The VOR

The VOR, i.e. VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range, operates in the radio frequency range
112 to 118 Mega Hertz (MHz), which is in the Very High Frequency (VHF) radio band.
It is a very useful radio aid and is known in abbreviated form as the Omni or the VOR,
however if you are asked to define it you should refer to it as the VHF Omni-Directional
Radio Range.
At Private Pilot level we use the VOR for:

orientation (where am I ?) by determining a position line;

tracking inbound to and outbound from a VOR.

As its name Omni suggests, the VOR radiates an infinite number of tracks in all directions,
like spokes from the hub of a wheel. For practical purposes we use 360 of these, each
separated from the next by 1 degree and related to Magnetic North. We call them Radials.
Each Radial
Station).

is Identified by its Magnetic Bearing Outbound (i.e. away from the VOR

THE VOR GROUND STATION

The VOR ground station transmits VHF signals that allow the instrument in the cockpit to
determine the Radial FROM the VOR that the aeroplane is on the radial being the magnetic
bearing FROM the VOR ground site to the aeroplane.
THE VOR COCKPIT INSTRUMENT
Signals are received through a V-type antenna on the aeroplane, processed, and then
displayed on the cockpit VOR indicator.

There are various types of VOR cockpit indicators presenting the information in slightly
different ways, however they are all basically the same.
When the aircraft is ON the desired radial the needle (referred to as a Course Deviation
Indicator or CDI) will be centred. If the aircraft is 2 OFF the selected radial, the needle will
be 1 dot off centre. If the aircraft is 10 (or more) off the selected radial, the needle will be 5
dots off centre.

The VOR indicator has a 5 dot presentation, with the outside dot indicating a 10 degree
difference to the radial dialed up by the Omni-Bearing Selector (OBS). The inner dot may be
represented as a dot or as a circle that passes through the inner dot on each side of centre.
As the Outer Dot represents 10 degrees Deviation from the Radial, Each of the Dots either
side represents 2 degrees.

PREPARING THE VOR INDICATOR FOR USE

Prior to using the aid you must:
ensure that it has power available;
select the frequency (e.g. 112.9 Mega Hertz);
identify it (Dah-Dah Dit-Dah-Dit, which is MR in Morse Code found on the VEC);
check no flags, i.e. the signal is useable, indicated by the warning flags being biased
out of view.
ORIENTATION USING THE VOR or HOW TO FIND A POSITION LINE
The VOR can tell a pilot which omni-bearing from the VOR ground station, i.e. which Radial,
he is on.

The pilot can select the desired omni-bearing in the cockpit with the Omni-Bearing Selector,
commonly known as the OBS knob.
By turning the knob marked OBS you can alter the selected Omni-Bearing, and if you do this
until the course Deviation Indicator is centred then you will know which Omni-Bearing the
aircraft is on.
The small arrows, or the words TO or FROM, will indicate which side of the VOR station you
are; either on a 090M FROM the station or 090M TO it The Course Deviation Indicator
(CDI) can be centred on either of two omni-bearings by the OBS.

These omni-bearings will of course be 180 apart, and one being:

the magnetic bearing TO the VOR; and the other being
the magnetic bearing FROM the VOR (known as the radial),
the ambiguity being automatically resolved by the To/From flag.
The Omni-Bearing Indicator always indicates Magnetic Bearings either to or from the VOR
Beacon (and never relative bearings).
A Radial is the Magnetic Bearing From the VOR Station, so in the situation above, the
aircraft which are west of the VOR are on the 270 radial (indicated by 270-FROM or 090To) and the aircraft which are to the east of the VOR are on the 090 radial (indicated by
090-FROM or 270-TO).
We write the 090 radial as VOR MR 090, and the 270 radial as VOR MR 270.
The Heading of the Aircraft does not affect VOR Bearings.
The bearing obtained depends only upon the aircrafts location with relation to the VOR
beacon.
Example 1. On the VOR cockpit indicator, what two indications would inform the pilot that he
was on the 235 Radial? illustrate.

The 235 Radial is 235 Magnetic FROM the VOR, and so we could have 235-FROM or
055-TO, with the CDI needle centred.
Example 2. Orientate the aircraft given the following cockpit indications:
HDG 040 magnetic, with 050-FROM and needle centred.
There is more than one way to skin a cat, and a number of ways are possible to orientate
this aircraft with respect to the MR VOR.
(a)

Sketch in the 050 Radial (050-FROM) then somewhere along it show an

aircraft with a Heading of 040M.
or

(b)

Sketch the aircraft on a HDG of 040M, and because the aircraft bears 050
Magnetic from the VOR, then the VOR will bear (050M + 180 = ) 230M from
the aircraft.

We could describe this situation as HDG 040, VOR MR 050.

Example 3. Suppose we set 270 under the Course Index. The TO or FROM flag indicates
which side of the VOR beacon we are on, The Course Deviation Indicator (Needle) will be
right off scale unless the aircrafts position is within 10 either side of 270-To or 270-FROM
the VOR beacon, i.e. a 20 degree sector.
Within the sector 10 either side of the selected omni-bearing the needle will indicate the
position line that the aircraft is on at 2 per dot.
To determine whether the aircraft is to the right or left of the selected bearing:

Look in the direction of the bearing selected on the OBS Course Card;

the Needle then represents the Position of the Bearing With respect to the aircraft.

Example 4. With .... 090 HDG and 270-FROM, if we:

look in the direction 270; then
the 270-FROM track is to our right.
In this way you can determine the position of the aeroplane with respect to the VOR ground
station.

This enables you to plot the VOR radial that the aeroplane is on (but it tells you nothing
about which way the aeroplane is heading). With HDG information available from the
Compass or Directional Indicator you can sketch in the model aeroplane.
ORIENTATION BY CENTRING THE NEEDLE
If you have selected 090 with the OBS and the CDI needle indicates that you are 6 off to
one side of this bearing to or from the VOR ground station, then you can centre the needle
by altering the 090 with the OBS knob in this case, by changing the omni-bearing from
090 to 096.
With 096 selected under the index, the CDI needle centred, and FROM showing, we can
determine that we are on the 096M radial, i.e. bearing 096M FROM the VOR ground station.

Remember that the VOR Indicator tells you only the angular deviation of your position from
the selected omni-bearing. Heading information must be obtained from a Compass or
Direction Indicator.
TRACKING TO A VOR
First of all you:

Select the VOR frequency;

Identify the station;

check No Flags.
then:

Select the Omni-Bearing that you wish to Fly as Track.

Provided you are heading approximately in the direction of your desired track, the centre
circle will represent the aeroplane and the needle will represent the desired track.

Using the Compass or Direction Indicator (DI) you would then fly a suitable intercept
heading.
On intercepting track you would take up what you estimate to be a suitable heading to
maintain the desired track.
You would endeavour to keep the needle center, steering a Heading that allows for drift and
counters any wind effect.

In the case illustrated, you would have 030 set on

the Omni-Bearing Course Card with TO showing,
and (ideally) the needle centred. If the needle is not
centred, you would steer a Heading towards the needle
in an attempt to re-centre it. This is known then as
a Command Instrument, commanding you to fly
towards the needle to regain the selected track.

DETERMINING DRIFT ANGLE WHEN TRACKING ON A VOR

If you are tracking inbound 360M to a VOR with 360 set under the Course Index, then
steering Heading 360M will allow you to maintain track, provided there is no crosswind
component. (Note that in correct VOR terminology, we are tracking inbound on the 180 radial

 the 180 radial being 180M-FROM the VOR station, i.e. we are tracking 360M-To.) If
however there is a westerly wind blowing, it will blow you to the right of this inbound track
unless you lay off a drift angle to compensate for the wind effect. In this case you might have
to head about 8 into wind (i.e. lay off a wind correction angle of about 80 to the left) to allow
for right ) starboard drift.

Therefore you would steer HDG 352M to maintain the desired track of 360M.
If the wind was easterly, you might have to lay off a wind correction angle of say 5 to the
right to allow for left (port) drift. Therefore you would steer 005M to maintain the track of
360M.
Just how much drift you need to lay off in each case can be found by trial and error. You fly a
certain heading and see the effect on your track. If you are gradually departing from your
desired track, you alter HDG and return to it and then adjust the drift angle and fly a HDG
that will keep you on track. Of course in the real world the wind effect will be continually
changing, so the required heading to maintain a given track will also change from time to
time. In your regular scan of the flight instruments this is one of the things you would look for.
TRACKING FROM A VOR
Select the desired VORs frequency;
Identify it;
Check NO FLAGS;
Select (using the OBS knob) the Omni-Bearing that you wish to fly as track AWAY
from the station.
In this case your aim would be to have the needle centred with 140 FROM.
NOTE: If you Always Select the Desired Track in the OBS, you will have TO showing when
flying to the VOR and FROM showing when flying from the VOR, and it will be a Command
Instrument, i.e. fly towards the needle to regain track.

This is straight forward, logical and easy to understand.

A MINOR COMPLICATION (EASILY SOLVED)

A complication can arise in the following way (and we can solve it easily).
Suppose that as above you wish to track 140M-FRoM the VOR and, steering a HDG
of 140M, have drifted left of track, i.e. you are north of track. With OBS 140-FROM
set, the needle will be right of centre, and you would turn right (towards the needle) to
regain track, i.e. you would turn towards the south.
Suppose that you decide to return to the VOR on the reciprocal track of 320M and
you leave omni-bearing 140 set. As you reverse your heading there will be no change
on the cockpit Omni Bearing Indicator. The position of the aeroplane relative to the
VOR has not changed (and this is what the VOR cockpit instrument indicates) it is
only the aircrafts HDG that has changed.
Before you turned, the desired track was on your right (i.e. you were north of track)
and CDI was deflected to the right of centre. Turning towards the needle would take
you back onto track.
Having reversed your HDG, the desired track is now on your left. The course
Deviation Indications are unaltered, with the needle out to the right of centre. You are
still north of track, the desired track now being out to your left BUT the CDI is
unchanged and is out to the right. Turning towards the CDI in this case would take
you away from track, i.e. it is no longer a command instrument, which is a pity.
We can solve this inconvenience and return the CDI to being a command instrument
very simply. To return it to a command instrument rotate the OBS and set the course
card on 320 (the reciprocal and the approximate HDG that you are now flying), and
the flag will go to TO, and the CDI swing over to the other side.
Your HDG will be approximately 320M, and the CDI needle will now be out to the
left. To regain track, you will turn towards the left (i.e. south in this case) which now is
of course towards the CDI needle. It is once again a Command Instrument making
the VOR Indicator easier to understand and to fly.

To keep the cockpit Omni Bearing Indicator a command instrument (so that you fly towards
the needle to regain track):

set the desired track (closest to your Heading) on the Course Card.

PASSAGE OVER THE TOP OF A VOR STATION

Passage of an aeroplane over the top of a VOR ground station is indicated by:

the needle becoming more and more sensitive and oscillating as you approach the
station;

the red flag appearing, indicating an unserviceable signal;

the TO flag swinging over to the FROM flag;

the needle becoming more stable as you leave the station further behind.

TRACKING ABEAM A VOR STATION

Since the VOR cockpit indicator only gives information regarding position of the aeroplane
(and does not give HDG information), this instrument is very easy to use for determining
abeam positions, because drift angle does not enter into it.
Example 5. You are tracking 300M and will be passing about 30 nm to the north of LR. What
two OBS settings would be suitable to indicate the abeam position to you?

Ans: 030M (as we have illustrated), or 210M.

INTERCEPTING A DESIRED TRACK FROM A VOR

The VOR Indicator only gives us information on the position of the aeroplane with respect to
a selected VOR radial. If we want to intercept a desired outbound track (radial), first we must
know our position with respect to it, i.e. we must orientate ourselves. (This we have
discussed earlier in this chapter.) We must then choose a suitable intercept heading for us to
reach the desired track.

Example 6. You are tracking inbound on the 170 radial of the Gaborone VOR. You want to
track to fly out to a small lake that lies 37 nm due East (M)of the GN VOR site. You decide
to track to join the 090 radial from your present position about 10 nm south of GN.

Step 1.

Select desired track with the OBS, i.e. 090M.

Step 2.

Fly an intercept HDG until the CDI centers (with 090-FROM). (The CDI
needle will not start to move until you are within 10 of what is selected on the
course card in this case l00M

Step 3.

Alter HDG to maintain the desired TR 090M from the VOR, allowing for drift.

INTERCEPTING A DESIRED TRACK TO A VOR

After flying over the small lake you decide to track North, have a look at Hayman hill, and
then track into Gaborone on the 010 radial (i.e. 190-TO).
Step 1.

Select desired track with the OBS, i.e. 190M.

Step 2.

Fly an intercept HDG until the CDI centres (with 190-TO). (The CDI needle
will not start to move until you are within 10 of what you have selected under
the course index, which in this case will be 200M-TO the station, or 020MFROM the station.)

Step 3.

When the CDI is centred, alter the HDG to maintain the desired TR 190M to
the VOR station, allowing for any drift.

ERRORS OF THE VOR

The VOR has a few errors such as:

ground station error,

site effect error,

vertical polarisation error,

airborne equipment error, but the aggregate of all these errors will not exceed 5
and in most cases is far less than this.

In places where the VOR signal is reflected from rough terrain, the radials may be a little
distorted.
This can occur if the ground site around the VOR station is not level or is not kept clear of
solid objects, or if the surrounding terrain is hilly. Some VORs have radials with quite
noticeable bends in them, but this is kept well within acceptable limits.
Some distortions of the VOR signal may be seen on the cockpit indicator as the needle
oscillating, either quickly or slowly. This is called scalloping.
The VOR is usually a good and reliable aid and can provide you with extremely good backup information for your VFR navigation if you know how to use it correctly (and this is the
province of your Flying Instructor).

HOW DOES A VOR GROUND STATION WORK?

This discussion is a little beyond the PPL Navigation syllabus but is included for those pilots
who like to know the nuts and bolts. The rest of this chapter (onwards) is worth a quick read
through for everyone.
The VOR beacon transmits two VHF radio signals:
(1)

The Reference Phase, which is omni-directional (all directions) and radiates from the
station in a circular pattern. The phase of the reference signal is constant throughout
the 360.

(2)

The Variable Phase, which rotates uniformly at 1800 rpm, with its phase varying at a
constant rate through the 360.

The two VOR signals (the Reference Phase and the Variable Phase) are:

in phase (aligned) at Magnetic North;

90 out of phase at magnetic East (090);

180 out of phase at South;

270out of phase at West;

360out of phase (which is the same as being in phase) at North.

This phase difference between the Reference Phase and the Variable Phase is measured
electronically in the aircraft, and converted to degrees (0), informing the Pilot what radial he
is on, i.e. his magnetic bearing from the station.
Every 10 seconds a Morse code identification signal is transmitted.
Use is often made of the high quality VHF transmissions to transmit Automatic Terminal
Information Service (ATIS) and occasionally other voice messages over VORs.
The VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range has now become the major en-route radio
navigation aid on high density air routes. As such they allow high quality line of sight
reception, due to there being relatively little interference from atmospheric noise in this band.

RECEPTION OF VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF) RADIO SIGNALS

VHF reception is affected by:

the terrain surrounding the beacon;

the height of the aerial;

the altitude of the aircraft;

distance of the aeroplane from the station.

VHF radio waves bend around the earth a little in the atmosphere and so their range is
further than line of sight (which is the horizon as seen in good visibility from the cockpit).
DISTANCE TO THE HORIZON
A useful formula to find the distance to the horizon that you can see in perfect visibility is:
Distance to visual horizon in nm

1.05 x Altitude in feet.

There is no requirement for you to remember this for the examination.

Example 7. What is the distance of the horizon for a pilot of an aircraft flying at an altitude of
10 000 ft, assuming perfect visibility? This is of course Line of Sight.
Distance to horizon in nm = 1.05 x Altitude in feet
=
=
=

1.05 x 10 000
105 nm(Ans).

105 nms

THE RANGE OF A VOR

Whilst VHF transmissions are basically line of sight, they are refracted (bent) slightly as they
pass from air of one density to that of another density, which occurs in the atmosphere due
to differences in temperature and pressure at various heights and in different air masses.
This gives VHF waves a tendency to follow the curvature of the Earth, and effectively
extends the VHF range slightly beyond line of sight.
VHF Range in nm = 1.25 x VOR height AMSL in feet + 1.25 x Aircraft altitude in feet.
The expected range gives you an idea of the maximum range that you can be at a particular
height from the VOR site for you still to receive a signal.

The Rated Coverage of a radio navigation aid is a published figure (in the AlPs) and is
usually well less than the expected range, just to be on the conservative side. Rated
Coverage is important to Instrument-rated pilots when they are planning which tracks to fly
and which aids to use.
VHF Range in nm

= 1.25 VOR height AMSL in feet + 1.25 Aircraft altitude in feet.

= 1.25 0 + 1.25 10 000
= 125 nms

Aircraft Altitude (feet)

Below 5000
5000 to 10 000 inclusive

Rated Coverage (nm)

60
90

These figures are worthwhile remembering to assist you in choosing what could be useful en
route VHF navigational aids.
NOTE: If you are asked to define a particular VOR then do so completely,
e.g.

Lanseria VOR 114.5 would be described as:

Lanseria Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Radio Range operating on a
frequency of 114.5 Mega Hertz with a Morse code ident of LAV.

VOR COCKPIT DISPLAYS.

The manner in which the VOR information is displayed in the cockpit follows a standard
format as described in this chapter. The appearance of the display may vary slightly
depending on the manufacturer and the capability of the instrument, e.g. whether it is
capable of displaying ILS glide-slope signals.
The only difference with the display pictured opposite is that the entire Compass Rose of the
Course-card is visible. In practice its use is identical to the type of VOR display we have
covered in this chapter.

Note the striped OFF flag visible to the right of the CDI. When a signal usable for navigation
is being received this flag would disappear and the appropriate TO or FROM flag would
become visible in the same position.

This is real

QUESTIONS
1.

A RADIAL is the m.. track .bound from a VOR ground station.

2.

VOR stands for V... H... F 0... directional R.... range.

3.

The needle of the VOR cockpit instrument is called a C. D.

4.

If the CDI is 1 dot off centre, then the aeroplane is... degrees off the selected
omni-bearing.

5.

If the CDI is 2 dots off centre, then the aeroplane is .. degrees off the selected
omni-bearing.

6.

If the CDI is deflected full scale (5 dots or more), then the aeroplane is at least ..
degrees off the selected track.

7.

Sketch an aeroplane inbound on the 270 radial to a VOR in nil-wind conditions.

8.

Sketch an aeroplane outbound on the 270 radial from a VOR in nil-wind conditions.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

9.

I.

Sketch an aeroplane outbound on the 360 radial from a VOR in nil-wind

conditions.
What is its heading (M)?
If 360 is selected in the CBS, is the CDI centred?
If the aeroplane is not exactly on track, but 20 off to the left, how many dots
off centre is the CDI?
Is it off centre to the left or right?

You are tracking outbound on the 360 radial from a VOR.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Are you north or south of the VOR?

There is an easterly wind blowing. Is your HDG to maintain track likely to be
005M or 355M?
With 360 selected in the CBS, will the CDI be centred if you are off track 8
degrees to the left?
If not centred, how many dots off centre will the CDI be, and to the left or
right?

10.

You have 113 selected on your VOR indicator The CDI is 2 dots to the right of centre
and the FROM flag is showing.
a.
b.
c.

11.

You are tracking outbound on the 340 radial.

a.
b.
c.
d.

12.

The 040 radial is 040M (To, FROM) the VOR.

You are south-west of the VOR. True or false? If false, where are you with
respect to the VOR?

You are tracking outbound on the 240 radial from a VOR.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

14.

Are you north of the VOR or south of the VOR?

Are you flying roughly north or south?
If your HDG is 348M to maintain track, what is your drift?
Your HDG is 348M and you have 340 selected under the Course Index. If the
CDI gradually moves out to the right, is your track error left or right of the
desired 340M track?

You are tracking inbound on the 040 radial.

a.
b.

13.

What radial are you on?

What omni-bearing would you need to select with the CBS for the CDI to
centre and the FROM flag to show?
What would you need to set with CBS for the CDI to centre and the TO flag
to show?

The 240 radial is 240 degrees magnetic (TO, FROM) the VOR.
Your HDG will be approximately (240M, 060M).
The most convenient omni-bearing to have selected in the OBS is (240, 060)
and you would expect to see (To, FROM) showing.
With a southerly wind blowing, would you expect your HDG to maintain the
desired track to be (245M, 235M, 055M, 065M).
If the CDI is 3 dots left with 240 FROM indicated, what VOR radial are you
on?

The most convenient omni-bearing to have selected in the OBS if you are tracking
inbound on the 040 radial to the VOR is (220, 040) and you will have the (To, FROM)
flag showing.

15.

Name two indications that you are passing over the top of a VOR ground station.

16.

You are planning to track 080M and to pass approximately 25 nm to the north of a
VOR station. What two omni-bearings are most suitable for you to set with the OBS
to determine the abeam position and what would the indications be at the abeam
position?

17.

Illustrate how you would intercept the 070 radial outbound from a VOR if your present
position is to the south-east of the VOR. Show some typical indications of the CDI.

18.

Illustrate how you would intercept a track inbound on the 030 radial (210-To) from a
position to the east of the VOR. Show some typical CDI indications, if a wind is
blowing from the north-west.

19.

The Rated Coverage of a VOR below 5000 ft is .. nm.

20.

The Rated Coverage of a VOR from 5000 to 10 000 ft inclusive is .. nm.

Chapter 8
DME / TRANSPONDER
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a radio aid which provides the pilot-navigator with
extremely useful information, his distance from the tuned ground station.
DME measures the straight line distance between the aircraft and the ground beacon, i.e.
the slant distance.

Unless the aircraft is flying high and is close to the station this slant distance is, for most
practical purposes, equal to the horizontal distance of the aircraft from the station.
When the aircraft flies over the top of a DME ground beacon the DME indicator in the cockpit
will read the height of the aircraft above the beacon (in nm), unless of course there is a null
in signal propagation directly above the station causing the DME to drop out, i.e. to give a
reading that is not useable. A red flag will usually appear to indicate an un useable signal.
DME is a UHF Line of Sight Aid

Most DMEs operate in the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band of radio frequencies.

UHF/VHF radio waves have the property of travelling in straight lines, with very little
tendency to bend around the surface of the Earth. This means that for your DME cockpit
instrument and a DME ground station to lock on to each other, there should be no major
obstacles between them, i.e. they must be line-of-sight.
Mountain ranges will interfere with line-of-sight reception. If there is high or mountainous
terrain near the DME ground station, its range might be reduced.
Due to its curvature the surface of the Earth also forms an obstruction for an aeroplane far
from the DME ground station. The higher the aeroplane is, the more likely it is to still be lineof-sight and still have VHF reception.

EXPECTED VHF RANGE and RATED COVERAGE

These are two different things:
Expected UHF/VHF Range 1.25 x VOR height AMSL in feet + 1.25 x Aircraft altitude in
feet.. (The answer in nm gives us the approximate range at which we can usually receive
useable signals from VHF radio aids such as the DME and VOR.) This is useful in the sense
that we can calculate roughly at what range from a ground station our VHF cockpit
instruments might provide useful information. There is no need for you to remember this
formula of the Private Pilot examination in Navigation.
Rated Coverage is a published figure to be found in the Aeronautical Information Publication.
The Rated Coverage will be somewhat less than the Expected Coverage. Rated Coverage is
a legal figure in that Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) pilots must plan to follow tracks along
which there are sufficient radio navaids to satisfy various rules of Rated Coverage of aids.
The Rated Coverage of VHF/UHF aids (VOR and DME) published in the Aeronautical
Information Publication (AlP) supplied to instrument pilots includes the following figures
which are well worth remembering.
USING THE DME
1.

Switch the DME cockpit equipment on.

2.

Select the required channel number .

3.

When locked-on (i.e. when a steady reading is obtained), identify the beacon by its
Morse ident (identification). (The Morse Code appears somewhere on each chart.)

Using The DME for a Navigation Fix

A DME distance is really a circular position line, somewhere along which the aircraft lies.
A straight position line from a VOR or NDB and a distance from a co-sited DME is a most
convenient way of obtaining a fix (a 90 degree cut assists accuracy).
The straight position line from the NDB or VOR and the circular position line from a DME
located elsewhere need to cut at a good angle (say in excess of 45 degrees) for you to get a
reasonable fix. Tracking along a VOR or NDB position line, a DME station located
somewhere abeam of your track will not give you a good fix.

DME distances from two suitably located DME stations can provide a fix. Beware of any
ambiguity as you can only be in one of the two possible positions at any one time.
USING THE DME TO CALCULATE GROUNDSPEED
Provided the aircraft is tracking directly towards or directly away from a DME ground beacon,
the Ground Speed (GS) can be found by noting the nautical miles flown over a given time
period.
Example 2. In 7 minutes, tracking towards the station, the DME reading reduces by 28 nm.
Calculate Groundspeed.
Distance
28
GS =
Time
= 7
=
=
=

4 nm/mm
4 x 60 nm/hour (i.e. Knots)
240 kt (Ans.)

Of course there is the easier way of doing it on your computer

Example 3. 1950 UTC, VOR LC 312, DME LC 29 2003 UTC, VOR LC 312, DME LC 70.
Calculate the GS.
The consistent VOR reading (VOR LC 312 radial) tells us that we are maintaining the 312
omni radial of the Leigh Creek VOR, either tracking directly towards or directly away from it.

The increasing DME readings tell us that we are tracking away from the DME station at the
rate of 41 nm in 13 mins. GS = 189 kt. (Ans.)
It is often convenient to obtain a very quick estimate of Ground Speed, and we can do this
quite easily using the DME by seeing how far we travel in 1/100th of an hour; and then
multiplying by 100 to estimate how far we would travel in that 1 hour.

1 Hour = 60 minutes = 60 x 60 seconds = 3600 seconds,

therefore 1/100th of an hour = 36 seconds.

To calculate a rough GS, we can simply measure the distance covered in 36 secs and
multiply by 100:
e.g.

2.0 nm in 36 secs = GS 200 kt.

NOTE: Because the DME cockpit instrument tells you the slant distance from the DME
ground station, we can only obtain an accurate value for GS when the slant distance
is approximately the same as the
horizontal distance from the ground station. This means you should not rely on this
calculation when you are high and close to the DME ground station. As a rough ruleof-thumb, do not use the DME for a Ground Speed (GS) check when you are 5000 ft
or higher and closer than 10 nm to the ground station.
Notice also that the rate of closure of the aeroplane on the DME ground station will only
equal the Ground Speed when you are tracking directly towards or directly away from it. Do
not use the DME for GS checks if you are tracking abeam the DME ground station.
TRACKING ABEAM A DME GROUND STATION
As the aeroplane approaches abeam the DME ground station, its rate of closure will
gradually decrease until the DME cockpit equipment indicates the distance abeam the
station in nm. As you fly past the abeam position, the DME reading will increase gradually at
first and then at a faster and faster rate.
Well away from the station, the DME may possibly be used again for GS checks. This is up
to your judgement depending upon the situation.

HOW THE DME WORKS

Distance Measuring Equipment is a form of secondary radar where pulses known as
interrogation pulses are transmitted from the aircraft.
At the target ground beacon these pulses are passed through an electronic gate, and if the
pulses and the gate match up, the DME ground beacon responds by transmitting an
answering signal. The DME is then said to have latched on.
Radio signals, like all electromagnetic waves, travel at the speed of light. The DME
measures the time taken between the transmission of the interrogation pulses from the
interrogator in the aircraft, and the reception back at the aircraft of the reply pulses sent from
the ground station as a response, and translates this time into a distance.

`
ATC Radar and the Transponder
The transmission of electromagnetic energy between two points in the form of radio waves
was known almost a century ago. This idea has been developed as radio.

The principle of Radar (the detection of reflected radio energy) was first recognised in the
mid- 1930s.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF TIME AND DISTANCE

All electromagnetic energy (which includes light, radio waves, infra-red radiation, ultra-violet
radiation, X-rays) travels at the speed of light.
By measuring the elapsed time between the transmission of a bundle or pulse of radio
energy and the reception of its reflected echo, and knowing its velocity, we can determine
the distance or range of the object causing the echo.
distance
time

speed

and, multiplying both sides of this equation by time, we get:

Distance = Speed x Time

Since the radio signal travels from the radar transmitter out to the reflecting object and then
back to the radar receiver, the distance is travelled twice.
Therefore, to obtain distance to the object, the elapsed time between transmission of the
radio pulse and the reception of its reflection needs to be halved. All of this is done
electronically. Because the speed of light is so great, the times involved are extremely short.
This is the basis of radar.
The word radar is a term devised from RAdio Detection And Ranging.

Just as a matter of interest, the time taken for a pulse of electromagnetic energy to travel to
and from a reflector 20 nm away (i.e. a total distance of 40 nm) is 0.000250 seconds or 250
millionths of a second.
The speed of light = 300 000 km/sec = 162 000 nm/sec
40 nm at 162 000 nm/sec = 40/162 000 = 0.0000250 sec.
DIRECTION BY RADAR
If we can determine the direction from which the reflected signal comes, as well as its range,
we can pinpoint the position of the object. Since the speed of light is so great, we can use
the same antenna as both transmitter and receiver, by
transmitting a pulse of radio energy and then waiting for a thousandth of a second or so to
see if any reflections of this pulse are received. Then, another pulse of radio energy can be
transmitted followed by a pause for the antenna to act as a receiver.
Now there is no need for these pulses to all be transmitted in the one direction. With an
antenna that is slowly rotating, firing out pulses and picking up returns a fraction of a second
later, the system can scan the whole sky in one revolution. This is indeed the system as we
know it, and you will no doubt have noticed a number of slowly rotating radar antennae at or
near major aerodromes. Any reflected pulse is received by the antenna, measured
electronically, and then displayed as a blip on a radar screen.
THE RANGE OF A RADAR
Because of the nature of the electromagnetic pulses of energy used, radar works basically
as line of sight.
Just how great the range of any installation is also depends upon the time allowed between
transmissions for the antenna to act as a receiver. The shorter this time interval (or, if you
like, the greater the pulse repetition rate used in the system), the shorter the range of the
radar.
THE RADAR SCREEN
Most radar screens operate on the principle of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and look
something like a circular television screen.
Air Traffic Control (ATC) Radar Controllers generally have a circular screen showing the
position of the antenna in the centre, and with range marks to aid in estimating distance.
As the radar antenna (outside on a hilltop somewhere) rotates slowly, the small electron
beam in the Controllers CRT that paints a picture on the screen is aligned with it. It leaves a
faint line or trace on the screen in the direction aligned with that in which the antenna is
pointing.
As the antenna slowly rotates, so does this trace on the screen.
Any received signal appears on the screen as a blip or paint at the appropriate spot on the
screen.

Due to the nature of the screen, this paint remains visible for some seconds after the small
trace line has moved on, and will still be visible (but fading) as its next paint occurs in the
following revolution. This allows the ATC controller to determine the motion of the object in
terms of direction and speed.
PRIMARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR
Primary radar is that described above, where reflected radio energy is used. It only detects
an echo from objects such as an aeroplane.
The energy in the reflected signal may be quite small, depending upon the strength of the
original transmission, how good a reflector the object is, its distance from the radar antenna,
etc.
Primary Surveillance Radar has been the major means of surveillance of air traffic. One of
its main advantages has been that aeroplanes do not require any special equipment on
board.
It does have operational limitations however, such as:

all aeroplanes look alike on the screen, and sometimes manoeuvres from one
aeroplane are required by the radar controller for it to be distinguished from another.

ground objects, thunderstorms and clouds also cause returns, giving rise to clutter or
unwanted returns on the controllers screen.

SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR)

Secondary Radar removes most of the limitations of primary radar by adding energy to the
pulse reflected from the aircraft.
It can do this in a manner that:

distinguishes the aeroplane from others, and

allows the radar controller to tune the clutter off his screen, because the
signals returned from the aircraft are now much stronger.

Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) does require the aeroplane to have some on- board
equipment and this is known as a Transponder.
The originating signal is transmitted from the ground antenna and is received in the
aeroplane. This triggers a response from the aeroplanes transponder which transmits a
second signal that is received at the ground station. This response signal is much stronger
than the simple reflection occurring in primary radar.
The transponder in the aeroplane may pick up only a very weak pulse from the ground
transmitter, yet this will be sufficient to trigger a strong responding pulse from the aircraft.
The responding pulse also can carry coding peculiar to the aeroplanes transponder that can
distinguish it from all others on the radar screen. It can carry information such as the identity
of the aeroplane, its altitude, any abnormal situation such as communications failure,
distress or emergency, etc., depending upon the code selected by the pilot.

Now not all aircraft have transponders, yet they may be flying in the same airspace.
For this reason, primary and secondary radar information may be combined on the one
screen for an ATC Radar Controller, but this is of no concern to the pilot in flight.
We recommend that you take time-out to visit a radar control centre. The Civil Aviation
Authority and its Officers are very helpful in explaining the system, because it is designed to
help you, the pilot. You will also have the opportunity to see another side of aviation that of
the Air Traffic Controller.
Whilst this next short discussion goes beyond the PPL syllabus, it will make clear to you just
what is happening when you activate your transponder. There is no need for you to
remember the symbols explained.
Technological advances are being made and already some aeroplanes and some SSRs are
equipped for altitude reporting and the like. Domestic jets for instance squawk specific
codes, e.g. code 3916 applies to only one particular aeroplane, and on certain advanced
SSR screens this will show up as that aeroplane, with a read-out of its altitude and Ground
Speed. Under less sophisticated radar coverage, the older SSR screens will show this only
as belonging to the 3000 family, i.e. as a large circle.

All of these symbols are continually shown on the screen as a result of the
coding selected on the aircraft transponder, except for the large squawk
triangle which appears on the radar screen for 15 to 20 seconds only when a
pilot presses his IDENT button.

Squawk IDENT is often requested by ATC when they want positive identification of an
aeroplane on their screen. For this reason you should only press the IDENT button on your
transponder when specifically requested to do so by ATC.
USING THE TRANSPONDER IN THE AEROPLANE
There are different types of transponders, so you should become familiar with those that you
will have to operate. They are all fairly straightforward. Your Flying Instructor will give you
guidance on this.
The Function Selector Knob
This enables you to select the transponder to OFF, ON, STANDBY, etc, i.e. it allows you to
operate it in one of its various modes.
Typical transponder modes include:
OFF:
STANDBY:

warmed up, and ready for immediate use. This is the normal position until you
are ready for take-off, when you would select ON
(if Transponder is to be used in flight).

ON:

transmits the selected code in Mode A (aircraft identification mode) at the

normal power level

LO SENS:

low sensitivity, transmits the selected code the same as in the ON position but
at a lower power level. This may be requested by the Radar Controller to
avoid over-strong blips on his screen from aircraft close to the interrogating
antenna. After landing, a pilot would normally switch to STANDBY or OFF for
the same reason.

ALT:

altitude, which may be used if the altitude reporting capability (known as

mode C) is installed in your aircraft. This is a special encoding altimeter which
feeds your altitude to the transponder for transmission on to the ATC radar
screen. (If not installed, the transponder still transmits in Mode A, i.e. aircraft
identification without altitude reporting).

TST:

tests that the transponder is operating correctly and if so, illuminates the reply
monitor light. It causes the transponder to generate a self-interrogating signal
to provide a check of its operation.

Code Selection
Knobs are provided for you to select the appropriate code for your transponder, the selected
code being prominently displayed for you in digital form.
An important procedure to follow when selecting and altering codes is to avoid passing
through vital codes (such as 7700 for emergencies, 7600 for radio failure) when the
transponder is switched ON. Your Flying Instructor will explain further.
The Reply-monitor Light
The reply light will flash to indicate that the transponder is replying to an interrogation pulse
from a ground station.
It will also glow steadily when you press the Test button or move the function switch to the
TEST position (depending upon the design of your particular transponder) to indicate correct
functioning.
The reply monitor light will also glow steadily when you transmit an IDENT pulse.
The Ident Switch or Button
When IDENT is selected by the Pilot upon request from the ATC Radar Controller to Squawk
Ident, a special pulse is transmitted with your transponders reply to the interrogating ground
station. This causes the ident triangle to appear for a few seconds on the radar screen
around the return from your aircrafts transponder, thus allowing positive identification.
NOTE:

Your particular transponder may have minor variations to that descibed

above, but will certainly be fundamentally the same. It may for instance have
a separate Mode Selector to select Mode A (position reporting) or Mode C
(position and altitude reporting). These variations are easily understood.

Squawk
The term squawk that you will often hear is confined to transponder usage, and the
instruction following squawk is usually quite clear, e.g. Squawk Ident, Squawk Code 4000,
Squawk Mayday (7700), etc.

QUESTIONS
1.

DME stands for D..

M.

2.

DME is a l..-of-s..... radio navaid.

3.

The Rated Coverage of the DME below 5000 ft is .. nm.

4.

The Rated Coverage of a DME from 5000 to 10 000 ft inclusive is nm.

5.

DME can provide a pilot with a circular p

6.

Tracking directly towards a DME ground station, your DME reading decreases from
58 to 37 in 9minutes. Your Ground Speed is ... kt.

7.

Tracking directly away from a DME ground beacon your DME reading i
29 in 5 minutes. Your GS is .. kt.

8.

Tracking abeam a DME ground station your DME readings change in the following
manner as time passes: 38, 35, 32, 31, 32, 35, 38, 43. What was your abeam
distance from the DME ground station?

9.

Radar consists of the transmission of radio energy and the reception of a return
e.... of a reflected pulse or a reply from an airborne transponder.

10.

The radar screen viewed by an ATC Radar Controller allows him to determine the
d. and d.. of an aeroplane

11.

Primary Radar detects r

radio energy.

E.

from 15 to

12.

Secondary Radar detects a response pulse from a t.. in an aircraft.

13.

On taxiing out prior to take-off you would ensure that the transponder is warmed-up
and ready for immediate use by having the function selector switch to

14.

You could test the transponder for correct operation by selecting .... and seeing if the
r.... m.. l.... glows steadily.

15.

Just prior to take-off on a flight where you wanted to use the transponder you would
ensure that it is switched ...

16.

To ensure that the correct indication will appear on the ATC Radar Controllers
screen, you would check that the correct c... was selected.

17.

If the Radar Controller wanted to positively identify your aeroplane on his screen, he
may ask you to s i ..

18.

If you experience radio communications failure you should select code .... on the
transponder.

19.

If you are in distress, say about to attempt a forced landing in rough terrain following
engine failure, then, when time permits, you would select code .... on your
transponder.

20.
To avoid too many strong returns on the Radar Controllers screen, shortly after
landing you should select your transponder to .