Chapter 16.

Sound and Hearing

Dr. Yousef Abou-Ali

yabouali@iust.edu.sy

Syllabus
16.1 Sound Waves
16.7 Beats
16.8 The Doppler Effect

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

Goals for Chapter 16

To present sound as a standing longitudinal wave.
To study beats.
To solve for frequency shifts (the Doppler Effect).

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

Introduction
Of

all the mechanical waves that occur in nature, the most

important in our everyday lives are longitudinal waves in a medium,
usually air, called sound waves.

The

human ear is tremendously sensitive and can detect sound

waves even of very low intensity.

mechanical wave is a disturbance that travels through some

material or substance called the medium for the wave.

As the wave travels through the medium, the particles that make
up the medium undergo displacements of various kinds, depending
on the nature of wave.
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

Introduction
Waves

in a fluid are the

result of a mechanical
disturbance.

At

right, a stone disturbs

water and creates visually
observable traveling waves.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

Introduction
Mechanical waves described primarily in terms of displacement.
A description of sound waves in terms of pressure fluctuations is
often appropriate, largely because the ear is primarily sensitive to
changes in pressure.

When

a source of sound or listener moves through the air, the

listener may hear a different frequency than the one emitted by the
source. This is Doppler effect.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

The most general definition of sound is that is a longitudinal wave
in a medium. Our main concern in this chapter is with sound waves
in air.

But sound can travel through any gas, liquid, or solid.

The simplest sound waves are sinusoidal waves,

which have

definite frequency, amplitude and wavelength.

Human ear is sensitive to waves in the frequency range from about

20 20000 Hz /audible range/.

But we also use the term sound for similar waves with frequencies
above (ultrasonic) and below (infrasonic) the range of human
hearing.
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Sound waves usually travel out in all directions from the source of
sound, with an amplitude that depends on the direction and distance
from the source.

On

the idealised case of a sound wave that propagates in the

positive x-direction only.

Such a wave is described by a wave function y (x, t ), which gives the

instantaneous displacement y of a particle in the medium at position
x at time t . If the wave is sinusoidal:

y ( x , t ) = A cos(k x t )

(1 6 . 1 )

(so u n d w a v e p ro p a g a tin g in th e + x -d ire c tio n )

Where k is wave number, A is the amplitude and angular frequency.
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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

In

a longitudinal wave the displacements are parallel to the

direction of travel of the wave, so distances x and y are measured
parallel to each other.

In a transverse wave the displacements are perpendicular

to the

direction of travel of the wave.

The amplitude A is the maximum displacement of a particle in the

medium from its equilibrium position. It is also called the
displacement amplitude.

Sound

waves may also be described in terms of variations of

pressure at various points.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Let

p (x, t ) be the instantaneous pressure fluctuation in a sound

wave at any point x at time t .

p (x, t ) is the amount by which the pressure differs from normal

atmospheric pressure p a.

Think of p (x, t ) as the gauge pressure; it can be either positive or

negative. The absolute pressure at a point is then p a + p (x, t ).

For the sinusoidal wave:

p ( x , t ) = B k A s in ( k x t )

(1 6 . 4 )

Where B is the bulk modulus.

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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

B u lk s tre s s
p
B =
=
B u lk s tra in
V / Vo

(1 1 .1 3 )

(a) Displacement amplitude and,

(b) Pressure amplitude versus
position for a sinusoidal
longitudinal wave.

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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Equation

(16.4) shows that the quantity BkA represents the

maximum pressure fluctuation.

We call this the pressure amplitude, denoted by p max:

pm ax = B k A
The

pressure

amplitude

(1 6 .5 )
is

directly

proportional

to

the

displacement amplitude A , and it also depends on wavelength.

Waves of shorter wavelength (larger wave number k = 2/) have

greater pressure variations for a given amplitude.
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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Example 16.1 ( Amplitude of a sound wave in air):
In a sinusoidal sound wave of moderate loudness the maximum
pressure variations are of the order of 3.0 10-2 Pa above and below
atmospheric pressure pa (nominally 1.013 105 Pa at sea level). Find
the corresponding maximum displacement if the frequency is
1000 Hz. In air at normal atmospheric pressure and density, the
speed of sound is 344 m/s and the bulk modulus is 1.42 105 Pa.

Solution:

Identify

and Set Up : We are given the pressure amplitude p max,

wave speed v , frequency f, and bulk modulus B. Our target variable
is the displacement A , which is related to p max by Eq. (16.5). We also
use the relationship = v k to determine the wave number k .
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Execute:

From Eq. (16.5), the maximum displacement is

A = p max/Bk . The wave number is:

2 f
(2 rad)(1000 H z)
=
=
= 18 . 3 rad / m
k =
v
v
344 m / s

Then:

pmax
3.0 10-2 Pa

8
A=
=
= 1.2 10 m
Bk
(1.42 105 Pa )(18.3 rad/m)

Read Example 16.2/530).

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Perception of Sound Waves

The physical characteristics of a sound wave are directly related to

the perception of that sound by a listener.

For

a given frequency, the greater the pressure amplitude of a

sinusoidal sound wave, the greater the perceived loudness.

The

frequency of a sound wave is the primary factor in

determining the pitch of a sound, the quality that lets us classify the
sound as high or low. The higher the frequency of a sound, the
higher the pitch.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.1 Sound Waves

Perception of Sound Waves

Two

tones have the same frequency (the same pitch) but sound
different because of the presence of different amounts of the various
harmonics. The difference is called tone color , quality , or timber and
often described in subjective terms such as reedy, golden, round,

mellow, and tinny.

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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.7 Beats
Lets look at what happens when we have two waves with equal
amplitude but slightly different frequencies.

This occurs, for examples, when two tuning forks with slightly
different frequencies are sounded together.

When two organ pipes that are supposed to have exactly the same
frequency are slightly out of tune.

Consider a particular point in space where the two waves overlap.

The displacements of the individual waves at this point are plotted as
functions of time in the figure below (a).

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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.7 Beats
Appling

the principle of superposition, we add the two

displacements at each instant of time to find the total displacement
at that time.

The result is the graph of figure (b).

At certain times the two waves are in phase; their maxima coincide
and their amplitudes add.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.7 Beats

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.7 Beats
The

resultant wave in the figure above looks like a single

sinusoidal wave with a varying amplitude that goes from a
maximum to zero and back.

The amplitude variation causes variations of loudness called beats,

and the frequency with which the loudness varies is called the beat
frequency.

In

this example the beat frequency is the difference of the two

frequencies.

We can prove that the beat frequency is always the difference of

the two frequencies fa and fb , where fa is larger than fb .

f beat = f a f b
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

( b eat freq uency )

(16 .24 )

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

You have probably noticed that when a car approaches you with
its horn sounding, the pitch seems to drop as the car passes.

This

phenomena, first described by the 9th century Austrian

scientist Christian Doppler, is called the Doppler effect.

When a source of sound and a listener are in motion relative to

each other, the frequency of the sound heard by the listener is not the
same as the source frequency.

To

analyse the Doppler effect for sound, we will work out a

relation between the frequency shift and the velocities of source and
listener relative to the medium (usually air) through which the sound
waves propagate.
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

To keep things simple, we consider only the special case in which
the velocities of both source and listener lie along the line joining
them.

Let v s is the velocity component of source and v L is the velocity

component of listener along this line.

We

choose the positive direction for both v s and v L to be the

direction from the listener L to the source S.

The speed of sound relative to the medium, v , is always positive.

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Moving Listener

Lets think first about a listener L moving with velocity v L toward

a stationary source S.

The source emits a sound wave with frequency fs and wavelength

= v / f s.

The

figure below shows several wave crests, separated equal

distance .

The wave crests approaching the moving listener have a speed of

propagating relative to the listener of (v + v L).

So the frequency fL (the frequency the listener hears) is:

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Moving Listener

Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Moving Listener

fL =

v + vL

Or:

v + vL
=
v / fs

(16.25)

vL
v + vL

fL =
fs = 1 +
fs
(16.26)

v
v

(moving listener, stationary source)

So

a listener moving toward a source (v L > 0) hears a higher

frequency (higher pitch) than does a stationary listener.

A listener moving

away from the source (v L < 0) hears a lower

frequency (lower pitch) than does a stationary listener.
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Moving Source and Moving Listener

Now suppose the source is also moving, with velocity v s, The wave
speed relative to the wave medium (air) is still v .

The wavelength is:

v vs v vs
in front =

=
fs fs
fs

(16.27)

( wavelength in front of a moving source )

In the region to the left of the source (behind the source), it is:
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Moving Source and Moving Listener

v + vs
b eh in d =
fs

(1 6 .2 8 )

( w avelen g th b eh in d a m o v in g so u rce )

The frequency heard by the listener behind the source:

v + vL
fL =
fs
v + vs

( 1 6 .2 9 )

( D o p p le r e f f e c t, m o v in g s o u r c e a n d m o v in g lis te n e r )
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University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Example 16.15 ( Doppler effect I: Wavelengths):
A police siren emits a sinusoidal wave with frequency fs = 300 Hz.
The speed of sound is 340 m/s. a) Find the wavelength of the waves if
the siren is at rest in the air. b) If the siren is moving at 30 m/s
(108 km/h, or 67 mi/h), find the wavelengths of the waves ahead of
and behind the source.
Solution:

Identify :

The Doppler effect is not involved in part (a), since

neither the source nor the listener is moving. In part (b), the source
is in motion and we must invoke the Doppler effect.

Set Up : We use the relationship v = f to determine the wavelength

when the police siren is at rest. When it is in motion, we find the
wavelength on either side of the siren using Eqs. (16.27) and (16.28).
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Execute: a) When the source is at rest,
v 340 m / s
=
=
= 1.13 m
fs
300 Hz
b) From Eq. (16.27), in front of the siren:

v vs 340 m / s 30 m / s
in front =
=
= 1.03 m
fs
300 Hz

From Eq. (16.28), behind the siren:

v + vs 340 m / s + 30 m / s
behind =
=
= 1.23 m
fs
300 Hz
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Example 16.16 ( Doppler effect II: Frequencies):
If a listener L is at rest and the siren in Example 16.16 is moving away
from L at 30 m/s (Fig. 16.31), what frequency does the listener hear?

Solution:
Identify and Set Up : Our target variable is the listeners frequency
fL. We know fs = 300 Hz from Example 16.16, and we have v L= 0 and
v s= 30 m/s. (The source velocity v s is positive because the siren is
moving in the same direction as the direction from listener to
source.)
Execute: From Eq. (16.29),

340 m / s
v
fL =
fs =
(300 Hz) = 276 Hz
v + vs
340 m / s + 30 m / s
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Example 16.17 ( Doppler effect III: A moving listener):
If the siren is at rest and the listener is moving toward the left at
30 m/s (Fig. 16.32), what frequency does the listener hear?

Solution:

Identify and Set Up : The source is at rest (v s= 0) and the listener is

in motion. The positive direction (from listener to source) is still from
left to right, so v L= - 30 m/s.

Execute: From Eq. (16.27),

v + vL
340 m / s + (30 m / s)
(300 Hz) = 274 Hz
fL =
fs =
v
340 m / s
Dr. Y. Abou-Ali, IUST

University Physics, Chapter 16

16.8 The Doppler Effect

Example 16.18 ( Doppler effect IV: Moving source, moving listener):
If the siren is moving away from the listener with a speed of 45 m/s
relative to the air and the listener is moving toward the siren with a
speed of 15 m/s relative to the air (Fig. 16.33), what frequency does
the listener hear?

Solution:

Identify

and Set Up : Both the listener and the source are in

motion, with v L= 15 m/s and v s= 45 m/s.

Execute: Once again using Eq. (16.27), we find:

v + vL
340 m / s + 15 m / s
fL =
fs =
(300 Hz) = 277 Hz
v + vs
340 m / s + 45 m / s
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University Physics, Chapter 16