
Pure
Reason.
i.
"
critical
knowledge.
84
Critique
Chief
works
of
the
of
This
first
theory
of
body
of
part of
scientific
universal,
second
the 'critical'
period of Kant's career:
Miiller ; also Meiklejohn), Fundamental
(trs.Max
and
Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals
Critique of Practical Reason
(trs.
The Philosophy
Abbott) ; CritiqueofJudgment (trs.Bernard) Consult WATSON,
of Kant
Explained (MacLehose, Glasgow, 1908) ; CAIRD, The Critical Philo
sophy of Kant, 2 vols. (MacLehose, Glasgow, 1889). We pass over here the
and the writings of the first period of his life.
dogmatic philosophy of Kant
Crit. 27, 32, 39 f. ; Log., 33 ; Gen. Met., 109 ; Ethics,55 f
See
74, 80, 111 f. ;
Critiqueof
Pure
"
"
Reason
.,
Nat.
Theol., 5, 9.
454
MODERN
judgments.
necessary
itself
concerning
was
PHILOSOPHY
The
first
the
455
question, then,
of
nature
to
necessary,
present
universal
judgment.
'
'
The
'
'
'
of
faculties of
our
attain.
they may
understandingand
The
2.
and
certitude to which
of the
reason.
impressionof
our
the
external and
in
matter
sensibility,
distinguishedbetween
Kant
faculty of sense-knowledge.The
both
senses,
knowledge
; and
us
this first
prioriforms or determinations
of the faculty,
which
namely time
belong to the structure
and
representingall objects as
space, the external senses
elaboration
extended
is due
in space,
the
of
intuition
into which
the
received.
are
in space and
'
the internal
and
prioriconditions
a
our
two
another
succeeding one
as
to
in time.
sensation of
an
time
and
they
are
pure
moulds,
so
states
thus
are
'
to
internal and
our
external
forms
speak,
senses
impressionformed
objectis an
time.
inasmuch
forms of sense-perception,
objective,that is to
necessary, are
(reineAnschauungen)
These
and
Space
of sensation
impressionsof
all conscious
senses
their
faculty,
value
is
as
say,
in
every
in
necessarily
entirelyto
only phenomenal ; in
the
man
space
structure
other
words,
and
of
we
OF
OUTLINES
456
HISTORY
THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
no
The
matter
content
or
the
in
properties
us.
is
elaborated, or the impression,
thus
with
thing such
always
must
nomenon,
x
the
does
as
remain
it appears
an
unknown
to
us
and
or
the
phe
unknowable
delay to investigate
thoroughly the
this impressionand its sufficient reason.
understanding (Verstand). The intuitions of sensi
Kant
and
originof
3. The
not
Mathematics
sciences
the
in mathematics
direct experience,but
natural
our
from
sciences
are
the
only
human
some
imagined experience,e.g.
intuition
natural
sciences
and
categories,
build
their
up
sensible
judgments are
intuitions
priorilaws.
according
to
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
of the most
One
by
a
isthat
importantof these categories
is meant
which
457
that between
consequent phenomenon
an
antecedent
construct
we
of
causality
phenomenon
relation of
and
dependence
of the other.
judge the one to be the cause
determinations
of the pure under
Since the categories
are
and thus scientific
cannot
we
standing,
apply them to things,
knowledge of the world is the productof our mental organiza
the mind
know
tion ; of things-in-themselves
can
nothing.
is insoluble.
Accordinglythe problem of the nature of reality
of a judgment we
Kant speaks of the objectivity
When
must
and universality
bear in mind that he means
the necessity
with
and extends to all the
all minds
which it imposes itself on
of experience.The condition of this objectivity
cases
possible
he declares to be the
transcendental
apperceptionof the
ego', that is to say, that over and above the empiricalcon
and
'
is variable
sciousness,which
and
individual,there
super-individualconsciousness, which
is the
same
be
must
in
all men,
in itself,
and unknowable
and of which the intuitions of
priori
of the understandingare but the
and the categories
sensibility
a
functions.
(Vernunft). Since
4. Reason
the
only to
Yet
we
are
ourselves
scientific
knowledge extends
of
need
the
phenomena
that
with
some
unconditioned
world
and
the
are
the
and
soul,unconditioned
phenomena
and,
respectively,
above
relative
and
bringing conditioned
into
objectsof our cognitions
absolute
wholes
the
realities. Thus
with which
relation
we
we
internal
conceive
bring
senses
as
the
value.
only a subjective
scientific knowledge stops at the threshold of
part in the
super-sensible
reality.But this occupiesno mean
by
Kantian
seeing that theoretic life is dominated
To
moral
142.
sum
up
system,
his second Critiquewill show
life,
as
The
Critique
of
Practical
us.
Reason."
Knowledge
or
actual
with our
experiencehas nothing in common
conduct forms a domain
moral experience
; the direction of our
analysesthought ; in the
apart. In his first CritiqueKant
theoretic
second
THE
OF
OUTLINES
458
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
first treatise,
to
then
get
determine
to
clear
as
in the
moralityand
which
conditions
the
lines
of the idea of
meaning
which
laws
the
it presupposes.
there exists an
obligation
That
obligation.
finds that it
conscience attests, but in analysingit Kant
our
does not consist in a precept, applyingin a particular
case, nor
in a hypothetical
I
wish
that if
to
imperative,which means
obtain a certain good known
by experienceI must act thus or
1.
so.
Idea
of moral
The
moral
command
is
and
men
'
worth
The
2.
moral
man
as
'
imperativethus
'
'
Act
Act
as
of
out
if the
Act
obedience.
accordingto
for thine
reverence
maxim
which
from
thou
to
were
nature
'
unconditional
exacts
it is the law
'
and
this formal
expresses
actest
reason
own
is to say,
that
categorical
imperative,
independentof
He
law
law involves
without
which
as
the reality
of
corollary
moral
conduct,
as
so
certain conditions
defined, would
no
be
the
reason,
does
follow any
not
ing to
self-determination
pure
the
ditioned
by
an
because
which
before
reason,
empirically
givenimpulse,but
law
moral
is the
such
law.
acts
The
This
accord
theoretic
con
as
phenomenon
appears
phenomenon (categoryof efficient
every
antecedent
freedom
and
the conception of
ignores human
causality),
finality.(2)Immortalityof the soul. A second postulateis the
of
conceptionof the highest good. Virtue or the observance
as
duty is not the same
happiness, but virtue is worthy of
it. Since the
demands
happinessand the moral consciousness
realityof
(3) God,
reward
Kant
and
not
for
future
an
for moral
conceived
fulfilthis
not
life,and
authoritative
conduct
the
in external
demand,
we
this involves
voice
must
a
postulatethe
third
impliesa
:
postulate
law-giverand
rewarder.
moralityof
conduct, and
an
thus
natural
law, which
is
MODERN
concerned
with
the
PHILOSOPHY
latter, he
morality.
3. Primacy of Practical
God
so
is
are
regards
Reason.
independent
as
of
Freedom, immortality
and
simplereason
that
they not
certainty
were
practical
reason,
realities or things-in-themselves
that
super-sensible
knowable
or
459
by
the theoretic
of the
theoryof
later philosophy.
143.
Critique
and
reason
This
us.
of
solves
are
un
'
'
antinomy
t
he
by declaring primacy
supreme
; that is to
reason
practical
the theoretic
nates
This
reason.
number
Kant
the
has
had
importantdevelopmentsin
of
Faculty
Judgment
or
Sentiment
and
necessary
faculty. There
and
(objective)
are
two
kinds
belongs to
of
the
structure
of the
judgment regardingfinality,
both
synthetica priori.
The
1.
ideologicaljudgment is concerned
finality.By it we apprehend the phenomena
world
supreme
in their relation
to
of God.
intelligence
an
end
Of
assignedto
course
with
of the
them
objective
sensible
by
the
does not
finality
world as the objectof
this
460
OUTLINES
it
By
but
of
beautiful
is
calm
beautiful
definite
is
when
comparison
86
the
the
deal
we
had,
English
in
remarkable
the
an
as
the
a
it
moral
on
it
law
of
of
for
give
to
the
the
the
is
object
of
concept
satisfaction
calm
is
sentiment,
'
impression
all
beyond
great
of
sense
the
faculty,
the
humiliating
what
literature
Kant
on
on
is
the
ethics
Coleridge
the
'
gives
of
influence
especially
(1795-1881),
of
of
exalted
the
85.
chapter,
system
not
with
face
influence
unparalleled
exponents,
Carlyle
to
following
of
more
too,
face
sentiment
aesthetic
rise
gives
ultimately
but
supremacy
Christianity
it
not
our
which
finality,
known
all
attributes
play
not
senti
for
satisfaction
does
were
understanding
our
Besides
which
of
of
nature
is
faculty
free
the
to
procure
are
the
gives
first
at
is
of
sublime
to
The
This
this
if
The
complex
the
it
beautiful
the
relation
states.
indication
an
for
vanish.
it
sublime
serene
but
design,
would
for
is
please
to
the
satisfaction.
gives
made
nature
and
and
disinterested
their
representative
our
their
in
is
it
beautiful
The
things
and
which
PHILOSOPHY
OF
phenomena
harmony
faculties.
HISTORY
THE
apprehend
we
of
ment
OF
of
origin
than
one
as
(1772-1834),
the
to
the
of
tendency
dogmatic
Wordsworth
English-speaking
with
thought,
in
see
literature,
German
of
philosophical
difficult
not
and
assertion
his
regard
to
truth.
He
his
through
(1770-1850)
world.
TRS.
"
III
CHAPTER
POST-KANTIAN
PHILOSOPHY
(Nineteenth
Century)
I.
GERMAN
PHILOSOPHY
DURING
NINETEENTH
144.
General
sophy
of the
It took
Sketch.
nineteenth
time
OF
THE
CENTURY
century
before
HALF
influence of Kant
The
"
FIRST
THE
it
can
felt outside
Germany, but
there it was
and gave birth during the first three
immediate
decades of the century to several original
systems, and as its
result German
before.
This
geniusrose to a heightunknown
some
was
had
much
in
common
provide
them
are
was
movement.
philosophic
The
various disputesranged chieflyabout
two
points in
Kant's teaching,
and the transcendental
the noumenon
apper
which
have
new
we
ception(141),concerning
attempts
many
Kant
the a
made
to formulate
critical philosophy, (i)
a
of the mind,
forms of knowledge to belong to the structure
priori
which
these forms elaborate ;
but not the experimentalmatter
to him
an
the production of sensible impressionsremained
to
which
are
enigma, since things-in-themselves
necessary
to be
itself,and
much
as
thereby
Critical Realists
themselves
and
transcendental
the
problem by taking a
world-in-itself.
matter
same
tion, was
German
Kant's
unknowable.
The
so
product of
denied
sensible
affirmed
the mind
existence
the
their
experimental
of
as
the form-in-
noumena
impressionsto
real
them
attitude towards
new
the
referred
set
successors
existence.
the
things-in(2) The
consciousness
apperceptionor super-individual
to
which
Kant
had
devoted
littleatten
462
OUTLINES
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
OF
the transcendental
interpreting
apperceptionin a monistic
sense,
regardingit as identical for all men, the universal Ego
or
Spirit.
In classifying
derived from
the German
Kant,
philosophies
and
if we
leave aside his immediate
disciples
opponents, we
consider
may
Kantianism.
As
greatest transformation of
reaction, in some
respects, againstthis
the criticalrealism
was
represented by Fichte,
Hegel as
and
Schelling
idealism
critical idealism
the
of
Schopenhauer
Herbart.
and
endeavoured
who
to
Lastly,there was a group of psychologists
vindicate
against the exaggerations of this metaphysical
but even
criticism the rightsof individual experience,
their
so
evidence
unmistakable
showed
conclusions
of
Kantian
impress.
145.
system of Kant
new
by
Disciples and
Immediate
The
to
original
too
was
be
Kantianism, and
versities of
it
whence
in
Tinged
Germany.
the
spread into
time
short
called
was
with
The
"
fullycomprehended
universityof Jena,
of Kant.
Opponents
other
school
second
the
at the
of
home
other
doctrines,the
uni
new
philosophyinfiltrated into the theory of natural law (FEUERBACH), of history(SCHLOSSER) and the historyof philosophy
Kant's
(TENEMANN and BUHLE). The most notable among
first followers
SCHILLER
of the
with
S7
REINHOLD
were
(1759-1805)
The
Critiqueof
regard
the
to
Pure
maintaining
noumenon,
Kant's
that
poet
ideas
position
things-in-
are
in order
necessary
to
'
'
'
86
Das
87
Bohn
Versuch
einer
Fundament
On
des
the Sublime;
Library).
neuen
Theorie
des
menschlichen
Vorstellungsvermogens
philosophischen Wissens.
Letters
upon
the
Aesthetical
Education
of Man:
(trs.
MODERN
several reviews
and
Hamann
him.
which
Herder
and
contradictions
started
were
divided
he
PHILOSOPHY
up
which
object of combating
reasonableness
of
Reinhold
and
recognizedby
implicitly
was
the
tiated
Critical
Idealism.
the
nou-
Jacobi's criticisms
forciblysubstan
and SALOMON
(1761-1823)
146.
divisions into
menon
with
463
say
Two
critical
principlessum
up
idealism : (i)The world of things-in-themselves
is the product
of our
faculties of representationjust as is the phenomenal
world ; the matter
of our
cognitions
equallywith their form is
of the representing
derived from the structure
ego, who creates
for himself an objectof knowledge.
(2)All psychicfunctions
the self-development
of a principle
are
(which correspondsto the
transcendental apperceptionof Kant), but there exists onlyone
"
philosophyat Leipzig,and
He
knew
the
Master
at
Konigsberg.
Reinhold
in the chair
of
at
'
in 1810.
of activity.The
idealism
or
Wissenschaftslehre
absolute and universal Ego is a tendency to act, infinite and
unbroken
acting for itselfand through itself (dasThun
activity,
des Thuns),and in actingit converts
its own
states into objects
of knowledge and
self-consciousness.
by reflection becomes
The
three stages :
of becoming self-conscious covers
process
I.
The
(i)thesis
and
08
8'
te
as
the ego
Aenesidemus
Versuch
Versuch
;
Transcendentalphilosophie
der
existing
(2) antithesis
"
System
der
einer
neuen
Grundriss
Wissenschaftslehre
;
gesammten
Wissenschaftslehre ;
lehre ; Das
itself as
it
(anonymous).
einer
Grundlage
lichen
'
Erste
Sittenlehre
und
:
xweite
(part
trs.
Einleitung in
Kroeger, The
die
der
Logik.
eigenthum-
Wissenschafsof Know
Science
ledge).
91
Die
Works)
Grundzuge
Reden
an
des
die deutsche
Nation.
464
OUTLINES
THE
OF
positswithin
HISTORY
itself the
object
an
be
must
be
in mind
but
the Fichtean
that
universal
the
it is limited
'
not
world
as
ego
'
not
means
it
(and
the
self-consciousness)
becomes
determined
and
world,
the
"
borne
that
aware
the
absurd) but
;
(3) synthesis the
representation
of
individual
PHILOSOPHY
i.e. it creates
non-ego,
world-in-itself (which would
the
OF
by
the
non-ego,
i.e.
first acts
of
the
Fichte
maintains
is the
fruit of
These
sensible
mind
be
cannot
that
the
and
ones,
thus
generation of experimentalmaterial
unconscious
an
conscious
self-determination
of the
ego.
represents a non-ego
foundation
knowing
is the
is
absolute need
is the
Such
need
of the
ego
which
Fichte
gave
sense
autonomy
or
the
"
for the
serves
which
is
'
2.
he draws
second
the
that
of the ego,
morality lies.
own
accomplishment
'
for further
The
this
other
of
from
the
than
duty.
Kantian
It is
practicalreason.
of its
positingof
morallywhen
motive
value
no
to
self-determination
sake,
activityfor activity's
which
act, and
to
duty.
primacy of
represented has
it. The
ultimate
upon
of the intelligence
to be
act
impulse
absolute
new
doctrine of the
in this
incessant
of the
to
precisely
impelledto
Nature
material
as
The
universal
as
individual
Ego
of every
insufficiency
"
acts
action
activity.
idealist
the idea
Since
reflection or the funda
Being, God.
mental
activityof the Ego is by its very definition a turning
back upon something anterior to itself,
it follows that, to explain
there must
be at the beginning an absolute and
its possibility,
immutable
form of reflection,but
principle
; this is not a mere
of
an
absolute
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
Conscious
God.
necessary
Without
Schellingand Hegel.
at Jena from 1798,
a professor
Schelling (1775-1854)was
first taught side by side with his master
Fichte, but he
of
thought
the
465
148.
and
at
until
colleague,
went
he
is marred
Hegel
as
and
disciple
From
opponent.
an
great
no
Jena
he
success.
unity,for it comprised
of
its want
by
had
universities,and
with
met
he
Later
also became
he
different
to
where
him.
with
broke
soon
at
least five
systems.
1.
one
is
nature
tion.
to
It is
rhythm
the
of
stages
Thus
nature.
moral
merely a
it as
own
evolution and
of absolute
various
did
nature
;
not
purposiveness,
through
different kingdoms
constitute
which
value
of
account
an
Doctrine
it is
as
spirit,
'
the
with
as
possess,
the
Schellingadvocated
Fichte,
recognitionof
more
because
so
unity
of
romantic
life
cosmic
the
scientists of
theories
the
schools, with
held
were
which
he
evolution
absolute
in
high
in
It succeeded
time.
his
of the
in
was
revival
esteem
gaining over
close
touch.
by
and
the
the
And
of
Spinoza'steaching
which resulted from the polemicalwritingsof Lessing. The
is endowed
with one
vital principle
conceptionthat the cosmos
and
in
is found
in the teaching of his immediate
disciples
further, it benefited
OKEN
from
the
NOVALIS
(1749-1832)and
(1779-1851),GOETHE
(1772-
1801).
Transcendental
2.
ceived
under
the
second
form
which
by
9 *
eines
93
complete
Ideen
tu
cincr
idealism** (1800-1801),con
the
influence of German
romanticism, was
or
aesthetic
It is marked
Schelling's
philosophytook.
fusion
of romanticist
Philosophicder
Natur
idealist
and
Von
der Weltseele
w
teachings
Erster
Entwurf
transcendentale
Idealismus
Vorlesungen
ubcr
die
Philosophic
der
Kunst.
94
This
had
(1772-1829).
already
been
begun
by
Novalis
and
especiallyby Schlegel
466
OUTLINES
the aesthetic
all its
OF
the absolute
PHILOSOPHY
is the
Ego
of
principle
which reduces to unitythe
both the theoretic and the practical
ego ; and
of art is the ego producingitself most
perfectly.
the work
Certain
as
HISTORY
production of
operations of
hence
THE
OF
romanticists, such
'
the
'
humorists
romantic
'
or
SCHLEGEL
as
ironists ',drew
and
SOLGER,
the conclusion
known
that
the
ego of the
absolute
without
any
concern
of the work
of art
or
public
judgment.
This
second
conscious
both
in
system
ego,
as
of
Schellinggives an
of the
account
Later he united
third system.
3. Absolute
idealism
or
the
95
(1801philosophyof identity
1804). Schelling
graduallymodified the subjectiveidealism of
Fichte by giving nature
real value
a
independent of con
sciousness or spirit
common
; he then sought for some
ground
anterior
and
from
consciousness
to
both
nature
or
principle
which
he
defined
could deduce
it as
both
; this he
and
and
the
'
as
panentheism
divine
'
in which
personality.The
taken up by Hegel and Schleierthought was
very effectively
and the latter a religious
macher, the former givingit a logical
SCHLEIERMACHER
direction.
(1768-1834)acknowledged that
attain to any direct knowledge of God we have
whilst we cannot
that we are interpenetrated
a feeling
by the Absolute, and it is
this religious
sentiment
which
keeps the balance of all the
faculties and is the foundation of morality.
offreedom"1
(1804-1813).In this system
4. The philosophy
"8
96
lichen
das
Wesen
der
mensch-
MODERN
seeks
Schelling
constitutes
of the Absolute
'
Ideas
from
and
infinite,
the
to
Ideas
originof
God.
Yet
this return
Scheiermacher
divine
'
transform
'
becoming
an
for the
accounts
of the
away
the
fact,one
He
rationale.
return
'
free
as
how
467
fact,a
original,
incomprehensible
he considers
ground, and in this sense
rational
fact without
it
discover
to
in finite reality,
and
themselves
'
PHILOSOPHY
Ego which
the world
the
has
'
as
falling
finite world
in the
must
of
case
no
man
is
(1765religion.BAADER
the Catholic standpointas
the Protestant.
'
"
logic out-of-self,as
"
exteriorized
before
seinen
Anders-sein)philosophy of
coming
back
"
losophyof
the
forms
Mind
of
'
consciousness.
otherness
have
we
or
of the
movement
various
itself in consciousness
to
itself
Nature
"
(fursich,in
and
for-itself,
phi
(an-und-fiirsich)
"
or
Spirit, (i)Logic studies the categories
becoming of Being, developingitself by a
immanent
(2) The
'
stages which
Secret
M.8.P."
VOL.
II.
HH
OF
OUTLINES
468
THE
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
organics(life).(3)^Thephilosophyof Spiritor
Mind
(Geist)
t"
studies
conscious
the
of
return
the^Idea
itself in
upon
of
original
humanity.
Hegel'sthought.
part
The
philosophy of Spiritcomprises three parts : (a) Psy
traces the stages of
Spirit,
chology,or the study of Subjective
the
individual
spirit,through
knowledge through which
of thesis, antithesis and
multifold contradictions
synthesis,
of its identitywith the universal and
gains a consciousness
science of Objective
absolute Spirit, (b) The
Spirit,or of
and various manifestations
of
humanity, reviews the many
social lifeand the development of these.
The highestrealiza
tion of objective
mind is the State,by which he means
not any
determined
state, but the gradual evolution of civil society.
(c)The science of Absolute Spiritconsiders mind as it becomes
of mind), in religion
of
in art (contemplation
(representation
mind),and in philosophy(theconcept of mind).
Hegel regarded the world as necessarily
being what it is,
exist only in its becoming, and this becoming
since Spiritcan
evolves accordingto a logical
necessity.Thus we see how the
all his thought and
colours
historical conceptiondominates
and humanity, which is
every detail in his whole study of man
the supreme
becoming of the Idea.
followers,and they
Hegel had many
the special
faithful adherents
to his thought, except on
were
soul,
problem of God and the personal nature of the human
The
which
so-called
over
they divided into two
camps.
150. The
Hegelians.
"
'
(1784-1861)and
rightwing ', to which belonged GOSCHEL
admitted
BAUER
the personality
of God
and the
(1809-1882),
soul, whilst others, such
personal immortalityof the human
RUGE
as
(1802-1880)and FEUERBACH
(1804-1872;in later
life became
maintained
that God is a universal
a
materialist),
substance
and impersonal. Many others,WEISSE
(1801-1866),
and
FICHTE
ULRICI
the
(1797-1879)
(1806-1884),
younger
followed
Hegel
for the
sundry pointsand
151.
various
extra mental
"8
The
creature,
derived
made
from
"
differed from
of
personality
Critical idealism
as
the
worked
theories
elaborated
of
out
by Giinther, a personal God
both
of Hermes^
condemned
by the
Hegelian teaching.
him
on
98.
God
in its
allowingthe
of reality.Critical realism
objectivity
dualism
and
part, but
affirmed the
Critical Realism.
forms
most
claimed
and
to
monistic
Church,
were
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
469
Kantian
by concedingreal existence
principles
Monism, which is not Kantian, was
to things-in-themselves.
adopted by Schopenhauer, but not by Herbart, whilst others
movement.
inaugurateda psychological
152. Schopenhauer
(1788-1860)obtained his doctorate at
be
to
return
(where he
Jena, and went to live at Dresden and at Weimar
staff at Berlin
knew
Goethe) until he joinedthe professorial
(1820). He retired to Frankfort in 1831, where he remained
tillhis death.
elegantwriter and
An
World
The
chief work
idealism,and
at the
mordent
Will
as
and
critic,he undertook
Idea
"
time, working
in his
violent attack
on
material
supplied
cosmic
original
synthesis.The
of the
In treating
thing-in-itself.
same
on
by Kant, he elaborated an
and
world is representation
it appears
that
to us, he shows
world as
or
as
representation
fact of consciousness,is dependent
the primordial
representation,
of the faculties,
forms belongingto the structure
the a priori
on
namely, time, space and causality.In treatingof the world
and
as
realityhe maintains the existence of a thing-in-itself
Of
will.
of will
the nature
we
can
Therefore
to phenomena.
nothing except by opposition
know
it must
time and
is dependent on
representation
space, the will is independentof the forms of time and space,
but is one
it is not subjectto multiplication
(monism) ; and
since it is unhampered by the laws of efficient causality and
be
that, since
said
thus
without
acts
bounds
or
Leben)
infinite activity
(Willezum
not
are
of effect and
cause
Therefore, too,
phenomena
things-in-themselves.
down, Schopenhauer proceedsto their
does
not
laid
principles
These
; it is blind and
cessation,it is free
extend
to
'
'
that the
with
the
intuition
Die
'
genius
doctrine of
99
of
Welt
pessimismon
als Wille
und
is able to
put
us
in direct contact
(c)in morality,where
he
Vorstelhmg (trs.Haldane
and
bases
looks
for
Kemp).
in his
to translate
Especially
musical
compositions this insatiable self-expressionof will, the thing-in-itself,
made
was
Wagner (1813-1883).
by Richard
100
is this
achieved
in
music.
An
effort
OF
OUTLINES
470
nirvana
THE
HISTORY
the cessation of
or
OF
PHILOSOPHY
in the
sorrow
negation of
act
every
of will.
of Schopenhauer was
HARTVON
disciples
MANN
who, in his Philosophyof the Unconscious
(1842-1906),
written later,assigneda part to reason
and voluminous
works
whilst maintainingthe primacy of will,and expressedhimself
less pessimistic
salvation not in mere
by foreseeing
personal
Chief
the
among
asceticism
but
Herbart1
(1776-1841),a professor at
admitted, againstFichte and Hegel,the existence
153.
(Realen)for
themselves
it would
not
in-themselves
the
But
'.
appear
such
are
that
reason
if the world
'
did not
he
Gottingen,
of things-in-
consider
not,
were
that
things-
relations between
theory of
of
plurality
the fundamental
Herbart
tion
influence
themselves
The
among
other
faculties and
and
are
which
we
the
He
rejectedthe
as
regarded representation
The theory of education,
in
way
creators, shows
which
that
educa
unfold
representations
associated.
Herbart
may
and
ZIMMERMANN,
of the
one
was
of
disciples
later
on
mention
LAZARUS,
Comparative
Volkerpsychologie,
154. The
Realen.
of which
can
as
became
an
DROBISCH,
who
or
Psychological School.
"
importantgroup,
and
STEINTHAL
inauguratedthe
Folk- Psychology.
so-called
main
of Kant's
one,
and
first researches.
he maintained
FRIES
that internal
(1773-1843)was
informs
experience
the
us
zuv
Psychologie (trs. Smith) ;
Hauptpunkte der Metaphysik ; Lehrbuch
ah
Wissenschaft.
Psychology
Kritik der Vernunft.
als evidente Wissenschaft,Neue
System dcr Philosophic
1
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
of the a priori
forms which
very directly
of the world, and
this same
conscious
existence
471
regulateour
elaboration
feelingteaches
the
us
PHILOSOPHY
MIDDLE
155.
OF
General
materialistic
France.
course
with
which
spiritualism
of
of
full attention
French
of certain
still the
in
form
predominated in
the
Scottish
cases
showed
received
the
of this period.
philosophers
thought reappeared under a
Sensualism.
France
an
Catholic
which
positivism,
the
part of
philosophy. In
growth of rival
ontologism,which
line of
sensist
of
some
German
the
on
in
philosophy in
theories
Cartesianism, and
of
THE
Revolution
dominant
blended
TO
the
CENTURY
reaction
influence
superficial
of time
seductive
the
the
was
systems in traditionalism
Later
Until
"
met
soon
REVOLUTION
THE
NINETEENTH
THE
sensualism
signs
FROM
Sketch.
This
eclectic
of
at
was
"
the end
such
with
destined to meet
school
This
of the
of
thought
eighteenthcentury
the Revolution
of
partisans
as
DE
CONDORCET4
SAINT-LAMBERT
(1757-1820)and DE
(1743-1794),DE VOLNEY
(1716-1803),who
applied the principlesof
life. CABANis6
political
whilst
extended
them
to the field of epistemology,
(1757-1808)
GALL
(1758-1828) and BROUSSAIS
(1772-1832)thought that
in phrenology an
experimental proof
they had discovered
of their materialistic psychology. On the other hand, we have
other
in certain
the first signs of a reaction
physiologists,
and
Montpellier,
notably in the Schools of Medicine at Paris
;
(1734-1806)
(1711-1802)and BUCHEZ
representedby BICHAT
a
and
time
TRACY
the same
at
DESTUTT
(1754-1836),
DE
of Condillac,and DEGERANDO
corrected the exaggerated
disciple
view of the physiological
sensists,that the originof our psychic
materialism
de
to
Lehrbuch
Esquisse d'un
natural
law
and
der
de I'organisms
OUTLINES
472
HISTORY
states
and
THE
OF
so
preparedthe
way
157.
Spiritualism
of the
OF
PHILOSOPHY
sensism
system of ideological
for Maine
de Biran.
Eclectic
School.
Maine
"
de Biran
is
French
became
Cousin
the
gave
unrivalled
the
sualism.
of
name
leader.
made
eclecticism,
Although its
system, they were
uniform
knowledge
school, to which
at
did
all
not
on
sen
follow
any
t
hat
intellectual
asserting
in
one
vigorousattack
adherents
reduced
be
cannot
moralityhas
This
Cousin
basis.
was
spiritual
Psychological
introspection
the chief method
employed in this spiritualistic
philosophy.
MAINE
BIRAN 7 (1766-1824)emphasized the activityof
DE
the will as the fundamental
function of our
being and per
and
herein found
the boundary between
sonality,
psychical
and physiological
life. He regarded the will as giving us a
consciousness
not
only of our own
activitybut also of a
a
coming from
resistance
without, and
substance,
AMPERE
and
the
ROYER-COLLARD
of
this attention
classification which
capacity for
of
awareness
the notions of
us
elements
other
(1775-1836)confined
it is this
causality
a
metaphysic.
chieflyto the
intelligenceenjoys8.
the
the immediate
(1763-1845),
precursor of Cousin,
and Ampere by intro
consolidate
various
into
portance
to the
paths,and
new
initiator of this
For
this
His
century.
system truths
one
systems.
nineteenth
Nouvelles
considerations
Essai
sur
la
"
Cours
de I'histoirede la
sur
France.
to
in
up and down
attached
great im
he
reason
DegeYando may
study in
was
scattered
historyof philosophy,wherein
with
design
He
les rapports du
be
he
opened
considered
his
meant
physique
et du
as
out
the
philosophyto
moral.
philosophicdes sciences.
moderne
philosophie
Du
vrai, du beau
et du
bien.
MODERN
be eclectic,
but in
and
more
to
more
PHILOSOPHY
473
it was
not and
reality
be a particular
system,
could
and
be
not
it came
it is apparent that
even
idealism.
Next
he
took
later
up the ideas of Royer-Collard,
the teachings
of Hegel,and finally
he arrived at a spiritual
on
isticsystem of his
which,
own,
as
combination
vague
of the
kind of
by a
of the
Of
good, space
and
the
time,
mysteriousrevelation
are
which
is an
known
to man
work
inexplicable
reason.
the
of Cousin
disciples
who
JOUFFROYIQ (1796-1842),
THEODORE
tuated
the
numerous
the
Cartesian
tendencies
of
still further
school
the
is
known
best
accen
its psy
that of
and
The
exclusive
method
method.
chological
was
same
DAMIRON11
SAISSET18
(1794-1862),GARNIER12
(1801-1864),
and BARTHELEMY
SAINT(1814-1863),
JUL. SIMON (1814-1896)
HILAIRE
(1805-1895).
158. Traditionalism
the
on
and
Ontologism.
Catholics
There
"
was
reaction
againstmaterialism
and
rationalism
the
intellectual faculties.
Traditionalism
which
the
was
first and
most
powerful form
in
it
could
reason
attain to any
there
truth
was
needed,
as
God.
condition, a primitiverevelation from
prerequisite
Moreover, even
language itself,as well as these fundamental
sentiments
10
Les
11
Essai
sur
du
beau
I'histoire de la
et du
11
Traite
l"
Essai
de
14
des
sublime
philosophicen
Cours
France
de droit naturel.
XIX's.
an
Philosophic religieuse.
sur
legislation
primitive; Recherches philosophises
connaissances ^morales. See Psych.,98; Crit., 24; Nat.
La
les
premiers objets
TheoL,
12.
OUTLINES
474
OF
truths, must
have
transmitted
the
revealed
been
down
HISTORY
THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
to
have
They
man.
been
of tradition
the medium
throughsociety,
de Bonald
maintained,
oppositionto
theory of social contract, to be primordialand
by
originof which
Rousseau's
in
natural.
JOSEPH
thought of
scribed
alism
15
MAISTRE
DE
(1754-1821)followed
de Bonald.
rather
Catholic
by proclaimingthe
of every
tradition,which
capableof knowing.
Church
the individual
After
as
political
(1782-1854)sub
tradition
of
epistemological
principles
the
to
16
MENNAIS
LA
DE
the
up
the sole
himself is in
left to
being regardedfor
depositary
long time
as
for
the leader of the Catholic party in France, and well known
his personalfriendship
with Lacordaire, Montalembert
Gerbet,
etc., he at
length broke
to the decisions
refused to submit
of the Church
philosophy,
showed
evidence
Esquissed'une philosophic,
of pantheistic
tendencies.
of the traditionalist
The principles
BAUTAIN
carried on by BALLANCHE
teaching were
(1776-1847),
and BONNETTY
(1798-1879),who in 1830 started
(1796-1867),
the Annales
de philosophie
chretienne.
Ontologismwas another form of reaction. Its characteristic
in God.
doctrine was
that we see the objectof our ideas directly
It was
broached
in France by such men
as
a theorywhich
was
in Italyin the
Fabre d'Envieu, but found its best defenders
developedin
as
of
person
of
Ubaghs.
different
159.
his
It
was
of the
censures
Positivism.
it had assumed
into
in this
AUGUSTE
COMTE
An
enthusiastic
See.
duringthe
seductive
problems :
Holy
Sensualism
"
form
more
Gioberti
new
form
as
appearance
was
(1798-1857)
advocate
of
the
solution to
it was
known
the founder
social
epistemological
as
of
positivism.
positivism.
teachings of
SAINT-
with
however, he subsequently
whom,
(1760-1825),
he opened at Paris in 1826 a Cours de philosophie
quarrelled,
i.e.
17,published 1830-1842. Only what is positive,
positive
only facts which are accessible to observation by the external
senses,
according to Comte, be the object of scientific
can,
SIMON
16
Essai
Philosophy of
A.
Comte.
MODERN
PHILOSOPHY
475
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
togetheraccording
the Three
to
head
the
this is Comte's
also made
Comte
Stages'.
sciences,and
laws
'
famous
Law
of
classification of the
of his six
sciences he placed
positive
sociologyor the experimentalstudy of the phenomena which
result from the action of the various elements in society.
From
the
at
He
evolution.
1842, Comte's
year
ideas
underwent
peculiar
became
with a mysticaltendency,
prepossessed
and aimed
at making positivism
new
a
religion,the religion
of Humanity, of which he proclaimedhimself the first pontiff
18.
Of his immediate
if we leave out of count
those who
disciples,
followed his religious
philosophy (such as Lafitte,1823-1893,
19
his successor
so-called High Priest of Humanity), LITTR"
as
the
most
(1801-1881)was
noteworthy. He adhered to the
fundamental
but introduced
several
principleof positivism,
important modifications,especially
by departingfrom Comte's
denial of reality
is not directly
observable
to whatever
by the
external senses,
and by waiving all questionsconcerning the
first origin,
and ultimate destinyof beings. This
the nature
agnostic attitude
become
has
of the
one
salient features
of
present-daypositivism.
160.
New
Phases
of
Positivism.
"
The
spiritof
Comte's
them
to
and
determine
to
the
simplifymore
laws
or
and
connexions
more
these
existingbetween
laws, yet without
18
this
others)
"
10
I'intelligence
; Histoire
de
I'art.
de
la
literature
anglaise(trs.Van
Laun)
Philosophic
OUTLINES
476
his
than
one
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
In his
psychology.
show
is
OF
As
literature,art
and
interconnexion
of
he explainsthe
politics,
social facts by the influence
another.
one
efficientsof race,
form
the
environment
of determinism.
of
study
These
colossal erudition
and
observations
not
himself
the victim
III. ENGLISH
161.
wonderful
two
IN
Scottish
followers of
All this is in
a
reality
to
applies
NINETEENTH
THE
shows
CENTURY
the
The
former
submerged in
constituted
some
unable
were
of French
eclecticism
the
conspicuouswas
or
German
SIR
criticism.
WILLIAM
the vaster
dominant
the
Of the
School; Associationism.-"
Dugald Stewart
admitted
soon
numerous
the
to maintain
the influence
most
shows
"
conceptionsof positivismwhich
philosophy.
162. The
co
of the three
Sketch.
were
and
appearance
same
PHILOSOPHY
General
century there
time.
itself in
he also
principles
working out his theory he
history. In
are
and
it manifests
Amongst
the latter
21
HAMILTON
(1788-
in
the teachings of Reid and
1856),who combined
With Reid, he agreedthat inner
an
original
system of his own.
of certain knowledge, and that
experienceis the only source
the
this testimony of consciousness
points out in particular
of Kant
world
of the human
to
11
Discussions
on
; with
:
'
science,therefore, has
Infinite and
Philosophy,Literature
and
no
Absolute.
Education
knowledge
MANSEL
Lectures
on
Meta
of Sir William
Logic. Consult J. S. MILL, Examination
Hamilton's
Philosophy (5th ed., London, 1878).
"
Psychology ; Metaphysics or the Philosophy of Consciousness ; Philosophy
Limits
of the Conditioned;
of Religious Thought. Sir James Mackintosh
here as adhering in certain respectsto the
be
mentioned
must
also
(1765-1832)
School.
His
Scottish
principal philosophical works : Dissertation on the
Progress of Ethical Philosophy; Discourse on the Law of Nature and Nations,
physics;
Lectures
on
MODERN
(1820-1871),the
agnosticisminto
best
known
of
477
his
disciples,
brought this
theology,
making a still
sceptical
employment of Kant's theory of
stronger and
more
knowledge.
This
tined
PHILOSOPHY
unknowableness
of the
Absolute
was
des
BROWN23
(1778-1820),who
as
beliefs.
necessary
JAMES
MiLL34
Bentham's
with
largerscope
with
was
inasmuch
universal and
our
who
(1773-1836),
collaborators.
and
at Edin
association in
to
Still more
physiological
aspect
Dugald Stewart
In
the
was
made
important of
most
psychology
was
he
neglected
the association of
the
conscious
our
phenomena
Bentham's
With
doctrine that
J. S.
associationism
163.
nothing exists.
moral
Mill,brought up
enlargedits
English Positivism.
value
In ethics
he
reasserted
is identical with
of
utility.
thought,
horizon.
England
"
is the
second
home
of
the teachingsof
positivism.Its advocates here extended
Comte
by combining with them associationist theories and
of any
side : the existence
accentuatingthe epistemological
which
denied was
Comte had definitely
no
supersensible
reality
longerruled out of court, although unknowable, but declared
if not actual.
possible
the most influential in
JOHN STUART MILL K (1806-1873)
was
in England. In psychologyhe found the
spreadingpositivism
laws of association of succession, contiguity and similarity
sufficient to account
for the formation
of our
psychicstates.
He
and
maintained
that
rejectedall
experienceis
priorior
body to
the sole
intuitive
'
of
source
knowledge,
knowledge
and
was
thus
of sensa
possibility
tions
and mind
the series of actual and possible
states '.
to
for
The supersensible
is possiblebut unknowable
: a position
obligedto
reduce
'
*"
Inquiryinto
of the Human
the
permanent
'
the Relation
Mind.
"
Analysis of
16
of Cause
and
Effect;
Lectures
on
the
Philosophy
the Phenomena
Mind.
of the Human
Hamilton's
Philosophy ;
System of Logic ; Examination
of Sir William
Utilitarianism (i3th edition, 1897). See DOUGLAS,
/. 5. Mill (1895),Ethics
58; Logic,88
of J. S. Mill
(1897) ; RICHABV,
op. cit. Also Criteriology,
Ethics, 74,
478
OUTLINES
HISTORY
THE
OF
PHILOSOPHY
OF
which
coined the
Huxley, followed by American
positivists,
word
agnosticism'. In keeping with his main thought Mill
created
a
logic. He held that the fundamental
positivist
axioms
of logicand mathematics
are
merely generalizations
from experience
is nothingbut
invariable and
; that causation
unconditional
that all knowledge deals with
;
sequence
and judgment is only an association of sensations ;
particulars,
kind of inference,from particulars
he recognized only one
to
is not a valid form of
and taught that the syllogism
particulars,
his
proof. His reallyimportant contribution to logicwas
formulation
of the rules and methods
of experimental
inquiry.
In ethics he adhered to the Benthamite
of
the
principle
greatest
more
happiness of the greatest number, but was
genuinely
and
altruistic in his interpretation
laid greater stress on the
than
Bentham's
on
qualitative
quantitativefactor in moral
'
'
'
calculation.
As
respects
BAIN
of
representative
another
follower
the
Mill, must
of
be
in many
ALEXANDER
school, and
same
mentioned
is known
for
psychologist
chiefly
science and as the
availinghimself of current physiological
of the theory of psycho-physical
originator
parallelism.
164. Evolutionism.
The idea of developmentfrom simpleto
complex was appliedto historyby Herder, to astronomy by
Laplace,to zoologyby Buff on and Lamarck, to anatomy and
Baer
and
to geology by Lyell. The
embryology by von
restricted meaning which
the
historyof evolution in the more
DARWIN
of CHARLES
word bears to-day begins with the name
deserves mention in the historyof philosophy
who
(1809-1882),
because of the new
point of view which his discoveries, estab
lished. His
struggle for
provisionalhypothesis of the
became
in his Origin of Species
existence
known
to the world
(1859); and in the Descent of Man he appliedthe evolutionary
theoryto the originof the human
species.He did not profess
who
(1818-1903),
as
"
'
'
to
for the
account
the
first
beginningof
of modern
WALLACE
higher
26
Mental
The
selection
ethics
or
the
(1822-1913)was
powers
Senses
and
Moral
of the
human
did
dogmatize
laid the
by referringthe
strugglefor
more
mind
diffident
in the
Emotions
the Intellect ; The
See Psychology,
56.
Science.
and
he
Darwin
variation.
evolutionistic
natural
to
originof life,nor
and
about
foundation
moral
existence.
feeling
A.
R.
including the
general process of
of
the
Will
Manual
of
PHILOSOPHY
MODERN
development, and
principle.JOHN
he^ allowed
TYNDALL
479
more
to
scope
teleological
GEORGE
(1820-1893),
ROMANES
HUXLEY
(1848-1894)and THOMAS
appliedDarwin's theoryto
the
(1825-1895)and
different departmentsof
others
natural
science.
for HERBERT
It remained
to make
to attempt
(1820-1904)
sciences ;
plan of which
1.
SPENCER
General
he announced
in 1860
What
principles.
external and
internal
:"
be
cannot
apprehendedby
is unknowable.
senses
This unknowable,
which
in what
know
which
it consists,since
it appears.
These
we
can
we
only the
know
modes
knowable
the
are
and
do
modes
not
in
non-ego,
its manifestations,and
tions into
process
but
manifesta
of these
the transformation
one
extends
all
to
'
announces
as
an
reality.The
integrationof
law
of
evolution
concomitant
and
matter
Spencer
paralleltransformation
(FirstPrinciples," 144).
2.
Application of these principles. Spencer applied his
of these laws in the
colossal erudition
to the working out
various departments of human
knowledge : first in the in
organic world, then in the organic,which is only a necessary
who is
in man,
further development of the former, and finally
the most
perfectbirth of nature's travail. In his psychology
'
of the
the
individual
he
transformation
states, and
their
sensation.
It
unknown
life,
the genesisof psychical
investigated
of
nervous
association.
correspondsto
force" the
The
a
phenomena
into
conscious
conscious
state
is noticed
double
manifestation of the
composed of external
aggregate composed of concepts
strong aggregate
Between
is a certain correlation
realism).
(transformed
In
sociologyhe
480
OUTLINES
OF
phenomena
ethics,or
the
the
sense
moral
of
HISTORY
THE
of man,
and
of the
religion,
science
traced
of
evolution
family and
product of
life, and
of
evolution
is
through
politics.In
discovered
he
regulatingconduct,
is itself a
general development
egoism to altruism.
PHILOSOPHY
OF
that
followingthe
i.e.
progressive,
from
is that
which
highest conduct
conducts to
the greatest breadth, length and completeness
of
life '.
Sub-human
justice requiresthat each individual
should
receive his share of the goods and evils which are the
The
'
'
'
of his structure
consequence
is a monument
of
and
erudition,but
conduct.
Spencer'ssystem
it is rather
of art than
work
system of truth.
ST. GEORGE
defender
cile the
of
MIVART
of theistic evolution
1900),who
defended
what
as
unique position
he
as
hypothesiswith the
staunch
philosophy. Another
of utilitarian ethics
ponent
inasmuch
evolutionistic
Christian
of
held
(1805-1900)
JAMES
was
is known
an
PHILOSOPHY
as
sought
to
recon
essential doctrines
theist and
op
MARTiNEAU27
(1805the preferential
theory
ITALY
for
AND
long
SPAIN
time
the
leading
the officialcircles.
tendency in philosophical
thought among
28
VERA
and D'ERCOLE
the chief leaders.
were
(1813-1885)
29
A placeapart must
be assignedto GIOBERTI
(1801-1852),
who
of ontologism ; and to
was
a
recognizedrepresentative
30
ROSMINI
who created an original
(1797-1855),
system derived
from
in its theory of ideas.
ontologism,remarkable especially
More
taught,
recentlypositivismhas been systematically
and has a considerable following
in Italy.
166.
Spain.
"
In the middle
of the
nineteenth
century there
Scholasticism.
87
Essai
Consult
APPENDIX
Contemporary
Problems.
Favourite
167.
interest
philosophical
and,
questions,
among
of
Philosophy
It may
"
to-day
only because he
because
especially
the
was
he demonstrated
modern
states
upon
to all who
where
the
have
fundamental
experimental research
ground
chief
the
Moreover,
the
round
centres
of first settlingthe
urgency
the limits of human
knowledge.
him
said that
psychological
round the question
particular
left a prevailing
influence,not
these, in
of certitude.
be
scientist
come
after
question of
into
joins hands
but
psychical
with
the
Kantian,
formed
in
or
in vogue
first of all note
must
we
theory that aesthetic judgment is only
theories
the
accordance
with
the
functions
'
of
our
mind,
and
'
more
'
481
OUTLINES
482
The
OF
THE
excessive
HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
attention to
social group
age to age and from one
As for the history
of philosophy,
not
studies
specialized
in the treatment
and
and
also
arisingfrom
and
works
Oriental
the
the
distrust which
this confusion
produced by Deussen, on
philosophy; by Zeller, on the Greek
that of modern
Tendencies
bred.
has
been
have
by Windelband,
168.
be
the confusion
Denifle, Haureau,
on
This may
of doctrines
and
question.
philosophical
of any
by
chiefly
Hegel,by the
by
Notable
made, but
for
accounted
Cousin
been
to another.
Indian
by
Baumker,
Kuno
times
and
"
to mention
Systems.
"
but
It is
few
no
names.
easy
to
matter
of their individual
and
neo-
marked
exponents.
Kantianism
are
by the personal
It might be safe
have
general that positivismand neo-Kantianism
produced a prevailing
atmosphere of phenomenalism, which is
in
to
say
no
doubt
due
to the
fact that
and
positivism
neo-Kantianism
CONTEMPORARY
the
on
agree
PHILOSOPHY
483
same
are
Positivism, under
1.
been
one
recentlysupported
other
or
of its various
forms, has
in
Balfour, who
of his own,
way
return
Arthur
by
fideism.
to
America, where
the Scottish
in
the
From
at
the
time
same
advocates,
of authorityand makes
principle
England positivismpassedover
short time
to
the influence of
it undermined
by Carus.
Elsewhere the best-known
of it are de Roberty
representatives
in Russia ; Ribot and Durkheim
in France ; Ferrari, Ardigo
and Morselli in Italy; Laas and Riehl in Germany.
is less
reality,
By totally
positivism
ignoringsupersensible
brutal
doctrines,which
than
contains
materialism
Vain
collective
image
is the
and
to
reduce
dispose of
it
the
identifying
attempt
to
put forward
been
denies
which
sensible.
had
knowable
the
with
generalidea
its abstract,
the
to
universal
character ;
oftener
we
vain
the
refusal
to
up numbers
and
Biichner, Haeckel
may
add
of
or
oxen
of coins.
materialism
Moleschott
Vogt,
gave
an
ephemeral vogue, but it has now been carried out of fashion
by a powerfulreaction towards Kantianism.
2. Kantianism
was
forgottenin Germany for a periodof some
thirtyyears,
which
is due
traceable
German
M.S.P."
but
from
'
the return
largely
to
the
year
philosophymay
VOL.
II.
to
Kant
'
Kant)
zu
(Riickkehr
said
to
be
impregnated with
II
484 OUTLINES
OF
doctrines
Kantian
THE
HISTORY
OF
(Otto Liebmann,
PHILOSOPHY
Hartmann,
von
Paulsen,
and the
Dilthey,Natorp, Eucken, the immanentists
empirico-criticists)
French neo-criticism,
represented
by Renouvier, bore a close
to the second
Critiqueof Kant, and broughtin a special
affinity
Remke,
voluntarism.
form
of
troux
and
Fouillee
Kant.
to
are
Ravaisson
with
who
follows
Bouillier and
Caro
to
tianism
has
monism
been
drawn
by
Paul
Kantian
philosophique
sources.
professorsin
many
Janet,
his Testament
from
welcomed
Biran.
of the
one
was
of Cousin, professes
in
spiritualism
adherence
de
Maine
Kan
official
of education.
centres
in
Many of those who side with Kant and the positivists
proclaimingthe bankruptcy of science look for the founda
of the will. This
tion of certitude in an imperativedemand
is inadequate to provide firm
voluntarism
bases for the
theoretic sciences either of ethics or social philosophy,
since
later reflection is brought to bear on the worth of
or
sooner
this need of livingand of willing
and, in so far, reason
again
'
the supreme
arbiter of certitude.
Germany and France Kantian philosophyhas
becomes
From
the
over
'
whole
In
world.
of T.
manifest
for
England
which
with
has
are
been
3. Monism
Green
given
the
spread
birth to
prominent
most
Bradley. In America
Emerson, Harris, Everett and Royce have helped to spread
On
idealism.
the other hand, Shadworth
Hodgson, as also
Adamson, have returned to a form of realism; and James
Ward
givesprominence to the function of the will. In Italy,
with Benedetto
Croce and Gentile a neo-Hegelianmovement
names
H.
it has
some
and
years.
is discernible
as
substratum
in
the
critical
who
Kantians
philosophyof a great many
regard the thingin-itself as numericallyone.
And the same
tendencies are to
be observed in some
such as W. K.
evolutionarypositivists,
Clifford,G. Romanes
The
at
stress
he
G. T. Ladd.
monistic
of Lotze
and
and
on
times
the
reduces
as
obscure,
mechanical
atoms
to
as
value
that
of Fichte.
of the
After
phenomena
spiritualrealities
and
laying
of nature,
absorbs
their
CONTEMPORARY
in
multiplicity
the
PHILOSOPHY
of
unity
485
singlesubstance
thought,
or
is God.
which
of Harvard
has
brought
of the truth
of any theory,to
it belongs,to consist in the practicableness
domain
whatever
James
Schiller has
of its consequences.
under
the name
at Oxford
same
advocated
recently
of humanism.
much
the
Inasmuch
as
the
general
of neo-realism
name
'
realities
in themselves
which
are
world
represent
and
of
and
in
become
in others the
knowledge
phenomenalism
positivist
',and
neutral
of
existence
the
in
(Bertram! Russell
systems
admit
'
years im
the rise and rapid
the
in
Kantianism
neo-
thingsoutside of
far
so
In
us.
as
they
than
more
one
an
"
with
starts
practisedby
that there is
supposed distinction
of
men
war
which
moral
one
code
by
code
pityand
slave
so-called
The
morality has pre
self-abnegation.
it
have
Nietzsche would
vailed owing to Christianity
; but
morality, which according to him
replacedby the master
'
'
'
'
is the
who
end
towards
reckons
judgments
which
we
of
either
naught
value, and
of
violence and
pity or
will enforce
of
frightfulness
the
tend.
must
pain
'
'
The
over-man
will create
new
by
their acceptance
war.
in
combating Kantianism
He
France
by giving to external realityits true value.
creative evolution ',
endeavours
to explain the world
by a
of which the human
mind
is a product,but only a very imper
Bergson has
the
great merit
of
'
fect
one,
and
higher kind
Le
Roy
are
the
of
immediate
knowledge
his well-known
data
'
or
of consciousness
intuition '.
supporters.
MM.
yieldus
Wilbois
and
OF
486 OUTLINES
THE
has
losophy
Scholastic
it received
abandoned,
of
PHILOSOPHY
Although
"
been
never
OF
Philosophy.
Neo-Scholastic
169.
HISTORY
phi
vigour
century (from
new
nineteenth
quarter
Cornoldi, etc.)33,and acquired a
Liberatore, Taparelli,
last
the
about
that
this time
of Pope
pontificate
the
from
impetus
the
speak
began
can
we
of it
Leo
Neo-
as
or
new
XIII.
It is from
Modern
Scholastic
from
this time to accommodate
Philosophy, since it
itselfto the thought of our own
day. This it has been able to
characteristic orientations ; namely,
do owing chiefly
to two
in the first place,
by its contact with the natural sciences and its
to providean explanationof the material and moral world
care
by its
; and, secondly,
by studying the facts in their entirety
all other
with
contact
philosophiesand
theirs by attention to
contemporary
the
the
comparisonof its own solutions with
historyof philosophy.
and
not
Scholastic philosophyis an
Modern
a
objectivist
philosophy,because it makes a place for realities
subjectivist
which are not pure creations of our
mind, althoughit recog
nizes
It
knowing.
find out
to
does
laysdown
imperfections of
that
that
have
can
we
and
critics againstneo-Scholasticism
arise from
and
It is also
belongs to
it
adequateknowledge
reproaches of
The
causes.
aimed
are
Yet
us.
us
at its
metaphysics
misapprehension of it.
intellectualist
an
an
of
manner
our
what
under
maintain
not
and
limitations
the
philosophy,
by
which
we
mean
to
and
most
knowledge is the fundamental
perfect
life.
of
activity psychical
Lastly,it is worthy of remark that neo-Scholasticism tends
and
the philosophyof Catholics.
more
more
to become
ever
Indeed, it has replacedthe systems of Ontologism, Tradition
which have all been weighed
alism and Cartesian spiritualism
that
say
88
See
The
PERKIER,
Revival
of Scholastic Philosophy
1909) ; BESSE,
(Louvain, 1902) ; COFFEY,
to De
Appendix
Modern
Thought
rendered
De
Scholastic
Mandate,
in Cath.
Scholasticism
Univ.
greatest service
Prominent
many.
neo-
the
Wulf's
among
Deux
Bulletin
to
those
the
who
centres
du
Philosophy
Old
and
the
the Sciences
;
Nineteenth
thomiste, Rome
mouvement
and
New
in
PACE,
at
Louvain ;
and
St. Thomas
cause
have
contributed
to
the
success
of the
are
Zigliara,O.P., Lepidi, O.P., De Maria, S.J.,
etc. ; in Germany,
Satolli,
Lorenzelli,
Pesch, S.J.,and in
S.J.,
movement
In England Scho
Sulpician M. Farges, Sertellanges,O.P., etc.
been
developed notably by Jesuit writers, and in America
especiallyby the professorsof the Catholic University.
France
lasticism
the
has
CONTEMPORARY
found
and
PHILOSOPHY
Yet
wanting.
it must
487
be
not
thought
cannot
interest
world
and
of human
loyaland
every
; on
the
that
its
contrary,
life is such
that
it
Let
add
us
the
first home
at
the
Institut de
been
has
ment
that
founded
establishment
Europe
"
NOTE
ON
the Grand
move
at Louvain, an
Philosophic
and
directed
by Mgr. Mercier, the
of Belgium. It has now
spreadthrough
into America
THE
of the neo-Scholastic
34.
PUBLICATIONS
OF
INSTITUT
THE
DE
Besides
PHILOSOPHIE.
war
In
texts
the
the
on
de
out.
1901
Wulf.
de
Cours
Nine
Institute
undertook
Philosophy of
volumes
so
have
far
Lessines
publish
to
the Middle
or
edit
Ages, under
the
series
direction
of studies
of Prof,
or
de
de
three or four years ago : the Annales
transla
arid
and
M.
a
Noel,
of
Mgr. Deploige
editorship
Of the latter have
appeared
and notes, of Aristotle.
tion, with commentary
to the
introduction
the first book
of the Metaphysics by G. Colle and
an
individual
works, besides
few other
mention
To
a
Physics by A. Mansion.
is perhaps
Les Origines de la Psychologiccontemporaineof the Cardinal, which
Two
other series
I'Institut,under
the
also
were
started
of his almost
works
by MM.
side ; works
search.
"
TRS.
away,
be
numberless
Michotte,
and
so
once
that
all sincere
again
the
of the
of
centre
devotees
busy
truth
must
hope
philosophicalre
SYNOPSIS
IN
MAINTAINED
DOCTRINES
PRINCIPAL
THE
STATING
THESES
OF
FORM
THE
IN
THE
MANUAL
Cosmology
I. There
\/
theory,called
kinds
two
are
philosophicatomism
purely scientific,called
II. The
of atomism
one
metaphysical
mechanism
or
atomism
chemical
of mechanism
theory
the
other
(9-11).
reconciled
be
cannot
with
the
facts
and
"
compound
species(12-21).
is
III. Mechanism
of
incompatiblewith
the
ascertained
(22,23).
crystallography
mechanical
explanationof gravity and
IV. The
of gaseous
V. Local
of
nor
Every
IX.
is it
effect ; it is neither
bodies
cause
into matter
and
form
involves
substantial
dependent
intrinsically
form
upon
is divisible
substance
real
and
distinction
substantial
one
may
be
made
form
between
The
(48).
material
its
quantity (57).
X. All the parts of an extended thing are themselves
and in consequence
divisible indefinitely
(58).
XI.
capable
transmissible
(38-48).
(49).
VIII. Every being has only
matter
force, nor
(30-34).
compositionof
contradiction
VII.
is not
mechanical
transformable
qualities
inadequate (25-27).
movement
producing a
VI. The
no
is
bodies
the
results
parts of
whole
are
(59).
488
not
actual
but
extended
parts
potential
PSYCHOLOGY
XII. The
forces
or
powers
of
489
material
beingafford grounds
for various
facts
(108,109).
There
is formal
extension
in the
material
world
(113-116).
XIX.
forces
The
body
is not
force
nor
collection of
(117,118).
XX.
Actio
in distans is
'
XXI.
terius
of
essence
Tempus est
(132,133).
'
XXII.
Real
numerus
(121).
physicalimpossibility
motus
secundum
prius et pos-
space
(144,145).
II
Psychology
I. Vital
inasmuch
acts
differ from
they
as
are
the
actions
of
inorganicmatter
immanent
are
transitive
(10).
firstsubjectof
capable. Nevertheless
its subject (50,51).
as
III. Sensuous
natural
appetency
tendencies
theless it is
IV. As
an
the
it is
of brute
in
essentially
is
of
bodies and
material
higher order
of
than
organ
the
vegetables.Never
organic faculty(68,69).
animal
i.e.
THESES
490
the
movements
nature,
life
likewise
so
does
of his
exercise
in the
man
is of
of which
determiningreason
psychical
sensuous
(75).
V. The
first subjectof
is material.
It is of
is a singlesubstance,
sensibility
that of the
than
higher nature
which
vegetable
(78-81).
VI. The
formal
common
objectof
being. Its
the intellect is
"
"which
has
action
(96).
is effected
and
tion
by
extrinsic
some
intellective power
to intellection
efficient cause, namely,by the imagina
double
immaterial
an
by
of the
determination
The
to intellection
determined
to be
active intellect
abstractingforce, or
(101).
As
soon
the
as
intellective
effected
ceptualdeterminant
from
to act ; it
power
facultyis presentedwith
by
the
con
it passes
to itselfwhat
a
double
cause,
thing is (103).
its
things, and
reflection (104).
sensible
VIII.
own
soul knows
The
it knows
its
acts
acts
(107). It
its
existence
own
that is,by
indirectly,
God
composition,
negationand transcendence
of necessary
IX. The will is a principle
of free acts (111-115).
a principle
X. Pleasure
through its
nature
own
knows
directlythe quidditiesof \j
nature
secondly and through
first and
intellect knows
The
is the resultant
of every
own
its
the process of
(108).
(110). It is also
acts
conscious
that
activity
is
XL
have
alone
Man
no
nature
XII.
such
between
Man's
(137).
His
control
over
XIII.
The
XIV.
The
has
abstract, universal
ideas ; consequentlythere is
and animal
man
(125-127).
various
one
have
acts
a
an
influence upon
reallyefficient though
soul is
difference of
one
not
another
absolute
(138).
(141).
CRITERIOLOGY
49i
nor
quantitative
of constitutive parts
(145-147).
XVI. The body and rational soul together form one
single
The
nature
rational
one
or
soul
substance,
(150-153).
person
of this singlesubstance
is the substantial form
(154, 155).
XVII. The human
soul is not begotten by the parents but
created by God (162).
soul is by its nature
XVIII. The human
immortal
; in poini
of fact it will survive the body, and will live for ever
(167-169).
XIX.
If
have
consisted in
universe
through
it would
of the
God
end
purely natural
considered
the
as
had
been
appointedfor
syntheticknowledge of the
Cause
its supreme
beginningand end
and
man,
order
in the love of
of all
things (170).
its
Ill
Criteriology
truth is a relation of
thing or ontological
conformity of that thing with the ideal type of its nature (4-5).
truth is that of the
II. The truth of knowledge or logical
judgment and consists in its conformity with ontological
truth (6).
I. The
truth
of
determined
by
the
of the mind
mind's
to
truth
after
perceptionof
the
of
our
VII. The
judgments
initial state
(11).
of the mind
when
embarking upon
the
THESES
492
questionof
certitude is not
and without
suspects a priori
who
know
truth
(16);
the way
The
theory
of
the mind's
doubt
rests
'
three
of
kind
to any
which
of
propositions
doubt, and
any
value (17).
have
reasons
upon
of the
doubt
reason
universal
the
nor
not
to
the universal
sceptic,
to
ability
Descartes, which
but
certainty,
it is impossible
which are
quite
of
'
as
'
since
are
scepticism,
not fundamental
(18-19).
premissesof all our demonstrations
of the mind
when
IX. The legitimate
state
attacking the
either
a
priori
problem of knowledge consists in not affirming
its ability
the truth, but in examining
its inability
to know
or
acts and, accordingly,
by reflection the value of our cognitive
of our
cognitivefaculty(20).
X. As soon
as
we
begin to examine our knowledge,we find
which
be proved
cannot
there are some
immediate propositions
yet compel our assent (22).
The
XL
criterion of truth for our immediate
judgments of
be extrinsic,nor
the ideal order must
nor
not
subjective,
mediate, but it must be intrinsic,objectiveand immediate
(23).
immediate
XII. In those certain judgments which are
we
it is apparent
attribute the predicateto the subjectbecause
that the predicate
belongsto the subject,and not
objectively
because
the natural constitution of our
cognitive
exclusively
facultycompels us to do so (33).
be asserted that truths
it must
XIII. Againstthe positivists
refutation of
have
universal value
(36-38);
and
against
that analytic
judgments convey information, and
firstly
of the sciences are
principles
secondlythat the fundamental
not synthetica priori
judgments (40).
and
forms which furnish our
XIV. The intelligible
predicates
which we
attribute to the subjectsof our
judgments are en
dowed
with objective
(43-45).
reality
Kant
XV.
We
time
are
data
of
XVI.
are
assert
not
prioriforms
but
that
are
experience(47,48).
do
Principles
self-evident
XVII.
would
against Kant
be
Truths
not
requireto
be
demonstrated,
as
they
(53).
of
consciousness
unreasonable
to
call them
proof,but
question(55).
admit
in
of
no
it
GENERAL
value
The
XVIII.
METAPHYSICS
of deductive
Mill
knowledge of
the
existence of
world
(60).
logicalfoundation
The
tendency substances
definite
undermined
attain certain
can
the external
XX.
reasoningemployed in the
by the criticism of John
(58).
We
XIX.
493
have
of
induction
of which
account
on
is the
natural
they demand
properties(63).
XXI.
the senses
By their own
power
incapableof attainingcertitude (64).
XXII.
The
are,
strictly
speaking,
is able
reason
motive
The
The
extrinsic and
of historical certitude is
one
is
which
is
(67).
of the certitude of faith is
motive
one
not
which
witness
(68).
XXV.
The
compatible with
free
XXVI.
the
act
There
arisingfrom
evidence
XXVII.
Immediate
criterion of truth
supernaturalfaith
as
act
of certitude
certitude of faith
and
the
is
remains
distinct kinds
two
are
of
inasmuch
its freedom,
of the intrinsic
account
on
of
certitude
is the
evidence
certitude
(70).
first and
fundamental
(71).
IV
Metaphysics
General
object of metaphysicsis
things (7).
I. The
II. Two
elements
need
to
be
the
substance
in
distinguished
of sensible i
substance
the
in nature
IV.
but
There
capable of
are
two
so
existing(18).
kinds
of
intrinsic
:
possibility
and
THESES
494
extrinsic. The
constitutive notes
of another
essence
V. The
existence
The
of
an
of contradiction
in the
the existence
; the latter implies
essence
for the
reason
existence
of
an
is intrinsically
(18).
possible
ultimate
of God
basis of
the sensible
absence
sufficient
being as
which
is the
former
basis of
is the
being'sextrinsic possibility
(19).
an
essence's intrinsic
world
considered
is to be found
possibility
and
abstractly
analysedby
in
the
(20,21).
intelligence
VI. The
individual
in space (25).
VII. The formal
is
reason
known
principally
of the
by
its dimensions
of
individuality
entity(26).
of individuation
VIII. The principle
of quantity (29).
foundation
being is its
own
IX. There
is primary matter
essence
and
as
the
existence
(32,33).
X.
There
are
six transcendental
of being :
properties
ens,
essence,
res,
unum,
ideas
The
of
In the
'
'
'
they
are
so
many
'
means
whereby
it
can
GENERAL
METAPHYSICS
make
495
from
to attain.
the
good
Hence
the
end
they
only way
them as relative
explainthe goodnessof thingsis by referring
absolute goods (70).
goods to one or more
end is the principle
The
of perfectionfor the nature
XX.
which tends towards it : it is the first principle
of actuation of
its passivepowers
(71).
XXI.
Evil is essentially
it is the
relative,inasmuch
as
of a good (75).
privation
XXII.
Between
being and its transcendental
properties
virtual distinction (76).
there is an incomplete
to
XXIII.
mind
The
XXIV.
the
identity,
middle
three
are
(83).
exists in itselfand
action, is called
existence and
with
is the
considered
Substance,
as
or
; when
hypostasis
suppositum,
it
intelligence,
perfectionof
racteristic
first
substances
are
A substance
XXVI.
com
(79).
There
endowed
principlesfrom
notions (78).
the principle
:
of
principles
principleof contradiction and the principleof
There
XXV.
its first
the transcendental
parisonof
excluded
obtains
is
called
called
hypostasisis
an
cha
person. The
subsistence
(88-91).
XXVII.
An
itselfbut
a
presupposes
It is preferable
to
XXVIII.
same
of
actuality
does
being which
subjectin which
is
accident
existence
as
hold
not
it exists
that
an
the substance
subsist in
(92).
accident has
the
which it determines
(93).
of its accidents
XXX.
powers
to
is
of action
The
be found
some
(94-95).
There
XXXI.
and
substance
XXIX.
substance
and
its
(104).
for the
foundation
in the
classificationof faculties
adequate distinction
of their formal
objects
(105).
XXXII.
XXXIII.
in the
There
The
abstract
are
real relations
of
principles
without
(109).
change
reference
to
or
movement,
any
considered
material determina
tions,are
'
'
THESES
496
XXXIV.
Every
thingmoved
the
distinct from
mover
(116).
Both
XXXV.
requiresa
movement
Latin
the
words
actus,
XXXVI.
in
have
common
XXXVII.
and
by
to the
faculty(119).
of
receives
cause
it constitutes
and
matter,
The
of movement
XL.
the substantial
is
cause
its union
by
kind
communicated
intrinsically
is the
extrinsic,active principle
of
concept
the stimulus
upon
action
The
something
XLIII.
'
'
movement
is
patient(144).
applicableto im
of created
its formal
as
in
the
not
becoming
of
(148).
the
metaphysicalsense
be stated thus
causality
may
agents has
resultant
Understood
action does
evokingit (146).
The
existent
principle
thingto'which
action external
some
(151).
'
and
XLIV.
XLV.
There
XLVI.
The
of which
final
The
cause
may
is done or
the
end
'
move
causality(152).
causalityof
attraction which
in the
efficientcauses,
is intrinsic finality
in nature
something
XLVII.
and
substance
(135).
XLII.
ment
sub
compound
new
with it constitutes
efficient cause
action of
The
manent
to it
form,
(139).
The
XLI.
formal
The
XXXIX.
of
with
its union
determinate
react
certain
material
The
XXXVIII.
kinds
of
(133).
stance
of
various
The
exercise
be
defined
made
the
exercises
consequent tendency
(152).
as
that
(153).
final
consists
cause
in
an
the appetitive
power
upon
in that power
it
towards
(154).
XLVIII.
Nature
is
substance
considered
of the operations
principle
proper
produces or undergoes them (155).
intrinsic first
which
as
precisely
XLIX.
Law
is the
internal,fundamental
to
the
the
being
determination
in
NATURAL
of which
virtue
to realize
Natural
L.
accidental
substance,
and
causes
causes
exemplary
LI. The
follows in
exemplary
be
from
distinguished
(157).
is the
cause
telligentefficientcause
LII. The
(156).
effects must
effects
and
497
of action,tends
firstjjprinciple
as
end
determinate
THEOLOGY
extrinsic formal
type which
producinghis
is at
cause
mental
once
effect (162).
efficient and
an
in
an
final
Its
peculiarcausality
consists in its being an extrinsic formal cause
(163).
there is only an
the four causes
LIII. Among
analogical
resemblance
(164).
and causes
the same
are
LIV. Ontological
things;
principles
and
cause
elements
the
are
LV.
material
are
of
reasons
The
elements
denned
adaptationof things
the exact
as
is understood
in
two
senses
and
subordination
and
causes
principles,
causes
(168). Order
ends
order
teleological
LVI.
cause.
things (165).
has been
Order
their
to
an
in the universe
order
(169).
the existence of final
proves
(170).
causes
Perfection
LVII.
everythingthat
means
of
being (173).
of
There
three
are
which
it is related is
LX.
Art
need
parts,an
ideal type to
made
to
(179).
excite admiration
not
religious
purposes
law
of its various
happy co-ordination
be used
; but
as
it is not
an
instrument
beyond
the
for moral
paleof
or
the moral
(180).
LXI.
relative
LXII.
The
internal
of
finality
The
of thingsis the
finality
of the
the universe
immanent
from
distinguished
foundation
the
(182,183).
Natural
I. The
idea of God
It is sufficient and
with its proper
is that of
necessary
object(5).
Theology
absolutelysimpleperfection.
natural theology
for providing
an
THESES
498
of
absolutelysimple perfections
of the tripleprocess
the Divine
we
essence
acquireby means
and
transcendence
of attribution, elimination
(6). This is a
method
of procedurewhich is neither misleadingnor useless (7).
be proved.
III. The existence of God
can
is not selfwhich
(a) Agnosticismis based on a principle
evident (10).
of the Three Stages finds no support in the
Law
(b)Comte's
knowledge of
II. Our
the
'
'
historyof
science
or
of
and
philosophy,
mental
method,
Comte
and
not
the
to
verified in the
it is not
is without
to
positivemethod
failures of
minds
some
to arrive at
the existence of
our
experi
extolled by
the
(11).
(d)The
God
any
existence of God
IV. The
must
be
maintained,
proved.
'
sible
God
essences
is not
an
immediate
proof of
the
of
existence
(19).
VII.
proofof
analysisof metaphysicalmovement
An
VIII. An
analysisof
furnishes
(21).
agents
furnishes
XII.
The
existence
of God
are
not
NATURAL
THEOLOGY
the
completedby
valid unless
499
sophicalconsiderations (31).
XIII. The
argument from
the
of mankind
consent
common
is valid if not
to
divine
it is therefore
Legislator
;
inasmuch
as
not
it is
recourse
immediate
an
an
nature
proof
indication of
con
is
God
absolutely
simple(41).
XVIII. God is perfect
(44,45).
XIX. God unites in Himself all the perfections
belongingto
His works (46)
XX. God is infinite in perfection
(48,49).
of God is substantial (57).
XXI. The activity
XXII. Thought may, and must, be attributed to God (58).
is a
considered subjectively
The knowledge of God
XXIII.
singleact of adequatecomprehension(60,61).
The knowledge of God, from the pointof view of
XXIV.
content, has for objectin the first placethe nature of God and
then all thingsactual and possible
(61)
.
XXV.
divine ideas
The
infinite in number,
are
considered
identical in
supreme
God
XXVII.
'
God
as
are
the
sees
XXIX.
possesses
knowledge
the
possesses
of
things(64).
possible
so-called
'
knowledge
of
(65).
XXVIII.
God
yet
XXVI.
vision
and
The
in His
of
object
essence
His
'
'
knowledgeof simpleintelligence
(66)
.
causes
God
knows
in
XXX.
There
VOL.
reason
to
'
'
M.S.P."
seems
II.
KK
THESES
500
The
XXXIII.
primary
His
goodness of
XXXIV.
may have
XXXV.
its
God's
will is the
will of God
whatever
God
has
freelythe goodness He
and
object of
(71).
essence
own
For
formal
communicated
to
created
beings (73).
XXXVI.
God
Inasmuch
by
as
love
us
XXXVII.
to its
good, it
(74).
is called
omnipotent(76)
by God (80-81).
(82).
being conserved by God
.
world
The
XXXVIII.
attached
divine will is
The
(75)
has
been
can
create
alone
God
XXXIX.
changes the
never
The
world
world
is
has
created
need of
in
being (84).
XL.
The
subjectto
providence
(85,86).
XLI.
of God
providenceand government
The
are
universal
(87).
XLII.
The
God
sovereigntyof
and
are
XLIII.
with
The
God's
providenceand government
(89).
VI
Logic
I. Logicis the reflex
in
our
processes
study of
judgments, inferences
for them
II. Considered
to lead
as
the
us
order
the
and
more
to truth
materials
which
of
needs to exist
elaborate
reasoning
(1).
knowledge, concepts
are
of
predicatesthat fall within one or other of the ten categories
thought (14-15).
III. Judgment is the attribution of a predicate
to a subject
(28).
Judgments
in contingent
either in necessary matter
or
attaches to the subjectby a
matter, accordingas the predicate
which is inde
necessary or a contingentbond, i.e. by one
pendent
or
are
not
of
experienceand
of the
existence
of
things.
LOGIC
kind
of
judgment
The
former
and
Reasoning
IV.
immediate
is
experimentalsciences
a
(31-33).
logicalform
The
sciences,
process
judgments or
conclusion.
50I
is the
syllogismor
things being posited (inthe pre
follows (in the conclusion)
misses) something else necessarily
simply from their being posited (ARISTOTLE, Anal., Pr. I,i)
(47,48).
'
discourse
in which
assumes
certain
'
V. The
ciated
as
be
enun
definite
(51).
VIII. First principles
enunciating the simple relations of
being and non-being direct and control not only every science
but every judgment of the mind
(51).
necessary
sets
is
Scientific demonstration
IX.
out
premisses that
from
certain
logically
conclusion.
certain
are
The
which
reasoningprocess
leads
and
premisseson
to
it rests
which
the
than
better known
true, ultimate, immediate,
of its truth
reason
or
conclusion,priorto it, and the cause
be
must
(63,64).
X.
Essential
the foundation
XL
Deduction
definition,which
of science
the
or
states
what
something is,is
(79,80).
of reasoning,which
synthetic_meth.od
which
is one
employed in the rationalsciences,
in necessary matter, and enables
certain principles
is that
with
begins
one
by
analytic
or
that
employed in
beginswith concrete
with
the
the
formulation
experimentalsciences, is
facts furnished
of laws
by observation
one
which
and
ends
is
THESES
502
ascends
process which
which
these facts are
XIII.
method
The
deduction
the
of the
(90).
philosophyis combined
of
things of
induction
and
(94).
XIV.
Science
is
maticallyso
mediately or
form
whole, and
one
mediately from
the intrinsic
its action
and
to
as
of
body
certain, necessary,
furnish
from
the
of its
reason
which
of the
nature
drawn
are
and
properties
im
subject and
of the laws
of
(96).
VII
Ethics
last natural end '(8,
and really
one
9).
subjectively
the end of
II. Regarded in the abstract and indeterminately
I. Man
human
of
consists in
nature
III.
end
has
Regarded
intrinsic
distinction
conformity
want
or
of external
(11).
causes
affect
can
responsibility
(27,28).
and
evil is real ancT
good
moral
end
circumstances
VIII. Neither
value
The
to
logically
evil is founded
action
our
on
with
the
our
(32).
object,the
of moral
good and
conformity of
of
moralityof
act is determined
human
the end
and
individual
social
nor
by its formal
for which
it is done (34).
well-beingis the measure
(35-37).
evolutionist
the
theory
negationalike
of
of
Herbert
moralityand
between
leads
Spencer
of all distinction
and
nature
rejectwhat
XI. The
in human
but in God
between
VII. The
rational
the objective
definitely
(30).
VI. The
IX.
and
distinction between
V. The
good
and
senses
destroyingfree-will
without
and
created
in any
action of the
IV. The
happiness (10).
concrete
is not
man
supreme
in the
is
what
contrary
moral
nature
that
leads to it,as
to it
is,to
and
well
an
of his
to discern
and
(40).
and
obligationhas its explanation
(44).
inclination
foundation
ETHICS
XII.
ultimate
The
evil, and
and
found
in God
dence
(45).
XIII.
'
formallyit is
is
instinct
XV.
'
or
During
After
in
'
good
law, is
of Provi
human
nature
distinct from
sense
of the moral
of the natural
the
order
(49).
law is that
good
(50).
time
the wicked
(52).
of
cannot
we
will be
practicalreason
suppose
evil avoided
the
obligationand
knowledge
our
it is insufficient
XVI.
to
moral
for
and
done
law, but
distinction between
in the
first commandment
The
be
must
need
no
'
intellect to account
XIV.
of the
reason
consequentlyof moral
There
moral
503
rewarded in a future
eternally
deprivedfor ever of their happiness
will be
(53).
XVII.
from
turns
happinesssuffer
to
doctrine
Christian
The
must
the
in addition
inliiction of
the
that
sinner
to the
freely
who
eternal loss of
pain is
positive
not
opposed
reason
(54).
XVIII.
standard
is it
nor
XIX.
moral
true
moral
The
law
(56).
is immutable
law
and
to all
is known
(57).
Theories
certain
of
Secular
or
rightsand
dentlyof
any
One
XXIV.
is bound
The
in
rightof property
human
is derived from
nature
(87).
XXV.
The
standing of
make
of communism
theory
the
dignityand
The
theory
freedom
goods of
on
this world
misunder
and
would
(88,90).
self-contradictory
XXVI.
of the
nature
is based
of
; and
hinder
THESES
504
social
and
capacities
XXVII.
the
and
progress
of
The
of
the
XXIX.
in
education
theism
which
it
According
constituted
this
its
of
draws
its
He
the
from
God
wills
is
of
aspect
an
the
as
for
pan
to
system
basis
juridical
which
lead
of
is
understood,
or
Since
society
of
patient
inadmissible
to
XXXV.
activity,
civil
of
of
its
State
nor
may
nor
is
which
it
is
society
interfere
members
of
in
the
society,
He
of its
to
provide
existence
(116).
for
the
wills
also
undetermined
that
and
man,
(114, 115).
condition
no
the
role
of
good
of
the
authority
opportunity
for
(117).
not
the
God
has
of
nature
instituted
and
rights
take
of
authority
may
the
existence
it, it follows
respect
The
is in
is
society
and
persons
designs
the
civil
conception
individual
the
of
form
composing
development
Christian
of
authority
the
ensure
education,
the
foundation
origin
of
leaves
individuals
to
of
the
Its
As
XXXIV.
is
all
union
own.
existence
but
the
on
called
requirements
criticism
same
explicit
to
the
by
XXXIII.
the
rests
(109-112).
XXXII.
reality
the
(101-104).
places
either
interpretations,
conclusions
bond
Spirit-State
which
theory
contract,
several
is
marriage
(99, 100).
the
on
the
to
of
marriage
children
the
(94-97).
(107).
The
free
and
(91, 92).
prescription,
occupancy,
children
the
its
beyond
function
institution
the
of
of
subject
belongs
XXXI.
in
is
and
of
the
theory
natural
are
the
spouses
of
The
XXX.
of
and
the
its
task
inheritance
of
perpetuity
of
State
property
and
spouses
love
the
with
purpose
The
rational
to
testament
XXVIII.
good
titles
the
upon
incompatible
The
right
impose
take
place
the
of
religion
place
parents
of
its
in
members
of
individual
their
duty
(118).
of
GLOSSARY
PHILOSOPHIC
OF
THIS
Glossarywas
Index, partly to
in the
intended
student
the
save
French
the
essential definitions
he
as
aid to
an
can
the
of
Latin
and
of
lacks
unearthing
down
Manual
the
exhaustive,
not
and
test by
as
a
memory,
discover if he understands
diffuse form.
more
series of
means
and
in
an
the
fully
addition
The
from
the works
of St. Thomas
definitions,chosen
or,
other
of
from
his
has
authentic
one
stated,
or
interpreters,
when
been
edition,which
trouble
TERMS
adopted in
in order
initiate the
to
the ideas
with
accordance
student
into the
of Latin
use
Let it be added
mediaeval
the Preface,
developedin
that
into the
and
will often
Index
the
terminology.
this necessarily
incomplete Glossary
helpfulwhere
prove
deficient.
proves
TRS.
"
Absolute
As
known
in this
oppositeof
dens
as
same
'
unconditional
Absolutum
(Gen.Met., 111).
(In IV Metaph., 1. 19).
relative
ab alio
Abstraction
it is the
sense
operationby
An
which
the
is the
and
est
'
non
depen-
to
intellect expresses
of
essence
'
'
Accident
ceived
of
That
which
except
as
cannot
exist and
dependent
upon
some
which
cannot
be
con
presupposed being
'
505
GLOSSARY
506
of the
is the contingentmode
predicables,
in which a predicate
Acciis related to a subject(Log.,16, 3).
inesse praetersubject!
dens est quod contingiteidem inesse et non
T.
c.
viii).
corruptionem (Sum. Log., i,
A
accident,
one
logical
'
'
Act, Action
produced in
in
'
habitudines
secundum
motus, differunt tamen
(Sum. Theol.,I, q. 28, a. 3). See passion.
substantia
una
'
diversas
Regarded
as
actuation
action is the
something
related
it is what
from
principle
puttinginto use
or
something
makes
it
which
to the
of the
to
power
do
something
become
to
proceeds,
it was
not (virtus)
which previously
(Gen. Met., 118, 119, 148).
Potentiae activae respondet operaticvel actio in qua completur
potentiaactiva (In I Sent.,dist. 42, q. i, a. i, ad i).
Immanent
action is action which has its final result in the agent
'
'
which is terminated in
the agent (Psych.,10 ; Gen. Met., 145).
than
Actuality, Act
thing possesses
'
definition
the
'
The
intrinsic principle
on
account
being
some
of which
certain
to receptive
being. Actualityis opposed to potentiality,
Omnis
act us, perfectio
potency or 'power (Gen. Met., 114).
est
(Sum. Theol.,I, q. 5, a. 3).
quaedam
is perfection
Pure
actualityis what
simply, a being whose
i
s
limited
(Nat. Theol.,2, 36, 45).
by no potentiality
perfection
In the terminology of the Middle Ages actus purus, being that is
esse
imparticipatum,
purely actual, is expressedas esse irreceptum,
subsistens (Gen.Met., 117, 126 ; History,27).
esse
according as it is
Actuality is termed firstor second actuality
of a potentialsubject,or a subsequent,
the first determination
determination
of a subject already relativelydeteraccessory
mined (Gen.Met., 117fL).
fectible
'
'
'
Aesthetics
Met.,
Alteration
qui est
the
beautiful
; Gen-
(Introd,,8
f.).
176
change,
philosophyof
The
that
in
change
does
not
of
affect the
vocatur
qualitate,
therefore
quality, and
'
accidental
'
being. Motus
(In V Physic.,1. 4).
substance
alteratio
an
of
its nature
by
Gen.
also
different
from
it but
because
of certain
resem
blances
is
of
representingit
'
'
a.
3)-
GLOSSARY
Analogy
which are
inter puram
'
aequivocationem
nee
significata
se
507
est
omnino
univocationem,eo
et
eadem, neque
omnino
quod
et secundum
autem
quidem diversa, proportionaliter
una
(JOHN OF ST. THOMAS, Log.,II,q. 13, a. 3).
habi-
'
tudinem
Analysis
res
diversa,sed in
The resolution of
it is made
80, 86
; Gen.
In
Met., 1,
and
cp.
Induction).
reflex
Appetite
(Psych.,64, 137).
a
knowing subject
6
4.
Appetere
137).
(Psych.,
perceives good
in
nihil aliud est quam
aliquidad
aliquidpetere,quasi tendere
animalibus in quantum
Appetere est speciale
ipsum ordinatum.
in eis invenitur appetitus
et movens
appetitum; ipsum bonum
appetitum. Vis appetitivaappetit
apprehensum est movens
q. 22, a. i and 2).
quodcumque bonum apprehensum (De Veritate,
to
The act of the intellect whereby it represents
Apprehension
:
itselfwhat something is,without affirmingor denying anything
105 ; Log., 2, 10).
about it (Psych.,
a
determines
tiling.A logical
Attribute : Anything which
is
in a judgment which
is that term
attribute,or predicate,
28).
referred to another term that is called the subject(Log.,
Appetition
towards
The
tendency
it
as
what
or
inclination of
'
'
Categories, Predicaments
whatever
are
the
the
the
Attributes
to which
can
can
be reduced
of a
predicate
sense
primary
are the ten groups
categories
mind
in the
categories
dary sense
or
heads of predication
GLOSSARY
508
attributes may
be placed
The
categoriesare
are
logicalcategories.
ontological
ten classes of being into which
realitymay be divided and
under
the
of which
other
or
one
these
"
the
these
'
diversum
secundum
guuntur
Dicuntur
essendi.
modum
sum
'
modum
Metaph., 1. 9).
forms of
are
According to Kantian philosophythe categories
of knowledge constitute
the understandingwhich with the matter
42).
intelligible
objects(Crit.,
something depends upon, either for its being
Illud est propriecausa
for its becoming (Gen. Met., 165).
or
sine
non
alicujus
potest (Sum. Theol.,Ill, q. 86, a. 6).
quo esse
a
There are four kinds of cause.
cause
thing
By the efficient
id
fit
it
be
what
is
to
:
a
(Gen.Met., 139).
comes
quo aliquid
to action ; for the
is drawn
the efficientcause
By the finalcause
id cujus gratiaaliquid
sake of it something is done or is made,
combine
fit (Gen.Met., 152-3)
The material and formal causes
is the
constituents of a material
as
being : the formal cause
intrinsic principle
of which it is
that by reason
of its perfection,
it is, id quo ens
what
est id quod est
(Gen. Met., 135) ; the
of
material cause,
or
subjective cause, is the subjectreceptive
id ex
it is that out of which a thing is made,
the formal cause,
fit
in
133
existit
et
Introd.,
forma
5)
(Gen.Met.,
;
quo aliquid
quo
Cause
Whatever
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Certitude
'
Certitude
non
tellectus ad
Or
The
'
unum
(JOHN
and
explicitly
more
connexion
:
proposition
seu
adhaesio
Log.,II, q. 26,
ST. THOMAS,
OF
in
one
with
the
a.
in-
4).
solution of the
the firm
be defined as
may
evident truth after reflection and
criteriological
problem certitude
of the mind
adherence
because
relation of
a
to
an
the two
identityor conformitybetween
firmitas
dicitur
Certitude
8)
proprie
perceived(Crit.,
adhaesionis virtutis cognitivae in suum
cognoscibile(In III
is
terms
'
'
Sent.,dist. 26, q.
certitude
The
2, a. 4).
of faith and
historical certitude
to non-evident
through
propositions
another's authority or of a coincidence
67 ; see evidence,faith).
monies
(Crit.,
assents
of
Compound
The
in
12}
relig.,
'
mixtione
propriam
'
respectively
extrinsic motive
of facts and testi
resultant,
of
proper qualities,
elements (Cos.,89).
convertitur
are
the
unum
a
'
Quando
tertium
Quandocumque
completa,
non
est mixtio
utrumlibet
miscibilium
a.
i).
GLOSSARY
509
Concept
result of
The
of
act
an
simpleapprehension(Psych.,
'
Log., 21).
Quandocumque
format, quod
quoddam intelligibile
unde et mentis conceptus nominatur
c. 3)105;
Condition
That
requiredfor
which
without
intelligi
intellectus actu
est
quaedam prolesipsius,
contra Grcecos
(Declaratio
'
lending a positiveinfluence is
to produce its effect (Gen. Met.
140).
Conscience
concerningthe
be
performedor omitted,
68)
'
.
Conscientia
aliquem actum
sunt
eorum
'
In general a name
Consciousness
:
internal states, whether
of a sensuous
Conscientia est actus quo scientiam
or
'
they kept
the
13).
a.
Schoolmen
for a
consciousness
the term
ad
What
ea
agimus
quae
should
sense, and
to-day
we
called internal
knowledge of
of the
internal state.
In this strictest sense,
of itself,
self-consciousness,it is synomymous
word
character.
supersensuous
nostram
'
of one's
awareness
an
5 ; De
a.
an
intellectual
mind's
with
knowledge
modern
the
apperception(Psych.,30-50).
Contingent
which
That
has
reason
et
not
in
its
essence
may
be
but
need
'
esse
non
sufficient
the
not
'
be.
Con-
Continuum
The property of matter in virtue of which the parts
:
of a given quantityare such that the boundary of one is identical
est, cujus
with that of another
(Cos.,52. 122). 'Continuum
'
partes
ad
terminum
unum
copulantur (In
communem
Physic.,1. i).
Contradictory : Opposition between
opposed that they have nothing In
two
terms
which
so
are
(Log.,19).
common
III
C"
n-
middle
to exclude
any
are
so
opposed as
propositions
tradictory
propositio,
et
Universalis
particulars
proposition(Log.,42).
'
(Sum.
contradictionem
opponantur, opponuntur secundum
uniTheoL, I-II,q. 77, a. 2, obj.3). Enuntiatio quae significat
'
si
'
versale
opponitur contradictorie
si una
particulariter,
saliter sed
vero
sit
Contraries
ei quae
earum
non
universignificat
Oppositionbetween
belonging to the
trary when they
same
are
two
extremes
of a seriesof things
(Log.,19). Propositions
genus
affirms what
both universal and the one
are
con
the
GLOSSARY
5io
'
in
distantiam
extremam
ponit et
quod affirmatio
negat totum
notionem
et ideo parcontrarietatis,
quantum
pertinetad
hoc
is particular,
they
opposed propositions
(Log.,42)
propositions
called
are
sub-contrary
Conversion
such
true
the
(Log.,41).
'
in
proposition
if the
originalpro
quae aequaliter
Anal., 1. 31).
true
Convertuntur
'
Substantial
of
terms
is
proposition
new
praedicantur (cp.In
invicem
se
the
that
way
positionwas
de
interchangeof
The
I Post.
change considered
disappearance
replacedby another (Cos.,72).
de esse
in non
Corruptioest propriecomposititransmutatio
esse
(In II Sent.,dist. 19, q. i, a. i, ad 2). Corruptionis the cor
relative of substantial generation(^.r.).
in its entirety(Gen.
Creation
The production of a substance
:
totam
Creatio est productioalicujusrei secundum
Met., 147).
nullo
substantiam,
Theol.,
I,
(Sum.
suarn
praesupposito
Corruption
of
one
substantial
form
that
as
the
is
'
'
'
'
q-
65, a. 3).
Criterion!
standard
by which
to
truth from
distinguish
error
1,23 i.).
(Crit.,
Deduction
process
in
principles
one
necessary
relations between
to discover new
definitions
(Log.,85;
certain
of
Introd.,16).
them
See
and
to form
enables
scientific
synthesis.
the
definition expresses what this is which
word
defined designates. Essential definition gives a full state
of what
ment
a
thing is,inasmuch as it declares its inner nature
(In IV
(Log.,79). 'Definitio est oratio indicans quid est res
termini
aut
naturam
rei
1.
Definitio
oratio
est
Physic., 5).
Definition
Verbal
'
'
'
'
i.4).
Causal demonstration,St"m,leads to the
knowledge of a particular
Demonstration, vn,
cause.
thing by
for our
extrinsic reason
having
a remote
or proofof fact,
supplies
is
admit
that
to
(Log.,65; Introd.,16).
something
of an
A prioridemonstration deduces
the existence and nature
demonstration
effect from a knowledge of its cause
; a posteriori
its
effect (Log.,
that
of
from
proceedsto a knowledge of a cause
indicatingits immediate
GLOSSARY
66)
Demonstratio
'
.
priora
per
demonstratio
that of the
cause
deeper
2,
haec
est per
ea
quae
sunt
prioraquoad
is the
combined
employment of a
existence of the effect
is reached, and then from the knowledge of the
knowledge of the effect is obtained (Logic,
67).
method
from
the
method
analytico-synlhetic
A
(Logic,
93).
mental
cession
'
nos
2).
a.
prioriproofs :
causam
demonstration
and
posteriori
cause
per
quia,et
(Sum. TheoL, I, q.
Circular
5II
suc
thing
through relations being established between
them
Discursus intellectus atten(Log.,3; Nat. TheoL, 61).
ditur secundum
hoc quod unum
per aliud cognoscitur (Sum.
rationativa vel
TheoL, I, q. 58, a. 3, obj. i). Adhuc
tune
discursiva est nostra consideratio quando ab uno
considerate in
aliud transimus
For
c.
(ConL Gen., I, 57).
an
oppositeprocess,
and
their unification
'
'
'
'
see
intuition.
Distinction
ledge.
Oppositionbetween
In
positionis
narrower
it
sense
and
perceived,
may
acts of know
things,objectsor
the
means
be defined
as
this op
of know
whereby
act
that
act
'
'
fictione intellectus.
datur a parte rei sine apprehensioneseu
Distinctio vero
rationis quae beneficio intellectus fit et in re non
datur.
distinctio rationis in distinctionem
Dividi solet haec
rationis ratiocinantis
et rationis ratiocinatae. Ilia prima did
in re
solet distinctio quae
fingiturab intellectu sine fundamento
et intelliet ita solum
significandi
est distinctio quoad modum
funda
ab intellectu cum
dicitur formata
gendi ; secunda
vero
in
mento
'
re
Distributive
QOHN
OF
ST. THOMAS,
Expressing
propositionappliesto each
:
the universal
Doubt
clearlythe
subject.
that
and
It is
the
Log., II,q.
2,
a.
predicate of
3).
a
universal
opposed to
by
collective.
state
of
GLOSSARY
512
It is said to be
(Crit.,
8).
motives
when
in favour
motives
the
Dubitatio
motum
significat
principaliter
contradictions
17, q. i,
a
negativedoubt when there are no
decision either way ; and a positive
doubt
in favour of each side are
of equal value.
of
cum
formidine
'
(In
4).
a.
Eminently
:
(eminenter)
contains
utramque partem
III Sent.,dist.
supra
determinandi
analogous
an
The
lower
perfectionin
predicatea
'
in which
manner
higher perfection
'
praedicareper eminentiam
(De Pot., q. 9, a. 7, obj. 2)
it with that thing, because
to identify
it possesses some
"
of
is
perfections
Emotion
An
agreeableto the
See
End
known
as
means
higher
is
such
agreeable or dis
(Psych.,66, 122).
passion.
See final cause.
Equivocal
have
is
equivocalwhen
nothing in
(Log.,26; Gen.
diversa
(Sum. Theol.,I,q.
'
'
Essence
That
it
thingswhich
designates
but the name
common
by which they are called
Met., 126).
Aequivocarum est omnino ratio
term
13,
a.
10).
whereby
'
'
'
'
Evidence
qualityof
those
'
'
Extension
of
an
idea
The
number
of
subjectsto which
it can
be
17).
applied(Log.,
Faith
is
Assent
determined
formally not evident
:
that
by an act of will to a proposition
(Crit.,
'68). Intellectus assentit alicui
'
electionem
voluntarie declinans in unam
quamdam
partem
in aliam, et si sit cum
certitudine absque formidine
magis quam
alterius partis,erit fides
(Sum. Theol.,II-II,q. i, a. 4). See
per
'
certitude.
thing but
(Gen.Met., 152 f.)
nature
it
of
GLOSSARY
Form
An
5I3
intrinsic
determining,perfectiveprinciple
(Gen. Met.,
significatur
perfectiouniuscujusque rei
Est actus
et Ess., c. 7).
dans esse rei (JOHN OF ST.
Nat. Phil.,I, q. 4, a. i). See formal cause.
'
formam
'Per
113).
(De Bute
'
THOMAS,
substantial form is
substance, namely
'
Forma
all other
facit
substantialis
substances
'
esse
facit esse
non
5 ; Cos.,44).
(Introd.,
simpliciter (Sum. Theol., I,
It is the correlative of
6).
a.
q. 77,
one
that
differentiates it from
'
sed
simpliciter
primary matter.
esse
aut
aliquomodo
'
habens
An
in
principle
Sum.
order
Theol.,I, q.
and
7,
able
be
to
a.
; Gen.
separatedform
the
to
receive
existence
actual
Met., 117).
(cp.
informingform
called respectively
incompleteand
are
The
completeforms.
Formally
In
See formal
determinate
formal
cause,
Generation
process of a
transmutatum
The
several
opposed
materially.
to
object,reduplicative.
The
of a new
substantial form in the
appearance
est
substantial change (Cos.,
74).
Quando (aliquid)
'
subaccipiataliam formam
quod materia
simplex generatio et corruptio (De General.,
ita
stantialem, erit
I. I- 5).
Genus
manner
'
of constitutive
sum
notes
which
are
common
to
different
'
praedicatur de
(JOHN
OF
Log.,II, q. 7,
ST. THOMAS,
a.
i).
Good
The
'
'
Habit
disponitur
dispositumaut
(ARISTOTLE, Met., V,
c.
20
secundum
se
aut
in ordine
ad
aliud
'
Categ.,c. 6).
'
GLOSSARY
514
ol facts observed
(Log.,
explanation
Hypothesis : A provisional
absolutam
vericontinet
enunciatio
non
87)
Hypothetica
sed
in
demonstratione
significat
tatem, cujus cognitiorequiritur
I
1.
Periherm,
ex
(In
esse
i).
verum
suppositione
aliquid
'
'
Idealism
respects contradictory of
some
designatingtwo
word
the
doctrine that
philosophic
each
human
In
other.
mind
know
can
are
in
general,the
only ideas.
Idealism
'
'
Immanent
action.
See immanent
in itself an
Considered
Independent of matter.
or
being contains neither constitutive nor
spiritual
parts (Psych.,143).
integrant,quantitative
Immaterial
immaterial
Imperative
law
The absolute,necessary
:
(Categorical)
which,
in
Kant's
system,
serves
as
and
universal
of the
truths of
foundation
the
the fundamental
and indirectly
justifies
obligation
27 ; Ethics,55 ; History,142).
ethics and religion
(Crit.,
Indeterminate
Indefinite
(Gen.Met., 43).
:
A subsisting
Individual
:
being that is completein itself and
moral
communicable
Individuum
est
(Psych.,158;
another
to
'
quod
est in
se
Gen.
indistinctum, ab
in
dis-
'
'
est recepnon
teria,individuantur per materiam ; quae autem
tibilis in materia, individuatur
per seipsam (Sum. Theol.,I,
'
q. 3,
a.
2, ad
3 and
4).
in inductione
sunt
manifesta
autem
'
(In
concluditur
universale
I Post. Anal., 1. i).
ex
singularibus
quae
GLOSSARY
Infinite
Intellect
perfection.
See
515
with intelligence.
In a more
restricted
the active intellectual faculty,
as distinguished
from
the passiveintellector understanding(q.v.),
and may
be denned
of abstraction whereby the sensible objectof human
as the power
sense
Synonymous
it means
knowledge
rendered
'
intellectusad hoc
'
vocatur
agens
Intension
The
Intention
quod possitomnia
qui
comprehension
(Log.,17).
as
of
'
sort
with
synonymous
direction taken
'
object known.
verum
est
quod
'
tantum,
'
'
'
'
'
facit de eis
'
knowledge. In
the
reasoning,
a narrower
sense
as opposedto discursive (q.v.)
have of knowing by a singleact all
manner
peculiar
pure spirits
Intuitio erit,
that they can know of a thing (Nat.TheoL, 63).
Intuition
In
wide
and
sense,
act of immediate
an
'
inconclusionem uno
si intellectus in ipso principle
inspiceret
a.
5).
tuitu apprehendens utrumque
(Sum. TheoL, I, q. 19,
natural
intuitions
dispositions
are
Kant
to
a
According
priori
'
it elaborates sensible
42)
(Crit.,
to put
impressions
one
thing of another
Judgment : An act by which we predicate
(Log.,10, 29 f.); by it the mind unites or disunites the objects
for it
the Latin names
representedby two concepts: whence
compositionemet
compositioand divisio. Enuntiatio significat
'
intellectus
'
'
Law
Considered as in the
:
is the internal fundamental
substance tends
M.S.P.-VOL.
II.
to
being itselfthat
is
determination in
produce an
of which
GLOSSARY
516
'
'
of the Schoolmen
(Gen.Met., 156).
of the
scientific conclusion,it is the expression
in which a thing acts or exists.
and invariable way
constant
eternal law is the destination, as conceived
The
by divine
ends, and the adapta
Wisdom, of all creatures to their respective
Lex
nihil aliud est
aeterna
tion of their activities to them.
akin
to the word
Considered
as
proprium
'
ratio
quam
omnium
The
secundum
sapientiae,
divinae
'
motionum
et
actuum
directiva
est
a.
i).
in
expression
quod
'
Lex
this eternal law (Ethics,
41).
nobis a Deo
intellectus insitum
lumen
'.
vitandum
et
quid
quid agendum
The moral law, in general,is the norm
per
quod cognovimus
according to which
'
ab
commune,
qui
eo,
the will
can
choose
'
between
to realize
the
habet, promulgata
communitatis
curam
the
partially
inclined (Psych.,Ill f.).
is necessarily
judges
which
is freedom
liberty
is therefore
considered
119;
Ethics,24).
Materialism
of
is not purelyand
anything which
Mathematics
science
The
object,a property
to
place in material
quantity,
all
prescindsfrom
things and
property
on
which
common
of the existence
principle
95)
simply material (Psych.,
has
quantity as its formal
9 ;
material beings (Introd.,
fixes the
'
all.
them
to
common
Mathematica
in
intelligibili,
continua
quantitasabstracta a
quantum in intellectu remanet
sensibili quantitate (De III Anima, 1. 8).
abstrahunt
materia
sed
sensibili,
non
materia
'
Matter
See material
Primary
matter
cause.
one
of the
two
subject (Cos.,38;
nominatur
intellecta
and
receives
quod
praeter omnem
'
tamen
(De Spirit.Great.,q.
susceptivaet
i, a.
it from
indeterminate,
est in genere
privationem,quae
vationum
Gen.
of a
constituent elements
is of itself entirely
which
i).
the
perfectible
prima
potentiaquaedam
et etiam praeter
et priformarum
'Id
materia
GLOSSARY
Second
matter,
material substance
5I7
sensible body : a
completelyconstituted
that is naturallyendowed
with
or
quantitative
parts
be
can
matter
quod subjacet
scilicetcalido
sensibilibus,
qualitatibus
duro
frigido,
et
et molli et
'
'
Monism
pantheism.
The
moral
qualitycharacterizing
the
relation
philosophy,namely,
See
Morality
of moral
of
the end
act with
human
habet
philosophia
of
the
object
conformityof
(Ethics,
1, 2, 32, 34).
'
Moralis
hoc
ut ordinantur
humanas
man
and
acts
invicem
ad
et ad
finem
'
of a subjectthat is formallypotential
actuality
'Motus
dicitur actus imperfecti,
id est exis(Gen. Met., 115).
tentis in potentia (Sum. TheoL, I, q. 18, a. i).
Movement
The
'
kinds
'
Motus
est solum
are
three
"
'
'
speciesquae
1.
Physic., 4).
secundum
(In V
Natural
and
suas
That
which
sunt
augmentum
the
correspondsto
'
et decrement
of
exigencies
um
nature
'
of action.
to its proper manner
Aliquiddicitur naturale
convenit
(Sum. TheoL, I-II,q. 34, a. i).
quod naturae
ex
'
eo
Nature
Synonym
for substance
considered as
a
principleof
of the
first principle
intrinsic,
the
or,'more
precisely,
to
the being which producesor
that are proper
operations
action ;
under
naturae
significat
them
(Gen. Met., 87, 155). Nomen
ad
ordinationem
vel
ordinem
habet
essentiam rei secundum
quod
propriamoperationemrei (De Ente et Ess., c. i).
'
goes
'
In Kantian
which
the thing in itself,
Noumenon
to phenomenon
philosophythe opposite
the
understandingcannot
attain to
nor
42).
represent (Crit.,
Object (of a faculty): That to which
applied. Objectum non est materia
'
quam
habet
et
'
speciem (Sum.
the exercise of
facultyis
circa
qua, sed materia
quodammodo rationem formae in quantum dat
TheoL, I-II,q. i^, a. 2, ad 2).
ex
GLOSSARY
5i8
rests
'
and
'
attainment
for the
and
its range
of which
it is made
im
the
attain to except
through the
of
medium
object. Proprium (id est formalc)
proper
alicujus
potentiaeest illud sub cujus ratione omnia
objectum
ad
referuntur
potentiam (Sum. Theol.,I, q. i, a. 7).
cannot
'
the
'
circumstance
Occasion
:
favourable
combination
free cause
or
action of
per accidens
of circumstances
to
'
'
'
'
Occasionalism
cause
and
quod
History,115).
habet
creatura
naturalium,
effectuum
scilicet,quod
praesente
creatures
The
that
sed
creatura
(id
creatura
non
est
'
Quidam
aliquam
quod Deus
one
erraverunt
actionem
in
productione
effectos, ita
causat
effectum,
hos
causat
agit, sed
occasione
putantes
Deus
'
praesentiaecreaturae)
(Cont.Gent.,Ill, c. 69).
Operation
Synonymous
operatiointellectus
'
(In
used for
(virtus).
Preferably
faculty. Operatiodicitur quilibet
with action
'
est
sicut intelligere
II Sent.,dist. 12, in fine).
transeat
non
Assent to a probableproposition,
the state of the
or
it inclines to one
of two contradictory
mind when
propositions,
the
other.
but without definitely
excluding
Opinio significat
cum
intellectus qui fertur in unam
contradictionis
actum
partem
formidine alterius (Sum. Theol. I, q. 79, a. 9, ad 4).
Opinion
'
'
Pantheism
is only one
and cosmological
doctrine that there
The metaphysical
substance and the phenomena of the world are parts
GLOSSARY
519
of it
(substantial!*!
pantheism)or manifestations of it (dynamic
of the spirit
pantheism)or subjectiverepresentations
taken
as
and only substance
the one
(idealist
Inasmuch
as
pantheism).
the
substance
one
is God,
comprisingall reality
it is also called monism
pantheism ;
called
this substance
that
principle
mental
by
this
is one.
Erroneous
in
forma non
qui peccat
Paralogism
is
system
of its funda
reason
reasoning(Log.,
72). See sophisms Ille
est syllogismussed paralogismus,
id est
syllogismus (In I Post. Anal., 1. 22).
'
'
apparens
Participation
quid,habens
'
Quod
non
dicitur
proprieparticipare
'
From
the
viewpointof efficiency,
passionis
considered
'
5).
Passio
Actus
vocatur
passivi
agentis in
effectus
est
in the
being
acted
'
the result
(Gen.
Physic.,
upon
(In III
passio
patiente (Sum. Theol.,
'
the
and
quality,
viewpoint,
metaphysical
passionis the
denotes
every qualitywhich modifies
third kind
of
subject by
sumitur pro
some
change (Gen. Met., 106).
fitalteratio (In V Metaph. 1.20).
secundum
qualitate
quam
In psychology,
passion denotes an intense inclination of the
sensible appetiteaccompanied by organic modifications ; a
'Passio
material
'
'
Eth.,1. 5).
In
ethics,passionmeans
intense
an
precedinga
appetite,
decision of the
'
usque
arbitrinm
liberum
Perfection
The
super
'
earn
of
possession
whatever
is suitable to
ad
a
3).
beingin
quae
inveniatur
in
aliquo genere
is
Infiniteperfection
which
that
'
praehabens in
entis sed
ad aliquod genus
fectionem
(Sum. Theol.,I, q. 25,
'
Person
a.
se
est
non
totius
An
88).
(Sum. Theol.,I, q. 29,
a.
I,
esse
per-
23).
fimtum
hmitatum
obj.et passim).
(Gen.BM.,
substantia
GLOSSARY
520
Petitio
principii
supposingat the
or
image
sense-representation,
material thing already perceivedand
Phantasm
of
The
some
imagination*
longeractually
of the
no
'
'
'
3).
a.
Phenomenalism
The
supportingand
stance
Phenomenon
comparativelymodern
accidental
aspect under
'
'
itself and
word
appears
to the
one
these
arisingfrom ideal
which
who
substance
knowledge of
has
(Crit.,
42).
Physics
the
According
science
which
to the
has
'
'
...
has
to matter
common
the
classification,
experimental
(Cos.,3).
Crit.,28,38).
the constituent notes of
thing is intrinsically
possible
do not involve a contradiction.
A thing is extrinsically
of it can be made actual by
possiblewhen the intrinsic possibility
virtue of some
other existingbeing capable of making it exist
Possibile dicitur dupliciter
:
(Gen.Met, 18 ; Nat. Theol, 18).
ad
modo
modo
alio
uno
aliquam potentiam
per respectum
absolute
terminorum
(Sum.
propter ipsam habitudinem
Possible
which
'
'
actus
'
Power
Oftentimes
3,
a.
non
habet
2).
with
potentiality
potency ;
(q.v.},
est
Potentia
passiveor receptive
principassiva
power.
ab
alio
(Sum. Theol, I, q. 25, a. i).
pium patiendi
and
synonymous
is
'
'
of
of action is
with
an
immediate
principle
GLOSSARY
'
521
'
Predicables
in which
The ways
the
predicatecan
be attached
to
subject(Log.,16).
the
Predicaments
Synonymous
Predicate
with
Synonymous
That
with
categories
(q.v.).
attribute
(q.v.).
in virtue of which
Principle
'
'
'
determinate
of the
absence
naturallyreceive (Cos.,74).
absentia formae
Property
An
with
up
est nata
quae
accident which
'
Proposition
.
Quiddity
'
nihil aliud
matter
est
can
quam
(Coel,1, 1. 6).
is necessarily
and
bound
invariably
The
That
thing-is,TO
Met., 15)
TI.
verbal
which
arrt
est
Propositio
:
'Privatio
inesse
primary
'
29)
which
substance, and
its nature
displays
16). Proprium non est
tialibus specieicausatur,
'
form
expressionof
oratio enuntiativa
answers
synonym
the
for
a.
i, ad
5).
;
Log.,
judgment(q.v.
'.
questionQuid
essence
est ? what
(Psvch., 89
-a
Gen.
'
in our
mind, with
represented
etc., that it assumes
versality,
Platonic
the object in the real world is the correlative of the objec
the i
knowledge, but the modes in which it appears before
4
the work of the act of knowledge itself(Crit.,
are
52, 56;
see
and denotes
for intelligence
faculty,
synonym
knowing facultyas proceedingby a discursive ( ) proces"=
of knowledge, that which the mind
As an
object"
thing and which is the foundation of its properties
Reason
here
As
GLOSSARY
522
In
logic,that
which
the question,Why?
truth known
(Introd.,
rationis intelliguntur,
primo
corresponds
explainssome
what
thing,
165). 'Ex nomine
cognoscitivavirtus. Alio
Gen. Met.,
5;
quaedam
dicitur
cum
modo
poniturpro
ratione hoc
qua
ratio
to
or
occurrence
aliquidsimplex a
naturam
pertinens (Comment, in
c.7.1-5).
act by which the reason
Reasoning : A logical
'
hominis
terms
of
to
if
see
46
dicitur
.
dicitur ratio
lib. de div. nom.,
sicut
abstractum
multis
ut
causa
the two
compares
middle
term
the same
'
'
'
'
'
'
Reflection
deliberate
'
'
Reflex
to
In
reflex movement
physiology,
peripheralstimulation, without
:
conscious
In
effort
in response
intervention
of any
is that made
the
(Psych.,74).
psychology,reflex knowledge
is that
which
is obtained
the intellect,
making it to
has already been an objectof thought, or
through
again upon
think
to bend
Relation
back
what
upon
think of its
itself and
act ;
own
see
reflection.
In
distinct
general,a connexion between two or more
realities or concepts (Gen. Met., 108). 'Ratio
things,whether
propria relationis non
accipitursecundum
comparationem ad
:
illud in quo
est sed
comparationem ad aliquidextra
secundum
'
in ordine
rei ad
'
tellectuum
Met.,
Relativism
; see
:
absolute,that
in-
Relative : Unable
connexion
with
108
rem,
The
either to
some
exist
other
or
to
of except in
is its correlative (Gen.
be conceived
being, which
absolute).
theory which
is,any immutable
denies that
and
necessary
we
can
truth.
perceivethe
GLOSSARY
Science
necessary
to form
from
its
body
which
propositions
whole, and
one
the
of
universal,as
and
and
properties
well
which
of the
nature
523
as
evident, certain,
arranged systematically
so
as
drawn
are
are
or mediately
immediately
subjectand
of the
nota
se
et
per
conse-
'
rational
in
principles
and
truths
and
matter
which
one
combines
necessary
form
definitions of those
to
which
it has to
which
starts
formulate
deductive science is
or
develop.
with
the laws
which
with certain
to deduce
new
objectsthe knowledge of
science is one
o
r
positive experimental
observation
the
starts
them
of concrete
govern
facts in order
85, 86 ;
(Log.,
them
see
to
deduc
tion,induction,synthesis,
analysis).
Sentiment
Often used
connected with
principally
life (Psych.,
66, 122).
Simplicity :
The
constitutive
Sophism
nor
denote
higheremotional feelings
rational appetite
or higheraffective
to-dayto
the
Fallacious
the
reasoning transgressing
laws
of
logic
(Log.,
72).
Species
descended
is a series of livingbeings
In zoology,a natural species
fertile inter se
stock and indefinitely
from a common
83).
(Psych,.
denotes the sum-total of abstract
the predicable
logic,
species
make
notes which
an
essence
(Log.,16). Unumquodque
up
constituitur in speciesecundum
quod determinatur ad aliquem
specialemgradum in entibus (Sum. Theol., I, q. 50, a. 2, ad i).
Species constituitur ex genere et differentia (Sum. Theol,
I" q- 3, a. 5).
In psychology, speciesintentionalis,
literallymental image
is the Schoolmen's
cogphrase for what we have denominated
of the cognitivefaculty,
nitional determinant
: the complement
be
of an act of cognition. It mav
the natural determiningcause
intellectual
or
intellectualor sensible according as it determines
sensuous
knowledge (Psych.,38, 49). 'Speciesquae est prinoperationsut forma, est
cipium intellectualis (seu cognitivae)
similitude rei quae cognoscitur (Cont.Gent., I, c. 53).
In
'
'
'
'
'
'
and
to act
property of being able to exist
matter
(Psych.,143).
depending intrinsicallyupon
Spirituality
:
without
'
Substantiae
'
corpore
The
spiritualssecundum
esse
q. i,
a.
suum
non
dependent a
i).
is determined
by
Spontaneous : Necessary,spontaneous activity
representation.
appetition,which in turn is evoked by some
reflex acts (in
to
hand,
the
one
Spontaneous acts are opposed,on
acts
to
consequent
the physiological
sense),and, on the other,
upon
reflection.
GLOSSARY
524
is a movement
of the locomotive organs
Spontaneous movement
(Psych.,74).
sensuous
appetition
by some
Proprio
motu
et sponte agunt, ita quod a nullo exteriori moventur
(In III Nic. Eth., 1. 4).
'
determined
'
of which
Subject : In logic,that of the two terms in a proposition
the predicationis made
(Log.,13). Dicitur subjectum, de quo
alia praedicantur (In VII Metaph., 1. 2).
which
determinations
In metaphysics, that
to
accidental
substance.
convenit
for
Soli substantiae
belong ; synonym
proprieratio subject! (In I Post. Anal., 1. 34).
In psychology and criteriology,
a
being capable of knowledge
and appetition
and consequently
capable of enteringinto relation
called objects
with things which, by way
of distinction,are
(Gen.Met., 114, note).
'
'
'
'
Subjective
In
psychology and
pertainingto
criteriology,
the
subjectthinking.
In
metaphysics,pertainingto
the
'
1- 34)Subsistence
for substance
virtue of which
Formerly synonym
perfectionin
that
to
express
sufficient alike for existence and
Substance
in
not
That
which
something
'.
else
(q.v.).Now
a
thing
used
is self-
action.
has the
of its
reason
in
reality
'Ens
itself and
in se, per
se
it was
emphasize the trait of existence-in-self,
subsistentia
called
Secundum
:
quod per se existit
formerly
in alio vocatur
et non
subsistentia
(Sum. Theol.,I, q. 29, a. 2).
To express its role of servingas a support of accidents,which it
stans
To
'
'
underlies
it is
(sub-stat),
supponitur accidentibus
called
dicitur
substance
'
:
'
substantia
Secundum
quod
(Sum. Theol., I,
q. 29, a. 2).
First or individual substance
be
ontological
pointof view, the real support of all that makes up the
of
Dicitur substantia ipsum subjectum
a
being
thing (Log.,14)
in
ultimum
quod non praedicaturde alio et hoc est particulare
substantiae
(De Pot.,q. 9, a. i).
genere
'
'
Second
namely,
substance
as
the
is substance
essence
genericor specific
for accidental
first substance
but
predications,
(Gen. Met.,
et
86
considered
or
concrete
an
serves
abstract
as
way,
subject
itself be predicated of a
may
in
which alone it has reality
subject,
Log.,15).
et maxime
principaliter
in
; it
'
Substantia
dicitur.
GLOSSARY
se
omnibus
Substantiae
tibus.
525
secundae
'
'
'
Pot.,q. 9,
6).
completeor incompleteaccordingas
2, ad
a.
Substance
in itself to
is
exist
it is sufficient
of another
sub
requiresthe concurrence
stantial element similarly
incomplete (Gen. Met., 117, note ; see
informingform, separatedform}. A completesubstance which
results from
compound ;
Suppositum
Same
Syllogism
The
process ;
or
as
incomplete substances
simplesubstance.
is termed
hypostasis.
reasoning
reasoning.
see
of the mind
to have
Synteresis : A natural facility
knowledge of moral first principles
(Ethics,44)
.
an
'
habitual
Synderesis
'
of
Teleology
understanding(Log.,33
our
The
Crit.,39)
Theodicy
Synonym
for natural
used in the
Sometimes
God in permittingevil.
sense
of
to designate the in
used to-day sometimes
tellectual concept, sometimes
the work of the mind by whi
to expre
sense,
elaborated : sometimes
in a more
particular
Thought
word
GLOSSARY
526
concept
the intellect
as
Transcendence
ing to
the work
or
eminently.
metaphysical property
or
such, and
being as
See
Transcendental
productof
the
the
and
attribute
An
belong
37).
corruption.
The truth of a being is the conformityof this being actually
:
considered
with its nature
as
alreadysupposed to be known
est in
Denominantur
a veritate quae
verae
res
(Gen.Met., 60)
aliud
nihil
est
intellectui
adaequata, vel
ipsa re (quae
quam
intellectum sibi adaequans)sicut a forma inhaerente, sicut cibus
Truth
'
denominatur
truth
4). Oncological
between
a thing presented to
Ver., q.
nature
i, a.
previouslyknown
'
dicitur
sanus
(De
qua
of
is the relation of identity
qualitatesua,
sanus
there
ideal type
Veritas est adaequatiovel conformi-
'
mind
the
and
an
tas
formitywith
fact
(Crit.,
6)
accident in virtue of which
a
:
localizing
body
takes possession
of a definite place(Cos.,139).
intellect. More
or
Understanding : Synonym for intelligence
and in connexion
with the Scholastic theory of the idea,
precisely
be defined as the passivepower
t may
which, on receivingthe
conceptualdeterminant produced by the active intellect,accom
intellectus
the act of knowledge. Called by the Schoolmen
plishes
and also passive,
as
possibilis,
opposed to the active intellect or
Intellectus possibilis
of
abstraction
96, 103, 104)
(Psych.,
power
est in quo possint
fieri (De III Anima, 1. 10)
omnia intelligilia
Ubication
The
'
'
Unity
'
Unum
I, q.
II,
Universal
is undivided
ens
indivisum
(Gen.Met., 41).
'
(Sum. Theol.,
i).
a.
attributed in the
same
way
92
Log.,
subjects(Psych., ;
9 ; see abstraction). Hoc
enim dicitur universale quod natum
est multis inesse et de pluribus
praedicari(In VII Metaph.,1. 13).
to
an
or
'
'
Universals
ndividual
Universal
51).
Univocal
to
'
Terms
things which
are
verifythe
Quidquid dicitur
unam
rationem
univocal when
they are applied
essential
definition
same
(Log.,26).
pluribusunivoce dicitur de eis secundum
said to be
de
'
communem
4,
obj.3).
GLOSSARY
Virtually
of
The
its
virtue
Moral
God
from
electionem,
i,
q.
perfection
Voluntary
of
the
volition
sit
2).
note).
is
will
The
of
facit
qui
'
its
rectam
IV
(In
due
Sent.,
not
the
cum
word
voluntarii
aliqua
is
is
to-day
the
an
in
under
same
(Sum.
the
as
volition,
no
its
on
principium
quod
wider
the
intellectual
by
requiritur
also
will
influence
any
'
agent
f.).
of
act
finis
the
the
not
presented
has
cognitione
used
is
of
object
volition
the
rationem
Ad
It
which
volitum,
of
action
the
137
64,
less
used
which
by
(Psych.,
to
sometimes
as
or,
faculties
knowledge.
or
or
intra
natural
exercise
loquendo
proprie
something
constitutes
whether
realization.
normal
received
the
to
habitus
appetitive
other
intellectual
'
either
added
the
Omnis
rational
the
which
and
knowledge
a.
virtus
towards
of
influence
actus
of
That
matter
'
"
of
himself
object
make
to
46).
dici
act
accurately,
moves
soul
is
which
i).
a.
An
6,
the
disposition,
acquired,
(Ethics,
potest
14,
Volition
64,
contains
cause
habitual
an
rational
the
easier
activity
is
personally
or
of
powers
q.
effect.
Virtue
dist.
which
in
manner
527
Theol.,
sense
I-II,
(Psych.,
INDEX
A
judgments, i
29, 184.
POSTERIORI
PRIORI,
Abiogenesis,
Absolute
i 177.
relative, i 504.
Absolute, the, ii 116 ; and morality,
ii 256 ; and rights,
ii 266 ; in Fichte's
ii
326, 464 ; Schelling,326,
system,
466; Hegel, 32 7, 467 (seePantheism,
and
Monism)
Abstract
idea, ii 153.
172-
The
and
Academies,
Old, Middle
New, i 26, ii 350, 361.
Accident, i 102, 487 f. ; ontological,
82, 492 ; and
substance,
480 ;
logical,ii 146
Actio
f.
passio,i
et
(see Properties).
503,
ii 147,
537,
in distans, i 131,
133,
135,
Actual
and
transitive,
creative, 538; of
and
'
508, 531.
Purus,
'
'
ii 36, 355
517,
Adamson,
ii
484.
Ampere, i 25 ; ii 472.
Analogy, analogical idea, ii 154
ii 154, 156
predication, i 239,
of Bath, ii 386.
extra
activity of God,
ii 362.
Aenesidemus,
Aesthetics, i 564 f. ;
the
aesthetic
transcendental
459
ii 91,
school,
of
aesthetic
Schiller, 462
Albert
the
of
f.
morality,
and
450
Kant,
induction, ii 186.
ii 161.
i 26, 49 ; ii 348.
of Miletus, i 26,
Anaxagoras,
of
Andronicus
Animal
(see
Sensitive
life);
auto
ii 435.
Besate, ii 383.
St., of Canterbury,
of
Anselm
Anselm,
ii 29,
77 n.,
383
28,
f.
and
Apperception, transcendental
empirical (see Kant).
Appetition, i 218 f ; and the good,
463 ; and free-will,ii 225.
Apprehension, i 36, 260, ii 141 f.
ii 364.
Apuleius of Madaura,
Arabian
(se"
philosophy, ii 391
Avicenna
and
Averroes).
i
.,
483.
Aristotle, passim',
Ardigo,
i
n.,
translations, i
477.
i,
life
works
and
Saxony,
49,
of Rhodes,
Arcesilaus
aesthetic
idealism, 465.
Affinity,i 56, 108.
Agnosticism, i 2, 251, 413, ii i6f
Agricola, Rudolph, ii 421.
Ailly, Peter d', ii 415, 416.
ii 428.
Alamanni,
Alan
of Lille, ii 388.
Albert
113
ii 415, 422.
chemical
528
;
;
Adelard
455,
Alkindi, ii 392.
Allen, Grant, ii 483.
of Bene, ii 389.
Amalric
Ambrose,
St., ii 370.
ii 366.
Ammonius,
Antoninus,
i 513,
(see God).
569
matism,
f. ; double
Actus
Ad
of
Alexander
Alexander
ii 345Anaximenes
143,
ii83.
Action, immanent
1169, 533, 537;
God, ii 113.
511
and
of Clairvaux
Alcher
ii 388.
Alcuin, ii 380.
Alembert, d', ii 447.
Alexander
Achillinus, ii 421.
Anaximander
354Actio
Albinus, ii 364.
compound,
105
INDEX
Aristotle.
Being
Continued.
"
f"' liomoeo
',
merles
ii
348 ; Pure
God's
ii
knowledge,
Actuality, 355 ;
ii 94 ; theory of knowledge, ii 357 ;
immortality, ii 357 ; the categories,
slavery,ii 274.
morality, i 569.
of
Association
images,
ii 357
and
476
29,
210-213,
ii
441,
443,
f.
ii 20,
Atheism,
being
449.
Athenagoras, i 27.
Atomic
weights, i 55, 107.
Atomicity, i 56, 109.
Greek, ii 348 (see Mechan
Atomism,
ism and
Dynamic atomism)
Attribute
(see Predicate, Property).
Augustine, St., i 27, ii 370 f. ; God's
existence, ii 32, 55, 87, 94 n.,
.
and
logicalbeing,i 35,
171 ; being and
ii 137;
living,i
non-being, 448 ;
immaterial, 419;
limitation
beings
of, ii
443-
Bernouilli, ii 201 n.
Beneke, ii 471.
i 29, ii 267, 445,
Bentham,
477, 478.
Berengarius of Tours, ii 385.
ii 442.
of Chartres, ii 386.
of Tours, ii 386.
Bernard
Bernard
i 288
Bernheim,
n.
Bernier
of Nivelles, ii 410.
Bessarion, ii 421.
Augustinianism,ii
Authority,
Biran,
and
395.
i 21, 23 n., 31, ii 390 ;
i 399, ii 187 ; civil,
certitude
Ballanche,
to soul, i 314;
reincarnation, i 325 ;
resurrection, i 326.
Boethius, i 312, 431, ii 86, 381, 382..
Boethius
the Dacian, ii 410.
Bonnetty,
Bonum
i
n.,
232,
394
n.,
ii 33,
ii 474.
264, ii
Bossuet,
ii 474.
i 145
445.
213.
ii 30,
33,
102
n.,
103,
128,
435-
Bouillier,ii 484.
Boutroux,
of Messina,
Bradley,
ii 393,
484.
ii 417.
Thomas,
f.,204, 301 ; Plate, 335.
Bridges, ii 483.
ii 468.
Baumgarten,
i 30, ii 484.
ii
Bradwardine,
Brain, i 181
451
Beesley,ii 483.
Being, i 413 f. ; meanings,
as
object of knowledge,
of, 520
causes
Moralists, ii 444.
Broussais, ii 471.
Peter, ii 442.
Brown,
ii 477.
Thomas,
Brown,
Brucker, ii 452 n.
i 29,
Giordano,
Bruno,
British
Baumker, ii 482.
Bautain, i 30, ii 474.
Bayle, Pierre, ii 448.
Beatitude, ii 210 i., 219, 245.
Beaunis, i 288 n.
Beautiful,the, analysis and definition
of, i 564 f.
Bede, Venerable, ii 379-
kinds
relation
Jacob, ii 425.
Bolingbroke, Lord, ii
480.
Bauer,
de, ii 472.
Bohme,
ii 467.
BAADER,
von,
i 29, 50, ii 434.
Francis,
Bacon,
Bacon, Roger, ii 411 f.
Baer, von, ii 478.
Bain, i 212, ii 478.
Baldwin, Mark, ii 482.
Balfour, Arthur, ii 483.
Balmes,
Maine
Body, human,
origin,i 319
ii 336.
and
Bichat, ii 471.
Billot,i 487.
Billuart, ii 61, 63.
131-
possible, 422
receptivity and
48 ; contingent
God's
existence, ii 43 ;
and
existence in God,
ii
God's
self-subsistence, ii 61.
transcendental
attributes, i
essence
75 ;
251.
Associationism,
Continued.
"
real
63
Art
217,
529
of,
439
239
5- j
f. ;
f. ;
f- ;
436.
Buchez, ii 471.
Biichner, i 115, ii 483.
ii 344.
Buddhism,
Buffon, ii 447, 478Buhle, ii 462.
Buridan, John, ii 415-
ii 114,
423,
INDEX
530
Byzantine philosophy, i
393,
Cleanthes, ii 359.
of Alexandria, i 27, ii 370.
Clement
Clerselier,Claude, ii 435.
Clichtove, Josse, ii 427.
Clifford,\V. K., ii 484.
ii 445.
Burke, Edmund,
Butler, ii 444.
ii 391,
27,
4J3-
Cognition (seeKnowledge).
ii 471.
CABANIS,
Cohen, i 30.
ii 70, 83,
487,
431,
i 28, ii
Coimbra,
Coleridge,ii 460
ii 423.
428.
n.
Collectivism, ii 287 f.
Capitalism, ii 302 f
Capreolus, i 72, ii 416.
Combination
(seeCompound)
(see Senses).
ii 423.
Carlyle,ii
460 n.
of Cyrene,
Casuistry, ii 261.
Categorematic terms, ii 156.
Categories,ontological,i 492, ii 354 ;
ii 145 ; Kantian, i 378,ii 456.
logical,
Causality, principle of, i 375, 540
(see Cause).
Cause, general meaning, i 10, 525 ;
classification
com
of, n,
535;
parison between, 552 f ; effects of,
.
540 ;
f., 535 ;
257
and
14, 551 f ; cause
condition, 533 ; and occasion, 534 ;
accidental
and
effects, 546 ; and
exemplary,
occasionalism,
539,
303,
actio fitin passo ', 536 ;
ii
435 ;
'
an
argu
existence, ii 40 f. ;
for God's
ment
and
i 6,
10
Celsus, ii 364.
22,
towards
ii 445.
science,
23, 32.
Church, Fathers
369 f.
Cicero, ii 362.
Clarke, Samuel,
substance
and
unity,
and
accident,
4 53 ;
entitative,
i 52,
chemical,
Compound,
; real,
existence,
and
57,
103,
no.
Comprehension of ideas, i 5, ii
the syllogism,ii 172.
and
Comte,
Auguste, i 2, 29, 409,
ii 474
'
477
.,
of the
law
149
413,
three
Condillac, i
Condition
251,
29,
ii
446.
(seeCause).
Congreve,
ii
Connotation
Conscience,
483.
(see Comprehension).
ii
259
f. ;
and
God's
existence, ii 56 ; obligation of an
ii
262 ;
erroneous
conscience,
liberty of, ii 278, 337 ; and synteresis,ii 239, 259.
Consciousness, i 189 f. ; and person
ality,
strable
313,
269.
Conservation,
Content
ii
142
truths, i 388
;
;
indemon
free-will,i
ii 121.
Contingent things
as
argument
for
existence, ii 43 f., 51 f. ;
contingent judgment, ii 159, 162 n.
i 458.
Continuum,
107.
attitude
490
86.
of, i 450
essence
God's
of,
Cherbury, Lord Herbert
China, philosophy of, ii 344,
Chrysippus, ii 359.
Church,
of
435,
Cassiodorus, ii 381.
and
kinds
Composition,
438 f. ; of
i 361.
557;
sense
Common
Cardanus,
Carneades
Common
of
the, i 27,
ii 445.
33,
ii
INDEX
ii 426.
Coornhert,
Descartes."
72, ii
Cornificians, the, ii
Cornoldi, ii 486.
Copernicus, i
428.
388.
i 304
Vatican,
of
25 ;
Vienne,
ii 402.
n.,
Criteriology,i
f. ;
problems,
343
351 f. ; data, i 361.
of
Criterion
truth, i 363 f. ; of
ii
morality, 241.
Critical philosophy, German, ii 454 f
Distinction, i 434,
ii
its
Dogmatism
215,
n.,
216,
in.
i 285.
Dreams,
Drobisch, ii 470.
ii 89, 114
Dualism,
Bois-Reymond,
Du
Duhem,
Duns
Durandus
Durkheim,
ii
486
(seeScotus).
n.
i 286.
ii 486
f.
i 207.
ii 22.
Scotus
Dupont, ii 101
Maria,
f.
truth, i 357 f.
Order, i 28, ii 83, 125,
and
Doubt,
ii 391.
389.
Mandate,
Scotus, ii
and
""
i 25
234, ii 478.
David
the Armenian,
David
of Dinant, ii
De
ii 194 f.
ii 322.
and science, i 21
Dominican
Charles,
De
496
powers,
Dogma,
i 28.
Alighieri,
Delirium,
of,
i 37,
logical,
ii 391.
Decomposition,
kinds
445 ;
ii 473.
Darwin,
12
407.
Peter, ii 385.
Damiron,
Dante
between
essence
and
existence, i 435, ii 63 ; substance
and accident, i 489 ; substance
and
451,
Divorce,
Damian,
230
Dilthey,ii 484.
Diogenes of Apollonia, ii 345.
Dionysius the Areopagite (seePseudoDionysius).
Discursive
knowledge, ii 96, 136.
Disposition(seeHabit).
St., i 27.
Jerusalem,
DAMASCIUS,
evil, ii
Diderot, ii 447.
Dilemma, ii 181.
121.
ii 443.
Cyril of
and
good
.,
Cudworth,
Continued.
ii 61 ;
531
n.
n.
De'
and
i
body,
481,
stance,
ideas, 255,
367
f. ;
f., ii
541 ;
God's
M.S.P."
433
the
i 303
515 ;
259 ;
methodic
;
of
theory
doubt,
extrinsic
354
finality,i
Infinite, ii
II,
; sub
314
truth, 350,
on
existence,ii 30
VOL.
; and
10
and
essence,
ii 418.
ECKHART,
Eclecticism, ii 358, 361 ; of Cousin,
ii 472.
Education,
ii
318
f. ; and
State,
the
on, ii.470.
.,
103.
MM
'"
INDEX
532
225
of
f ;
ii 214
man,
morality, ii 231 ;
God's
glory,ii 254
tvepytia,i 307,
420,
ii 447.
of
basis
Extension
of
fa",
455Faith and
(seePurpose).
n, (seeHylo-
509
morphism)
Energism, theory of, i 54 n., 127 f.
English philosophy, i 29, ii 434, 439 f
410,
476 f.
Enneads,
Ens
.,
(see Being).
^reA^xetct, i 307,
ii 354. 356.
Enthemyme,
Envieu, Fabre
402,
509
n.,
513
n.,
ii 179, 186.
d', ii 474.
ii 179.
Epicheirema,
Epicurus, i 26,
50,
115,
166.
Erasmus, ii 426.
Ercole, d', ii 480.
Eric of Auxerre, ii 383.
Eriugena, John Scotus, ii 384.
Essence,
Fichte, i
463
species,148
Evolution,
moral
2,
234,
f ;
Fischer, Kuno,
;
ii 229 f
506, ii 371,
principles of
.
and
the
478
morality, ii 235, 241 f., 333 f.
(seeChange).
Example, as a probable argument,
.
ii
86.
Existence,
420,
434
ii 371.
333,
462,
ii
436
and
482.
dynamism,
Form
and
i 127,
134.
i
matter,
12
substantial
f ; classification of,
.,
77 ; the soul the form of the human
'
corporeitatis',
body, 307 ; forma
form
310,
Formal
76 f
99
408 (seeHylomorphism)
object,i 9, 238, ii 136.
ii
Fontenelle, ii 447.
Fouillee, i 30, ii 484.
Francis
of
Mayron, ii 415.
Sylvestris,i 28,
ii 427.
of Vittoria, ii 427.
Franciscan
Order, i 28, ii 394, 396,
Francis
Francis
401,
402, 407,
412, 427.
411,
Sebastian, ii 425.
Franck,
Fredegis, ii 382.
Free
action, i 265 f.
Freedom
Exemplarism,
329,
f.
and
infinite, i
indefinite,456.
essential
good,
Finite
definition, 192.
Eternity, definition, ii 86 ; of the
world, ii 42 ; of God, ii 86.
Ethics, 119, 20, ii 209.
Eucken, i 3, ii 484.
Eustachius, ii 364.
Everett, ii 484.
and
Evidence, immediate
mediate,
i 349, 386 f.,391 f.,ii 170.
Evil, i 470, ii 129, 372 ; moral
evil,
i 274 ; and
divine
Providence, ii
; and
ii 326,
29,
Sylvestris)
(seeTraditionalism).
Finality,i 114 (seePurpose).
and
220
n.,
ii 451.
and
i 190
Fideism
nature
n.
ii 444.
Ferguson, Adam,
ii
Ferrari,
483.
Ferrariensis
(seeFrancis
Feuerbach, ii 462, 468.
ii 360 f.
.
Eschenburg,
486
tone,
tive); feeling-
Equipollence, ii 166 n.
Equivalence of propositions,ii
ii
128
442.
Farges,
the, of Plotinus, ii 364
rationis
genus
ii 427.
STAPULENSIS,
Faculties, i 238 f., 259, 278, 291 i.,
classification
n.
of, 498 f. ;
;
509
modern
division, i 219,
tripartite
278, ii 451 ; in Kant's
system, ii
end,
supreme
; extension
FABER
the
(seeQuantity)
concepts, i 5, ii 149.
(seeLiberty).
ii 105
and
;
;
and
God's
foreknowledge,
God's
sovereignty,
INDEX
Free-will.
Continued.
"
moral
evil, 130 ; and
4 ; and
moral
obligation, 239 ; influences
12
225.
upon,
French
philosophy,
ii
29,
432,
f.
ii
and
150-2.
Gerbert, ii 382.
Gerbert, ii 474.
German
i 29,
ii 449
f.,
ii 393.
Salomon,
Ben
ii 8 ;
ontological argu
46 f. ; unicity of,
ii 29,
88 f. ; God's
ment,
53,
metaphysical
i 68
definition,
no
105
will
and
in
of
man,
plicit
108
f. ;
203
and
the
the
end
ii 216, 232
of
God,
knowledge
and
moral
and
God's
i 325,
sanctions, 245
other
im219
Kant
views,
363,
ii
32 ;
'
Happiness,
n.
493 f.
ii 216
Harper, i 407
Harris, ii 484.
ii
483.
f., 245.
n.
Hartley, David,
Von,
Hartmann,
ii 442.
i 29,
ii 255,
470,
484.
ii
Haureau,
Hauy.
482.
i 25 n., 61.
Hearing,
free-will,
human
God,
perfections of, in
end
of philosophy,
|
im86 ;
and
knowledge
i
ii
immensity,
f ;
infinity,72
j 79 f- ; omnipresence, 81 ;
;
mutability, 84 ;
eternity,
activity of, 91 f. ; creation
;
394,
Harrison, ii 483.
ii
f. ;
f. ;
ii 59
of, ii 61
nature,
essence
simplicity,65
417.
ii 451, 463.
Hamilton, Sir W., ii 476.
Hamy, 1319-
f. ;
29
ii
Hamann,
262,
254,
of,
; notion
of, ii 7 f ; and
existence
proofs, ii
ii 468
i 115, 234,
Hallucination, i 285.
cognoscibility of,
truth, i 348
; and
n.,
i 275,
HABITS,
Haeckel,
de
Giles of Rome,
ii 406, 407, 416.
Gioberti, i 30, 253, ii 24, 474, 480.
Gnosticism, i 27, ii 370.
ii
f.
Guido
Gunther, i 304
ii
ii 345
400.
God,
moral
evil, ii
ii 254 ; the
Gunclissalinus, Dominicus,
Gerson, ii 416.
Gilbert
duty,
f.
Gerson
and
transcendenta'
philosophy, i 26,
Grotius
philosophy,
461
f. ;
ii 71 ;
and
;
ii 442.
species,ii
468
i 316.
Generationism,
Gentile, ii 484.
Genus
Goschel, ii 468.
Greek
being,
end, ii 2*54
supreme
;
degrees of
moral
goodness, ii 255 ; Platonic
'
Idea of the Good
',ii 350.
Gorgias, i 26, ii 348.
364.
Gay, John,
and
229
Gall, ii 471.
Gallon, Francis, i 248.
ii 473.
Gamier,
Gases, kinetic theory of, i 63.
Generatio
Fries, ii 470.
GALEN,
533
i 192.
Heart, i 225.
ii 233
Hedonism,
f.,266.
ii
266,
467 f. ; and
Hegel,
ii
S
tate,
326,
333.
Spirit-
the
i 29,
Hell, ii 245 f.
ii 19.
Helmholtz,
Helvetius, ii 191, 449.
Henry of Brabant, ii 394.
Henry of Ghent, i 28, 72, ii 406. 407.
Heraclitus, i 26, 49. 524. " 346 fHerbart, i 280, ii 462, 469, 470.
Herbert
of
Cherbury,
Lord
Cherbury).
ii 452, 463,
Heredity, i 177.
Herder,
478.
Hermes,
ii 394ii 468 n.
Hermes
Trismegistus,ii 364.
Herman,
(see
INDEX
534
of
Herve
Nedellec, ii 415.
ii 435.
Heydanus,
Historical
certitude, i 399.
ii 440
Hobbes,
; i 29, ii 231,
266,
233,
Holbach,
Home,
Huet,
ii
482,
i 249.
possibilis,
i 250,
256 f
Intentio, ii 138 n.
Intuition, i 253.
i 27.
of Seville, ii 379.
Isidore
n.
431
Henry,
ii 445.
ii 435.
Hugh
Huxley, i 234,
Hylomorphism,
3"7.
agens,
Intellectus
Irenaeus,
328, 444.
Hoffding,
Intellectus
ii 233,
i
anet, Paul,
oachim
ohn
47,
71
n.,
f.,
73
528, ii 354.
507.
Hypnotism, i 228.
Hypostasis, i 484.
Hypothesis, ii 198, 201.
Hypothetical necessity, i 246,
372,
"ii159, 173.
Hypothetical
syllogism,
ii 180.
i 280, ii 236,
ii 252, 254,
Floris, ii 389.
William,
ames,
391.
de
VI
i 29,
Cantacuzenus,
485.
484.
ii 413.
de
n.,
ii 427.
Scotus
Eriugena
n.,
(seeScotus)
John
Jouffroy, i 29, ii 55, 473.
Jouvencel, de, i 115.
of Hegel, 467.
Joyce, ii 161 n.
Idea, simplicity and
universality, Judgment, i 36, 347, ii 142, 157 f. ;,
i 4, 246 f ; and image, 248 n. ; as
i 371,
in necessary
matter,
375,
ii 159 ; objectivity of judgments,
habit, 260 ; innate, 253, 255, ii 350,
i 362 f. ; and free-will, i 265 f., ii
443 (see Concepts, Knowledge).
Identity, i 449 ; logical, ii 150 ;
judgments, ii 236 f.,
224 ; moral
i
principle of, 387.
(see Proposition).
244, 260;
Ideology,i 17.
Justin, St., i 27.
Ignoratio elenchi, ii 190.
ii 348 ;
life and works, i 29, ii 454 f. ;
and
KANT,
Image, i 188, 211,
influence
on
thought, i 243, 247.
English literature, ii
Imagination, 1189, 21 if.,243, 248, 256.
460 n. ; analytic judgments, ii^
Immanent
action, i 170, 537.
synthetic a priorijudgments,
455
i
f.
i
161, 455;
Immortality,
369, 373 f-,.ii
321
351,
ii 455 ;
forms
of
intuition,
Impenetrability,i 93.
pure
transcendental
aesthetic, 455 ; tran
Imperative, categorical, i 366, ii
scendental
analytic, 456 ; tran
248, 249, 457.
scendental
Independent morality, ii 256.
apperception of the ego,
Indifferent
moral
'real'
acts, ii 233, 253.
456;
logic, i 343, ii 139;
i 377 f., 381 f. ;
Individuation, i 428 f.
phenomenalism,
Induction, i 37, 395 f., ii 198 f. ;
categories, i 378, ii 456 ; con
methods
the
and
of, ii 199 ;
ception of relation, i 502, a priori
relations, ii 456 ; space and time,
syllogism,200 ; Socratic induction,
ii 349 ; fallacies
i 26
of
in
ii 455 ; the
i 382,
categorical
n.,
duction, ii 1 88.
imperative ; i 366, ii 248, 249,
IDEALISM, of Plato, i 253, ii 350 ; of
Fichte, ii 463 ; of Schelling.465 ;
"
Infinite, ii 69, 72 f.
man's
highest good,
and
knowledge
f. ; and
ii 241
260
of the
moral
(seeKnowledge).
moral
of the
Practical
autonomy
moral
i 366, ii 248 ; and
per
duty, ii 238, 247 f. ; human
sonalityand rights,ii 265, 266, 267 ;
457
Reason,
belief, ii 276 ; im
ii 16, 458 ; the
of God, ii 10, 46, 457 ; on
existence
the
State, ii 330, 333 ; influence,
i 409, 413, 481, ii 28, 461 f.,484 ;
necessity
f.
ii 217
;
;
order,
ii
conduct,
material
neo-
of
being,
INDEX
a
category, ii 147, 354.
Kepler, i 25 n., 72, ii 428.
Kilwardby, Robert, ii 402, 406.
Kinetic
theory of gases, i 63 f.
Kleutgen, ii 83, 119, 486 n.
Knowledge, stages of, i 6 ; spon
8 ;
sensuous
taneous,
cognition,
187 f. 195 ; intellectual : material
formal
and
object, 238 f. ; from
sense-data
and
uni
yet abstract
f. ; the
of uniact
versal, 240
versalization, ii 172 ; Scholastic
theory,
i 17,
f. ;
249
cognitional
determinant,
f., 252 f.,
195,
249
active
f. ;
256
intellect, 250,
criterion
of
truth, 363 f. ; ob
jectivity of
369 ;
judgments,
Thomistic
the
realism,
379 ;
categories, ii 146 ; scientific sysii 191
f. ;
attain
temization,
of scientific
ment
knowledge, 204 ;
spiritualityof the soul, i
man's
296 ;
knowledge
highest
exercise, ii 217 ; man's
knowledge
and
the
of
self, i
ii
ii
261
f. ;
f ; and
93
His
of
God's
'
God,
scientia
media
foreknowledge
of
knowledge
ii
352
of
Historical
ii
', 97 ;
human
theories
Platonism,
262,
knowledge,
free-acts, 105.
i 253,
Augustine, ii 371 ;
Descartes, i 255, ii 433 ; ontologism,
i 253,
441 ;
idealism
ii 24 ; Hobbes,
i 374,
Kant,
ii
Krause,
St.
440 ; Locke,
ii 161, 455 ;
Lange,
Lao-Tse,
276,
298,
ii 56,
of
moral
law,
30, ii 484.
n.,
sis),ii
364
implies
ideas, i 282.
ii 344.
ii 436
29,
f. ;
tion, i
280
God's
31 ; and
essence,
i 481, 516.
ii 61
existence, ii
; substance,
Leo
n.,
Lessing, ii 452.
Lessius, ii
101.
Liberty, meaning,
275
re
i 30,
Liebmann,
484.
n.
general,
165
animal.
life,ii 271
f.
Lilienfeld, ii 333.
Lipps, ii 481.
Lipsius, Justus (Joest Lips),ii
Littre, i 29, ii 233,
Localization
of
413.
422.
475.
sensations, i
201
f.,
204.
ii48i.
Lombroso,
ii 225.
Laplace, ii 478.
Lorenzelli, ii 486
Lassalle,ii 304.
Lavoisier,i 25 n., 49, 276, ii 428.
Law, physical, i 397, 545, ii 200 ;
natural
law, meaning and charac
ter of, ii 263 f
268 ; origin of
ii 449 ;
rights,ii 265 ; Rousseau,
positive law, ii 264, 268 ; moral
Lotze,
.,
244
427.
human
280, ii 483.
f. ;
236
ii
Life, in
sanction
466.
ii 8.
i 116
Continued.
law,
Liegeois,i 288
Lacordaire, ii 474.
Ladd, ii 484.
Lafitte, ii 475.
Lalo, ii 480.
Lamarck, i 215, ii 478.
La Mennais, de, i 22, 30, 363, ii 474.
La
Mettrie, de, ii 447, 449.
Lang,
Law."
of Fichte, 463.
LAAS, ii 483.
basis
the
of ownership, ii
Labour,
282 ; labour-value, ii 298, 306.
Lachelier,i
535
ii
n.
484.
i 3, 31, ii 435.
Lucretius, ii 360 f.
Lugo, de, i 400, ii 271.
Louvain,
Lully, Raymond,
ii 425.
Lyell, ii 47*"-
Luther,
487-
ii 412.
536
INDEX
ii 423.
MACCHIAVELLI,
Mach, i 139.
Mackintosh,
Sir
J.,ii 476
n.
i 286.
Madness,
Magic, ii 423.
Magnen, i 50.
Maher, i 256 n.
Maimon,
Salomon, ii 463.
Moses
Maimonides,
(seeMoses).
Maisonabe, ii 299.
Maistre, Jos: de, ii 474.
i 253, 303, 516, 539,
Malebranche,
ii
Mandeville, ii 445.
ii 482.
Mandonnet,
Manegold of Lautenbach, ii 385.
ii 114.
Manicheism,
Mansel, ii 476.
Mansion, Paul, i 25 n.
Marriage, ii 316 f ; perpetuity
122
Marsilius
ii 299,
sanction
439, 471.
and
ii 402.
Aquasparta,
364.
ii
Mechanical
facts, i 63.
i 249
f., 116,
Mechanism,
mechanical
conception
of
545,
verse,
applied
to
Melchior
Cano,
Memory,
i 190,
215
ii 235
as
neo-
i 54 n., 137.
de', ii 421.
389.
407
Michael
i 27.
of Morbaix,
ii 409.
569
'
'
pendent
'
an
'
'
'
argument
for
God's
existence,
ii 56.
Sense
Moral
425,
i 226.
ii 147.
436.
NANCY
i 289.
SCHOOL,
i
ii
484.
Natorp, 30,
f., 519
f.,
325, ii 344.
ii
f.
Method,
196
doubt,
; methodic
i 354 ; St. Thomas's
method, i 34.
Methodius,
253
Mendelssohn, ii 451.
Mercier, Cardinal, ii 487.
Merit, ii 251.
Merseune, ii 435.
21,
spontaneous,
ii 425.
ii 427.
Metaphysics, i 17,
ii 4, 137, 482.
Metempsychosis, i
society,
acts, 233,
aesthetics,
'
Miiller, Max,
217,
of
525 ;
of the uni
instinct,
morality,
mechanism,
Medici, Cosmo
Meier, ii 451.
Melanchthon,
and
'
inde
organic morality ', 242 ;
secular
;'
morality, 256
or
lay
morality, 257 ; moral
law
obligation, ii 238 ; moral
as
(see Hylomorphism),
basis
as
'
'
Maximus,
of
source
instinct
moral
moral
or
sense
',
ii 241, 444 ; Hobbes
and utilitarian
ism, ii 233,
234, 440 ; sociological
and
pragmatist morality, ii 236 ;
306.
f.,90 f.
335,
the
as
indifferent
'
In Plato, ii 351 ;
74, 528.
Aristotle, 73 f.
Materia
secunda, ii 528.
Materialism, i 115, 234,
251,
300,
Matthew
of, 244
morality
i 12,
ii 114,
'
336
300,
prima
n.,
of,
of
i 53, 55
121
rights, 268
Mass,
n.,
Montpellier, school
Ficino, ii 421.
Marx,
ii 421.
ii 69
n.,
n.,
Moral
Inghen, ii 415.
Marston, Roger, ii 411, 412.
Martianus
Capella, ii 381.
Martineau, James, ii 480.
Materia
i 32
321.
Marsilio
Monopsychism,
Monsabre,
435, 439-
law, teleologicalconception
of, i 545 ; three meanings of, 548;
of, ii
necessity of, 548 ; character
of
263, 268 ; as the foundation
Rousseau's
theory
Society, 335 ;
of Right, 331 ; Grotius, 424.
Naturalism, of Aristotle, i 525 ; of
the Renaissance, ii 422.
Natural
INDEX
meaning of, i 483, 544,
Nature,
being
as
good,
i 219
nature,
'
466
'
the
523 ;
f ., ii 49 ;
557
movement
stability in,
nature,
ii 212
the
and
and
order
of
mechanical
and
teleological
explanations, i
114
f., 541
73,
f., 545.
in
', i 371,
matter
necessary
ii
Nervous
ii 372.
theory
New
i 25 n., 29,
92,
the
241.
Oriental philosophy,
ii 343,
Origen, i
State,
428, 455.
ii393.
Nicholas
413.
of Autrecourt, ii 417.
Cabasilas, ii 413.
Nicholas
of Cusa,
Nicholas
391.
Otto
of
Freising,ii 387.
Ownership,
titles
to
theories
:
of, ii 279
occupancy,
307,
ii
418.
(Niphus), ii
i 277,
ii 129.
Paralogism,
421.
Nirvana, ii 344.
Nominalism, i 251, 379, ii 283.
i 378, ii 456.
Noumenon,
Novalis, ii 465.
i 85 n., 456.
Number,
ii 364.
Numenius,
ii 188.
Passion, i 220
object of
;
;
i 191.
Objectivityof sensations, i 202 ; of
judgments, 362 f. ; of concepts,
proper
sense,
f-
Obversion,
Ockham,
ii 166
William
Ockhamist
school, ii 415,
Paulsen, ii 484.
Peano, ii 482.
Peccham,
John,
i
Percept,
Perception, i
405, 406.
f.,175 f.,207 f.
188
f. ;
kinds
of, 563,
perfection and
existence, 46 f. ; perfection
9 ;
God's
427.
417,
ii
ii 402,
211.
562
grades
Perfection,
n.
(seeEmotion)
178, ii 21.
n., 279
i 25 n.,
Patrizzi, ii 423.
Pasteur,
of
Occasion, i 534.
Occasionalism, i 303, 539, ii 435.
69, 72 ; of man,
217 f.
i
26,
the,
71, ii 361.
Peripatetics,
Occupancy, ii 307.
Perry, ii 485.
Persecution, ii 278
Occultism, ii 423.
Odo
of Tournai, ii 382.
Oken, ii 465, 466.
Olivi, Peter John, ii 402.
Onto logical argument,
the, ii
46 f.
of God,
29
f.,
and
final cause,
intelligent
purpose
n.
Person,
and
f. ;
pre
Palmieri, ii 120 n.
Pantheism, ii 114, 116, 343, 364, 389 ;
of
Scotus
Eriugena, 384 ; Gior
dano
Bohme,
Bruno, 114, 423;
Spinoza, 114, 436; Hegel,
425;
326.
Paracelsus, ii 423.
Paradox, ii 191.
Nicole, ii 435.
Nietzsche, ii 485.
564
ii
Ostwald,
Oswald, James, ii 444.
Otloh
of St. Emmeram,
ii 385.
PAIN,
ii
Nicephorus Blemmides,
Nicephorus Gregoras, ii
377
of
333,
3H-
system, i 181 f.
Philosophy ',ii 26, 40.
Newton,
Nifo
Organism,
scription,
308, will,3 1 1, inheritance,
159-
Nemesius,
'
537
logical
of
the
ii 255.
Pessimism,
i 28, 33, ii 39"Lombard,
Peter of Maricourt, ii 412.
Peter of Poitiers, ii 39"de la Ram6e
(Petrus.Ramus),
Peter
Peter
ii 421.
of Tarantaise, ii 402.
ii 19"Petitio principii,
Aureolus, ii 414.
Petrus
Peter
Petrus
Hispanus,
Phantasm,
i 243,
Phenomenalism,
ii
ii
408.
257.
i 2, 303,
482.
i 378, ii 45"Phenomenon,
Philo, i 27, ii 364.
378, 478.
538
INDEX
the
the
name,
Philosophy,
'
n.
first
philosophy
;
'
of
ii 409,
of, ii
442
utilityof the
341
Greek
f. ;
f. ;
369
history
philosophy, i
Patristic, i 27, ii
Oriental, ii 343,
391 ;
26, ii 345
i 94
Power,
scope
Actual).
Pragmatism,
ii 236, 485.
Predicables, ii 147.
Predicaments, ii 146.
Predicate, ii 145.
Premotion, physical,ii 127
Prescription,ii 308 f.
Priestley,Joseph, ii 442.
Primary
matter,
74, 528, ii 73 f.
i 12,
(see Hylomorphism)
Principle; general meaning,
.
i 6, 10,
and
Jewish,
473.
27,
ii
i 30,
31,
375
485
27"
5".
72,
i 29, ii 431
f. ;
f ;
.
Scholastic,
Renaissance, i
neo-
ii 419
f ;
Modern,
f. ; English, i 29, ii
.
i
f., 476 f. ; German,
ii
f.
i
f.,
French,
461
29,
;
449
29,
ii 432,
446 f., 471 f ; contem
434,
439
ii 481 f
porary,
'
4 ;
ancient
60
theories, i 49 ; atomists,
Aristotle, 71, 73 f.,409, ii 355.
Physiocrats, ii 333.
Physiology, i 181 f.
d'Abano, ii 417.
Place, i i5of ; as a predicament, ii 147.
Plato, life and works, i 26, ii 350 ;
theory of idea, i 253, ii 350 f. ;
ultra-realism, ii 48, ii 350 ; phy
sics,ii 351 ; on the soul, i 304, 314,
the State, ii 351 ;
317, ii 352 ; on
on
God, ii 351 ; ethics, ii 352 ;
influence, i 359 ii 364 f., 381,
421 ; neo-Platonism, ii 364 f.
Pleasure, i 277 f. ; as the end of life,
ii 233 f ; aesthetic
pleasure,i 565.
Pietro
Pletho
Plutarch
of Cheronea, ii 363.
Poincare, H., ii 22, i 54 n.
Poiret, ii 436.
Poisson, ii 210
n.
Polysyllogism, ii 179.
Polytheism, ii 88.
Pomponazzi, ii 421.
Porphyry, i 27, ii 364, 366, 381, 382 ;
logicaltree, ii 150.
Port
Royal logicians,ii 196 n., 435.
Positivism, i 2, 251, 395, ii 16, 233,
483 ; refutation, i 244, 251, 372 ;
in France, ii 472, 474 ; in England,
477and
Possibility,extrinsic
intrinsic,
i 422, ii 32 ; St. Augustine, ii 32 ;
and
God, ii 97.
ii 186
Proper, object,i
57,
i
191
82
;
;
f.
idea, ii 153.
f., ii 147, 148
f ; and
induc
tion, 396, ii 198 ; transcendental
properties,i 443 i.
diversity of,
'
formative
Privation, ii 151.
Probabilism, ii 261.
Probable
arguments,
Proclus, ii 366.
Proof, i 37, ii 183.
Properties,i
ii iQi
553.
120
38i.
305,
f.
541
and
i 557
manifest
order,
561
intelligence,
and
in the
universe, 73,
and
morality,
ii 236
f. ;
in
Kant, ii 459.
ii 361.
INDEX
539
Quantity, definition, i 84
85 f
kinds
of,
divisibilityof,
79 ; really
distinct from
substance, 86 ; and
individuation, 427 ; and the soul,
.
a
299 ; as
predicament, ii 146.
Quatrefages, de, i 319, ii 8.
Quiddity, i 241.
Roberty, de,
ii
ii 447
Robinet,
483.
Roland
Bandinelli, ii 390.
Romanes, i 215, ii 479, 484.
Roscelin, ii 385, 387.
Rosmini, i 30, ii 3 n., 24, 480.
i 29, ii 230,
Rousseau,
267 ; the
social contract
', ii 281, 328 f.
'
ARDENS,
RADULFUS
ii 390.
449-
Royce,
Reaction-
Russell, Bertrand,
i 200.
f
time,
ii 385,
.,
and
faith,
and
as
cause,
i
6,
f., 402,
21
387, 468
senses,
sufficient
i 173
reason,
553
ii 23,
and
;
409 ;
the
of
n.
f.
(see Syl
ad absurdum,
ii 185.
Reflection, i 6, 258, 297, 407, ii 153.
i 226.
movement,
503 ; between
165 f.
Relative
ii
Remke,
propositions,
ii
ii
.,
431-
; the
'
two
; and
morality, ii
and
truths
473.
Reverie, i 286.
Reward, i 269, ii 244, 252.
Rhabanus
Maurus, ii 379, 383.
Ribot, i 213, 280, ii 483.
Richard
ii 402.
of Middletown,
Richard
of
St.- Victor,
fession,273,
ii 390,
to choose
272,
of opinion,275;
Family,316!
480.
462.
ii 236, 485.
Schiller, Ferdinand,
Schiller,Friedrich, ii 453, 462.
ii
; of the
191
pro
of the
State, 324 f.
ii 255,
f.,204.
Sciences,
and
391.
i 29,
philosophy,
and
particular,
and
415 ; material
e
speculate
objects,9, 45 :
in,
ii 138 ; method
31, 407,
practical,
ii 194,
ii
i 7, 20,
formal
Riehle, ii 483.
to work,
Saint-Simon, ii 474.
Saisset, ii 473.
Schopenhauer, ii 469;
462.
Schulze, ii 463.
i 178, 184.
Schwann,
Renan, ii 28 n.
Renard, ii 289, 296, 298.
Reneri, ii 435.
Renouvier, i 30, 365, ii 484.
Resurrection, i 326, ii 222.
Revelation
and
science, i 21 f.
256
n.
466, 467.
465, 466.
Schlosser, ii 462.
382.
(seeMemory).
philosophy, 32
Geoff roy, i 25
de, ii 471.
Schlegel,ii
484.
of Auxerre,
Reminiscence
Saint-Hilaire,
Saint-Lambert,
Schleiermacher,
ideas, ii 152.
Remigius
SABATIER, ii 28 n.
ii 473.
Saint-Hilaire, Barthelemy,
religious,448.
ii 485.
Ruysbroeck, Bl. John, ii 416.
Salmeron,
Reductio
Reflex
421.
ii 485.
10,
faculty, ii 143
i 284 ;
the
principle
484.
Riidiger,ii 452.
Rudolf
Agricola,ii
Ruge, ii 468.
(seeUniversal); neo-realism,
Reason,
ii
197
f.
Scientia media of God, ii 97Scot, Michael, ii 394Scottish School, i 29, 365. 395. " 444.
476 ; influence, 471, 472- 483Scotus,
Duns,
i 28, 31"
"
I2"
83, 217, 396, 4"7 *"" 4.M. 4*5Scotus, Eriugena, John, ii 384.
Secchi, i 25
n.
6l-
INDEX
540
ii
Secretan,
Soul.
484.
Self-defence, ii 270.
of, 205
nature
certitude, 397
and
sentient
317
f. ;
f ;
.
f., 330
nature
f.
n.
of the
subject, 229
Sensationalism
(see Sensism).
Senses, i 184 f. ; external
senses,
190 f. ; organs,
184 ; nature, 206
internal
mon
sensibles, 194,
;
veracity of"
284 f.
Sensism, i 247, 251, 365 ; in France,
ii 446, 471 ; Hobbes,
440.
Sensitive
life, i 179
f., 233 ; the
subject of, 206 ; first principle of,
229 f ; and intellective life,284 f ;
and
moral
free-will, ii 225 ; and
397
; and
203
reason,
duty,
241.
Sentiment,
of
religionof, ii
28 ;
sentiment,
241
moral
losophy, ii 451.
ii 486 n.
Sertillanges,
Sextus
Empiricus, ii 362.
Shadworth
Hodgson, ii 484.
Shaftesbury, ii 444.
Sidgwick, Henry, ii 482.
Siger of Brabant, ii 406, 410.
Siger of Courtrai, ii 409.
Sight, i 191.
Silvester Maurus,
ii 428.
Simon, Jules,ii 473.
Simplicity,notion of, i 454 ;
soul, i 299
ideas, i
of
God,
ii 65
theory
phi
;
the
of
f. ;
ii 445.
f.
348.
established
291
ii 479
f.; i
29,
Leibniz's
harmony,
303 ;
casionalism, 303 ; origin of,
145,
214, 234,
213,
and
substance, i 482, 516.
Spirit(seeSoul).
Spontaneous, appetition, i 219
movement,
227 ; generation,i
of, ii 325-338 ;
State, theories
creation
of
rights, 266 ;
atheistic
State ', 448.
f. ;
177.
and
'
its
and
477
ii 150,
genera,
the
n.,
151.
form,
preoc
233,
12,
511
;
173 ; substantial
and
properties,
quantity, 87
and
accident,
first substance,
414 f.,
determinations,
f.,487
f. ;
;
second
erroneous
172 f. ;
material
substance,
views, i 480 ;
body and soul,
spiritual,
428 ; its
496 ; cognoscibility,261 ;
powers,
as
object of metaphysics, 418,
519 ; called nature, 483, 544 ; and
295
God, ii 95.
Spencer, Herbert,
307
ii
perception of,
prioriform, 382.
ii 348 ; biological,
Species, atomic,
i 233 f.,ii 148 n. ; chemical, i 59 ;
logical,i 40, ii 148 f. ; human
species: origin,1234 f. ; unity, 319.
Species expressa, sensibilis, i 195,
205 ; intelligibilis,
195, 252 f. ; in
426
482, ii 146
organic, i
287.
Sophism, ii 188.
Sophists, the, i 26,
f. ;
150
an
419,
Solger,ii 466.
Somnabulism,
stantial
Contract
Socialism
not
change, 98,
82 f., 496 f
n.
29,
i 86,
202
Social
Space,
.,
of
4.
Smedt, de, i 24
Smith, Adam, i
325-
senses,
sense,
316
Seneca,
general
Conti nued.
"
f. ;
purpose,
and
individuation,
561.
Suffering,ii 129.
Suggestion, i 287,
Suicide, i 275;
Sully,James,
'
290.
cosmic
suicide ',ii256.
i 305.
Sulzer, ii 451.
Summum
Bonum,
ii 71.
INDEX
ii 222,
Supernaturallife,i 327,
Suppositum, i 484.
ii
Tongiorgi, i
245.
418.
logicalbasis of,
figures and
;
moods,
174 ; rules of, 174 f. ; and
truth, ii 177, 182 ; kinds of, 178 f.
and
induction, 200.
Sylvester of Ferrara, i 72.
Syncategorematic terms, ii 156.
i 29, 213,
Taparelli,ii 252,
Taste, i 194.
Tracy, Destutt
i 262, ii n.
Transcendence,
i
f. ;
Transcendentals,
443
generic notions, ii 153.
i 234 f.
of the soul, i 325.
i 87, 489.
Transubstantiation,
ii 475.
n.,
ii
137
i 346,
Three
terion
ii 414.
f.
ii 451.
Thales
of Miletus, i 26, 49, ii 345.
Theism, ii 425 ; 448.
Tetens,
Theodicy,
Theodoric
Theodoric
Theology
between,
'
the
Theodicy)
on
the
unity, i 532 ; on
(seeSoul) ; on time, i 145
f. ;
life, 170
i 431
on
logic,ii
139,
the
induction, 396 ; on
of God, ii 35 f. ; attitude
persecution,ii
Thomasius,
Thomists
individuation,
on
140 ; on
existence
towards
n.
279
ii 452.
and
free-will,ii 126.
Thompson, W., i
Thought, i 4, 301
ality,i 296.
Thought-reading,
Tiberghien, ii 78,
177.
;
matter,
pound,
proof of spiritu
pound,
;
174
of
81
of
species,i
human
dental.
'"
*"
455predfcamental,
the,
Universal,
f
tran"
319;
452
ii 150;
382 f-
"
moderate
terminism,
281
com
of
scendental
779
primary
chemical
'"
and
f. ;
24"
reahsm-
4-
"
5"
order
254.
of
P^uUar*"
syllogism
11
of, ii 49
rights, 266
J. S. Mill, 477-
M7-
Toland, John,
143.
211.
ii 452 n.
Tiedemann,
Time, i 86, 145 f. ; not an a priori
form, i 382 ; as a predicament, ii
Tindal, Matthew,
354-
of composition.
104;
substantial com
of
57,
453
449
of
75 ;
Universe,
i
"
Understanding, i 260, ii
Unicity, i 449Unity, i 85, 132, 446;
body
principle of
the soul
on
ii 474.
i 253,
synthesis, ii 403, i 30 ;
and
form, i 73 f ; form,
matter
483-
479
Ulrici,ii 468.
of
Thomas,
St., of Aquin, passim, life
and
works, i 28, 34 f.,ii 403 ; on
philosophy, i 8, 15 n., 30 f. ; the
Thomistic
n.
theory
80, 442
(see
376
', ii
truths
two
i 29.
ii 341
of Chartres, ii 386.
of Freiburg, ii 410.
and
philosophy, relations
f.,ii
Turgot,
Turner,
UBAGHS,
ii 366.
i 17, ii 3 f.
i 21
logical,
;
460 ; transcendental, 461 f. ;
Primary Truths, 357 ; cri
of, 363 f. ; in the judgment,
logical and
onto
Tyndall, John, ii
Tyrannio, ii 362.
Tertullian, i 27.
Themistius,
idea
f. ;
346
ii 168 ;
346, 362 f. ; in propositions,
in the syllogism,177 ; capacity of
i 371, 386 ; as
to know,
the mind
twofold, ii 410, 442.
406.
154
Truth,
486.
logical,ii
and
Transmigration
Telesio, ii 422.
Terms,
22,
i 316, ii 371.
Traducianism,
Tauler, ii 418.
Teleology (see Purpose).
Telepathy, i 290.
Terminism,
f., ii
363
Transformism,
248
ii
i 30,
473-
202.
197,
231,
Templier, Stephen,
ii 462.
Tenemann,
de, ii 471.
Traditionalism,
259.
193,
TAINE,
357.
Torricelli,ii 428.
Touch, i 194.
Syllogism, ii 170 f. ;
182
ii 171,
i 391,
Synteresis,ii 240,
Synthesis, ii 143,
541
ii 445.
ii 445.
Vaihinger.
30.
Bentham,
445
',
INDEX
542
Valency,
Valla,
56,
ii
Lorenzo,
i
Vasquez,
ii
Vera,
ii
72,
452
185,
Will
Vitalism,
ii
319.
ii
240.
i
moderate,
gerated,
172,
f.
172
of
310;
Vogt,
ii
ii
Volkelt,
ii
Volney,
de,
of
Champeaux,
William
of
Conches,
de
la
de
Moerbeke,
William
of
ii
29,
WAGNER,
ii
469
Wakefulness,
Walter
Ward,
Weber's
A.
of
ii
R.,
ii
James,
Law,
Van,
i
55,
59,
Weisse,
ii
Whole,
metaphysical
485.
ii
Fichte,
407,
29,
460
463.
450.
ii
aeterno,
ii
42
49.
ii
305,
ii
n.
ab
558,
30,
ii
ZELLER,
198.
64,
417.
481.
26.
386.
484.
ii
352
77
n.
107,
127,
194.
and
logical,
ii
482
359
n.,
Zeno
of
Citium,
Zeno
of
Elea,
Zigliara,
ii
Zimara,
ii
62
Zwingli,
; i 26
n.,
ii
ii
376
n.,
425.
50
n.,
ii
486
470.
n.
ii
26,
26,
421.
Zimmermann,
ii
XENOPHANES,
ii
394.
482.
ii
ii
415,
285.
467.
150.
Wilbois,
478.
Mortagne,
Weddingen,
Weight,
of,
33,
413,
411.
of,
Wundt,
n.
state
Wallace,
ii
creation
order
406.
i
Christian,
World,
448.
387.
386,
386.
ii
of
Wordsworth,
471.
ii
Ockham,
ii
Wolff,
ii
f.
108
401.
ii
Mare,
ii
Witelo,
480.
Voltaire,
William
Wissenschaftslehre
263
ii
311.
ii
Auvergne,
Windelband,
219,
God,
ii
testament,
of
William
f.
acts,
happi
Free-will).
and
William
483.
Volition,
in
will
its
supreme
exag
421.
of
man's
217
faculties,
other
and
Telesio,
422.
Viv6s,
ii
William
422.
f.
knowledge
and
(see
190.
da,
i 292,
Virtue,
389
428.
n.
f.
291
83,
i 263
the,
ness,
ii
Leonardo
Virchow,
ii
ii
circle,
Vinci,
420.
480.
Vicious
Vico,
Will,
109.
359.
347.
n.
n.,
ii
349
n.,
APPENDIX
TO
THE
OF
BY
PROF.
The Manual
M.
ALFRED
NYS
RAHILLY,
here translated
stereotyped. Some
COSMOLOGY
footnotes
M.A., B.Sc.
was
presumably
1913 (e.g.,
and
M.
few
inserted
a
the
54,
were
translators
Nys),
139, by
pp.
by
(e-g-"
circumstances
it
PP- 75. 85). Owing to the present abnormal
became
a
fter
the
of
the
impossible,
inception
translation,to com
municate
freelywith M. Nys. The section on Cosmology appears,
revision which
therefore, without
scientific research
recent
any
it
is
Of
in an elemen
moot
a
whether
might suggest.
course
point
tary text -book such as the present it is desirable to introduce a
discussion of the latest, and
conclusions of
perhaps disputable,
were
on
science.
It is
certain,however,
consulted,
directly
perhaps
seemed
would
immediate
volume.
the
the
author
of M.
views
only
in the
had
Cosmologie.
of his statements
some
In
change
to withhold
has
been
has
been
delayed
until
possible.Unfortu
(translatedbelow)
beginningof the War
and revised edition of his larger
N eo-Scolastique
Revue
of the
Mercier.
a
not
and
briefest form
in the
press
last
the
Nys
essential
been
decision justified
by the
of
first
the
edition
English
"
present volume
letter to Cardinal
short
of the
exhaustion
expressionof the
nately they appear
a
of the War
end
issue of the
The
an
in
modified
of his arguments.
as
no
some
necessitated,the translators decided
recast
to be
almost
until
publication
the
have
that
new
number
At
the
circumstances
a
note
Dr.
to the
Nys
is in
the
section
no
edition be called
his section and
translators have
on
asked
Cosmology.
the
It must
be
understood
render
this note
to add
presentwriter
that
another
to revise
unnecessary.
the
'
"
[543]
APPENDIX
motion
'. The
motions,
no
THE
TO
is to be reduced
world
longer of
M.
NYS
and
spatialconfigurations
to
of atoms,
different kinds
hundred
OF
COSMOLOGY
but
of
set of similar
identical electrons and perhaps of another
absolutely
later form of
of
this
Against
(nuclei positive
electricity).
of their force,and
mechanism
the arguments of M. Nys lose none
is
It
at
the
well,
outset, to assert
only requirerefurbishing.
the theory adopted by the majority
that in combating
explicitly
of modern
scientists ', Scholastic philosophymakes
no
attempt to
is quite
difficulties.
to
facts
Perfect
to
facts
shirk
or
loyalty
deny
entities
'
philosophy.
In connexion
with
research
recent
the
atomic
and
very
here
Though
structure.
to
Most
molecules.
form of
But
arbitrarypiece.
any
the form
older
of the
is associated with
to
seemed
co-extensive
Schoolmen
inorganicbody was
view has long since prevailed
definite quantum, greater amounts
an
the
a
metals.
Molecular
motion, too, is
now
familiar
complex
as
phenomenon
in
grainsin
microscopic
which
liquid),
the
wood
even
(the
Belgian Pere
Carbonelle, S.J.,was
molecules
placed in
individual
molecule
of
the
For
parte
the
'Tota
forma
'
forma
naturalis
dentia
'
(In
over
an
Hence
inch.
the
to be for ever
seem
beyond our powers
the last few years, however, it has been found
individual
molecule
effects of an
directly
eius
stretch
would
Within
perception.
possibleto make
would
row
q. 3, a.
requirit determinatam
quae
I Physic., 1.
10,
9).
[544]
substantialis
3).
'
In
corpore
quantitatem
ligniest
in
qualibet
naturali
invenitur
sicut
alia
et
acci-
APPENDIX
TO
Thus
2.
appreciable
'
THE
the
'
COSMOLOGY
problem
of the
OF
of the
M.
existence
NYS
realityof
been finally
or
(the
now
relegatedto the general epistemological
questionof reality.
Since the time of Dalton and Berzelius there is a specialnotation
for molecules ; that of common
salt,for instance,is denoted by
the
of
the
two symbols for sodium
NaCl ; i.e.,
and
juxtaposition
molecules
chlorine
into
atoms
salt
which
may
ancients)has
be
decomposed.
inevitablyand
This notation
molecule of salt is
and a chlorine atom.
that
This idea
a
suggests
deliberately
of
sodium
a
spatialjuxtaposition
is further impressedby the constitutional
duced
Frankland
merely the
carbon
by
compounds
and
Kekule
led to the
(about 1852).
idea that
the
formulae
The
different
intro
of
the
study
in the
atoms
attraction of each
mutual
by
kept
by
Van't Hoff and
by a linkagefrom atom to atom.
introduced the idea that the intra-molecular
Le Bel (1874) finally
be regarded as three-dimensional,
must
of the atoms
configuration
and not merely in a plane; the molecule of marsh-gas (CHJ, for
instance,consists of a carbon atom at the centre of a regulartetra
molecule
together,not
were
indeed,
entities. It is possible,
spatialregroupingof pre-existent
reference
kinetic
;
to maintain that chemical formulae have merely a
sub
of
a
behaviour
future
and
the
i.e.,
they indicate
past history
Thus
stance without throwing any lighton its static constitution.
formula
the
NaCl
would
simply mean
and
that sodium
chloride
can
of
recovered from it ; just as a sum
from it,
and again withdrawn
be depositedin a bank
i money
can
identical
I without necessarily
implyingthe continual existence of the
coins in the bank.
Still,it is very difficultto escape the conclusion
How, for
exist in the molecule.
do somehow
that the atoms
i form
salt and
can
again
be
we
'
"
The
effect of
molecule
been
substance)
high velocity from a radioactive
by the bombardrn
:
(i) in Crookes' spinthariscope,
being indicated by a
each
of
the
particle
sulphide screen
impact
and
Gei"
by Rutherford
splash ; (2) in an apparatus devised
the jerk
indicated
by
Wherein the entrance
of a singleparticleis
^rometer; (3) in C. T. R. Wilson's photographs of the path of a si
iwith
projected
made
-three ways
the
:he
flyingparticleionisingthe gas
centre
of a visible globule of
-molecules
water.
[545]
in its
path so
that
each
APPENDIX
TO
THE
crystal.Hence it
structure
crystalline
would
the
COSMOLOGY
appear
that
OF
each
M.
NYS
of
atom
component
separatespatialexistence.
On the other hand, this account
fails utterly
to explainthe real
is
in
chemical
It
true that
which
in
a sense
occur
changes
processes.
sodium added to oxygen givessoda, or that water subtracted from
alcohol leaves ether.
But surelythe addition precedesbut does not
a
has
union
disruption.It would
be
believe that
the
theine is explained
the fact that they consist of the same
elements only arranged in
old objection of Aristotle is still
different pattern ? The
nitrogen. Can
and
hydrogen
difference in the
by
a
; the subtraction
any
of
properties
man
sane
strychnineand
pertinent :
s
'
When
the
components
(piKpa)and
are
divided
into
intimately
juxtaposed
is there then compositionat
distinguishable,
Since
as
so
to
small particles
be sensiblyin
all
or
not
?
.
an
pounded
the
same
thing would
be
compound
to
weak-
'.
sightedperson but not so to a lynx-eyed man
Elsewhere
he gives the essentials of his own
solution, in ter
be applied
to modern
chemistry 4 :
minology which can easily
A compound which is existentially
and
like a syllable
one,
For a syllableis not
not like a heap, has Being as a whole.
is
B and A),
the
its
letters
constituent
not
as
same
(BA
merely
After dissolution,in
neither is flesh simply fire and earth.
'
whole
or
flesh)no longer exists,but the
(syllable
constituents (letters
or fire and
earth)stillexist. The syllable
fact, the
then
is
something ;
not
consonant
merely the letters,
plusvowel,
of each compound,
(ovo-t'a)
its
primary
De
[546}
ff.
APPENDIX
THE
TO
COSMOLOGY
OF
M.
NYS
homogeneous
the
as
'
that it is not
linked
to
one
something
more.
'.
man
-molecule, it
water
as
two
hydrogen
each
plant or
spatialized
spatialized
sumor
only colligative
of
indiscerptible
specific
qualities the
out
of or portioned
distinctively
predicated
case
we
have
not
but also
properties,
mational
which
whole
atoms
not
chemicals.
Peri
Aristotle 6,
but for all
cannot
be
(not imagine) a
funda
aggregate as being,in some
complex and disparate
spatially
it
not
does
is
Scholastic
This
the
mental sense, one
Being.
theory ;
fullpretend to explain anything,it merely gives us a mental
stop 7.
the
among
parts.
must, therefore,conceive
We
'
'
renders
the
of
light. Auroras
to
'
atom
De
"
Even
In
(northernlights)are
partibus animaliutn,
the
animalibus
did
Schoolmen
quae
movent
probablydue
to electrons
i. i, 640 a, 35.
hold that
not
seipsa est
(ST. THOMAS,
Physic.,
In VIII
perfecta continuatio
first
the
7
been
to have
Pere de Munnynck,
O.P., appears
atomic
modern
concef
to
be accommodated
hylomorphism must
i:
whose
quantity
mass,
the
molecule
a
as
corporeal
represents
probabl:
different parts are
whose
extension
is determined,
fixed, whose
'
quam
'
and
the arm
eye
than
themselves
homogeneous among
k Fnbourg
tenu
body
(Compte rendu du congrts scientifique
the view that
philosophiques,
p. 450). M. Nys has also adopted
is heterogeneous, though probably not
quite in the .sense
vol. 15. i"
1906, " 251 ; also Revue neo-scolastique,
(Cosntologie,
[547 ]
M.S.P .-VOL.
II
more
'
APPENDIX
ejectedfrom
After
the
COSMOLOGY
OF
M.
NYS
and
the sun,
netic lines. An
has either lost or
of electrons.
THE
TO
findingof
the
in
X-rays (originating
vacuum-tube
the most
a swarm
moving electrons is suddenlystopped),
The rays which at
sensational discoveryis that of radioactivity.
of
where
charged helium
molecules
Apart
helium
into
chemical
representedas a commonplace
subsequentexploitsof niton and
These
and
similar
phenomena
transmutation,
from
its
unique
and
niton
equation; and
so
of the
features 8
as
might be
might the
its congeners.
have led to the conclusion
(i)that
all atoms
contain electrons,some
of which may be lost without any
of
and
alteration
chemical identity
(2)that, at least in the case of
;
the radioactive elements, there is another
set of electrons the loss
of which
searches
them
changes
have
Rutherford
that
one
if the
'
'
Briefly,these are
physical and chemical
8
million
(3) The
molecular
(i)
The
environment
helium.
[548]
APPENDIX
TO
THE
COSMOLOGY
OF
M.
NYS
with the nuclear charge, and presumably due to inner electrons ".
such as gravitation
and radioactivity,
There are other properties,
uninfluenced by chemical or physical
agencies ; and these, too, must
But
most
be mainly ascribed to the nucleus.
of the ordinary
of the elements change rhythmically
properties
physico-chemical
with the atomic
number
would
properties
or
weight,i.e.,wax
list of elements
and,
or
wane
as
periodically
moreover,
the atom
seem,
outer
Thus no theory
to suppose.
to explainthe series-laws of
of the atom
lines is not the only clear
spectra. This complexityof the spectral
indication of atomic complexity; the very law of transformation
miniature
solar
"
infra-world
the
A
Sir
mass
out
an
The
cataclysmoccurs.
is
atom
is the world
atom.
large-scale
a
universe
few final remarks
may
be
made
that
has shown
J. J. Thomson
As
far back as 1881 he had pointed
of a hydrogen atom.
that a moving electrified body possesses, in virtue of its charge,
a
liquidhas
additional mass
; just as a body moving through
an
writ small
entirely
increases
with
electron to
an
of an electron
of
implications
and
of positively
negativelyelectrified
consist
itself must
nucleus
c
how
to see
a
ready-made helium atom
it is hard
bodies, for otherwise
radium.
be ejected from
"
no
if it had
mass
have
no
w
would
electron
that an
In the sense
a:
that
mass,
remembered
be
It
must
i.e.,if it ceased to be an electron.
associated with a body.
science, is merely a certain coefficient or number
"
The
[549]
APPENDIX
this statement
to be derived
If the
is
little
which
vicious
or
M.
OF
mass
it must
electromagnetically,
"
of
ordinarymatter
be
nothing
NYS
is
associated
is
yet
as
with
known.
there
inertia of matter
due
COSMOLOGY
very obscure.
are
of
positiveelectricity
Moreover,
THE
TO
as
and
the
to
which
aether"
started
we
To
istherefore endowed
with
inertia which
that
precisely
by repudiating.
the
philosopher
most
"
content
worse
there
to
are
followingexpressionof
The
"
the
'
in
cosmology,here
'
(i) The
'
(2) Anyway,
few words
is my
opinion:
electronic
this scientific
Scholastic
the
evitable dualism,
admit,
as
nucleus
Thus
and
there
theory.
In
synthesiscan
easilybe
effect it results
in
real and
substances.
of primordial
plurality
the
chemical
elements
of
atom,
primordial
a
negativeelectrons,both linked
are
two
to the
reconciled
in
Physicists
positive
central nucleus.
described
electrical elements
but mutuallyirreducible.
(electricity),
constituents,two
Now it is
world
for
Thomist
the
formation
of
the
conceive
to
a
justas easy
dualism as to do so in terms of the
startingfrom a simpleprimitive
bodies
admitted by chemists.
eightyor a hundred simple
actually
to one,
reduced
were
(3) Even if the two kinds of electricity
in
of the
the diversity
the
the
Scholastic sense
of
chemical species,
the
by
same
name
'
'
(4)
same
matter,
show
and polymerisation
allotropy
writers,it
is
by
be
no