Materials 2014, 7, 4854-4877; doi:10.

3390/ma7064854
OPEN ACCESS

materials
ISSN 1996-1944
www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Article

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of a Long-Span

Cable-Stayed Bridge with CFRP Cables
Xu Xie, Xiaozhang Li and Yonggang Shen *
Department of Civil Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, China;
E-Mails: xiexu@zju.edu.cn (X.X.); 11012018@zju.edu.cn (X.L.)
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: sygdesign@zju.edu.cn;
Tel.: +86-571-8820-6572; Fax: +86-571-8820-8721.
Received: 21 March 2014; in revised form: 25 May 2014 / Accepted: 12 June 2014 /
Published: 23 June 2014

Abstract: In this study, the scope of CFRP cables in cable-stayed bridges is studied by
establishing a numerical model of a 1400-m span of the same. The mechanical properties
and characteristics of CFRP stay cables and of a cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables are
here subjected to comprehensive analysis. The anomalies in the damping properties of free
vibration, nonlinear parametric vibration and wind fluctuating vibration between steel
cables and CFRP cables are determined. The structural stiffness, wind resistance and traffic
vibration of the cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables are also analyzed. It was found that
the static performances of a cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables and steel cables are
basically the same. The natural frequencies of CFRP cables do not coincide with the major
natural frequencies of the cable-stayed bridge, so the likelihood of CFRP cable-bridge
coupling vibration is minuscule. For CFRP cables, the response amplitudes of both
parametric vibration and wind fluctuating vibration are smaller than those of steel cables. It
can be concluded from the research that the use of CFRP cables does not change the
dynamic characteristics of the vehicle-bridge coupling vibration. Therefore, they can be
used in long-span cable-stayed bridges with an excellent mechanical performance.
Keywords: CFRP stay cables; long span; cable-stayed bridge; static characteristics;
dynamic characteristics

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1. Introduction
Cable-supported bridges have undergone rapid development over the last century since high-strength
steel cables were first made available. Cable-stayed bridges can reach spans of over 1000 m, which makes
them practical alternatives to suspension bridges. The cables, which transmit most of the force, are key
to the structural stability and safety of cable-stayed bridges. However, cables are very vulnerable to
corrosion and fatigue damage, which affect their service lifespan, necessitating their replacement. In
China alone, the cables of more than twenty bridges have been replaced over the past twenty years for
safety reasons [1]. Cable replacement not only requires a huge financial investment, but also disrupts
transportation and causes problems in the maintenance and management of the bridge.
Carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) has been widely used in civil engineering, because of its
light weight, great strength, considerable flexibility and resistance to corrosion and fatigue. In spite of
the disadvantages, like the lack of ductility, high cost, contractor unfamiliarity, susceptibility to impact
damage and difficulty in forming connections, CFRP cables are superior to steel cables in some critical
mechanical aspects, such as creep and relaxation. The possibility of using CFRP in long-span bridges
has received considerable attention for this reason. Meier et al. [2] evaluated the applicability of CFRP
materials in long-span cable-supported bridges. Later, other scholars made more comprehensive studies
on the possibility of applying CFRP in long-span bridges [314]. The mechanical properties of
long-span cable-supported bridges built with CFRP cables have been gradually explained. Better ways
of manufacturing CFRP cables and anchoring systems have been developed, and these have already
seen use in some real-world bridges [1519]. The increase in knowledge of CFRP materials has
decreased the manufacturing costs, and the use of CFRP cables in long-span bridges will upsurge in the
near future.
So far, most studies of CFRP cables have been limited in scientific premise. Some problems are still
at the probing stage. The impact of CFRP cables on the mechanical properties of long-span
cable-stayed bridges has not yet been subjected to systematic research. In this research, a series of
studies have been carried out on CFRP cables in bridges of different sizes. Herein, a CFRP
cable-stayed bridge is compared to a steel cable-stayed bridge with respect to material, element and
structural characteristics. These results provide evidence supporting the use of CFRP cables in
long-span cable-stayed bridges.
2. Mechanical Properties of CFRP Cables
2.1. Material Properties of CFRP Cables
At present, there is no uniform production standard for CFRP cables, so the material parameters of
CFRP cables produced by different manufacturers differ considerably. Table 1 shows the material
properties of four types of CFRP cables, marked as A, B, C and D. In the table, , E, u, u, Re and
represent the unit weight, Youngs modulus, tensile strength, ultimate strain, relaxation ratio for 1000 h
and linear expansion coefficient, respectively. It was here observed that the material characteristics
of CFRP cables produced by different manufacturers are typically similar. The Youngs modulus is
about 140 GPa, which is about 70% of steel cables. The tensile strength is 2.022.55 GPa, which
is 1.31.6 times that of high-strength steel cables. The linear expansion coefficient is 0.6 106/C, and

Materials 2014, 7

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the temperature deformation is only 1/20 that of steel cables. The unit weight is 1/5 that of steel cables,
and the relaxation rate is lower than that of steel cables. In addition, the ultimate strain of CFRP cable is
so small that the stress-strain curve remains mostly linear before fissure, which indicates that CFRP
cables are brittle.
Table 1. Material properties of CFRP and steel cables.
Cable types
A
B
C
D
steel

(kN/mm3)
16
16
16
16
77

u (MPa)
2,140
2,550
2,022
2,421
1,570

E (GPa)
137
147
137
159
196

u /E
0.016
0.017
0.015
0.015
0.008

Re (%)
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
<2.5

u (%)
1.6
1.6
2
1.7
>4

al (106/C)
0.6
0.68
0.6
0.6
12

2.2. Damping Properties of CFRP Cables

Cable damping is mainly associated with energy dissipation caused by material strain and air friction.
There is so little air damping that it can usually be ignored during calculation. This paper focuses on the
material damping characteristics of CFRP cables. According to the strain energy proportional damping
theory of a single-degree-of-freedom vibration system, the damping ratio can be calculated using the
following expression:

1 W

4 W

(1)

Here, W is the energy absorbed due to the strain deformation during the vibration cycle, and W is the
modal potential energy. Assuming W is proportional to the strain energy WV, replacing the
proportionality sign with a constant [2022]:
W 2V

(2)

Here, is the energy loss factor, and V is the strain energy. Substitution of the equation above into
Equation (1) produces the following:
1 V

2 W

(3)

Because there is a large initial tension T0 in the cable, therefore the modal potential energy W of
Formula (3) includes two parts, initial tension potential energy W0 and strain energy V, hence:
W W0 V

(4)

Because the flexible cable only bears axial tension, as indicated by the relationship of strain and
tension shown in Figure 1, the initial potential energy due to tension, W0 and strain energy V can be
calculated as follows:
n

W0i Tk 0 S k ki ,

k 1

n
EASk 2
Vi
ki .

2
k 1

(5)

Materials 2014, 7

4857
Figure 1. Potential energy and strain energy in initial tension.
T

T
T0

W0

Here, ki and Sk are the strain and length of element k generated by the i-th vibration mode. Tk0 is the
initial tension in element k, and n is the total number of cable elements. Substitution of Equations (4)
and (5) into (1) results in the following expression:
i

1
Vi

2 W0i Vi

(6)

In order to compare the damping characteristics of steel and CFRP cables, a cable vibration test was
carried out in Tokyo Metropolitan University [22]. The test steel and CFRP cables were made at Rope
Corporation Tokyo, Japan, wherein the steel cable, PCS12.7 ( refers to diameter of the cable), was
composed of seven 5.16-mm diameter steel wires, PCS5.16, and the CFRP cable, CFCC12.5, was
composed of seven 5.0 mm-diameter CFRP wires, CFCC5.0 (Figure 2). Table 2 lists the material
parameters of cables and wires. E, w, D, A and u represent Youngs modulus, the unit weight, the
diameter, the cross-sectional area and the tensile strength of cables and wires, respectively.
Figure 2. Cross-section of cable CFCC12.5.
cable

wires

Table 2. Material properties of cables and wires.

Cable and Wire Type
CFCC12.5
PCS12.7
CFCC5.0
PCS5.16

E (GPa)
159
197
152
204

w (g/m)
145
774
29.9
163.8

D (mm)
12.50
12.70
5.00
5.16

A (mm2)
76.0
98.7
15.2
20.9

u (MPa)
2,421
1,854
2,980
1,999

Figure 3a,b provides details of the cable damping test equipment. The test cable was 20 m-long
with an initial tension of 30 kN. The resulting initial stresses in CFRP cables and steel cables were 395
and 304 MPa, respectively, which were equal to half of the service stresses. Here, the design safety

Materials 2014, 7

4858

factor of the test cable was 2.5. Continuous excitation force was applied at the midpoint of the cable to
render the vibrations stable. Once the excitation force ceased, the cable entered free decay vibration,
which was measured by a non-contact laser displacement meter at a sampling rate of 500 Hz. Figure
3b shows the relationship between the cable damping and vibration amplitude. It can be found that, for
steel and CFRP cables, damping increases with vibration amplitude, but the trend was more obvious
for steel cables than CFRP cables. This indicted that the influence of vibration amplitude on cable
damping is not as pronounced for CFRP cable as it is for the steel cable. In addition, the energy loss
factor of cables shown in Equation (3) can be calculated from Figure 3b. Here, the damping constant
was 0.05 for both steel and CFRP cables, consistent with the test results reported by Kady et al. [23].
Figure 3. (a) Cable damping test; (b) cable damping log decrement vs. vibration amplitude.
0.006
Test cable

Sag

T
laser displacement meter

Tension
equipment
Sine wave
vibration exciter

damping log decrement

(a)

(b)

CFRP-analytical
Steel-analytical
CFRP-experimental

0.004

Steel-experimental

0.002

0.000
0

1
2
3
vibration amplitude d max (mm)

In order to determine the energy loss factors of wires comprising the cables, the bending
deformation experiment of steel and CFRP wires under free vibration was conducted (Figure 4a). A
heavy block was hung on by a string on the fixed test wire at a distance of l from the fixed end. An
initial imposed displacement was used to place the wire in decay free vibration. The strain readings
were recorded by the dynamic strain gauges fixed on the wire, at a sampling of 500 Hz. During the
test, the distance l and the mass of the heavy block were varied multiple times to obtain additional
experimental data.
Figure 4. (a) Bending deformation experiments of steel and CFRP wires; (b) distribution of
energy loss coefficient for steel wires; (c) distribution of energy loss coefficient for CFRP
wires.
80

(a)

y
l

60

(c)

60

Steel wire

O
String

CFRP wire
Count
Count

Count
Count

CFRP (steel)
wires
CFRP

Strain gauges

Fixture

80

(b)

40

20

Heavy block

0
0.01

40

20

0.02

0.03

0
0.00

0.01

0.02

Figure 4b shows the distribution results of energy loss factors for steel and CFRP wires. As shown,
the average energy loss factors for steel and CFRP wires are about 0.018 and 0.008, respectively,
which is much smaller than the damping constant of steel and CFRP cables, 0.05. This indicates that

Materials 2014, 7

4859

the damping of the material strain ratio is only a part of the total cable damping, and other damping is
relative to the friction among the wires of the cable.
3. Structural Description of the Cable-Stayed Bridge
In this paper, the mechanical characteristics of a cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables are discussed,
and the feasibility of using CFRP cables on long-span cable-stayed bridges is evaluated.
The finite element method (FEM) is used to establish a numerical model of the 1400-m span of a
cable-stayed bridge. Although the bridge model is not an actual structure, the geometric parameters
were chosen by a conceptual design procedure according to some basic parameters of the existing
long-span cable-stayed bridges [22]. Figure 5 shows the layout of the bridge model (in meters). This
bridges mid-span is 1400 m, which is about two times its side-span. Thirty-four cables are installed at a
horizontal spacing of 20 m on each side of towers to hold the main beam, which is a uniform multi-cell
flat steel box girder. The width of the box girder is 30 m, and the height is 4.5 m, which indicates a
relatively larger height-to-span ratio as compared to many other cable-stayed bridges. The equivalent
thicknesses of the orthotropic top and bottom plates of the girder are 20 mm (derived as
12 mm of steel plate and an 8-mm equivalent thickness of the stiffener). The equivalent thickness of the
web is 15 mm. The height of the pylon is 280 m, which is 0.2-times the mid-span, and the tower
cross-section is a single cell box composed of walls with an equivalent thickness of 40 mm. Table 3 lists
the cross-sectional parameters of the girder and the tower. Along the side-span, there are three middle
auxiliary piers at a horizontal spacing of 100 m to support the girder. Constraint springs were set
between the girder and the pylon along the bridge longitudinal axis. Cables of C1, C2 and C3, shown in
Figure 5, represent long, medium and short cables of Type C, mentioned in Table 1. The cables here
have a relatively low tensile strength of 2022 MPa and an elastic modulus of 137 kN/mm2. In the
numerical model, the tower and box girder are 1111 spatial beam elements with 6 DOF, and the cables
are 272 isoparametric elements with 3 DOF. The bridge is fixed at the bottom of the tower and supported
by piers. The bridge can move along the longitudinal axis. The geometric nonlinear method and material
nonlinear method are used to solve the problem.
The unit weight of the structure is calculated as follows:
WD kD A W0

(7)

Here, kD is the load factor, chosen by conceptual design considering the self-weight of the stiffener
plate of the box girder. [22]. For girders kD = 1.4, and for pylons, kD = 1.2. is the unit weight of steel.
A is the cross-sectional area of box girder. W0 is the secondary load, which mainly consists of
pavement load, etc., taken as, W0 = 70 kN/m. The secondary load of the pylon is relatively so small,
that it can be ignored.
Table 3. Cross-sectional properties.
Cross-Section

A (m2)

Ix (m4)

Iy (m4)

Torsion Constant (m4)

Girder
Tower

1.607
1.760

5.503
30.667

120.43
40.320

10.352 *
39.273 *

* Without considering the stiffening rib.

Materials 2014, 7

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Figure 5. (a) 3D model of the bridge; (b) layout of half of the bridge; (c) typical
cross-section of the box girder; (d) layout of the pylon and cross-section of the tower.
(a)

(b)

C3

100 100

100

18@20=360
1820=360

20

C2

20

20

33@20=660
33
20=660
700

680

(c)

C1

30
2%

2%

4.5

10

148

10

280

33
4=132
33@4=132

(d)

47.5

40

12

61

The cross-sectional area of the cable is calculated using the maximum cable tension T0 and the
allowable stress . The formula is as follows:
Ac

1 T0

1 T0
b

(8)

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Here, is the factor of proportionality. It indicates how much cable tension is produced by the live
load in response to the maximum tension produced by the dead load in the long-span cable-stayed
bridge. Because the factor of proportionality for long-span cable-stayed bridges is usually not more
than 0.2, it is here assumed that = 0.2. is the allowable cable stress, and b is the standard value of
tensile strength; is the safety factor for the cable, which is generally 2.5 for steel cables. It is here assumed
that = 3.0 for CFRP cables, because CFRP is a strong, but brittle, material.
Table 4 shows the cable self-weight for steel cable-stayed bridges and CFRP cable-stayed bridges
of the same span. Results show that the self-weight of the CFRP cable is only about 1/7 that of steel
cable, which is less than the unit weight ratio of CFRP to steel, which is about 1/5. This means that
fewer CFRP than steel cables would be needed for a cable-stayed bridge. This is because CFRP cables
sag less, giving them greater working efficiency. This may substantiate the cost disadvantage of
CFRP cables.
Table 4. Weight of steel and CFRP cables on a whole bridge.
Material

Weight (kN)

Weight Ratio of Steel to CFRP

Steel
CFRP

115,133
17,056.7

6.8

4. Dynamic Characteristics of CFRP Stay Cables

4.1. Natural Vibration Characteristics
Figure 6 gives the first two order natural frequencies of cables on one side of the half bridge shown
in Figure 5. Because there is little difference between the in-plane and out-of-plane vibration, these
results only demonstrate the in-plane vibration results. In the figure, the vertical axis f is the natural
frequency, and the cable numbers on the horizontal axis represent the position of the cable anchor on the
girder expressed in terms of the number of markers from the start of the side-span to the midpoint of
the bridge. The results show that, due to the large self-weight, the natural frequencies of steel cables
are about 0.5-times those of CFRP cables.
The material properties and natural frequencies of stay cables of three different lengths (marked C1,
C2 and C3 in Figure 5) are compared in Tables 5 and 6. S represents the steel cable, C the CFRP cable,
EA the axial stiffness and w the unit weight. The Irvine parameter , a dimensionless parameter
reflecting the dynamic characteristics, is defined as follows [24]:

wL
H

LEA
HLe

(9)

Here, H represents the horizontal component of cable tension and Le represents cable length.
Expression (9) indicates that the Irvine parameter is related to the geometric and material properties of
the cable, the smaller the sag and the tensile stiffness of the cable, the smaller the Irvine parameter.
Table 5 shows that, for the same span cables, the Irvine parameters of steel cables are much larger than
those of CFRP cables. For cables made of the same material, the Irvine parameters for long cables are
larger than that for short cables. Table 6 shows that, for the same cable span, the natural frequencies of
CFRP cables are about two-times those of steel cables.

Materials 2014, 7

4862
Figure 6. Natural frequencies of steel and CFRP cables.
5

f (Hz)

Steel-1st
4

Steel-2nd

CFRP-1st
CFRP-2nd

2
1
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Cable numbers

Table 5. Material properties of stay cables.

Cables
S-C1
S-C2
S-C3
C-C1
C-C2
C-C3

L (m)
660
460
260
660
460
260

Y (m)
275.5
235.5
195.5
275.5
235.5
195.5

EA (kN)
3,045,840
2,516,640
1,795,360
1,557,416
1,377,507
1,033,802

W (kN/m)
1.3114
1.0835
0.7730
0.1840
0.1630
0.1220

0.01750
0.01306
0.00912
0.002863
0.002144
0.001501

Table 6. Natural frequencies of stay cables (units: Hz).

Cables
S-C1
S-C2
S-C3
C-C1
C-C2
C-C3

Out-of-Plane
1st
2nd
0.1652
0.3343
0.2289
0.4635
0.3645
0.7379
0.4083
0.8267
0.5662
1.1443
0.8986
1.8194

In-Plane
1st
2nd
0.1998
0.3341
0.2532
0.4633
0.3771
0.7378
0.4098
0.8266
0.5652
1.1443
0.8991
1.8194

In order to analyze the relationship between the cables and the dynamics of the bridge itself with
respect to natural frequencies, the major frequencies of the bridge were calculated taking the influence
of local vibrations of the cable into account (Table 7). The results show that the natural frequencies of
steel cable-stayed bridges are basically the same as those of CFRP cable-stayed bridges.
Table 7. Major natural frequencies of cable-stayed bridge (units: Hz).
Cable Type
Steel cables
CFRP cables

First Lateral Bending

0.0319
0.0324

Longitudinal Drifting
0.0330
0.0340

First Vertical Bending

0.1440
0.1370

It can be found from Table 6 and Table 7 that the natural frequencies of steel cables overlap those
of the first vertical bending frequencies of steel cable-stayed bridge. However, the natural frequencies

Materials 2014, 7

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of CFRP cables differ from the low natural frequencies of the CFRP cable-stayed bridge. That is why
the steel cable-bridge coupling vibrations occur so easily. Therefore, using CFRP cables can
significantly reduce the possibility of coupling vibrations in the cable bridge. Some major vibration
modes of steel cable-stayed bridges and CFRP cable-stayed bridges are shown in Figure 7. It was
found that the local vibrations of the cables in steel cable-stayed bridges were dominant for the first
vertical bending vibration.
Figure 7. (a) Vibration modes of cable-stayed bridges with steel cables; (b) vibration
modes of cable-stayed bridges with CFRP cables.

First lateral bend mode

Longitudinal drifting mode

First vertical bend mode

(a)

First lateral bend mode

(b)

Materials 2014, 7

4864
Figure 7. Cont.

Longitudinal drifting mode

First vertical bend mode

(b)
4.2. Damping Characteristics
Because the strain energy ratios of different lengths of cables are similar, only cable C2 is analyzed
in this paper. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the first two vibration modal strain energy ratios
calculated using Formulas (5) and (6) and the cable lateral in-plane and out-of-plane amplitudes. In the
figure, S represents the steel cable, C represents the CFRP cable, -1st and -2nd represent the first and
the second vibration modes and -out and -in represent the in-plane and out-of-plane vibration modes.
The results show that the modal strain energy ratios of two materials are on the same order of
magnitude. CFRP cables showed lower strain energy ratios than steel cables. If the vibration amplitude
is around 1 m, Formula (6) can be used to calculate the structural damping ratios of both steel and
CFRP cables, which were here around 1%.
Figure 8. Strain energy ratios of steel and CFRP cables.

strain energy ratio

0.3
C-1st-out
C-2nd-out
S-1st-out
S-2nd-out

0.2

C-1st-in
C-2nd-in
S-1st-in
S-2nd-in

0.1

0.0
0

Lateral deformation (m)

The external viscous damper is usually arranged at the lower end of the cable in order to prevent
large vibration. Figure 9 shows the layout of the cable with the external viscous damper. xc is the

Materials 2014, 7

4865

horizontal distance between the lower end of the cable and the damper. In this paper, xc = 0.02 L. The
non-proportional damping calculation theory (complex eigenvalue method) was used to calculate the
damping value.
Figure 9. Stay cable with viscous damper.
Cross-section of cable

C
Viscous damper

C
xc=0.02L

The calculation results show that the damping coefficients C have little impact on the natural
frequencies of the steel and CFRP cables. Figure 10 shows the relationship between the first in-plane
modal damping ratios and the damping coefficients. The damping coefficients significantly affected
the modal damping ratios. As the damping coefficients increase, the modal damping ratios also
increase significantly, peak and then drop quickly. There is an optimal range within which the
damping coefficients produce desirable effects. The optimal damping coefficient can be found using
the following formula [25].
C 0.1

m1 L2
xc

(10)

Here, m represents the unit mass and 1 represents the in-plane damped natural circular frequency of
the first mode of the stay cable. Comparisons showed that the optimal viscous damping coefficients of
CFRP cables were smaller than that of steel cables. This shows that only smaller dampers can produce
the similar effects on CFRP cables that have been seen on steel cables.
Figure 10. Effects of external dampers on modal damping.
0.010
0.008

S-C1

S-C2

S-C3

C-C1

C-C2

C-C3

0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
0

200

400

600
800
C (kN.s/m)

1000

1200

1400

Materials 2014, 7

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4.3. Parametric Vibration Characteristics of CFRP Stay Cables

4.3.1. Calculation Model and Method
Parametric vibrations are serious hindrances for stay cables, and analyzing this aspect has drawn
considerable attention [2634]. Three steel and three CFRP cables were used to compare the
differences in parametric vibration characteristics (Table 5). The impact of the external viscous damper
on parametric vibration was also studied. The nonlinear finite element method was used to calculate
the parametric vibration of the stay cables [35,36]. The structural damping was ignored in the
calculation process.
Figure 11 gives the model of stay cable parametric vibration analysis. A harmonic excitation
vibration in the chord direction is given at the lower end of the cable. The vibration amplitude is
1/50,000 of the cable span. The excitation frequency is taken as f = f1 and f = 2f1. Here, f1 is the
in-plane natural frequency of the first mode.

Figure 11. Parametric vibration analysis model of the stay cable.

Sag

4.3.2. Parametric Vibration of Stay Cables Undamped

Figure 12 gives the time history curves of vibration responses at the midpoint of the stay cable C1
when the excitation frequencies are f = f1 and f = f2, respectively. As shown, the parametric vibration
response of the CFRP cable is weaker than that of the steel cable. It also requires more time to excite a
larger amplitude for the CFRP cable. This indicates that, to some extent, the use of CFRP cables involves
lesser parametric vibration than that of steel cables.
Table 8 gives the parametric vibration response amplitudes of stay cables C1, C2 and C3. It shows
that, regardless of the length of the cable, the response amplitude of CFRP cables is weaker than that of
steel cables.
Table 8. Response amplitudes of parametric vibration (units: m).
Cable
C1
C2
C3

Steel
f1
28.460
11.590
4.007

CFRP
2 f1
10.670
11.150
3.680

f1
7.059
4.270
1.961

2 f1
7.410
4.946
1.961

Materials 2014, 7

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30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30

(a)

dy(m)

S-C1-f1

100

200

300

400

500

600

30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30

(b)

700

S-C1-2f1

100

200

300

10

10

500

600

700

C-C1-2f1

(d)

dy(m)

dy(m)

C-C1-f1

(c)

400
t (s)

t (s)

0
-5

-5

-10

-10
0

100

200

300

400

500

100

200

300

400

500

t (s)

t (s)

4.3.3. Parametric Vibration of Damped Stay Cables

To study the difference in the damping effect on the parametric vibration of CFRP and steel cables,
the viscous dampers shown in Figure 9 were arranged at the lower end of cable C1. Assuming that
xc = 10 m, two viscous dampers were arranged symmetrically at either side of the cable, and the angle
between the two dampers was 60. The optimal damping coefficient for CFRP cable single damper
obtained using Equation (10) is 448.86kNs/m, is much smaller than that of the steel cable,
127.35 kNs/m.
Figure 13 gives the time history curves of vibration responses at the midpoint of stay cable C1
damped when the excitation frequencies were f = f1 and f = 2f1, respectively. Figures 12 and 13 show
that, although the damper is effective for the cable vibration, it cannot lower the response amplitude
after the parametric vibration comes into picture.
Figure 13. Parametric vibration response of stay cable C1 (damped): (a) steel cable under
excitation frequency f = f1; (b) steel cable under excitation frequency f = 2f1; (c) CFRP
cable under excitation frequency f = f1; (d) CFRP cable under excitation frequency f = 2f1.
20

20

(a)

S-C1-f1-damped

(b)

S-C1-2f1-damped

10

dy(m)

dy(m)

10
0
-10

0
-10

-20
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

-20
0

100

200

300

t (s)

400

500

600

700

t (s)

10

10

(c)

(d)

C-C1-f1-damped

C-C1-2f1-damped

dy(m)

5
dy(m)

(d)

dy(m)

Figure 12. Parametric vibration response of stay cable C1 (undamped): (a) steel cable
under excitation frequency f = f1; (b) steel cable under excitation frequency f = 2f1;
(c) CFRP cable under excitation frequency f = f1; (d) CFRP cable under excitation
frequency f = 2f1.

0
-5

0
-5

-10
0

100

200

300
t (s)

400

500

-10
0

100

200

300
t (s)

400

500

Materials 2014, 7

4868

4.4. Fluctuating Vibration Characteristics of CFRP Stay Cables under Wind Load
4.4.1. Calculation
The analysis of wind loads to which the cables are subjected is very complex. The fluctuating wind
load can cause them to vibrate. The turbulence power spectral density function of fluctuating wind is
as follows [37]:
Su f

4 I u2U 2 Lx U

1 70.8 f L

(11)

5
2 6

Lx 100Z 30

0.5

(12)

Here, Su f represents the turbulence power spectral density function; Lx represents the scale of
turbulence; Iu represents turbulence intensity, which is related to wind speed, and the ground roughness
coefficient Iu = 0.1 in this paper. Z is the distance of the girder from the surface of the water surface.
Here, Z = 50 m.
The random velocity of fluctuating wind is as follows [38]:
n

U t ak cos k t k

(13)

k 1

Here, k is the randomly-generated phase angle, and other parameters are calculated as follows:
fu fl

f n

ak 2 S f k f

f f k 1 f
l

k
2

k 2f k

k 1, 2,

, n

(14)

Here, fu and fl are the upper and lower bounds of cable frequencies and n is an integer. The power spectral
density of fluctuating wind sample with an average speed of 30 m/s was generated using Equation (11).
For the cable laden by lateral wind load shown in Figure 14, the relative wind attack angle can be
determined as follows:
tan

Uy y
Uz z

(15)

Here, Uy and Uz are vertical and horizontal components of fluctuating wind speed, which are calculated
as follows:

U y U sin

U y U cos

(16)

Here, is the wind attack angle shown in Figure 14; y and z are the vertical and horizontal
vibration components, respectively. U is the sum of average wind speed and fluctuating wind speed.

Materials 2014, 7

4869
Figure 14. Cross-section of cable under lateral wind load.

z
U

Uz

The relative wind speed experienced by the cable Ur is as follows:

Ur

y U z z
2

(17)

The drag force D and lift force L acting on the cable along the relative wind direction are as follows:
1

2
D 2 CD U r

L 1 C U 2
L
r

(18)

Here, CD and CL are the drag and lift coefficients of the cable. CD = 0.7 and CL = 0 for the round
cross-section of the cable. is the outside diameter of the cable. is the air density. The vertical and
horizontal wind loads can be compounded by drag and lift force:

qz D cos L sin

q y D sin L cos

(19)

4.4.2. Wind Fluctuating Vibration of Stay Cables

Figure 15 gives the fluctuating vibration responses of stay cables C1, C2 and C3 under lateral wind
load. As shown, the wind fluctuating vibration responses of CFRP cables are smaller than those of steel
cables. The vertical vibration amplitudes of CFRP cables are about half those of steel cables of the
same length. This also indicates that bridges built with CFRP cables are less subjected to wind
fluctuating vibrations.
Figure 15. Wind fluctuating vibration responses of stay cables: (a) steel cable C1;
(b) CFRP cable C1; (c) steel cable C2; (d) CFRP cable C2; (e) steel cable C3; (f) CFRP
cable C3.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

(a)

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4

(b)

C-C1

dy(m)

dy(m)

S-C1

50

100

150
t (s)

200

250

50

100

150
t (s)

200

250

Materials 2014, 7

4870
Figure 15. Cont.
0.2

0.2

(c)

(d)

S-C2
dy(m)

dy(m)

C-C2

0.1

0.1
0.0

-0.1

0.0

-0.1

-0.2
0

50

100

150

200

250

-0.2
0

50

100

t (s)

200

250

200

250

0.1

0.1

(e)

(f)

S-C3
dy(m)

dy(m)

150
t (s)

0.0

C-C3

0.0

-0.1

-0.1
0

50

100

150

200

250

t (s)

50

100

150
t (s)

5. Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Cable-Stayed Bridge with CFRP Cables

5.1. Static Characteristics and Stability of Bridge under Live Load
To study the influence of CFRP cables on the mechanical properties of the bridge, the nonlinear
finite element method is used to analyze the static characteristics of the girder. The designed distribution
load is 43 kN/m, and the designed concentrate load is 1000kN [39]. The nonlinear equation is
as follows:
Kuu F

(20)

Here, u is the displacement vector; K(u) is the stiffness matrix considering the initial internal force and
geometrical nonlinearity; and F is the live load vector. To determine the most unfavorable loading
position of the live load, the tangent stiffness at the finished state of the bridge is used to identify the
influence line. The reduction of the live load with the span is neglected.
Figure 16 gives the maximum and minimum deflection values of a half box girder. The minimum
deflection of the CFRP cable-stayed bridge was nearly same as that of the steel cable-stayed bridge.
However, because steel-cable-stayed bridges have greater structural rigidity, the maximum girder
deflection is 0.000119 of the span, but for CFRP cable-stayed bridges, it is 0.000146 of the span, which
is 1.22-times the former. This indicates that the material properties of the cable have little impact on the
minimum girder deflection and considerable impact on the maximum deflection. The critical girder
deflection of cable-stayed bridge is 0.001 of the span, meaning that replacing steel cables with CFRP
cables might give the bridge a large margin of safety, with respect to structural rigidity.
Under dead and live loads, the maximum compressive stress in the girders of steel-cable-stayed
bridges is 189.3 MPa; that of CFRP-cable-stayed bridges it is 9% lower, at 173.9 MPa. This means that
CFRP cables may be suitable for long-span cable-stayed bridges.
Structural stability is very important for long-span cable-stayed bridges, because there is a large
amount of axial pressure in girders and pylons. The stability safety factor can be obtained using the
following complex eigenvalue equation [40]:
det K ep K G 0
(21)

Materials 2014, 7

4871

Here, Kep is the stiffness matrix, which takes material nonlinearity into consideration; KG is the
geometric stiffness matrix; and is the stability safety factor. Unlike the linear elastic eigenvalue
method, the elastic modulus in Equation (21) was obtained based on the law that the buckling strength is
equal to the experimental strength, i.e., the effective elastic modulus was adopted for the stiffness matrix,
which considers the influence of initial defect and elasto-plastic stress of the structural member.
Figure 16. Maximum and minimum girder deflections under live load.
0.25
Deflection Dx (m)

CFRP Dx,max
0.20

CFRP Dx,min

0.15

STEEL Dx,max

0.10

STEEL Dx,min

0.05
0.00
-0.05
0

300

600

x (m)

900

1200

1500

Elasto-plastic branch instability analysis showed that the minimum stability factor is 3.03 for CFRP
cable-stayed bridges and 2.88 for steel cable-stayed bridges. The difference is attributed to the buckling
caused primarily by the pylon. The self-weight of the steel cables is greater than that of CFRP cables, so
the axial force in the pylon for steel-cable-stayed bridge is greater than that for a CFRP-cable-stayed
bridge. Figure 17 gives an example of the elasto-plastic buckling mode for cable-stayed bridge with
CFRP cables.
Figure 17. Elasto-plastic buckling mode of cable-stayed bridge.

5.2. Aerostatic Characteristics of Bridges under Wind Load

Wind load is an important factor in the design of long-span cable-stayed bridges. It has two effects on
the structure: aerostatic and aerodynamic. Fluttering causes the greatest damage amongst all other
aerodynamic effects. Cable-stayed bridges with streamlined, flat steel box girders are more aerodynamic
resistant, giving the bridge a relatively high critical wind speed. Therefore, the present paper focuses
mainly on the transverse deformation of the structure under static wind load.
The aerostatic effect on the structure is related to the structure shape and wind attack angle. In this
paper, the static wind load is calculated using three aerostatic coefficients based on the wind tunnel test
results of scale model. The aerostatic actions on the box girder are as follows:
D 0.5U 2 An CD

2
L 0.5U BCL

2 2
M 0.5U B CM

(22)

Materials 2014, 7

4872

Here, is the wind attack angle; is air density; B is girder width; An is girder height in the windward
side; and U is wind speed. Here, U = 40 m/s. D, L and M are the drag force, the lift force and the torque
action on unit length of the box girder in relation to the drag coefficient CD, the lift coefficient CL and
the torque coefficient CM, respectively. Figure 18 gives the relation curves between the three aerostatic
coefficients and the wind attack angles.

CD (CL ,CM )

Figure 18. Correlation between aerostatic coefficients and the wind attack angles.
4
3

CD

2
CL

CM

0
-15

-10

-5

-1

10

Deg

15

-2

Figure 19 gives the transverse bending moment and deformation of the half-bridge girder under the
design wind load. Due to the constraints imposed by the middle piers, the bending moment and
deformation of the side span girders are very small, but that of the mid-span girder is considerably high.
The transverse bending moment and deformation of mid-span girders is slightly larger for steel
cable-stayed bridges than that for CFRP cable-stayed bridges. The logic behind this is that the
out-of-plane deformation of the girder is related to the windward area of the cable, and steel cables have
more windward area than CFRP cables.
The analysis of the instability of cable-stayed bridges under static wind load showed that when the
wind speed reaches 60 m/s for a complete bridge or 50 m/s for a bridge still under construction, bridges
built with CFRP cables showed no buckling failure. This indicates that CFRP cable-stayed bridges
have better wind resistance than steel cable-stayed bridges.
Figure 19. (a) Transverse bending moment of girder under wind load; (b) transverse
deformation of girder under wind load.
2.0

(a)

40000

(b)

CFRP
STEEL

20000

Deformation (m)

Bending moment (kN.m)

60000

0
-20000
-40000
-60000
-80000

CFRP

1.5

STEEL
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5

300

600

900

1200

1500

x (m)

300

600

x (m)

900

1200

1500

5.3. Dynamic Response of Bridge under Traffic Load

Dynamic response due to traffic loads has a major impact on the safety and durability of a
cable-stayed bridge. A vehicle-bridge coupling model was established to study the load impact factor

Materials 2014, 7

4873

and the cable response of CFRP cable-stayed bridges under traffic load. The girder deflection and cable
tension response of the bridge were evaluated for different vehicle speeds and levels of road roughness.
Because some of the first natural frequencies of long-span cable-stayed bridges are relatively small, the
calculated results of vehicle-bridge coupling using sophisticated vehicle models show little difference
from those produced using simplified vehicle models. For this reason, the four-degree vehicle model
shown in Figure 20a was used to facilitate calculation. Figure 20b shows the power spectral density of
a sample wave that represents the relatively smooth road surface [41].
Figure 20. (a) Four-degree vehicle model; (b) power spectral density of sample wave.
4

10-4

(a)

m1 (kN-sec /m)

m2 (kN-sec /m)

Power spectral density of Sample wave

S()

10-6
1

m1

J1

z1
Input Power spectral density of Roughness

10-8

k4

m5
z5

10-10
0.0

0.1

1.0

k1

c4

c1

m2
z2

k5

c5

k2

c2
Road Surface

10.0

(c/m)

F2

2
m5 (kN-sec /m)
2
2
J 1 (kN-sec -m )
k1 (kN/m)
k 2 (kN/m)
k 4 (kN/m)
k 5 (kN/m)
c1 (kN-sec/m)
c2 (kN-sec/m)
c4 (kN-sec/m)
c5 (kN-sec/m)
1 (m)
2 (m)

17.0
0.70
2.30
40.82
1200.0
1500.0
12000.0
8800.0
17.0
2.0
140.0
7.0
2.84
1.01

F1

Figure 21 gives the flexural deflection responses of the bridge girder under moving traffic at speeds
of 60 km/m, 80 km/m and 100 km/h. The horizontal axis represents the location of the vehicle,
and the vertical axis represents the girder deflection. For both a CFRP cable-stayed bridge and a steel
cable-stayed bridge, the deflection responses at mid-span are dominated by static deflection and a
long-period vibration response, and the short-period vibration response is insignificant. The influence of
traffic speeds was found to be very limited. Figure 21 shows that the flexural deflection of CFRP
cable-stayed bridge is greater than that of the steel-cable-stayed bridge. This is because the CFRP
cable-stayed bridge has relatively less structural rigidity, and the deflection response is mainly caused
by static deformation.
Figure 21. (a) Deflection response of CFRP cable-stayed bridge; (b) deflection response of
steel-cable-stayed bridge.
-10

-10

(a)

(b)
0

60km/h

10

Dy (mm)

Dy (mm)

80km/h
20

100km/h

30

60km/h

10

80km/h
20

100km/h

30

40

40

500

1000

1500
x (m)

2000

2500

3000

500

1000

1500
x (m)

2000

2500

3000

Figure 22 shows the static and dynamic tension responses of cable C1 of a cable-stayed bridge with
moving traffic. The tension response of the CFRP cable was generally similar to that of the steel cable,
even though the natural frequencies of CFRP cable and steel cable are different. This indicates that the
longitudinal vibration of the cable is mainly caused by the vibrations of the support structure, i.e.,

Materials 2014, 7

4874

the anchorage points at the girder and the pylon. The local vibration of the cable does not influence
this response.
Figure 22. Static and dynamic tension responses of cables: (a) CFRP cable under vehicles
moving at 60 km/h; (b) steel cable under vehicles moving at 60 km/h; (c) CFRP cable under
vehicles moving at 80 km/h; (d) steel cable under vehicles moving at 80 km/h; (e) CFRP
cable under vehicles moving at 100 km/h; (f) steel cable under vehicles moving at 100 km/h.

200

0
0

1000

2000

200

3000

x (m)

-200
400

1000

dynamic

2000

dynamic
static

(d) v =80km/h, S-C1

400

static
200

0
0

1000

2000

3000

T (kN)

T (kN)

200

-200

0
0

1000

2000

3000

-200

x (m)

-400

x (m)

-400

dynamic

(e) v =100km/h, C-C1

400

dynamic

(f) v =100km/h, S-C1

400

static

static
200

T (kN)

T (kN)

3000

x (m)

-200

(c) v =80km/h, C-C1

dynamic
static

(b) v =60km/h, S-C1

400

T (kN)

T (kN)

dynamic
static

(a) v =60km/h, C-C1

400

0
0
-200

1000

2000
x (m)

200

0
0

3000

-200

1000

2000

3000

x (m)

6. Conclusions
To explore the feasibility of using CFRP cables in long-span cable-stayed bridges, this paper
establishes a finite element model of a cable-stayed bridge with an ultimate span of 1400 m. The static
and dynamic characteristics of cable-stayed bridges with CFRP cables are studied here. By comparing
CFRP cables with steel cables in terms of mechanical behavior, some conclusions are drawn:
(1) For the same span cables in a 1,400 m span cable-stayed bridge, the self-weight of CFRP cable
was only about 1/7 that of steel cable. Additionally, the Irvine parameters of CFRP cables are only
about 1/6 that of steel cables. Therefore, the CFRP cable performance in tension is better than that
of steel cables.
(2) For the same cable span, the natural frequencies of CFRP cables are about two times those of
steel cables. Additionally, the optimal viscous damping coefficients of CFRP cables are about
half those of steel cables. Therefore, the CFRP cables can help prevent the cable-bridge
coupling vibration caused in lower modes of the cables. The attenuation of the parametric and
wind fluctuating vibrations is better for CFRP as compared to the steel cables as suggested by
the response amplitudes of the cables. The vibration amplitudes of CFRP cables are less than
half those of steel cables.

Materials 2014, 7

4875

(3) CFRP cable-stayed bridge has relatively less structural rigidity, so the maximum girder deflection
of CFRP cable-stayed bridge is about 1.22-times the steel-cable-stayed bridge. However, the
maximum compressive stress in the girders of CFRP-cable-stayed bridges is 9% lower than
that of steel cable-stayed bridges. Additionally, the minimum stability factor of CFRP
cable-stayed bridges is 5% larger than that of steel cable-stayed bridges.
(4) The CFRP cables have a lesser windward area than steel cables. Therefore, the transverse
bending moment and out-of-plane deformation of mid-span girders is slightly larger for steel
cable-stayed bridges than that for CFRP cable-stayed bridges.
(5) An analysis of vehicle-bridge coupling vibrations showed that replacing steel cables with
CFRP cables has little impact on the vibration response of a cable-stayed bridge.
Using CFRP cables on long-span cable-stayed bridges is facilitatory in terms of mechanical
properties. As the manufacturing process matures and the cost decreases, CFRP cables will see more
use in long-span cable-stayed bridges.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge the support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 50578141), without whom the research would not have taken the present shape.
Author Contributions
In this paper, Xu Xie finished the static calculation of CFRP cables and the cable-stayed bridge, and
wrote the abstract, introduction, conclusions, structural description of the cable-stayed bridge, static
and dynamic characteristics of cable-stayed bridge with CFRP cables. Yonggang Shen finished the
dynamic calculation of CFRP cables and the cable-stayed bridge, and wrote the dynamic
characteristics of CFRP cables and cable-stayed bridge. Xiaozhang Li finished the damping test of
cables, and wrote mechanical properties of CFRP cables.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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