HISTORY REVSION

VIETNAM
INCREASING INVOLVEMENT
France tried to regain their former colony. The US gave aid (proxy war - $3 billion,
70% of the costs) as they were fighting the Communist Vietnamese led by Ho Chi
Minh. In 1954, the French surrendered and elections were to take place 2 years later
but the US prevented them because they feared the Communists would win.
Vietnam was divided: the Vietminh governed the north and a non-communist
government the south. In 1955, Diem took power in South Vietnam. The US
supported his increasingly corrupt, violent and ineffective regime with money ($1.6
billion in 1950s), weapons and military advisors. North Vietnam, China and the
USSR encouraged and sent supplies to a South Vietnamese resistance army (the
Viet Cong) supported by peasants as Communism appealed to them and Diem
refused land reforms, leading to a civil war.
The VC gained increasing support. By 1962 the US had sent in 16,000 advisors.
Kennedy also built strategic hamlets defended villages where South Vietnamese
were moved to get them away from the VC. They opposed this; they didnt want to
leave their villages and many turned to the VC. Tensions increased but Kennedy was
adamant to not rush into war.
By 1963, Diem was so unpopular that he had continuous opposition (Buddhist
monks burnt themselves to death). Kennedy threatened to withdraw aid and then
backed a plot for Diem to be arrested. He was murdered three weeks before
Kennedy. His successor, Johnson, was prepared for full-scale conflict to prevent
Communism spreading. He visited South Vietnam and increased support to 23,000
men by late 1964. Johnson became determined to send combat troops to Vietnam.
In August 1964 it was claimed that US ships had been attacked in the Gulf of Tonkin
and in January 1965 the CIA staged a landing of North Vietnamese troops. Its now
believed that the Gulf of Tonkin incident was invented to justify US intervention in
Vietnam. Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave Johnson any
means necessary to achieve peace. In March Johnson sent the first 3,500 combat
troops to Vietnam. It was now war. Over the next few months the number of US
troops increased to more than 50,000. Johnson also began Operation Rolling
Thunder.

WHY?

US wanted to prevent spread of Communism (containment)

Sent more and more aid to prevent investment being lost
'Domino Theory' one country fell to communism, neighbours would too
The President had to be seen as taking tough stance against Communism
South Vietnam essential to freedom of South East Asia
The Industrial-Military Complex in interest of military goods companies
Kennedy embarrassed by Bay of Pigs and wanted to retaliate for Berlin Wall

VC TACTICS

The VC and the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) had 170,000 soldiers who
were motivated, committed and knew the land
Ho Chi Minh trail: weapons and supplies from China and USSR, up to 6,000
tonnes per day, in the jungle so hard to see and easily changed if found
Guerrilla warfare: retreated when enemy attacked, raided when camped,
attacked when tired and pursued when retreated
No uniform: impossible to identify from citizens, scattered so could hide
Hiding: jungles, tunnels, villages and towns, could move undetected
Tunnels: 240km to hide camps, dead-ends and booby-traps
Booby-traps: cheap, simple or sophisticated (Bouncy Betty), effective, 11% of
US casualties, fear on patrols wore down morale
Small groups with limited weapons: inconspicuous
Firefights: small arms fire in ambushes, close-quarter so US could not use air
power or artillery as danger of hitting own troops, 51% casualties
Supported by peasants but ruthless towards those who did not
Neighbours: sympathetic, US troops couldnt go in (only a few secretly), could
retreat, supplied weapons and reinforcements
US troops could be attacked without warning, anywhere and by anyone
Relentless: prepared to pay any price (1 million lives replacable) and would
never give up (war of attrition)

US TACTICS

Operation Rolling Thunder: 1965-1972, heavy bombing of military and

industry in North Vietnam, disrupted Ho Chi Minh trail, still attack when
reducing ground troops after 1969, bombing of Hanoi from 1970-1972 brought
North Vietnamese to negotiating table, but only slowed them, huge cost ($4
million each VC), lost 14,000 US and South Vietnamese aircrafts
Chemical weapons: dropped from planes easily, Agent Orange and Napalm
destroyed jungle where VC hid but burns and birth defects, Napalm burned
villages to force VC out (Kim Phuc photo Anti-War Movement), Agent Blue
destroyed crops, petrol and chemical bombs
Search and Destroy: from helicopters troops landed in villages to try eradicate
VC, took them by surprise, inexperienced troops walked into booby-traps,
often based on inadequate information so killed civilians (every VC weapon 6
bodies), very unpopular so lost hearts and minds
Inexperienced: mostly draftees after 1967, average age 19, 60% killed 17-21,
knew little about country, mostly poor and immigrants, only stayed 1 year for
morale but left just when experienced
Low morale: afraid, cared little for Communism/ democracy, not their country
18% casualties non-combat e.g. illness, crashes, suicide, murder, drugs

MAI LAI
In March 1968, US troops had been told that there was a
They were ordered to destroy the village and were told
market. Therefore they thought they should kill everyone
300-400 civilians but no VC were found and only three

VC HQ of 200 in Mai Lai.

the villagers would be at
in the village. They killed
weapons recovered. The

army report said it was a success with only 20 civilians killed and the rest VC. They
were praised and it was soon folklore. However, a soldier who knew those involved
wrote to Congress to ask them to investigate it. Soon after, Life magazine published
photos of the event. Although 11 members of the company were charged and all
commanding officers it was too much for the army. They put all blame on Lieutenant
Calley who they said was not acting under orders. His senior officers were acquitted
and he was found guilty of the murder of 22 civilians in 1971. His sentence was 20
years hard labour but he was released in 1974.

TET OFFENSIVE (Tet = New Year in Vietnamese)

The Tet Offensive was a massive attack by the VC that began on 30 January 1968.
100 cities and other military targets were attacked, including Saigon. The VC hoped
that there would be a revolution in the cities to support them, but nothing happened.
In Saigon the US embassy was taken by VC and it took 11,000 US troops one week
to drive the VC out of Saigon while only 4,500 VC tied up opposing forces for two
days. Although the VC failed they lost 80,000 and most of their experienced troops
it was a turning point for the US.
The US had 500,000 troops and $20 billion a year going into Vietnam. The VC were
still able to reach the very grounds of the US embassy. Obviously, the VC was much
stronger than expected and would need more manpower and money to take down. It
had taken enormous amount of artillery and air power and so many civilians and
buildings perished. Until this the media coverage had been positive, encouraging
and behind the war but now it was questioned if it was winnable at all. US politicians
also saw that the war wouldnt be won speedily. The goal had changed from winning
to avoiding the image of defeat. It could not be won militarily so it was time to
negotiate. Johnson did not put himself up for re-election and the other candidates
promised to end the war because the anti-war feeling was so strong.

EFFECTS IN THE US

By 1967, 160 soldiers were killed weekly and returned to the US in bags with
a weekly body count on the news (low morale for nation and president)
Soldiers turned to drugs and selling supplies on the black market
Tension between officers who wanted promotion and soldiers who wanted to
live, fragging (killing/ wounding officers with grenades) began in 1969 and
accounted for 3% of officer deaths
More than half a million US soldiers deserted out of 10,000,000 drafted.
Increasing opposition in US because withdrew money from the Great Society
Civil Rights movement: 30% Blacks drafted only 19% Whites, 22% casualties
Black though only 11% army, didnt want to fight when discriminated against
Protests across the US, demonstrations of over 40,000 students in the first
half of 1968, 1969 700,000 anti-war protesters demonstrated in Washington
DC, often violent, bombs at three universities, 1970 4 died 11 injured when
National Guard called in to end unrest, 400 colleges closed because of strikes
Draft-dodging became common as students tried to avoid service by attending
university because they didnt believe in it and thought it was morally wrong
This was the first televised war and lightweight cameras when taken close to
conflict zones so people were seeing the violence of the war, they saw the Tet
Offensive, also televised those against the war

EFFECTS IN VIETNAM

2,000,000 people were killed

Mines and booby traps left, people continued to suffer effects of chemicals
and defoliants
Over 7 million tonnes of bombs dropped, over x3 WW2
Large areas of country destroyed lost culture, could not grow food for
export, couldnt feed itself

ENDING THE WAR

Nixon wanted to end the war but not hand it over to the Communists as this would
not be containing Communism but he didnt want North Vietnam to know.
In 1969 the USSR and China fell out with war seeming possible in late 1969.
They both began to improve relations with the US: in 1970 Nixon had the
Strategic Arms Limitation Talks with the USSR to limit nuclear weapons and
was invited to China in 1972. He asked both pressure North Vietnam.
In early 1969 Kissinger began regular meetings with the chief Vietnamese
peace negotiator.
Vietnamisation: withdrawing US troops and building up ARVN, ensuring it
could defend the country alone. From April 1969 to the end of 1971 almost
400,000 US troops had left.
Stepped up Operation Rolling Thunder to cover up the leaving troops and
show he wasnt weak. An air-raid on Hanoi lasted a week and killed 2,000.
Invaded Laos and Cambodia bombed both and increased the use of
defoliants to uncover VC supply lines and bases. This caused worldwide
outrage as the two countries were not part of the war.
In January 1973 a peace agreement was signed between the US and the Vietnams.
By March 1973 all US troops had left Vietnam.

CONSEQUENCES

Cost $120 billion

Tremendous blow to American prestige
700,000 suffered psychological disorders (more suicides than death in war)

THE FALL OF SOUTH VIETNAM

Negotiations between the USA and the North Vietnamese dragged on for five years.
Agreement was not reached until 1973 when the US forces withdrew. The defence of
South Vietnam was taken over by the ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam).
Nixon promised them financial and military aid but Congress refused because they
didnt want to as the South Vietnamese regime was corrupt and lacked support.
Nixon resigned in1974 after Watergate but the new President, Ford, couldnt get the
backing of Congress either. Without US aid and the support of the population the
ARVN couldnt hold out. In December 1974 the North Vietnamese launched a major
offensive against South Vietnam. Saigon fell in April 1975. South Vietnam was united
with the North and Saigon was renamed Ho Chi Minh City.