Compression/Limiting

Tips on using this article - I suggest you use a pair of good headphones when listening to the
sounds here. The sound icons are arranged from left to right in order of increasing audio
quality (.au format, .wav, and .mp2 or MPEG 2 audio). The respective file sizes are noted
below the icons. The sound files were created using a DigiTech RP-1 and Csound.

Introduction
As the name implies, compression reduces the dynamic range of a signal. It is used
extensively in audio recording, production work, noise reduction, and live performance
applications, but it does need to be used with care. It's commonly said that compressors make
loud sounds quieter, and the quiet sounds louder, but this is actually only half correct.

How it Works
A compressor is basically a variable gain device, where the amount of gain used depends on
the level of the input. In this case, the gain will be reduced when the signal level is high which
makes louder passages softer, reducing the dynamic range. The basic scheme is shown in
Figure 1.

Figure 1: Flow diagram of a compressor. It's also possible to do

the level detection after the gain is applied (a feedback
compressor, rather than feedforward).
A compressor's input/output relationship is often described by a simple graph, as in Figure 2.
The horizontal axis corresponds to the input signal level, and the vertical axis is the output
level (both measured in decibels). A line at 45 degrees corresponds to a gain of one - any
input level is mapped to exactly the same output level. The compressor changes the slope
(makes it more horizontal) of that line above some value called the threshold (which is most
often adjustable). The height of the line defines the dynamic range of the output, and the slope
of that line is the same as the compressor's gain.

Figure 2: The compressor weakens the input signal only when it

is above the threshold value. Above that threshold, a change in
the input level produces a smaller change in the output level.
The compressor setting is usually stated as a ratio, such as 2:1, which means that the input
level would have to increase by two decibels to create a one decibel increase in the output.
With a 4:1 setting, the input would need to change by 4 dB for a 1 dB change in the output
level, and so on. Limiting is simply an extreme form of compression where the input/output
relationship become very flat (10:1 or higher). This places a hard limit on the signal level.
So looking at Figure 2, we can see that the compressor makes loud signals quieter, but it does
not make quiet sounds louder (although it may be perceived that way). However most
compressors do have a secondary gain stage for adjusting the output level so that if you turn
the compressor on while playing, the extra gain will prevent your instrument's volume level
from dropping. You can make a case that this extra gain stage is or isn't really part of a
compressor, but in any case, that is what makes the softer sounds louder.
So far we haven't discussed exactly how the level detector in the compressor operates. It is
usually some sort of time average of the input (often a root-mean-square (RMS) calculation).
Alternatively, the instantaneous peak voltage or sample value can be used, in which case, the
compressor becomes a hard limiter.
When the level sensing function is a short time average, the compressor will take a little time
before the gain is adjusted to meet the new input level. The amount of time the compressor
takes to respond when the input level rises above the threshold is called the attack time, and
is usually fairly short (under 100 ms.). When the input level is above the threshold and then
drops below it, the compressor will take some time to increase the gain as well. This is the
release time of the compressor, which is generally larger than the attack time (possibly up to
a second or two). Figure 3 shows how the attack and release times affect an example input.

Figure 3: The effects of a compressor on a signal. Only the

middle portion of the input is above the compressor's threshold.
Note the overshoot when the signal level increases (it takes some
time for the gain to decrease), and the attenuation when the input
signal returns to the first level (and the gain increases). The
release time is generally longer than the attack time.
At times it may be desirable to have a very short attack or release time which requires a quick
change in the gain, which in some cases can be heard as a 'breathing' or 'pumping' sound.
When the sound level drops below the threshold, the gain increases (to a gain of one). The
input signal is now closer to the noise level in the system, so the noise can be made audible, as
demonstrated in Sound Set 1. A more sophisticated compressor may watch the input closely
and adjust the gain when the input hits zero momentarily to reduce the 'breathing' effect.

(82K)
Sound Set 1: A heavily compressed pinch harmonic played on a
guitar. Without any compression, the pinch harmonic would
seem to decay much more rapidly (because the compressor holds
the volume fairly constant for a while). Once the harmonic falls
below the threshold, noise and the other strings that were ringing
fade in and can be heard - the 'breathing' effect.

Why use Compression/Limiting?

To illustrate one important application, it's best way to go back to the early 1900's. At the
time, the 'records' were recorded by having a singer or musician playing into a horn, which
would then cause a needle to trace a groove into a wax master (the system was totally acoustic
- no electronics whatsoever). The sound would cause the needle to wiggle a small amount.
But if you were to sing too loudly, then the needle would cross into the neighboring track,
ruining the work. There was no way to restrict the audio level in the recording process. The
same situation holds with other recording media, though it's not as physically obvious. For
example, if signal levels get too high when recording to magnetic tape, there will be
distortion. But to make a good recording, you want to keep the signal level up above the
background noise. Compressors and limiters provide protection against sudden transient
sounds that could result in distortion or damage to equipment.
In the studio, compression is a useful tool when cutting tracks and adjusting the mix. For
example, in a session the singer may be moving to and away from the mic, and a little
compression will even out the volume changes that would otherwise be recorded. Once the
tracks have been recorded, a compressor gives you a way to adjust the dynamic range of the
track and balancing the tracks. Using an appropriate attack time, the naturalness of an
instrument's sound will get through before the compression sets in. In some cases,
compression may even reduce the need for equalization.
One popular use of compression is to increase an instrument's sustain. This is technically
incorrect since a compressor doesn't change an instruments behavior, and it only operates on
an audio signal. The compressor will try to maintain a constant level of output by amplifying
the incoming signal to maintain that constant level. For example, after a string on a guitar is
plucked, the voltage produced by the pickups gradually dies away. A little compression will
keep the instrument's level from changing radically after it's plucked, which is perceived as
increased sustain or a 'smoothing' of instrument. A release time longer than the instruments
decay will preserve the instrument's sound.
Note that there is a trade-off with the compressor. You may want to have as much sustain as
possible, but in the process, you are eliminating your playing dynamics so you can no longer
accent notes and phrases effectively. The attack of an instrument is very important factor is
the instrument's sound, and hard limiting can take 'life' out of an instrument. And of course
you can also use extreme settings on a compressor to create unusual sounds from instruments.

Other Notes
Ducking/Cross Limiting
So far, we have been talking about compressors that process the signal that is being used in
the level detection process. But in some cases, you would prefer to have a signal's level
controlled by a different signal - when one signal level is high, the other signal is attenuated,
as in Figure 4. This is called 'ducking' (since it 'ducks' a signal out of the way) or cross
limiting. The most common example would be a radio DJ. While music is playing, speaking
into the microphone will cause the level of the music to drop so that it's easier to understand
the DJ. When mixing in the studio, a ducker can also be used to emphasize certain elements,
such as the kick drum. The kick could lower other tracks in the mix, increasing its 'presence.'

Figure 4: A 'ducker' or cross limiting set up.

'De-esser'
Rather than monitoring the level of the input signal, you could watch only a certain frequency
range, and this is what a 'de-esser' does. It is simply a limiter that operates on high frequency
components (separated out of the input with some filtering system) in the signal. When the
level of high frequencies rises above the threshold, only that frequency band is reduced in
volume. This allows it to tame the 's' sounds, such as in 'set.'
Placement in the Effects Chain
When using the compressor along with other effects, it is most often best to put it first in the
chain, primarily for noise reasons. When the compressor is on (which reduces the output peak
dynamic range) and the output level is increased with the additional gain, the noise will be
amplified along with the instrument's sound. Other effects can introduce more noise into the
system, so if you put the compressor after those effects, you will end up amplifying that noise
as well. Using the compressor first in the chain also gives the other effects a better signal to
work with.