Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

A computer-assisted Framework based on a cognitivist learning

theory for teaching mathematics in the early primary years
Abstract
With the world moving rapidly into digital media and information, the ways in which learning activities in mathematics can be
created and delivered are changing. However, to get the best results from the integration of ICTs in education, any applications
design and development needs to be based on pedagogically appropriate principles, in terms of both learners and teachers
needs. The first part of this paper provides an overview of relevant literature by presenting four interrelated key themes.
Secondly, a new framework for using ICTs in the lower primary mathematics classroom (ages 5-8), based on current pedagogical views of mathematics education and a cognitivist learning theory, is proposed. Finally, suggestions for the development of appropriate software and multimedia content, based on the framework, are offered.
Nasrin Moradmand
School of Computer
Science & Software
Engineering,
The University of
Western Australia

Amitava Datta
School of Computer
Science & Software
Engineering,
The University of
Western Australia

Grace Oakley
Graduate School
of Education,
The University of
Western Australia

39

INTRODUCTION
In the twenty-first century, the use of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICTs) has become an
important and essential part of the everyday life, work,
and learning. During the past decade, the impact of
ICTs in different fields such as medicine, tourism, travel,
business, law, banking, engineering and architecture
has been enormous (Oliver, 2002; Ongori & Mburu,
2010; Pramanik, 2011). Within education, ICTs play
an increasingly important role, not least as a means of
transforming pedagogy and supporting childrens learning. This role is becoming more and more important
and there is little doubt that this importance will continue to grow and develop in the 21st century (Oliver,
2002; Pramanik, 2011). The development of new ICTs
has resulted in significant changes in the ways that teachers teach and children learn in schools. The appropriate use of technology has proven to have broad
pedagogical affordances and invaluable potential to
change teaching and learning. Hence, there is no
question about whether teachers should integrate technology in their existing practices; in fact, the main issue
now is how teaching can be transformed by technology
through the creation and implementation of novel,
transformative learning opportunities (Angeli &
Valanides, 2009).
In Australia, there have been education policy shifts to
include ICTs in the schooling system. ICTs have begun
to have a place in education and access to computerbased technology in schools and classrooms has increased. This became more important when the
Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young
Australians (MCEETYA, 2008) stated, Young people
need to be highly skilled in the use of ICT (Ministerial
Council on Education & Affairs, 2008). According to
the Melbourne Declaration, schooling should support
the development of skills in the use of digital media
and increase students effectiveness in learning over the
next decade.
In regards to the teaching of mathematics in Australia,
all State, Territory and Commonwealth Education
Ministers some time ago agreed on a national goal that
states every child leaving primary school should be
numerate (Doig, McRae, & Rowe, 2003). However,
Australian students are performing less well as measured by TIMMS (Trends in International Mathematics
and Science Study) than they used to. In the TIMSS
2003 results, Australian and US students achieved
similar levels. However, in TIMSS 2007, the USA outperformed Australia in almost all the items reviewed

(Thomson & Buckley, 2009). Solid mathematical skills are prerequisites

for school achievement, success in the workplace and in personal life. In
recent years, attention to the importance of teaching mathematics to
young children has increased (Clements, Sarama, & DiBiase, 2004;
Saracho & Spodek, 2009) and it has been recognised that children should
be given the opportunity to access powerful mathematical ideas through
high-quality child-centered activities in their homes, schools and communities (Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001).
With the world around children moving rapidly into digital media and
information, the ways in which mathematical learning activities are
created and delivered have changed (Figueira-Sampaio, dos Santos, &
Carrijo, 2009; Rahman, Ghazali, & Ismail, 2003). However, not all of the
technology-based packages are usable for teaching and learning purposes
within schools as they are not always designed with appropriate pedagogical frameworks in mind (Laurillard, 2009; Mumtaz, 2000; Patten,
Arnedillo Sanchez, & Tangney, 2006).
The first part of this paper provides an overview of the place of ICTs in
the Australian education system, particularly in regard to mathematics
teaching and learning. Relevant literature is reviewed through the discussion of four interrelated key themes: (a) the use of ICTs in the 21st century school; (b) teaching mathematics in the lower primary school; (c)
pedagogies in mathematics, and; (d) current computer based maths applications and their pedagogical limitations. A number of issues are raised
about the design and use of computer-based applications in Australian
educational contexts. This paper then presents a proposed a new framework, based on current pedagogical views of mathematics education,
coupled with a cognitivist framing, for effective use of ICTs in mathematics classroom (for lower primary school children). Finally, some suggestions for the development of appropriate software and multimedia
content, based on the framework, are offered.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The use of ICT in 21st century school and school curriculum
ICTs play a fundamental role in daily life and to exclude or relegate it
from the educational context would be thoughtless (Yelland et al., 2001).
It has been raised as a concern among business leaders, educators, policymakers and parents that traditional practices are not necessarily delivering
the skills that students need, and it is evident that traditional education
environments do not always seem to be appropriate for preparing students to be productive in the workplaces of the 21st century (Yelland,
et al., 2001). Various research findings indicate that ICTs need to be
integrated into education (Kim & Hannafin, 2011; Kozma, 2001; Liu,
2010; Mumtaz, 2000; Schacter, 1999) so that children can learn in new
and dynamic ways and be prepared for the challenges of life in the 21st
century (Yelland, et al., 2001).
Many studies have focused on technology integration in education and
have concluded that ICTs can have a positive effect on student learning
AUSTRALIAN EDUC ATIONAL COMPUTING

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

In the past three decades, the place of ICTs in school has been changing
from learning about ICT through learning with ICT to learning
through ICT (Markauskait, 2004). However, in many school settings,
ICTs are still only used as tools for designing instruction material and
delivery, not as learning devices or central components of teachers
instructional programs (Liu, 2010; Yelland, et al., 2001). In the primary
classroom, there are many opportunities for ICTs to enhance the teaching
of curriculum areas such as English and Mathematics, but appropriate
supporting conditions need to be in place (Lim, Oakley & Liu, 2013).
A curriculum includes aims and objectives, subject matter or content,
methods or procedures to teach content, as well as an evaluation or assessment component (Scott, 2008). Kozma (1994) asserted that schools need
to reform curriculum and pedagogy since traditional forms of schooling
were not designed to address the use of ICTs. We are fitting new technologies into old curricula which were developed prior to their existence
(Yelland, et al., 2001). Several years later, new curricula have been developed in Australia, but teachers clearly still need support in modifying
their pedagogies in order to use ICTs effectively. In the USA, the National
Council for the Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has been successful in
creating an agenda for reform of mathematics teaching, which has included the use of ICTs in the curriculum (Yelland, et al., 2001). Furthermore,
the National Technology Leadership Summit, composed of teacher educator associations, stated that ubiquitous computing will be a widespread
force in schools by the end of the decade or sooner (Bull, Garofalo, &
Harris, 2002). This prediction has so far been accurate and computers
and other ICTs are widespread in most schools in developed countries,
including Australia; however, there is limited evidence to show that they
are being used effectively in mathematics teaching and learning in primary schools.
In Australia, like other developed countries, the integration of ICTs across
the curriculum has become a priority (Phelps, Graham, & Watts, 2011).
In 2008, the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace
Relations announced a Digital Education Revolution, which is focused
on ICTs in schools leadership, infrastructure, learning resources and
teacher capability (Department of Education, 2008; Phelps, et al., 2011).
As a result of this technology revolution, the pedagogical integration of
ICTs across the curriculum has been highlighted, even in early years of
schooling. For example, in the Year 2 mathematics curriculum, children
should learn to describe and draw two-dimensional shapes with and
without digital technologies.
The Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA)
and The Australian National Standards for Teachers (AITSL, 2011) both
include a strong focus on the use of ICTs across the curriculum. They
encourage teachers and students to use ICTs in the classroom to make
calculations, draw graphs and interpret data, create spreadsheets, and
practise with dynamic geometry software and computer algebra software
in ways that have previously not been possible (ACARA, 2011a). Thus,
as noted above, the issue is no longer whether ICTs should be integrated
in existing classroom practices, but how to use it to transform teaching
and create new opportunities for learning.

and methods. Thus, in many cases, sourcing computer

based technology and applications to facilitate learning in
a pedagogically acceptable manner has become an area of
challenge for Australian schools. Therefore, there is a great
need for Australian-based quality applications to address
and cover the needs of Australian teachers and students.
Teaching mathematics in the lower primary school
Mathematics has a central position in primary school
curricula (Anthony & Walshaw, 2009) and mathematical
understanding influences decision making and increases
opportunities for young people in their current and future
private, social and civil lives. Unfortunately, today, as in
the past, many students struggle with mathematics in the
classroom and in their daily lives (Anthony & Walshaw,
2009; Offer & Bos, 2009). Due to these issues, there is
an increased concern around the teaching of mathematics
to young children (Clements, et al., 2004; Saracho &
Spodek, 2009). Friedrich Froebel, Maria Montessori, and
other pioneers in the education of young children raised
awareness about the importance of mathematics teaching
in the early years of school, and Piagetian and Vygotskian
theories propose that young children should obtain an
informal understanding of mathematics in the early stages of their lives. These theories remain a major element
underpinning the teaching and learning of mathematics
for infants, preschoolers, and primary school children.
Australia, along with other countries such as New Zealand, England, United State and Canada, has undertaken initiatives designed to improve the teaching and
learning of mathematics among young children and to
promote young childrens mathematical thinking. In
recent years, the mathematics education of young
children has received increased attention among Australian researchers (Clarke, Cheeseman, & Clarke, 2006;
Perry, Young-Loveridge, Dolckett, & Doig, 2011;
Thomson, Rowe, Underwood, & Peck, 2005; YoungLoveridge, 2004). The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers and Early Childhood Australia (AAMT/
ECA, 2006) states that:
The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers and
Early Childhood Australia believe that all children in their
early childhood years are capable of accessing powerful
mathematical ideas that are both relevant to their current
lives and form a critical foundation for their future mathematical and other learning. Children should be given the
opportunity to access these ideas through high quality childcentred activities in their homes, communities, prior-toschool settings and schools.

Yet it should be stressed that there is a need to update

mathematics education for young children, and the transformational power of ICTs in society is a major driver of
this need (Saracho & Spodek, 2009). Learning through
technology, especially multimedia learning, can give children access to powerful new ways to explore concepts at a
depth that has not been possible through traditional ways
of teaching. A multimedia approach is a powerful tool for
the visualisation and representation of mathematical conBy having the new Australian Curriculum, which introduces the use of
cepts and can facilitate the learners abstract thinking. Using
ICTs as a general capability across the curriculum, and the Australian
multimedia and computer-based tools can also allow multigovernments Digital Education Revolution policy, there is no doubt
about the need for quality studies in this area. Many studies and computer- ple representations to be linked dynamically; for instance,
changing a formula that can instantly change a graph
based applications that are currently used in Australia originate from the
USA and in recent years more have been coming from the UK (Eng, 2005; (Milovanovic, et al., 2011) or showing a numeral and
having multiple representations of the relevant number
Yelland, et al., 2001). Subsequently, educational packages are mainly
available in pictures, sounds and even animation.
based on the curricula of these countries and their teaching philosophies
volume 27 number 2 december 2012

A computer-assisted framework based on a cognitivist learning theory for teaching mathematics

(Kim & Hannafin, 2011; Kozma, 2001; Liu, 2010; Mumtaz, 2000;
Schacter, 1999). Studies also indicate that, with the help of interactive
technology, students are able to learn more deeply, receive feedback on
their performance, test their ideas and revise their understandings (Chang,
Wu, Weng, & Sung, 2011; Kozma, 2001; Mayer, 2003).

40

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

A computer-assisted framework based on a cognitivist learning theory for teaching mathematics

41

Pedagogy in mathematics
Pedagogy refers to strategies of instruction, or a style
of instruction used to promote development and learning (Epstein, 2007). Teachers can provide opportunities
for students to learn and understand mathematics concepts in various ways. Storytelling, fluency building
strategies and problem solving are well known pedagogical approaches in mathematics education for young
children.
Using childrens literature (storytelling) to teach mathematics has proven to be a very effective method (Elia,
van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, & Georgiou, 2010; Tucker,
Boggan, & Harper, 2010) and can motivate learners to
think, to imagine, and to learn (Zazkis & Liljedahl,
2009). Telling mathematics concepts through stories
can create powerful and memorable images in a learners mind (Zazkis & Liljedahl, 2009) and help them
link mathematics concepts to their existing knowledge
and understandings about the world.

Blooms taxonomy (Bloom, 1956) and the revised Blooms taxonomy

(Anderson, et al., 2001). This taxonomy underpins the software to be
described in this paper.
Current computer based maths applications and their pedagogical
limitations
It has long been claimed that the use of computers can increase the
mathematical achievement of children in pre-school and primary grades
(Clements, 1993), and the largest gains so far appear to have been with
the use of mathematical training and practice software (Clements, 1987;
Clements & Nastasi, 1992; Yelland, et al., 2001). In recent years, teaching
and learning mathematics through computer based education software
has been growing rapidly. However, although several educational software
and applications have been developed, many of them have not been
successfully used in the school setting. Evidence shows that much educational software is commercially produced and is not widely accepted by
educators, policy makers and researchers (Kingsley & Boone, 2008).
Studies have shown that software is rarely designed with an appropriate
pedagogical framework in mind (Laurillard, 2009; Mumtaz, 2000; Patten,
et al., 2006) and, also, has little consideration for the teaching contexts in
which it is supposed to be used (Hinostroza & Mellar, 2001).

Fluency is the ability to express something effortlessly,

clearly and with automaticity. Maths fluency can be
described as the ability to compute maths facts (e.g.
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and
problems quickly and with confidence (Mercer &
Miller, 1992; Tait-McCutcheon, Drake, & Sherley,
2011). According to ACARA, students are considered
to be fluent when they can calculate answers efficiently
and confidently, find various answers, recall definitions
and (for older children) manipulate equations and
terms to find answers (ACARA, 2011b). The recall of
basic facts is recognised as a vital goal of mathematics
education in primary schools since the prompt recall
of mathematics facts can ensure that students have the
cognitive capacity to attend to the more complex
activities of problem solving and higher-order processing (Tait-McCutcheon, et al., 2011).

It has been asserted (Laurillard, 2009) that to get the best outcome from
technology, any teaching resource (e.g. software) needs to be designed
with the requirements of education as the starting point. However, current
educational applications are rarely based on the requirements of education,
in terms of both learners and teachers needs. Inappropriate use of multimedia in terms of educational content and an inadequate ability to provide
an effective learning environment are other problems associated with educational software (Sim, MacFarlane, & Horton, 2005). Many current applications are largely driven by financial, logistical and technical agendas
and not pedagogical considerations, and they mainly concentrate on the
software itself and not the educational theory underpinning it (Patten,
et al., 2006). Further to the above issues, there is all too often a disconnection between theory for designing educational applications and theory
relating to the application of technology in classrooms (Offer & Bos, 2009),
as well as a lack of alignment between technology, curriculum and pedagogy (Mumtaz, 2000; Yelland, et al., 2001).

Problem solving can be described as a process of working through the details of a problem to reach a solution
and is recognised as a very important task in mathematics education (Lazakidou & Retalis, 2010). Elshout
identified problem solving as a cognitive function that
requires the problem solver to recall and process the
relevant information (Elshout, 1987). Although the
construct of problem solving has no commonly accepted definition in mathematics education, it undoubtedly
involves higher order thinking (HOT), which depends
to a large extent on the fluency of lower level learning.

To add to the above issues, the provision of feedback to children has often
been a weak link in educational software, offering little beside whether the
childs response is correct or incorrect (Gadanidis, 2004). Immediate and
appropriate feedback on individual responses is one of the main potential
advantages of computer-based education (Mason & Bruning, 2001), and
can help learners and their teachers to identify errors and become aware
of misconceptions and areas that need to be consolidated. Therefore,
explaining the reasons for incorrect answers and providing students with
appropriate methods of solving problems and arriving at correct answers
and processes are more effective and motivational (Mason & Bruning,
2001).

The project being reported here draws on a cognitivist

approach to learning, which focuses on mental processes and how learners attend to, manipulate and remember information during learning. Cognitive education
in the teaching and learning process encourages learners to think and analyse a particular topic in gradually
more complex ways (Krause, Bochner, & Duchesne,
2006). In 1956, Bloom described a hierarchical model
for cognitive learning objectives, ranging from lower
levels of learning (i.e. knowing and understanding) to
higher levels of thinking, which require a more sophisticated way of evaluating and analysing content (Bloom,
1956). In 2001, Anderson and a team of cognitive
psychologists revisited Blooms model and made some
changes to the terminology and the structure of the
existing taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001). These two
versions of the taxonomy are often referred to as

The lack of provision for collaborative learning is another shortcoming of

many existing educational applications, since they are often designed for
the individual learner and are underpinned by behaviourist principles,
leading to repetition and individualised drill and practice. Whilst this may
have a place, collaborative learning can enable learners to share, exchange
and discuss their ideas. It also enables learners to learn from their peers
and build on their skills (Laurillard, 2009; Pifarre & Kleine Staarman,
2011). For example, to tackle a maths problem in a collaborative way,
learners have a chance to define their own approach, articulate and examine their thinking, and also the opportunity to learn from their peers.
In the digital age, new technologies, especially handheld devices, are
creating exciting opportunities for supporting collaborative learning; however, digital tools of this kind are rarely developed with the learners and
teachers needs in mind (Laurillard, 2009).
Statement of the problem
It is clear from this literature review that there is potential for mathematical
AUSTRALIAN EDUC ATIONAL COMPUTING

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

The middle section of the framework focuses on the skill

building of individual students through the use of knowledge and understandings already gained through the first
level. Skill building (fluency building) can be described
as a way of learning by developing a capacity to retrieve
basic facts from memory quickly and effortlessly (with
automaticity). This can be achieved through practising,
repeating and accomplishing. For example, readily counting numbers in sequences and continuing patterns can be
achieved through regular corrected practice. This aligns
with the Apply category of the Bloom/Anderson model.

Theoretical Framework
The Bloom/Anderson taxonomy is a useful learning model and is widely
used as a planning tool in educational settings (Krause, Bochner, &
Duchesne, 2006), and has been applied in higher education domains
such as engineering, structuring assessments and computer science for
course design and evaluation (Thompson, Luxton-Reilly, Whalley, Hu, &
Robbins, 2008). However, the approach has seldom been used for designing computer-based educational applications for schools. In the study
being discussed here, the Bloom/Anderson taxonomy has been used to
inform the design of a mathematics educational framework, which has in
turn underpinned the design and development of a computer-based application to facilitate the teaching and learning of mathematics concepts to
children in lower primary school classrooms.

Problem solving is a higher-order cognitive process

(Goldstein & Levin, 1987) that entails the ability to recognise, understand and analyse a problem. Then, all of
the components need to be evaluated and incorporated
to create a new form or representation. This can be related to the last three categories (Analyse, Evaluate
and Create) of the Bloom/ Anderson model, which require a higher order of thinking by learners (Anderson,
et al., 2001). As it presented in Figure 2, this is the
upper level of the proposed framework, where students
can work individually or in pairs or small groups to
analyse and find solutions to maths problem. Learners
have the opportunity to move back and forth between
these three levels of framework, if required.

Figure 1 illustrates the base of the Bloom/Anderson taxonomy, which

consists of six major categories including of Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analysing, Evaluating, and Creating (Anderson, et al.,
2001). The first three categories of Remembering, Understanding and
Applying require a good deal of involvement and scaffolding from teachers, and focus on knowledge, comprehension and application. The last
three categories are more sophisticated and need higher orders of thinking by learners. These elements emphasise analysis, evaluation and creativity.

Figure 2: Proposed educational framework

Figure 1: Categories in the cognitive domain of Blooms Taxonomy (Anderson,
et al., 2001) Source: http://www.educationworld.com/a_curr/mathchat/
mathchat026.shtml

We propose a new framework for designing mathematics software, which

captures all elements of the Bloom/Anderson taxonomy (Figure 2). As
mentioned in the literature review, storytelling, skill building (fluency
building) and problem solving are three effective approaches to mathematics education for young children, and these three approaches are at
the core of the proposed framework. As is shown in figure 2, storytelling
is the first level of the framework (lower section), where the whole class
can be engaged. Here, there is substantial teacher involvement (scaffolding) to focus childrens attention on the story and the embedded mathematical concepts and build comprehension. The storytelling method can
assist learners with reference to the recall of facts, terms and concepts,
and can encourage them to imagine and sequence story scenes (Krause,
et al., 2006; Tucker, et al., 2010). This ties in with the first category
(Remember) of the Bloom/Anderson model. Also, storytelling can assist
with the comprehension of a subject through explaining the scenes, retelling the story, asking why and how questions, and having children
describe scenes and characters (which should contain maths concepts) in
their own words (Krause, et al., 2006; Tucker, et al., 2010) ("Understand"
categories of Bloom/Anderson model). Therefore, storytelling covers both
Remembering and Understanding in the Bloom/Anderson model.
volume 27 number 2 december 2012

The conceptual ties between the Bloom/Anderson model

and the proposed framework provide a strong basis for
designing a computer based mathematics educational application (Figure 3).

Figure 3: The conceptual ties between the Bloom/Anderson

taxonomy and the proposed framework

Proposed computer based mathematics educational

application
Using childrens literature with a focus on reading, writing,
and communicating mathematically is argued to be an effective way to motivate, engage and inspire children to explore mathematical concepts actively and enthusiastically.

A computer-assisted framework based on a cognitivist learning theory for teaching mathematics

achievement to be improved in schools through the effective design and

use of ICTs, especially computer based and multimedia educational applications. However, it is argued that not many educational applications fit
well in Australian primary school settings to facilitate mathematics learning in a manner that is considered to be pedagogically appropriate by
teachers. Hence, there is a need to design an educational framework
based on accepted pedagogical approaches before developing any educational software and multimedia content. The next section of this paper
proposes a new framework based on a cognitivist learning theory for
effective use of ICTs in mathematics classrooms for lower primary school
children.

42

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

A computer-assisted framework based on a cognitivist learning theory for teaching mathematics

43

There are many books that can be used effectively and

creatively in the classroom for teaching in the field of
mathematics. However, not every book will be appropriate for enhancing a mathematics lesson; there should
be a natural relationship between the book chosen to
enhance the lesson and the lesson itself (Price, 2009).
Embedding mathematics concepts within a story and
presenting it in a multimodal way by using pictures,
audio, video and informal, familiar language can help
children grasp the mathematical ideas and concepts
more keenly (Ward, 2005), and the proposed mathematics application capitalises on this.
Based on a review of existing mathematics concept
books and discussions with teachers and other mathematics educators, the researchers chose an engaging
mathematics concept book, One is a Snail, Ten is a
Crab, a counting by 'feet' book written by April Pulley
Sayre, Jeff Sayre, and Randy Cecil (2003)1. This picture
book is about counting animals with various numbers
of feet, e.g. 5 is a dog [with 4 feet] and a snail [with 1
foot]. With permission from the publisher, the researchers have used this book to design and develop an
interactive multimedia application that contains mathematical concepts relevant to the early primary curriculum (Years 1-3).
The proposed computer based application is, as previously mentioned, based on the Bloom/Anderson taxonomy and the aim is to produce educational multimedia texts or stories that encourage the cognitive
learning objectives in the Bloom/Anderson taxonomy.
Since our target audience is lower primary students, a
high level of computer skills cannot be assumed and,
hence, the system needs to be simple, clean and easy
to use to encourage mathematics learning without the
technology getting in the way.
The interactive multimedia educational application,
called My Maths Story applies the cognitive learning
objectives through the use of technology with a strong
theoretical underpinning. Teachers and educators should be able to use this interactive application to introduce many mathematical concepts relevant to their
classroom and curriculum. They will also be able to
generate their own stories by choosing appropriate
characters, settings and multimedia content. Students
have opportunities to interact with the story and introduce variations (and even to pose their own problems)
to permit engagement with the relevant concepts more
thoroughly and deeply. The My Maths Story application should offer teachers many opportunities to share
and discuss a range of mathematical concepts for various ability levels, within the motivational context of a
storybook that links mathematical concepts to real
world events and settings. Mathematical language is
reinforced and extended and cross curricular links are
made with literacy. Moreover, the application can be
adapted to multiple grade levels and can be used to
target different learning objectives throughout the
school year.

1
From ONE IS A SNAIL, TEN IS A CRAB: A
COUNTING BY FEET BOOK. Text copyright 2003
April Pulley Sayre & Jeff Sayre. Illustrations copyright
2003 Randy Cecil. Reproduced by permission of
Walker Books Australia on behalf of Candlewick Press

Younger children can learn counting, place value, number sense, number
relationships and basic addition, while older children can benefit from
using this application to learn skip counting, counting by sets of 2s, 4's,
10's, even and odd numbers, addition, subtraction and multiplication in
different ways. The application also allows for problem solving when presenting certain numbers to represent different animals according to the
amount of feet on each animal. The story can be generated over and over,
each time using different mathematical concepts and expressions, and
each time becoming more complex. For example, when teaching addition
and subtraction concepts in lower primary, teachers can use My Maths
Story application to generate stories to help teach addition and subtraction
concepts involving one, two or three digit numbers. Teachers can create
interactive stories by choosing scenes, characters (e.g. a snail, person, dog,
insect, spider, crab) and appropriate multimedia such as sound and text.
Also, teachers can emphasise the intended learning outcomes or objectives
by creating a new story, explaining the scene, retelling, and asking why
and how questions. This can help students to recall facts, terms and concepts by remembering, describing and explaining (the "Remember" and
"Understand" categories of Bloom/Anderson model-lower level of the proposed framework).
Further, students can use this system to interact with the story for practising and repeating the targeted maths concept(s). Through interacting,
manipulating, and creating various stories, students can build fluency
skills by calculating answers, finding various answers and recalling factual
knowledge and concepts readily (the "Apply" category of Bloom/Anderson
model-middle section of the proposed framework). This system can also
be used for more complex maths concepts, by generating a story and asking students to analyse, explain, understand and solve a problem individually or in pairs (the "Analyse", "Evaluate" and "Create" categories of Bloom/
Anderson model- middle section of the proposed framework- upper level
of the proposed framework).
Below are screen shots of the My Maths Story application, which is in the
final stage of development and will be used for teaching primary school
students for approximately one school term, in three primary schools in
Western Australia. The details of the various components of the system
and the evaluation of this application will be discussed in future publications.

Figure 4: The Interactive Multimedia Application

Conclusion
The integration of ICTs into the learning environment can provide valuable learning experiences when it is designed and utilised in a pedagogically appropriate manner; to get the best results from the integration of
ICTs in education, any applications design and development needs to be
based on accepted pedagogical principles, in terms of both learners and
teachers needs. This paper presents an educational framework for teaching mathematics that is based on Bloom/Andersons taxonomy and current pedagogical views of mathematics education. With this underpinning
framework, it has been possible to design and develop an interactive multimedia application for teaching mathematics in lower primary school classrooms. This application is to be evaluated in schools then refined in response to the findings. It is envisaged that this new software, because of its
theoretical and pedagogical underpinnings, will not have the same kinds
of shortcomings as many of the existing mathematics software packages.
AUSTRALIAN EDUC ATIONAL COMPUTING

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

References
ACARA. (2010). Australian Curriculum Information Sheet, Retrieved
27/10/2011. From http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/AC_
MATHEMATICS_INFO_Senior_Sec_v1_20100512.pdf

Doig, B., McRae, B., & Rowe, K. (2003). A good start to numeracy:
Effective numeracy strategies from research and practice in early childhood. Australia: ACER. Commonwealth Department of Education Science
and Training.

Elia, I., van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Georgiou, A. (2010). The role
ACARA. (2011a). Australian Curriculum Information Sheet, Retrieved
17/11/2011. From http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/Mathematics/ of pictures in picture books on children's cognitive engagement with
mathematics. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal,
General-capabilities - Information-and-communication-technology18(3), 275-297.
competence
ACARA. (2011b). The Australian Curriculum Mathematics, Retrieved
27/10/2011. From http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/Static/docs/
Australian Curriculum v1.2.pdf

Elshout, J. J. (1987). Problem-solving and education. NY: Pergamon Press.

AITSL. (2011). National Professional Standards for Teachers, Retrieved

21/11/2011. From http://www.teacherstandards.aitsl.edu.au/Static/docs/
aitsl_national_professional_standards_for_teachers_240611.pdf

Epstein, A. S. (2007). The intentional teacher. National Association for

the Education of Young Children Washington, DC.

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A.,

Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P., et al. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,
and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.
New York : Longman.

Eng, T. S. (2005). The impact of ICT on learning: A review of research.

International Education Journal, 6(5), 635-650.

Figueira-Sampaio, A. S., dos Santos, E. E. F., & Carrijo, G. A. (2009). A

constructivist computational tool to assist in learning primary school
mathematical equations. Computers & Education, 53(2), 484-492.
Gadanidis, J. M. (2004). Designing learning objects for language arts preservice teacher education in support of project-based learning environments. Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2009). Epistemological and methodological

issues for the conceptualization, development, and assessment of ICTTPCK: Advances in technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK). Gialamas, V., & Nikolopoulou, K. (2010). In-service and pre-service early
childhood teachers' views and intentions about ICT use in early childhood
Computers & Education, 52(1), 154-168.
settings: A comparative study. Computers & Education, 55(1), 333-341.
The Australian Association of Mathematics Teachers and Early Childhood
Goldstein, F. C., & Levin, H. S. (1987). Disorders of reasoning and proAustralia (2006). Position paper on early childhood mathematics.
blem-solving ability. London: Taylor & Francis Group.
Retrieved 24/11/2011. From http://www.pa.ash.org.au/scmainc/docs/
Reasearch/earlymaths.pdf
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook 1:
Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc.
Bull, G., Garofalo, J., & Harris, J. (2002). Grand challenges preparing for
the technological tipping point. Learning and Leading with Technology,
29(8), 6-12.

Harries, T., & Barmby, P. (2007). Representing and understanding multi

plication. Research in Mathematics Education, 9(1), 33-45.
Hinostroza, J. E., & Mellar, H. (2001). Pedagogy embedded in educational
software design: report of a case study. Computers & Education, 37(1),
27-40.
Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (2001). Adding it up: Helping
children learn mathematics. US: National Academies Press.

Chang, K. E., Wu, L. J., Weng, S. E., & Sung, Y. T. (2011). Embedding
game-based problem-solving phase into problem-posing system for
mathematics learning. Computers & Education. Volume 58, Issue 2,
Pages 775786.

Kim, M. C., & Hannafin, M. J. (2011). Scaffolding problem solving in

technology-enhanced learning environments (TELEs): Bridging research
and theory with practice. Computers & Education, 56(2), 403-417.

Clarke, B., Cheeseman, J., & Clarke, D. (2006). The mathematical knowledge and understanding young children bring to school. Mathematics
Education Research Journal, 18(1), 78-102.

Kingsley, K. V., & Boone, R. (2008). Effects of Multimedia Software on

Achievement of Middle School Students in an American History Class.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41(2), 19.

Clements, D. H. (1987). Longitudinal study of the effects of Logo programming on cognitive abilities and achievement. Journal of Educational
Computing Research, 3(1), 73-94.

Kozma, R. B. (2001). Technology and classroom practices: An international study. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(1), 1-14.

Clements, D. H. (1993). Young Children and Computers: Crossroads and

Directions from Research. Young children, 48(2), 56-64.
Clements, D. H., & Nastasi, B. K. (1992). Computers and early childhood
education. Advances in school psychology: Preschool and early childhood
treatment directions, 187-246. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Inc.
Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & DiBiase, A. M. (2004). Engaging young
children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics
education: Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2010). Research methods in
education (6th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Department of Broadband. (2011). National Digital Economy Strategy,
Retrieved 21/11/2011. From http://www.nbn.gov.au/education/
Department of Education. (2008). Success through partnership. Achieving a national vision for ICT in schools. Strategic Plan to guide the
implementation of the Digital Education Revolution initiative and related
initiatives, Retrieved 17/11/2011. From http://www.deewr.gov.au/
Schooling/DigitalEducationRevolution/Documents/DERStrategicPlan.pdf

volume 27 number 2 december 2012

Krause, K. L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational psychology for learning and teaching. Victoria : Thomson.
Laurillard, D. (2009). The pedagogical challenges to collaborative technologies. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning, 4(1), 5-20.
Lazakidou, G., & Retalis, S. (2010). Using computer supported collaborative learning strategies for helping students acquire self-regulated
problem-solving skills in mathematics. Computers & Education, 54(1),
3-13.
Lim, C. P., Oakley, G., & Liu, Y. (2013, in press). Information and communication technologies (ICT) in primary education: Opportunities and
supporting conditions. In L. Y. Tay & C. P. Lim (Eds.), Creating holistic
technology-enhanced learning experiences: Tales from a future school in
Singapore. Amsterdam: Sense Publishing.
Liu, S. H. (2010). Factors related to pedagogical beliefs of teachers and
technology integration. Computers & Education. Issue 4, 10121022.
Markauskait, L. (2004). Developing country-tailored policy for the
provision of schools with educational software and content: The case of
Lithuania. Education and Information Technologies, 9(1), 67-89.

44

Contributed Paper (Reviewed)

Mason, B. J., & Bruning, R. (2001). Providing feedback in computerbased instruction: What the research tells us. Center for Instructional
Innovation, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, 14.
Mayer, R. E. (2003). The promise of multimedia learning: Using the same
instructional design methods across different media. Learning and instruction, 13(2), 125-139.
McKenney, S., & Voogt, J. (2009). Designing technology for emergent
literacy: The PictoPal initiative. Computers & Education, 52(4), 719-729.
Mercer, C. D., & Miller, S. P. (1992). Teaching students with learning
problems in math to acquire, understand, and apply basic math facts.
Remedial and Special Education, 13(3), 19.
Milovanovic, M., Takai, ., & Milajic, A. (2011). Multimedia approach
in teaching mathematics-example of lesson about the definite integral
application for determining an area. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 42(2), 175-187.
Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth
Affairs. (2008). Melbourne declaration on educational goals for young
Australians.
Mumtaz, S. (2000). Factors affecting teachers' use of information and
communications technology: a review of the literature. Journal of information technology for teacher education, 9(3), 319-342.
Offer, J., & Bos, B. (2009). The design and application of technologybased courses in the mathematics classroom. Computers & Education,
53(4), 1133-1137.
Oliver, R. (2002). The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century: ICT as a change agent for education. Proceedings of the Higher
Education for the 21st Century Conference. Miri, Sarawak: Curtin
University.

Scott, D. (2008). Critical essays on major curriculum theorists. New York:

Psychology Press.
Sim, G., MacFarlane, S., & Horton, M. (2005). Evaluating usability, fun
and learning in educational software for children. World Conference on
Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications, Montreal.
Tait-McCutcheon, S., Drake, M., & Sherley, B. (2011). From direct
instruction to active construction: teaching and learning basic facts.
Mathematics Education Research Journal, 23(3), 1-25.
Thompson, E., Luxton-Reilly, A., Whalley, J., Hu, M., & Robbins, P. (2008).
Bloom's Taxonomy for CS assessment. In Simon & M. Hamilton (Eds.),
Tenth Australasian Computing Education Conference (ACEC 2008) (Vol.
78, 155-162). Wollongong, NSW, Australia: ACS.
Thomson, S., & Buckley, S. (2009). Informing mathematics pedagogy:
TIMSS 2007 Australia and the world. Australian: Australian Council for
Educational Research.
Thomson, S., Rowe, K., Underwood, C., & Peck, R. (2005). Numeracy
in the early years. Canberra: DEST/ACER.
Tucker, C., Boggan, M., & Harper, S. (2010). Using children's literature
to teach measurement. Reading Improvement, 47(3), 154-158.
Ward, R. A. (2005). Using children's literature to inspire K8 preservice
teachers' future mathematics pedagogy. The Reading Teacher, 59(2),
132-143.
Yelland, N., (2001). Teaching and learning with information and communication technologies (ICT) for numeracy in the early childhood and primary years of schooling: Dept. of Education, Training and Youth Affairs.
Young-Loveridge, J. M. (2004). Effects on early numeracy of a program
using number books and games. Early Childhood Research Quarterly,
19(1), 82-98.

Ongori, H., & Mburu, P. T. (2010). Usage of Information Communication

Technologies (ICTs) in information seeking amongst university students
in Botswana. Journal of Business Management and Economics, 1(1),
018-025.

Zazkis, R., & Liljedahl, P. (2009). Teaching mathematics as storytelling.

The Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

Schacter, J. (1999). The impact of education technology on student

achievement. What the most current research has to say. San Francisco:
Milken Exchange.

Associate Professor Grace Oakley from the Graduate School of Education,

the University of Western Australia, teaches in the Primary and Early
Childhood programs and has special interests in digital literacies, mobile
learning, literacy pedagogies and ICTs across the school curriculum.

Authors Note
Patten, B., Arnedillo Sanchez, I., & Tangney, B. (2006). Designing collabNasrin Moradmand
orative, constructionist and contextual applications for handheld devices.
Computers & Education, 46(3), 294-308.
Nasrin is a researcher and PhD candidate in the School of Computer
Science & Software Engineering, the University of Western Australia.
Perry, B., Young-Loveridge, J., Dolckett, S., & Doig, B. (2011). The deveShe has a background in computer engineering and training and
lopment of young children's mathematical understanding. Research in
assessment. She worked in Information Technology environment for
Mathematics Education in Australasia 2004-2007, 17-40.
the past ten years and interested in advanced research for women and
Phelps, R., Graham, A., & Watts, T. (2011). Acknowledging the complex- children, especially in relation to their education and health. The aim
ity and diversity of historical and cultural ICT professional learning prac- of Nasrins current research is to investigate how teachers and students
tices in schools. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1), 47-63.
can use appropriate computer-based educational applications in the
classroom to enhance mathematical achievement.
Pifarre, M., & Kleine Staarman, J. (2011). Wiki-supported collaborative
learning in primary education: How a dialogic space is created for thinkAmitava Datta
ing together. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative
Amitava did his MTech and PhD in computer science from Indian
Learning, 6(2), 119.
Institute of Technology, Madras. He has worked at the Max Planck
Pramanik, R. (2011). Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
Institute for Computer Science, University of Freiburg (both in Germany),
among School-going Children: A Technological Intervention. Journal of
University of New England and University of Western Australia (both in
Education and Practice, 2(10), 1-10.
Australia). He has taught a broad range of subjects at both undergradute
Price, R. R. (2009). Using childrens literature to teach mathematics.
and postgraduate levels. His research interests are in parallel and
NC: Quantile.
dstributed computing, bioinformatics, computer-assisted education,
mobile and wireless computing, social networks and data mining. He
Rahman, S. A., Ghazali, M., & Ismail, Z. (2003). Integrating ICT in mathehas supervised around 15 PhD and masters by research students,
matics teaching methods course: How has ICT changed student teachers
published over one hundred articles in reputed international journal
perceptions about problem solving? 21/2/2011 URL: math. unipa.
and conference proceedings and served in the editorial boards and
it/~ grim/21_project/21_brno03_AbdulRaman. pdf.
programme committees of several international journals and
Saracho, O. N., & Spodek, B. (2009). Educating the young mathematician: conferences.
The twentieth century and beyond. Early Childhood Education Journal,
Grace Oakley
36(4), 305-312.

45

AUSTRALIAN EDUC ATIONAL COMPUTING