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UNITS
Title
Page No
Nature of Curriculum
Unit-I
1 to 55
Unit-II
Students centred
Activity centred
Community centred
Forward looking principle
Principles of integration
Theories of curriculum development
55 to 82
Determinants of Curriculum
Unit-III
Explosion of knowledge
Information vs. Knowledge
Nurturing creativity construction
Society
Social forces
Revolutionary change in Society
ICT
Growth and Development of Learner
Nature of Subject matter
83 to 150
Title
Approaches to Curriculum
Unit-IV
Subject centred
Learner centred
Community centred
Curriculum Framework
151 to 161
curriculum
Psychological
Humanistic
162 to 202
basis
of
humanistic
curriculum
Social reconstructionist curriculum
Role of Teacher
INTRODUCTION:
It is derived from the Latin word currere which means to run, this
definition was produced by Pinar (1974) to highlight the running (or
lived experience). Indeed, for many students, the school curriculum is
a race to be run, a series of obstacles or hurdles (subjects) to be
passed. It is the what of teaching. A dynamic process. All the
activities going on the school or outside of the school is called
curriculum. It is basic to the intellectual, physical, moral and
emotional development of the child.
CURRICULUM:
Curriculum comprises all the learning which is planned
and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in
groups or individually inside or outside of the school.
- Kerr
Curriculum is the totality of experiences that pupils
receive through the manifold activities that go in the
school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop,
play ground and in the numerous informal contacts
between the teachers and pupils.
-The Secondary
Education Commission (1952-1953)
Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the Artist
(Teacher), to mould his/her materials (Students),
according to his/her ideals (objectives) in his/her studio
(College/ School).
Cunningham.
1
CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM:
Prescriptive,
Descriptive.
Prescriptive [curriculum]
Prescriptive definitions provide us with what ought to happen,
and they more often than not take the form of a plan, an intended
program, or some kind of expert opinion about what needs to take
place in the course of study. (Ellis,2004,)
7
9
Date
Author
Definition
1935
1941
Thomas Hopkins
1960
W. B. Ragan
1987
Glen Hass
1995
The reconstruction of
knowledge and experience that
enables the learner to grow in
exercising intelligent control of
subsequent knowledge and
experience.
10
2006
D. F. Brown
E. Silva
11
CONCEPTIONS OF CURRICULUM:
Longstreet and Shane (1993) refer to four major
conceptions of curriculum:
13
We make sense of our world and go about our daily lives
by engaging in concept building. We acquire and develop concepts so
that we can gain meaning about persons and events and in turn
communicate these meaning to others.
Some concepts are clearly of more importance than others. The key
concepts provide us with the power to explore a variety of situations
and events and to make significant connections.
Other concepts may be meaningful in more limited situations but play
a part in connecting unrelated facts.
Every field of study contains a number of key concepts and lesser
concepts which relate to substantive and methodological issues
unique to that discipline/ field of study. Not
unexpectedly, scholars differ over their respective lists of key
concepts, but there is, nevertheless, considerable agreement (see, for
example, Hayes, 2006). With regard to the curriculum field there is a
moderate degree of agreement over key concepts.
Searching for key concepts:
16
In Australia, three major texts focus directly upon curriculum
concepts.
Generic categories
Characteristics of curriculum
Some curriculum experts, such as Goodlad (1979), contend that an
analysis of definitions is a useful starting point for examining the field
of curriculum.
Other writers argue that there are important concepts or
characteristics that need to be considered and which give some
insights into how particular value orientations have evolved and why
(Westbury, 2007).
Pinar et al. (1995) refer to the
development as
o
o
o
Politicians,
Textbook Companies,
Subject-Matter specialists in the
university, rather than
o School
practitioners
and
university
professors
of
curriculum, exercise leadership
and control over curriculum
development.
18
In a later publication, Pinar (2004) argues that public school
24
4. Multiple learning experiences can achieve the same objective.
There are many ways of learning the same thing. A wide range of
experiences is more effective for learning than a limited range.
5. The learning experience should accomplish several learning
outcomes. While students are acquiring knowledge of one subject or
concept, they are able to integrate schooling that knowledge in several
related fields and satisfy more than one objective (Tyler, 1949).
25
History and Its Influence to Curriculum
The history of ones country can affect its educational system and the
kind of curriculum it has. If we are going to trace the formal
beginning of curriculum, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbits
book entitled, The Curriculum which was published in 1918.
From the time of Bobbit to Tyler, many developments in the purposes,
principles and contents of the curriculum took place.
The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum
Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides
information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks
answers as to how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve
students learning at the optimum level, and as to what amount of
information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the
curriculum.
The following are some psychological theories in learning that
influenced curriculum development:
1. Behaviourism
Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviourism. The
mastery of the subject matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is
organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and repetition
are common.
For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical
and routine. Though many are sceptical about this theory, we cant
deny the fact the influences it had in our educational system.
26
2. Cognitivism
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information,
monitor and manage their thinking. The basic questions that cognitive
psychologists zero in on are:
How do learners process and store information?
How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
How much information can they absorb?
27
4. Sociology and Curriculum
There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and
curriculum because the school exists within the societal context.
Though schools are formal institutions that educate the people, there
are other units of society that educate or influence the way people
think, such as families and friends as well as communities.
Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are
difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to
address and understand the changes not only in ones country but in
the world as well.
Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more
innovative and interdisciplinary.
A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the
explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational
reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United
Nations.
However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a
curriculum that reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations for
national identity.
No matter how far people go, it is the countrys responsibility to
ensure that the school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry.
Now, it is your time to reflect. Can you think of your experiences in
which the major foundation of curriculum can explain it?
28
Curriculum can be ordered into a procedure:
Step 1: Diagnosis of needs,
Step 2: Formulation of objectives,
Step 3: Selection of content,
Step 4: Organization of content,
Step 5: Selection of learning experiences,
Step 6: Organization of learning experiences,
Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and
means of doing it, Curriculum has numerous definitions,
which can be slightly confusing.
In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses
offered at a school, explicit. The intended curriculum, which
the students learn through the culture of the school, implicit.
The curriculum that is specifically excluded, like racism. Plus,
the extracurricular activities like sports, and clubs. . This is
particularly true of schools at the university level, where the
diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to a
potential student. A curriculum may also refer to a defined and
prescribed course of studies, which students must fulfil in
order to pass a certain level of education. For example, an
elementary school might discuss how its curriculum, or its
entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to improve
national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An
individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum,
30
Nature of curriculum:
Kelly(1999) identifies three kinds of the nature of curriculum:
Planned Curriculum ,
Received Curriculum,
Hidden Curriculum.
Planned curriculum means what is laid down in the syllabus.
Received curriculum refers to the reality of students
experiences.
Hidden curriculum is knowledge that implicit knowledge
students learn in school.
Regarding classification, Morris and Adamson (2010) raise the idea
of null curriculum and outside curriculum on top of the three concepts
stated by Kelly (1999) above.
33
Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum
developers.
In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum.
The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and this is
the desire of a society that their children should learn the habits, ideas,
attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational
institutional are the proper way to impart these skill. This duty of
teacher and school to discipline the young of the society and provide
them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs,
knowledge and information of the society provide foundation in the
formation of curriculum
Philosophical/ ideological foundation
It is concerned with beliefs.
What is real --- ONTOLOGY
What is true --- EPISTEMOLOGY
What is good AXIOLOGY
Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple
truth, It search for eternal truth, reality and general principles of life.
34
Curriculum is used for the modification of the behaviour of the
students and philosophy help in the process of finding new ways and
basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their behaviour.
Philosophy also helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and
how to apply in the classroom situation for better achievement of the
teaching learning process. It also provides new ways and methods for
the evaluation of students achievement and evaluation of curriculum.
Philosophers of the past have made major influence in clarifying the
association in the nature of knowledge and curriculum development
process and also provide a foundation for curriculum; Plato presented
a curriculum in his book republic at that times and it is still the core
of the curriculum of today. Knowledge is given the high role in
human life.
Today world economics and societies are changing very rapidly; it
needs depth in every discipline of education in this high
time.
Today the world emphasis on finding new ways through which man
develops new concepts of reality and knowledge and to form a new
structure of knowledge in this dynamic and changing time therefore a
high value is given to discovery, invention and restructuring of
knowledge and curriculum in new patterns. Now the new curriculum
is open to new experiences, logical and critical thinking, and to bring
about the concept of knowledge out of interpreted experience.
Philosophy and ideology of education provide rules and principles
Psychological foundations:
Psychological foundation is based on the individual
differences, every student has its own unique personality and
they have differences in their leering and skills.
They are different in nature so they cant be treated alike in
teaching learning process, some may be fast learner while
other slow.
Therefore the curriculum should be based on the above facts,
and it should be design to support the capacity and
potentialities of all the students.
Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning process it
is the foundation for all type of educational related
programmed.
The methods of teaching, the selection of content of subject
and the methods and theories of learning, the overall
development of the students and to inculcate the norms of the
society in the students.
Psychology helps in all the processes above in the
development process of the curriculum.
37
Today psychology is the core and foundation element of all the
learning processes; curriculum development, Child mental
development, teaching methods, learning theories,
administration of education system and planning, character
building of the students, attitude of students and teacher, the
society, the use of different technologies.
Today the researchers and Scholars using experimental
approach to find new ways of teaching learning process, how
students learn under different conditions.
They are finding new ways and materials from the analysis of
teaching learning problem and formulating new approaches
for teaching and learning process.
39
To study a topic in depth or more helpful in the discovering
the relationships between them than try to cover the whole
material in once.
The Depth of learning could be attained by applying
different ideas, processes, theories, and models.
o Learning is improved when there is relationship order in the
continuity of unit to unit from simple to complex in the
instruction programme.
o The solving of problems helps the students in acquiring the
concept development, and how to use different principles
which lead the students to a higher level of mental
development.
o
3.
4.
History also tell them how the teacher should teach, what are the best
practices they need to incorporate in curriculum teaching and what
kind of teaching need to be avoid.
The history of the curriculum also explains the teacher
psychology at different time and how to improve their teaching styles.
45
The history also provides a detail about the learner behaviour at
different times. It also provides information about the psychology of
the students, how they learn and what they want to learn.
In times curriculum changed its shapes and patterns from teacher
centre curriculum to learner centre curriculum due to the long history
of the curriculum development process from Plato to modern
curriculum.
The history of the curriculum also changed the teaching methods, now
every researcher are finding new ways to teach and it is also
becoming the part of curriculum an history.
Today majority of the develop countries are those countries who have
a long history of freedom and proper education system. They
achieved their successes through education and implementation of
time needed curriculum.
They modified their curriculum according to the need of time. Some
of newly born countries also achieved that status because they
adopted successful model of other developed countries and modified
according to their own needs and culture.
History Guides future plans:
After the age of six years both girls and boys should be separated and
boys should play with boys and girls with girls and they should be
taught the use of different arms to both sexes. This stage goes up to
the age of seventeen years. During these years they should teach them
music and early education. After the age of seventeen years the youth
should be brought to battle field to learn real life experiences.
47
The fourth stage start at the age of twenty five to thirty years and in
this age they get the training of Mathematical calculation and last for
another ten years, after the completion the selected ones are admitted
in the study of dialect.
During fifth stage they study dialect for another five years and after
that, at the sixth stage one is ready to become a ruler and philosopher
and the one enter in practical life.
The 11th century was a dark era for education. Few people in Western
Europe were receiving any kind of schooling and across the globe;
contributions were being made to the future of education.
In China, printing by movable type was invented in 1045, and proved
to be one of the most powerful inventions of this era which affect the
curriculum development process and bring huge change in the
improvement of curriculum and contents of the curriculum around the
world. With future educational systems focusing on the written word,
the invention of type printing set the path for future publications.
The first paper mill was built in France in 1338. Paper was a Chinese
invention (c. 600 AD), brought to Europe by the Arabs in the 11th
century.
The great educator of Islam, Imam Ghazali was born in 1059 AD near
Tus in Khurasan, a part of the then Persia.
His educational philosophy based on his personal experience. The
philosophy, which he formulated over a period of 10 years, resembles
to the Philosophy of Plato. He used his personal experience and
concluded the reasons.
48
Curriculum:
Ghazali strongly criticizes the curriculum of his time. He raises the
basic question of criteria for selection of subject matter for
curriculum. He studied the various curriculums in his times and
reached the following conclusions:
More time is spent on religious education and worldly
education is completely ignores,
Worldly education is equally important,
While teaching religious education, a great number of
differences arise among the teachers, which result in
mudslinging on each other,
Proper planning:
Abilities of students:
Ghazali stresses that while teaching the abilities of students should be
kept in mind. Concepts, which are above the mental level of the
students, will not make the teaching effective.
50
Today in modern curriculum teachers are asked to keep in mind the
individual differences. In the era of colonist, the colonist came to
indo-pack and they set up schools exactly like the ones they knew in
Europe. The curriculum was centered on the learning of letters,
numbers, and prayers. Their strict learning environment did not allow
for crafts nor recess breaks, and only one out of ten children attended
school.
There were common characteristics shared by these colonies:
Religious Education; its major aim was personal salvation
Education was centred on social class, dual system or class
system. The children of workers should have minimal primary
education, they learned the 4 R's (reading, writing, arithmetic,
and religion
With the exception of few Schools, education was only for
boys
Most children in colonial times received their education
through informal means such as the family, the farm, and the
shop.
Changes in educational philosophy and curriculum came
about in this era as well.
In 1901, John Dewey wrote The Child and the Curriculum, and later
Democracy and Education, in which he shows concern for the
relationship between society and education. Dewey was a
philosopher, psychologist, and educator.
His philosophy of education focused on learning by doing rather than
rote memorization. He criticized the old education system which
keeps students busy.
51
Economical Foundations:
It focuses on:
o Job or market oriented curriculum
o Skill learning
The economical foundation of curriculum gives importance to the
vocational aspect of the curriculum. The economic condition of a
nation or a society guide the curriculum of the country, because the
stakeholder of the education wants to employ such a curriculum
which help them to build their economy and the people have better
jobs when they finish their schooling.
In this kind of situations the curriculum become job or market
oriented. In this curriculum the curriculum developer gives
importance to skills acquisition which is the demands of the time.
Undeveloped nations try to prepare skill work force and send it to
other countries for jobs.
Here are some economical factor which influence the curriculum
development process.
Economic Factors:
Allocation of funds
The financial condition of a country reflects its curriculum because
without proper funding one cant achieve the outcome of a good
curriculum. It is the financial aspect of a country which guide them to
adopt which type of curriculum, for example activity base or learner
centre curriculum need more money in the process of the
implementation of the curriculum then subject matter curriculum.
52
Because activity base and learner centre curriculum need more
space and money then subject matter, for that reason in Pakistan we
adopted subject base curriculum because we have shortage of schools,
classrooms in schools, trained teachers.
Schools lack physical facilities including buildings, classrooms,
furniture, Hostel, Play grounds, mats and even very basic necessities
like blackboard, chalk, and charts. Lack of other resources water,
Fan, Electricity.
53
UNIT-II
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM
CONSTRUCTION
Beane (2001) produce principles of curriculum but they are more
value oriented and less generic.
For example, he lists five major principles about curriculum:
56
1. Principle of Child Centeredness.
As modern education is child-centered the curriculum should also be
child-centered. It should be based on the child's needs, interests,
abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be
central figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact,
curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the child in the
desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life.
Highlights
Principles of Curriculum Construction are:
1. Principles of Child Centeredness ;
2. Principle of Community Centeredness ;
3. Principle of Activity Centeredness ;
4. Principle of Variety ;
5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration;
6. Principle of Conservation;
7. Principle of Creativity;
8. Principle of Forward. Looking;
9. Principle of Flexibility;
10. Principle of Balance;
11. Principle of Utility.
57
2. Principle of Community Centeredness.
Though the child's development and growth is the main consideration
of curriculum construction, yet his social behavior is also to be
suitably developed, both the individual development and the social
development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and
for the society.
Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs
and desires of the society in which he is to live. The values, attitudes
and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected in
the curriculum. However, the society is not static. ]
It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid
developments taking place in all fields. While working for the
development, this factor cannot be ignored.
58
4. Principle of Variety.
The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the
needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up
subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and
interests.
The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the
pupils in rural areas, urban areas, and hilly areas will have different
needs.
The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these considerations
should be reflected in the curriculum.
61
In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching
curriculum theory and practice:
Curriculum as product:
65
Curriculum as process
We have seen that the curriculum as product model is heavily
dependent on the setting of behavioural objectives. The curriculum,
essentially, is a set of documents for implementation. Another way of
looking at curriculum theory and practice is via process. In this sense
curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of
teachers, students and knowledge.
In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom
and what people do to prepare and evaluate. What we have in this
model is a number of elements in constant interaction. It is an active
process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by
Aristotle.
Curriculum as process
Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with an ability to think critically, -in
Guided by these, they encourage conversations between, and with, people in the situat
Perhaps the two major things that set this apart from the model for
informal education are first, the context in which the process occurs
(particular schooling situations); and second, the fact that teachers
enter the classroom or any other formal educational setting with a
more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen.
Here I have described that as entering the situation with a proposal
for action which sets out essential principles and features of the
educational encounter.
70
Second, and associated with the above, given the uniqueness of each
classroom setting, it means that any proposal, even at school level,
needs to be tested, and verified by each teacher in his/her classroom
(ibid: 143). It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to
be delivered almost anywhere.
Third, outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature.
Rather than tightly specifying behavioural objectives and methods in
advance, what happens in this model of curriculum theory and
practice is that content and means develop as teachers and students
work together.
Fourth, the learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon.
They have a clear voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The
focus is on interactions. This can mean that attention shifts from
teaching to learning. The product model, by having a pre-specified
plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. For
example, how can this information be got over? A process approach
to curriculum theory and practice, it is argued by writers like Grundy
(1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central
concern of the teacher. This is because this way of thinking
emphasizes interpretation and meaning-making. As we have seen
each classroom and each exchange is different and has to be made
sense of.
However, when we come to think about this way of approaching
curriculum in practice, a number of possible problems do arise. The
first is a problem for those who want some greater degree of
uniformity in what is taught.
74
This approach to the theory of curriculum, because it places meaningmaking and thinking at its core and treats learners as subjects rather
than objects, can lead to very different means being employed in
classrooms and a high degree of variety in content. As Stenhouse
comments, the process model is essentially a critical model, not a
marking model.
confront the real problems of their existence they will soon also be
faced with their own oppression. (Grundy 1987: 105)
We can amend our curriculum as process model to take account of
these concerns.
Curriculum as praxis:
Teachers enter particular schooling and situations with a personal, but shared idea of t
In this approach the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic
interaction of action and reflection. That is, the curriculum is not
simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted
through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are
all reciprocally related and integrated into the process (Grundy 1987:
115). At its centre is praxis: informed, committed action.
How might we recognize this? First, I think we should be looking for
practice which does not focus exclusively on individuals, but pays
careful attention to collective understandings and practices and to
structural questions.
77
For example, in sessions which seek to explore the experiences of
different cultural and racial groups in society, we could be looking to
see whether the direction of the work took people beyond a focus on
individual attitudes. Are participants confronting the material
conditions through which those attitudes are constituted, for example?
Second, we could be looking for a commitment expressed in action to
the exploration of educators values and their practice. Are they, for
example, able to say in a coherent way what they think makes for
human well-being and link this with their practice? We could also be
looking for certain values especially an emphasis on human
emancipation.
Curriculum in context
To round off this discussion of curriculum we do need to pay further
attention to the social context in which it is created. One criticism
that has been made of the praxis model (especially as it is set out by
Grundy) is that it does not place a strong enough emphasis upon
context. This is a criticism that can also be laid at the door of the
other approaches.
In this respect the work of Catherine Cornbleth (1990) is of some
use. She sees curriculum as a particular type of process. Curriculum
for her is what actually happens in classrooms, that is, an ongoing
social process comprised of the interactions of students, teachers,
knowledge and milieu (1990: 5). In contrast, Stenhouse defines
curriculum as the attempt to describe what happens in classrooms
rather than what actually occurs.
78
Cornbleth further contends that curriculum as practice cannot be
understood adequately or changed substantially without attention to
its setting or context. Curriculum is contextually shaped. While I
may quibble about the simple equation of curriculum with process,
what Cornbleth does by focusing on the interaction is to bring out the
significance of context.
First, by introducing the notion of milieu into the discussion of
curriculum she again draws attention to the impact of some factors
that we have already noted. Of special significance here are
examinations and the social relationships of the school the nature of
the teacher-student relationship, the organization of classes, streaming
and so on. These elements are what are sometimes known as the
81
Informal educators do not have, and do not need, this element. They
do not enter with a clear proposal for action. Rather, they have an
idea of what makes for human well-being, and an appreciation of their
overall role and strategy (strategy here being some idea about target
group and broad method e.g. detached work).
They then develop their aims and interventions in interaction. And
what is this element we have been discussing? It is nothing more nor
less than what Stenhouse considers to be a curriculum!
The other key difference is context. Even if we were to go the whole
hog and define curriculum as process there remain substantive
problems. As Cornbleth (1990), and Jeffs and Smith (1990, 1999)
UNIT-III DETERMINANTS OF
CURRICULUM
shall also be questioned, and the prevailing assumption that tacit and
explicit are two forms of knowledge shall be criticised by returning to
Polanyis original work. My interest in the tacit side of knowledge,
i.e. the aspects of knowledge that is omnipresent, taken for granted,
and affecting our understanding without us being aware of it, has
strongly influenced the content of this paper.
Ontology wise, knowledge may be seen to exist on different levels,
i.e. individual, group, organisation and inter-organisational [23].
Here, my primary interest is on the group and organisational levels.
However, these two levels are obviously made up of individuals and
we are thus bound to examine the personal aspects of knowledge as
well, though be it from a macro perspective.
2. Opposite traditions and a middle way?
When examining the knowledge literature, two separate tracks
can be identified: the commodity view and the community view
[35]. The commodity view of or the objective approach to
knowledge as some absolute and universal truth has since long
been the dominating view within science.
86
Rooted in the positivism of the mid -19th century, the
commodity view is still especially strong in the natural sciences.
Disciples of this tradition understand knowledge as an artefact that
can be handled in discrete units and that people may possess.
Knowledge is a thing for which we can gain evidence, and
knowledge as such is separated from the knower . Metaphors such
as drilling, mining, and harvesting are used to describe how
knowledge is being managed.
There is also another tradition that can be labelled the
community view or the constructivist approach. This tradition can
be traced back to Locke and Hume but is in its modern form rooted
in the critique of the established quantitative approach to science
that emerged primarily amongst social scientists during the 1960s,
and resulted in the publication of books by Garfinkel, Bourdieu,
Habermas, Berger and Luckmann, and Glaser and Strauss. These
authors argued that reality (and hence also knowledge) should be
understood as socially constructed. According to this tradition, it is
impossible to define knowledge universally; it can only be defined
in practice, in the activities of and interactions between individuals.
Thus, some understand knowledge to be universal and context
-independent while others conceive it as situated and based on
individual experiences. Maybe it is a little bit of both. A concerto
pianist has the knowledge i.e. the ability to play the piano,
something the Metropolitan opera audience is able to appreciate.
This pianist, given a suitable instrument, would be able to express
his or her knowledge equally well in some other location with a
completely new audience. Thus, knowing how to play resides
within the pianist and is, in this sense, context - independent.
87
However, should the same pianist be stranded in the middle of
the Amazon jungle and picked up by some unknown Indian tribe,
her knowledge cannot be manifested. Even if a piano would be
available, the Indians would not be able to recognise (and possibly
not even appreciate) a classic masterpiece. To make sense, the
piano-playing knowledge of the pianist requires the context of a
knowledgeable audience.
Thus, knowing how to play is meaningless in the wrong tradition
or environment. There are thus aspects of knowledge that are held
by the individual and others that are more socially constructed.
This inter-relationship between individual knowledge and tradition
Author(s) Data
Wiig
Information
T ruths and
Facts organised beliefs,
to describe a
perspectives
situation or
and concepts,
condition
judgements and
expectations,
methodologies
and
know.how
Nonaka and
Takeuchi
-
A flow of
meaningful
messages
Not yet
Spek and
interpreted
Spijkervet - symbols
Data with
meaning
Simple
Davenport observations
Commitments and
beliefs
created from these
messages
Data with
Valuable
relevance and information from
purpose
the
human mind
A message
meant to
change the
receivers
perception
89
Text that
Quigley
Text that does answers the
and Debons not answer
questions
questions to a who, when,
particular
what, or
problem
where
Davenport A set of
and Prusak descrete facts
Facts and
Choo et al. messages
Knowledge
Data vested
with meaning
Experiences,
values, insights,
and contextual
information
Not only are the definitions of the three entities vague and
imprecise: the relationships between them, although non-trivial, are
not sufficiently dealt with. It is unwise trying to define these entities
in terms of each other since such definitions seem to further confuse
the picture. Figure 1 depicts a view that is commonly found, in
variants, in the literature; see e.g.. The problem with the
oversimplified figure is that it holds three tacitly understood
assumptions, which all can be questioned.
Knowledge
Information
Data
90
Figure 1. An oversimplified image of the relationship between data,
information, and knowledge.
Firstly, the image suggests that the relationship between data,
information, and knowledge is linear. The distance between data and
information is the same as the distance between information and
knowledge, implying that the effort required moving from one entity
to another is the same. Though it may not be possible to correctly
state the true relationship between these entities, there is nothing that
indicates that is should be linear.
Secondly, the image implies that the relationship is asymmetrical,
suggesting that data may be transformed into information, which may
where the user develops the information need, and analysis of the
usage of the same information once it has been obtained and
interpreted by the user.
Supporters of the community view of knowledge may thus
understand KM systems not as an IT artefact but as an environment
of people, organisational processes, business strategies, and IT, where
the objective is to leverage and advance the knowledge of those
people . Advocators of the commodity view may think of KM
systems as computer applications used by knowledgeable humans.
Hence, regardless of knowledge perspective, IT may successfully be
used to facilitate KM as long as the user perspective is included.
5. Different aspects of knowledge
The division of philosophy that investigates the origin and nature of
knowledge is called epistemology, and its objective is to establish the
foundations upon which human knowledge rests.
93
By examining and justifying different aspects of knowledge and
make explicit the relationships and interactions between them, we can
develop knowledge systems or schemata capable of answering to
questions about the outcome of such interactions . Following a
constructivist approach, there will be several such knowledge
schemata. Spender speaks in favour of a pluralist epistemology,
acknowledging that no single reference system is capable of
establishing the universal truth . Referring to Rescher, Spender
further argues that in a world of bounded rationality and imperfect
knowledge, where personal experiences is our principal source of
learning, dissensus is a natural state. Attempts to arrive at a view
shared by all humans are bound to fail. What we can do is to reflect
upon our own beliefs and state these so that others may appreciate
from where our different understandings stem. It also seems plausible
Polanyi observed, we can know more than we can tell [27: 136].
Unfortunately, Nonaka uses Polanyis term somewhat differently from
what did Polanyi himself.
Due to the strong influence of Nonakas writings on the knowledge
management discourse, this misconception has been widely adopted.
While Polanyi speaks of tacit knowledge as a backdrop against which
all actions are understood, Nonaka uses the term to denote particular
knowledge that is difficult to express. There had perhaps been less of
confusion had Nonaka used the term implicit knowledge instead of
tacit knowledge.
Whilst referring to and building on the arguments of Polanyi,
different scholars come to contradictory conclusions. Cook and
Brown argue, in what they claim is in agreement with Polanyi, that
explicit and tacit are two knowledge is always tacit. The question,
then, is what the phrase explicit knowledge is supposed to mean.
95
7. Knowledge in action
When Schn elaborates on the relationship between the tacitly
implied and the reflected, he admits that we often cannot say what we
know . When we try, we end up with descriptions that are obviously
inappropriate, and there must always be such a gap between the
description and the reality to which it refers. A practitioners tacit
knowledge is always richer in information than any description of it,
and her knowledge is implicitly found in the patterns of his actions.
According to Schn, our knowledge is in our actions .
Although actions in themselves are rather ephemeral in character,
they often leave a tangible result, such as when building a house,
making a sculpture, or implementing a software system. There are
also actions that do not result in new artefacts but yet change the state
of things, such as driving a car from A to B, and actions that are
totally ephemeral, such as the playing of an instrument. Regardless of
which, actions are the only way through which knowledge can
manifest itself. This does not mean, however, that knowledge must
result in action in order to exist. The ability to take action is sufficient,
but as long as the knowledge remains inactive, it is of no
organisational value.
One action often seen in offices is the creation of information
artefacts such as text, for example in the form of documents, email, or
web pages. In a corporate setting, not only information creation but
also information seeking and information interpretation are actions
that describe the interaction between knowledge and information. By
monitoring these actions, the organisation can learn where certain
kinds of knowledge reside and thereby leveraging the tacit knowledge
of its members.
96
Individuals benefit both by being able to find knowledgeable
colleagues and by being themselves identified as knowledgeable .
As discussed above, texts are not understood equally by all.
Baumard comments that when the search for knowledge takes place
in the territorial waters of the organisation it becomes far more
contextual than a search for some absolute or universal truth. In
organisations, knowledge is generated by those beliefs to which the
members are most committed . Commitment and beliefs vary from
organisation to organisation, and even within the same tradition,
organisations have their own culture, their own vocabulary, and their
own (tacit) assumptions. As we have seen, this means that
organisational members in general can share knowledge more easily
among themselves than with people outside the organisation.
Brain research:
Research on brain development (although in its infancy) has
suggested that direct action - physical and intellectual engagement
with experiences - in addition to problem-solving and repetition,
ensures that the synapses or neural pathways become stronger
(Bruce, 2004). According to French and Murphy (2005), this is
particularly true of children aged from birth to three years as early
experience determines how the neural circuits in the brain are
connected (Bertenthal and Campos, 1987). Children who are played
with, spoken to, and allowed to explore stimulating surroundings are
more likely to develop improved neural connections which aid later
learning (Karr-Morse and Wiley, 1997). The stimulation babies,
toddlers and young children receive determines which synapses form
in the brain, that is, which pathways become hardwired.
105
Through repetition these brain connections become permanent.
Conversely, a connection that is not used at all or often enough is
unlikely to survive. Children who learn actively have positive
dispositions to learning. These children are interested in what they
are doing, experience enjoyment and, with repetition, experience the
probability of success. They develop competence and, as a result,
confidence and are intrinsically motivated to learn (Hohmann and
Weikart, 1995).
Cycle of active learning
The role of active learning in supporting childrens well-being
and early learning and development is illustrated in Figure 1:
the active learning cycle (Marshall 2005).
6.
2.
5 Security: all is
. well
with the world
Pleasure: enjoyment
4. Mastery:
sense of
competence
106
Relationships
A childs well-being is an essential foundation for early learning,
and all subsequent learning. It is nurtured within the context of
warm and supportive relationships with others their emotional
well-being is directly related to the quality of early attachments
107
Thomas and Chess (1977) identified that from birth, babies have been
found to be different from each other in nine ways: activity level,
adaptability, approach/withdrawal to novelty, attention span,
distractibility, intensity of reaction, mood, regularity, and sensitivity
threshold. These traits are shaped, strengthened or counteracted by
the childs relationships and experiences.
Children with more challenging temperaments may find it more
difficult to deal with lifes stresses. Supportive, responsive adults in a
low stress, accepting environment reduce this potential difficulty
(Fish, Stifter and Belsky, 1991). In these environments, relationships
enhance and enrich learning and development supporting many
children to move through childhood with relative ease.
between
parents
and
others and giving the baby the sense that s/he is worth caring for. As
articulated by Goldschmied and Jackson (1994, p. 37)
The young children with whom we work, and who do not yet have
language to express what they are experiencing, need to have these
special relationships too, and deeply need to have them in a very
immediate and concrete way. We can never remind ourselves too
often that a child, particularly a very young and almost totally
dependent one, is the only person in the nursery who cannot
understand why he is there. He can only explain it as abandonment,
and unless he is helped in a positive and affectionate way, this will
mean levels of anxiety greater than he can tolerate.
In general, babies depend on adults to meet their needs, and cope
with little discomfort or distress.
111
Toddlers rapidly acquire physical, social, reasoning, and language
skills, but these skills still need a lot of practice. Through the
development of positive relationships and problem-solving skills,
young children begin to understand how to respect the needs/rights
of others while meeting their own needs/rights (Gartrell and King,
2004). They also begin to see that there is not always a right side to
the argument, that the feelings of others are important and that it is
possible to solve conflicts in such a way that both parties can be
satisfied. Corsaro (1997) noted that developmental psychologists
have long stressed the importance of conflict and challenges for
creating new cognitive structures and skills. When adults facilitate
problem-solving children learn to collaborate, discuss details of
problems (number; space; time) and discover there are many possible
solutions to problems (Evans, 2002).
The environment:
Outdoor and indoor learning environments should be motivating and
inviting to all children, so that they are encouraged and helped to
explore and to use all the possibilities offered for fun, adventure,
challenge and creativity (NCCA, 2004, ). McMillan (cited in Smith et
al, 2005) believed in the importance of first hand experiences and
active learning. Convinced of the value of play she ensured there were
ample materials available to stimulate childrens imaginations. This
section provides a general overview of supportive physical
environments.
Play:
The NCCAs consultative document (2004) identified play as one of
the key contexts for childrens early learning and development. Play
and its role in learning and development have focussed the attention
Social forces:
Social forces and trends are continually changing. They are also
effecting schools curriculum and planning. Here are some of areas of
social forces:
1) Social goals
2) Conceptions of culture
3) the Tension between cultural uniformity and diversity
4) Social pressures
5) Social change
6) Future planning
123
8 ) Crime & Violence- there is much more school vandalism, more
violence including armed robberies, burglaries, aggravated assaults,
and rapes at schools. Violence and gangs create unsafe
neighborhoods, and the issues in school are ever-more complicated
with too many instances of school shootings.
9) Lack of Purpose & Meaning- changes in family dynamics,
rampant corruption and violence, poverty, fluctuation in economy,
rapid changes in technology increasing disparities, crime, the lack of
adult guidance, and injustice leave many students feeling a lack of
purpose or meaning. Resulting concerns include: depression, eating
disorders, violent and criminal behavior, alcohol and drug abuse,
ICT:
"ICT" is the Information and Communication
Technologies. "ICT in Education" means "Teaching and
Learning with ICT".
The present curricula for ICT in Education aims at realising the goals
of the National Policy of ICT in Schools Education and the National
Curriculum Framework.
Given the dynamic nature of ICT, the curricula, emphasising the core
educational purposes, is generic in design and focuses on a broad
exposure to technologies, together aimed at enhancing creativity and
imagination of the learners.
128
For the teacher, it is an initiation into:
129
1 Through ICT, images can easily be used in teaching and improving the retentive
memory of students.
2 Through ICT, teachers can easily explain complex instructions and ensure students'
comprehension.
3 Through ICT, teachers are able to create interactive classes and make the lessons more
enjoyable, which could improve student attendance and concentration.
130
The use of ICT in appropriate contexts in education can add
value in teaching and learning, by enhancing the effectiveness
131
134
Curriculum Localization:
:
As an answer to these questions posed, many nations in the
developing and developed world have decided to hand over a
portion of their national school curricula to local districts and local
communities, in order to tie local realities into the learning process.
This local curriculum commonly comprises approximately 20% of
the national school curriculum in many of the countries that have
Language Skill
0-3
3-
6-10
9-
Imitation
8-18
First words
13-15
13-19
10-word vocabulary
14-24
50-word vocabulary
13-27
Single-word stage and a few sentences, two-tothree-word combinations, Articles: a/the, Plural: -s
23-24
25-27
23-26
rugs, pottery, and baskets, etc., they are consciously impressed upon
the young; often, as in the initiation ceremonies, with intense
emotional fervor. Even more pains are consciously taken to perpetuate
the myths, legends, and sacred verbal formulae of the group than to
transmit the directly useful customs of the group just because they
cannot be picked up, as the latter can be in the ordinary processes of
association.
As the social group grows more complex, involving a greater number
of acquired skills which are dependent, either in fact or in the belief of
the group, upon standard ideas deposited from past experience, the
content of social life gets more definitely formulated for purposes of
instruction. As we have previously noted, probably the chief motive
for consciously dwelling upon the group life, extracting the meanings
which are regarded as most important and systematizing them in a
coherent arrangement, is just the need of instructing the young so as
to perpetuate group life.
144
The knowledge which comes first to persons, and that remains most
deeply ingrained, is knowledge of how to do; how to walk, talk, read,
write, skate, ride a bicycle, manage a machine, calculate, drive a
horse, sell goods, manage people, and so on indefinitely. The popular
tendency to regard instinctive acts which are adapted to an end as a
sort of miraculous knowledge, while unjustifiable, is evidence of the
strong tendency to identify intelligent control of the means of action
with knowledge. When education, under the influence of a scholastic
conception of knowledge which ignores everything but scientifically
formulated facts and truths, fails to recognize that primary or initial
subject matter always exists as matter of an active doing, involving
the use of the body and the handling of material, the subject matter of
instruction is isolated from the needs and purposes of the learner, and
so becomes just a something to be memorized and reproduced upon
demand. Recognition of the natural course of development, on the
contrary, always sets out with situations which involve learning by
doing.
146
prior remarks have been mainly concerned with its intellectual aspect.
A difference in breadth and depth exists even in vital knowledge; even
in the data and ideas which are relevant to real problems and which
are motivated by purposes. For there is a difference in the social scope
of purposes and the social importance of problems.
With the wide range of possible material to select from, it is
important that education (especially in all its phases short of the most
specialized) should use a criterion of social worth. All information
and systematized scientific subject matter have been worked out
under the conditions of social life and have been transmitted by social
means. But this does not prove that all is of equal value for the
purposes of forming the disposition and supplying the equipment of
members of present society. The scheme of a curriculum must take
account of the adaptation of studies to the needs of the existing
community life; it must select with the intention of improving the life
we live in common so that the future shall be better than the past.
149
Moreover, the curriculum must be planned with reference to placing
essentials first, and refinements second. The things which are socially
most fundamental, that is, which have to do with the experiences in
which the widest groups share, are the essentials. The things which
represent the needs of specialized groups and technical pursuits are
secondary.
There is truth in the saying that education must first be human and
only after that professional. But those who utter the saying frequently
have in mind in the term human only a highly specialized class: the
class of learned men who preserve the classic traditions of the past.
They forget that material is humanized in the degree in which it
connects with the common interests of men as men.
IV- UNIT
APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
SUBJECT CENTERED:
JUNE 19, 2014 DR. DARRIN 1 COMMENT
Curriculum design is about how a person envision what a curriculum
should be. There are several standard models of curriculum design.
One of the most prominent is the subject-centered design.
LEARNER-CENTERED:
Learner-centered teaching is an approach to teaching that is
increasingly being encouraged in higher education. Learner-centered
teachers do not employ a single teaching method. This approach
emphasizes a variety of different types of methods that shifts the role
of the instructors from givers of information to facilitating student
learning.
Educators commonly use three phrases with this approach. Learnercentered teaching places the emphasis on the person who is doing the
learning (Weimer, 2002). Learning-centered teaching focuses on the
process of learning. Both phrases appeal to faculty because these
phrases identify their critical role of teaching in the learning process.
The phrase student centered learning is also used, but some instructors
do not like it because it appears to have a consumer focus, seems to
encourage students to be more empowered, and appears to take the
teacher out of the critical role (Blumberg, 2004).
152
Learner-Centered teaching for general audiences
Intro to learner-centered teaching- teaching so your students
will learn more
A general introduction to learner-centered teaching
Becoming a learner-centered teacher
154
156
COMMUNITY CENTERED LEARNING:
The development of Community-Centered Learning (CCL), an
approach to using the classroom as a community, is described, with
the writer's experiences in using the model in three classes over a
semester.
A community is regarded as a group of people who share common
goals and traditions, who realize their interdependence, and who
strive to care for one another. In CCL the dimensions that structure the
organization and operation of the classroom community are roles,
rules, and rewards.
The roles described by R. von Oech are expanded to result in
classroom roles of conductor, explorer, artist, judge, and crusader.
Rules for CCL are built on dialogue, problem solving, and practice.
Rewards in CCL are those of the student's own recognition of
achievement and growth.
The application of the model in the writer's sophomore, junior, and
graduate classrooms is described; and the difficulties are explored.
One figure and five tables illustrate the model. (Contains 31
references.) (SLD)
Learner-Centered vs. Curriculum-Centered Teachers: Which Type Are
You?
157
Use this article to place yourself on the pedagogical continuum by
considering:
The types of activities you create
The layout of your classroom
The way students learn with you
How you prepare for class
How to make the most of your style
hat there will be no academic gaps in what is taught.
Learner-centered classrooms:
Learner-centered classrooms focus primarily on individual students'
learning. The teacher's role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the
interests and unique needs of students as a guide for meaningful
instruction. Student-centered classrooms are by no means
characterized by a free-for-all.
These classrooms are goal-based. Students' learning is judged by
whether they achieve predetermined, developmentally-oriented
objectives.
In essence, everyone can earn an A by mastering the material.
Because people learn best when they hear, see, and manipulate
158
Curriculum-centered classrooms:
Curriculum-centered classrooms focus essentially on teaching the
curriculum. The teacher determines what ought to be taught, when,
how, and in what time frame.
The curriculum that must be covered throughout the year takes
precedence. These classes often require strict discipline because
children's interests are considered only after content requirements are
established.
In this framework students are compared with one another. Student
success is judged in comparison with how well others do. A fixed
standard of achievement is not necessarily in place. In these
classrooms grades resemble the familiar bell curve.
159
Curriculum-centered
Child-centered
Teacher-centered
Constructivist-driven
Standards-driven
Progressive
Traditional
Information-age model
Factory model
Criterion-based
Depth
Breadth
Thematic integration
Single subjects
Product-oriented
Block scheduling
Collaboration
Experiential knowledge
Rote knowledge
160
161
UNIT -V
Types of curriculum and Areas of
Curriculum
Types of curriculum with their definition (Leslie Owen
Wilson. )
Here are multiple definitions of curriculum, from Oliva (1997) (4)
Curriculum is:
A set of subjects.
Content
A program of studies.
A set of materials
A sequence of courses.
A course of study
Is everything that goes on within the school, including extraclass activities, guidance, and interpersonal relationships.
163
Common philosophical orientations of curriculum parallel those
beliefs espoused by different philosophical orientations
Idealism,
Realism,
Perennialism,
Essentialism,
Experimentalism,
Existentialism,
Constructivism,
Reconstructivism and the like.
Whatever classification one gravitates to, the fact remains that at one
time or another curriculum in the United States has, at some level,
been impacted by all of the above. In essence, American curriculum is
hard to pin down because it is multi-layered and highly eclectic.
My personal definition (Wilson, 1990) of curriculum is:
Anything and everything that teaches a lesson, planned or otherwise.
Humans are born learning, thus the learned curriculum actually
encompasses a combination of all of the following the hidden, null,
written, political and societal etc..
Since students learn all the time through exposure and modeled
behaviors, this means that they learn important social and emotional
lessons from everyone who inhabits a school from the janitorial
staff, the secretary, the cafeteria workers, their peers, as well as from
the deportment, conduct and attitudes expressed and modeled by their
teachers. Many educators are unaware of the strong lessons imparted
to youth by these everyday contacts.
164
2. Societal
curriculum (or
social
curricula)
167
5. Phantom
curriculum
168
7. Rhetorical
curriculum
10. The
internal
curriculum
11. The
electronic
curriculum
171
Curriculum areas:
The eight curriculum areas are:
Expressive arts
Health and wellbeing
Languages
Mathematics
Religious and moral education
Sciences
Social studies
Technologies
Expressive arts
The inspiration and power of the arts play a vital role in enabling our
children and young people to enhance their creative talent and
develop their artistic skills.
172
Languages
The curriculum areas are the organizers for ensuring that learning
takes place across a broad range of contexts, and offer a way of
grouping experiences and outcomes under recognizable headings.
176
They describe learning which has a clear purpose at levels from early
to fourth in the acquiring of knowledge and the establishment of
understanding. They also support the development of skills and
attributes.
Important themes such as enterprise, citizenship, sustainable
development, international education and creativity need to be
developed in a range of contexts. Learning relating to these themes is
therefore built in to the experiences and outcomes across the
curriculum areas. This approach reduces the need for other layers of
planning across the curriculum.
Breadth
Progression
Depth
Coherence
Relevance.
The principles must be taken into account for all children and young
people.
They apply to the curriculum both at an organizational level and in the
classroom and in any setting where children and young people are
learners.
177
The principles will assist teachers and schools in their practice and as
a basis for continuing review, evaluation and improvement. They
apply to the curriculum at national, education authority, school and
individual levels and must be taken into account for all children and
young people
Although all should apply at any one stage, the principles will have
different emphases as a child or young person learns and develops.
Breadth:
All children and young people should have opportunities for a broad,
suitably weighted range of experiences.
The curriculum should be organized so that they will learn and
develop through a variety of contexts within both the classroom and
other aspects of school life.
178
Progression;
Children and young people should experience continuous progression
in their learning from 3 to 18 within a single curriculum framework.
Each stage should build upon earlier knowledge and achievements.
Children should be able to progress at a rate which meets their needs
and aptitudes, and keep options open so that routes are not closed off
too early.
Progression in the experiences and outcomes
Depth
There should be opportunities for children to develop their full
capacity for different types of thinking and learning. As they progress,
they should develop and apply increasing intellectual rigor, drawing
different strands of learning together, and exploring and achieving
more advanced levels of understanding.
180
Humanistic Education for the Whole Man, by Harold C. Lyon, Jr, In
the 1970s the term "humanistic education" became less popular after
conservative groups equated it with "Secular Humanism" and attacked
the writings of Harold Lyon as being anti-Christian. That began a
successful effort by Aspy, Lyon, Rogers, and others to re-label it
"person-centered teaching", replacing the term "humanistic
education." In a more general sense the term includes the work of
other humanistic pedagogues, such as Rudolf Steiner, and Maria
Montessori.
All of these approaches seek to engage the "whole person "the
intellect, feeling life social capacities, and artistic and practical skills
are all important focuses for growth and development. Important
objectives include developing children's self-esteem, their ability to
set and achieve appropriate goals, and their development toward
full autonomy
181
Cognitive-children learn from responses to problems:
Affective-children handle challenges on an emotional level and see
failure as a learning experience
Social- provides training with cooperative and competitive groups as
well as assertiveness and role training
Moral-conflicts in the class and community create learning
experiences
Ego Development-self-respect and self-confidence develop without
regard to ability or maturity II. Evan Keislars Curriculum Model for
Self-Development The Four Humanistic Responses to
Depersonalization of the Curriculum to Focus on Basic Skills I. SelfDirected Learning:
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION
Social reconstructionism as an approach to teaching also places a
focus on the use of the products and applications derived from the
most current advances in technology. The intent is to prepare
students to use these tools effectively in their everyday lives and
careers in a modern and technology-based society. Communitybased learning and students' personal experiences are integrated
into the classroom environment as a means of developing a
practical understanding of everyday societal functions and issues.
Curriculum is much more than the mere passing of information or
standardized content from the teacher to the student.
186
It is the teachers role to prepare students not only by sharing
valuable knowledge, but by guiding them to be healthy, active
citizens in their communities. Acknowledging this encompassing
and inclusive function of educators, it is important to adopt a
curriculum that shares those intentions. Embedding a social
reconstruction approach to teaching within a social studies
curriculum is a good place for teachers to start when addressing the
need for an education system that emphasizes the education of the
whole child.
In the 1920s, George Counts began to closely examine curriculum,
with specific note taken on the social disparities apparent within it.
Not only was the curriculum not imitative of the real world and the
problems the students would face upon completion of school, but it
actually worked to continue those very problems. This realization
caused Counts to advocate for a curriculum that taught students to
take part in social reform. He believed that although the world in
its current condition was in essence doomed, there was hope for
a thing of the past, but in reality if you are paying attention, the
legacy of racism is not hard to see, and we are all affected by it
Using racism as a specific example, although there are many
illustrations of injustice throughout modern-day society, it will not
simply disappear if we do not address it as a legitimate problem.
To make a positive impact on key issues such as race, Gary
Howard (2006), author of the book We Cant Teach What We
Dont Know: White Teachers, Multiracial Schools, tells us that a
more active stance on discrimination is required.
188
He instructs teachers to actively seek cross-cultural and crossracial interactions... [and to] engage their students in a continuous
process of exploring multiple perspectives (Howard, 2006, p.
111). A social reconstruction curriculum does just that in making
the learning of prejudice and discrimination an active process
where students can learn that they are capable of considerably
impacting inequity and oppression and make life better for
themselves and others.
The social reconstruction curriculum theory is especially relative to
social studies education. The study of social concerns and reform
lends itself to social studies curriculum. Our current social studies
programs in schools are for the most part entirely ineffective.
According to the most recent social studies results of the National
Assessment of Educational Progress from the National Center of
Education Statistics (2010), United States students on average
performed extremely low, in the basic category, in all subjects
including history, civics, and economics.
ideas. This important step in the process is a great way for students
to get actively involved in their communities and practice making a
real difference in the lives of other people.
Changing the traditional social studies classroom to one based on
the ideas of social reconstruction is not without its flaws and
potential obstacles.
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The first roadblock to social reconstruction is the obligation of
teachers to help students master specific standardized content. The
Indiana Department of Education has determined a list of standards
and content that every social studies teacher is required to cover.
Social reconstruction in its purest form asks teachers to forget
about content and how they traditionally view education. It also
requires more time to be spent on each unit. Tackling social reform
is not a one day or even one week lesson. Students are asked to
think critically and then participate in the learning. This cannot
happen effectively with an extensive laundry list of standards to
cover.
Currently in Indiana, students are not tested as much on social
studies content on standardized high-stakes tests. For this reason,
the area of social studies is still the safest avenue for a social
reconstruction curriculum. As accountability and testing change
however, this might change as well. Unfortunately, this type of
curriculum requires administration and those in charge of schools
to put a lot of trust in teachers. Our current system of standards and
high-stakes testing is not a system based on trust of teachers at all.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding social reconstruction
education. This is another obstacle that teachers may face when
trying to implement this type of instruction in their classroom. This
particular form of curriculum requires teachers to bring
controversy and a discussion of conflict into each lesson. Themes
of social reform are generally very political and therefore can stir
in a social reconstruction classroom should always be studentdriven. Zuga (1992) reiterates this statement saying it is not
determining what content a child needs to know in the future in
order to be a successful adult, thereby limiting the potential of the
child.
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It is not lacking the commitment to take a stand, one which will
not be universally agreed upon, on issues, all issues, It is not
discouraging students from taking a stand on issues (p. 56). This
is a key attribute of a true social reconstruction curriculum.
However, without a strong, exact accountability system in place to
ensure that the content is not being predetermined by the teacher,
there is a strong possibility, if not a guarantee, that some bias or
prejudice will be introduced into the classroom. With a strong
government influence, there is the potential for special interest
groups to push their political agendas on education.
Also, if the curriculum remains tied to textbooks, then it allows
those textbook companies to push their own agendas, as well.
Without some way to guarantee that the content and the learning is
completely constructed by students, then there is a large risk for
corruption because of the political nature of a social reconstruction
curriculum.
Even without a primarily government controlled education system
and a reliance on textbooks as the source of curriculum, can
education and teachers be neutral? The answer is no, and this
presents an ingrained shortcoming of social reconstruction.
Teachers are in some way subconsciously or otherwise pushing
their own prejudices all of the time. Flinders (2004) asserts that
teaching itself is a normative enterprise; it seeks to foster
something that the teacher considers worth fostering (p. 287).
On the contrary, neutrality in education could be dangerous. If
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