Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

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A thin-skinned collisional model for the Taiwan orogeny q

Zhong-Yi Ding a,*, You-Qing Yang b, Zhen-Xing Yao c, Guang-Hong Zhang a
b

a
Department of Geology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
Institute of Geology, China Seismological Bureau, Beijing 100029, People's Republic of China
c
Institute of Geophysics, Academia Sinica, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China

Received 12 October 1999; accepted 27 November 2000

Abstract
The thin-skinned tectonics model was often used for the collision orogeny of Taiwan. However, the suture zone of collision
and faulting were not included in that model. It is not convenient for understanding the pattern of the plate collision around
Taiwan and the contributions of collision and faulting to the mountain building. Moreover, the results obtained from the thinskinned tectonics model cannot be compared with the GPS (Global Positioning System) data across the suture zone of collision.
Based on a number of recent studies, we present a different model, called the thin-skinned collisional model, for the Taiwan
orogeny as an attempt at solving the problems mentioned above. The model differs from the existing thin-skinned tectonics
model for Taiwan mainly in that it has included the suture zone of the plate collision and faulting in the thin-skinned block, and
thus enables us to probe into the collision pattern and to compare it with the GPS data. Several arguments are put forward to
support this model. The model is theoretically tested by the use of the elasto-plastic nite-element method. From the computed
results we nd that the model ts the observation data well, for they can reproduce the velocity distribution measured by GPS
and the major topography features of Taiwan. In particular, the computed results suggest, at least theoretically, that the
Longitudinal Valley of eastern Taiwan would be a ramp valley and its western boundary fault would be the collision boundary
between the Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate. Taking the theoretical results into account, a new type of plate
convergence boundary in the Longitudinal Valley area could emerge from the thin-skinned collisional model. q 2001 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Taiwan; orogeny; collision of plates; global positioning data; nite-element method

1. Introduction
The Taiwan Island is one of the most active regions
of mountain building in the world. The highly active
seismicity and rapid crustal deformation in and
around the area reveal its current activity (Tsai,
1986; Wu et al., 1989, 1997; Zang et al., 1989).
q
Project 49634150 supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zyding@pku.edu.cn (Z.-Y. Ding).

Many authors (e.g. Suppe, 1984; Angelier, 1986;

Ho, 1986; Teng, 1990; Hu et al., 1997) proposed
that the Taiwan mountain belt developed as the result
of the late Cenozoic convergence between the Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate. This convergence was considered to be an arccontinent collision
between the Luzon volcanic arc (Philippine Sea plate)
and the shelf of China mainland (Eurasian plate). For
studying the Taiwan orogen, Suppe (1981) proposed a
thin-skinned tectonics model. This model was developed and applied to interpret the geology of Taiwan in
a series of papers (e.g. Davis et al., 1983; Dahlen and

0040-1951/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0040-195 1(00)00289-4

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Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

Barr, 1989; Barr and Dahlen, 1989; Hwang and Wang,

1993). Wu et al. (1997) tested the thin-skinned
tectonics model against newly acquired seismological
and geophysical data and proposed a lithospheric
collision hypothesis as an alternative. Hu et al.
(1996, 1997) studied the kinematics of convergence
and the active deformation in the Taiwan collision
area with the nite-element numerical modeling.
Chemenda et al. (1997) performed 2-D and 3-D physical modeling of lithosphere convergence in the
LuzonTaiwanRyukyu region. Chemenda et al.
(2000) further studied the effects of temperature on
continental subduction with a 2-D thermo-mechanical
laboratory modeling. In addition, Sibuet and Hsu
(1997) presented an arcarc collision model to
replace the arccontinent one, with the northern
Luzon arc and the western Ryukyu arc as the colliding
arcs. A similar arcarc collision model was also
presented by Wang and Chiang (1998). All the
above works will be of great value for the study of
the Taiwan orogen.
The main island of Taiwan is divided into several
geological provinces (Fig. 1). The geological features
of these provinces were elaborated in many papers
(e.g. Suppe, 1980; Ho, 1986; Tsai, 1986; Hu et al.,
1997). Here we therefore recall only geological background pertinent to the following discussion. The
Coastal Plain consists of Quaternary alluvial deposits
derived from the Western Foothills and the Central
Range, and it has not yet been deformed by the collision. The Western Foothills are composed of a
sequence of sediments deformed by a combination
of folds and thrusts, which trend mainly northeast or
north and dip toward the southeast or east. The Central
Range is characterized by the Tertiary metamorphism.
In the eastern Central Range crops out the pre-Tertiary
basement, which has been affected by Neogene
greenschist facies and higher grades of polyphase
MesozoicCenozoic metamorphism, but the axial
ridges and the western Central Range are underlain
by a weakly metamorphosed Cenozoic argillite-slate
series. The Coastal Range comprises mainly volcanic
and siliciclastic sequences. It is regarded as the northern extension of the Neogene Luzon Trough on the
Philippine Sea plate. The Longitudinal Valley lies
between the Central Range and the Coastal Range.
It is widely considered to be the suture zone of the
active collision between the two plates (e.g. Ho,

Fig. 1. Geological provinces of the main island of Taiwan (after Ho,

1986): I Coastal Plain; II Western Foothills; III western
Central Range; IV eastern Central Range; V Longitudinal
Valley; VI Coastal Range. Line AA 0 is the location of the
schematic cross-section shown in Fig. 2. Site A Chukou; B
Tungho; C Hualien; D Taitung. Latitudes are toward
the north and longitudes toward the east.

1986). Many authors (e.g. Teng, 1990; Hu et al.,

1997; Yu et al., 1997) assumed that the Longitudinal
Valley Fault is an east-dipping boundary fault between
the Longitudinal Valley and the Coastal Range. Biq
(1965, 1971), however, suggested the Longitudinal
Valley to be a ramp valley that has two boundary faults:
the western boundary is a west-dipping fault separating
it from the Central Range and called the Central Range
Fault, while the eastern boundary is an east-dipping fault
separating it from the Coastal Range and called the
Coastal Range Fault.
Recently, the Taiwan GPS Network has recorded
the crustal deformation of that area. The GPS survey
from 1990 to 1995 (Yu et al., 1997) demonstrated that
the observed moving direction of Lanhsu (Luzon)
relative to Paisha (Chinese continental margin) is
about 3068, and the rate is about 81.5 mm/yr. Two
major velocity discontinuities of about 30 and

Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

1028 mm/yr are detected across the Longitudinal

Valley and the Chukou fault, respectively. The GPS
survey in and around Taiwan not only provides the
direct evidence of the current tectonic activity, but
also gives important constraints on orogeny models
of Taiwan.
According to the basic thin-skinned tectonics
model, the Taiwan orogen is wedge-shaped, and the
thickest part of the wedge is on the order of
1020 km. The base of the wedge is a decollement,
which coincides with the top surface of an eastwardsubducting Eurasian plate. However, as the suture
zone of the plate collision the Longitudinal Valley is
not included in the thin-skinned tectonics model, and
therefore the collision pattern at the suture zone
cannot be discussed with that model. In particular,
results obtained from the thin-skinned tectonics
model cannot be compared with the GPS data because
a velocity discontinuity is detected across the Longitudinal Valley (Yu et al., 1997). In addition, the presence
of internal faults, including the boundary faults of the
Longitudinal Valley, must affect the mountain building.
In other words, a reasonable orogenic model should
contain faulting in its interior, which is not the case for
the thin-skinned tectonics model.
To better simulate the Taiwan orogeny and plate
kinematics, a somewhat different model is needed
that should include the suture zone of collision and
faulting. With such a model we would be able to see
clearly the collision pattern and the contributions of
collision and faulting to the mountain building. This
model should t the GPS data. Such a model is
described in the next section. The model is then tested

323

theoretically by use of a 2-D elasto-plastic niteelement modeling.

2. Orogeny model
We constructed a 2-D model to simulate the Taiwan
orogenesis. A sketch of the model that represents a
typical cross-section in the middle part of the Taiwan
orogen is shown in Fig. 2 and the line of section is
marked in Fig. 1 as AA 0 . Fig. 2 shows that the upper
part of the model is wedge-shaped and is soled by a
decollement. These features are similar to the thinskinned tectonics model. However, the difference is
that the present model includes the suture zone of
collision, the Philippine Sea plate and some faults in
its thin-skinned block. Moreover, the material within
the wedge is not assumed to be on the verge of failure
everywhere, as stated by Davis et al. (1983). In fact, it
is assumed that the material is elasto-plastic and its
deformation obeys the mechanical rules. We call this
model the thin-skinned collisional model. Fig. 2
shows that the basal decollement deepens toward the
east. The Philippine Sea plate pushes the Eurasian
plate toward the northwest. The relict continental
crust dives into the oceanic crust and the latter thickens. The Moho is gradually raised at the collision
boundary towards the east and nally intersects the
decollement at the oceanic crust. In this model the
Longitudinal Valley is considered to be a ramp valley
as suggested by Biq (1971).
There are several arguments in favor of the above
model: (1). The existence of a decollement as a base

Fig. 2. A schematic cross-section of the thin-skinned collisional model for the Taiwan orogeny. Line of section AA 0 is shown in Fig. 1: Area
A1 Western Foothills; A2 Central Range; A3 Longitudinal Valley; A4 Coastal Range. Fault F0 Chukou Fault; F1 Chuchih
Fault; F2 Central Range Fault; F3 Coastal Range Fault; F4 basal decollement fault. Site A Chukou; K Kuanshan; B Tungho.

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Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

for the thin-skinned tectonics was questioned by Wu et

al. (1997). However, Chen and Chen (1998) found in
their recent research that the magnetotelluric soundings
reveal a conductive zone with depths of 1020 km
beneath the Taiwan Island. These depths are well correlated with the depth of dehydration reactions inferred by
Suppe (1981), which means that the existence of a
decollement is quite possible. (2) Zang et al. (1989)
analyzed the distribution of earthquakes with Mb $
4:5 in and around Taiwan from 1966 to 1982. They
pointed out that in the section of Taiwan between
Hualien and Taitung (see Fig. 1) the focal depth
increases toward the east, but earthquakes are of shallow-focus either under the island or offshore, without a
Benioff zone found there. Wu et al. (1997) reached a
similar conclusion. These studies suggest that the basal
decollement extends and deepens toward the east up to
offshore. (3) In our model, two boundary faults of the
Longitudinal Valley are assumed (Biq, 1971), although
the existence of the Central Range Fault needs further
survey. This approach is based on the geological feature
that the Central Range and the Coastal Range were
uplifted, while the Longitudinal Valley was subsiding
(Yu and Liu, 1989). Without the Central Range Fault,
such a geological feature could hardly be produced by
collision. The depression in the narrow Longitudinal
Valley was often neglected in the previous studies of
Taiwan (e.g. Teng, 1990). (4) Wu et al. (1997) proposed
that the Taiwan orogenesis seems to have involved
deformation of the lower crust and the uppermost
mantle. The retrodeformable cross-section in northern
Taiwan constructed by Suppe (1980) showed an overall
shortening up to 160 km. If the whole lithosphere has the
same shortening of 160 km, this deformation would

cause signicant crustal thickening. However, the crustal thickness of Taiwan is only 3035 km (Ma et al.,
1996), implying that the crust did not thicken much
and the major deformation of the lithosphere would
concentrate in its shallow part.
3. Numerical modeling of the Taiwan orogeny
We test the thin-skinned collisional model by use of
the nite-element method. The geometry of the niteelement model is shown in Fig. 3, which simulates
the cross-section from Chukou to Tungho in Fig. 2.
The modeled domain is 90 km long and 30 km deep.
The width of the Longitudinal Valley is slightly
enlarged to show deformations clearly. The slope of
the topographic surface is 38 and the dip of the
basal decollement is 68, as suggested by Davis et al.
(1983).
All structural elements in Fig. 3, except the four
faults F1 F4, are considered to be solid continua.
The four faults will be treated differently based on
their conditions. In principle, a fault can be simulated
either as a continuous part between two blocks or as
their discontinuity interface. In the following modeling, the Chuchih Fault F1 is treated as a solid continuum because it is an internal fault. The Coastal
Range Fault F3 is considered as a part of the Philippine
Sea plate and also treated as a solid continuum.
However, the behaviors of F2 and F4 have various
possibilities due to geological uncertainties. With
different assumptions of their behaviors, the computation models are distinct. Here we propose three
models pertinent to the problems to be solved:

Fig. 3. Structural elements of the nite-element model for testing the thin-skinned collisional model. Symbols and abbreviations as in Fig. 2
(see text for details).

Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

(1) Model MD. We assume that the Central Range

Fault F2 is a discontinuity interface between the
Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate, and that
the basal decollement F4 is also a discontinuity
interface between the thin-skinned block and the basement. Along both faults mechanical decoupling takes
place, and thus the model is called the discontinuous
model and is denoted by MD. In this model, the
material of the Longitudinal Valley is oceanic as
that for the Coastal Range because of the assumption
that the Central Range Fault is the collision boundary
of the plates.
(2) Model MC. This model differs from the model
MD only in that the continuities at the faults F2 and F4
are assumed, which means that these faults are also
parts of the solid continuum, just like the rest of the
model. Moreover, the material for F2 is taken to be the
same as that for F3 and the material for F4 equals to
that for F1. This model is referred to as the continuous
model and is denoted by MC.
(3) Model ML. In this model, we assume that the
boundary of the plate collision is at the Coastal Range
Fault instead of the Central Range Fault. The model
uses the same material parameters as those of MD, but
the material of the Longitudinal Valley is taken to be
the same as that of the Central Range instead of the
Coastal Range. This model is called the continental
Longitudinal Valley model and is denoted by ML.
The brittleductile crust deformation is approximated by an elasto-plastic rheology (Viallon et al.,
1986; Hu et al., 1996). We, therefore, use the elastoplastic bodies to represent the solid continuum of the
model. The elastic constants are Young's modulus
and Poisson's ratio, while the plastic parameters
depend on the chosen yield criterion. For soils,
concrete, and other granular materials the Mohr
Coulomb yield condition and its approximation
given by Drucker and Prager are frequently used
(Zienkiewicz, 1977). The yield surface in principal
stress space for the MohrCoulomb law is a hexagonal pyramid, while that for the DruckerPrager yield
condition is a circular cone. Here we take the
DruckerPrager condition as the plastic yield
criterion, and use the outer cone to approximate the
MohrCoulomb law. Thus, the plastic parameters
employed are the cohesion and the angle of internal
friction. On the other hand, for simulating the discontinuities at faults F2 and F4 in the models MD

325

and ML, the contact element is employed to describe

the relative sliding between the block interfaces. The
properties of contact are dened by the normal stiffness, the tangential stiffness and the coefcient of
sliding friction.
To carry out the nite-element computations, we
use the ansys program developed by SAS IP, Inc.
(USA). ansys is a large-scale multi-purpose niteelement program for solving several classes of engineering analyses. Here we take its 2-D eight-node
structural solid element PLANE 82 with Drucker
Prager criterion to construct the solid continuum of
the model. The element PLANE 82 has large strain,
large deection and stress stiffening capability. For
simulating the discontinuities at related faults, the
element CONTACT 48 of ansys is employed.
CONTACT 48 is a 2-D three-node point to surface
contact element that is intended for general contact
analysis, in which the area of contact between two
or more bodies is generally not known in advance.
Boundary conditions: we assume that the left side
(at Chukou) of the cross-section is impeded by the
elastic substance on its left, and the elastic resistance
is simulated by horizontal springs perpendicular to the
side. For this purpose, the spring element COMBIN
14 of the ansys program is used, the spring constant
of which is taken to be 1 1015 N=m: Vertical displacements at the bottom of the model vanish for we are
mainly interested in the deformations occurring above
the decollement. The topographic surface is free.
Some pressures are applied to the right end of the
cross-section to simulate the push from the Philippine
Sea plate, the magnitude of which will be adjusted in
modeling.
All the three models were tested. By tting the
observation data, we can determine which is best. In
the modeling, the values of all the physical parameters
mentioned above need to be given. However, the
actual values of the physical parameters can hardly
be acquired, so we choose the parameter values in
such a way that they are in reasonable ranges and
give a better t of the model computed. The tness
is mainly in two aspects: the GPS data and the topographic features of the Taiwan orogen. The material
parameters nally used in modeling for the model MD
are listed in Table 1. In the modeling, the plastic parameters are taken to be the same for various subdomains. The reason for doing so lies in two aspects.

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Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

Table 1
Material parameters of the model MD used in the nite element modeling

A1
A2
A3
A4
F1
F3
F2
F4
Below F4

Subdomain

Density r
(kg/m 3)

Young's
Modulus
E
(GPa)

Poisson's
ratio n

Cohesion
C0
(MPa)

Angle of
internal
friction f (o)

Western foothills
Central range
Longitudinal valley
Coastal range
Chuchih fault
Coastal range fault
Central range fault
Basal decollement

2500
2600
2700
2700
2200
2200

23
30
20
20
20
20

0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.25
0.25

18
18
18
18
18
18

30
30
30
30
30
30

2800

80

0.33

18

30

One is that concrete data about the plastic properties

for the subdomains are lacking, while the other is that
the use of identical parameters can avoid the articiality and reveal where the plastic deformation
happens rst. The values listed in Table 1 are the
entirely possible values for the relevant parameters,
i.e. they are in reasonable ranges. The material parameters of the models MC and ML can be obtained
from Table 1 after replacing the related parameters
as mentioned above, and they are not listed here.
4. Modeled results
The modeled results indicate that the model MD
best ts the observation data. The main results for
the model MD are shown in Figs. 4 and 6. In these
gures, only the thin-skinned block above the decollement is plotted for most deformations occur in this
area.
4.1. Horizontal displacements and comparison with
the GPS data
Fig. 4a is a contour map of the horizontal displacements computed with the model MD. It shows an
overall shortening along the prole, a result consistent
with the fact that the Philippine Sea plate advances
toward the northwest. On the other hand, the
computed displacements can be converted into velocities under the assumption that these displacements
were produced during a period of time. Thus, we can

Normal
stiffness Kn
(GPa/m)

Tangential
stiffness Kt
(GPa/m)

Coefcient
of sliding
friction m

52
52

1
5

0.3
0.4

obtain the computed surface horizontal velocities and

then directly compare them with the GPS data.
A comparison of the computed velocities with the
GPS data is given in Fig. 5. The GPS data are taken
from the stations located at or near the chosen crosssection. The station numbers from left to right are:
S070, S014, S025, S026, S080, S079, S078, S046,
S055, S040, S056 and S057 (Yu et al., 1997). Since
the computed velocities are along the chosen crosssection, the observed velocities have been projected
onto that section. Fig. 5 shows that the velocities
computed with the model MD match the GPS data
well, including the large velocity drop on both sides
of the Longitudinal Valley. Moreover, although the
velocity of the crustal movement is generally decreasing toward the northwest, the computed velocity in the
Central Range area is increasing, which is overall
compatible with the observation that extension rates
are observed for the baselines across the southern
Central Range (Yu et al., 1997). However, the curve
MC in Fig. 5 cannot t the GPS data in the Central
Range area. In the view that model MC differs from
model MD only in continuity at faults F2 and F4, the
computed results support, at least theoretically, the
existence of the Central Range Fault and the basal
decollement. In addition, Fig. 5 indicates that the
model ML cannot t the GPS data in the Central
Range area, while the difference between the models
ML and MD is only in the different materials of the
Longitudinal Valley. The computed results suggest
that the Longitudinal Valley is of oceanic material,
which implies that the Central Range Fault, rather

Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

327

Fig. 4. Results of the nite-element modeling for the model MD. The gure is plotted in the deformed state. Structural elements are the same as
those in Fig. 3. (a) Contour map of the horizontal displacements. Numerals labeled by the contour lines show the leftward displacements
measured in meter. (b) Contour map of the vertical displacements measured in meter, with upward displacements being positive and downward
ones negative. (c) Distributions of the fault slip and the maximum plastic shear strain. The vectors along the faults show the slips of the hanging
walls with respect to the lying walls. The numerals in the gure give the maximum plastic shear strains (in 10 25), among which those labeled on
the faults are the plastic strains occurring on the hanging walls. No plastic deformation occurs elsewhere.

than the Coastal Range Fault, would be the collision

boundary between the Eurasian and the Philippine Sea
plates.
4.2. Vertical displacements and comparison with the
topography
Fig. 4b is a contour map of the vertical displacements computed with the model MD. Although the
absolute magnitudes of these displacements cannot
be directly compared with the Taiwan topography,
the predicted relative deformations are consistent
with the major topography features of Taiwan. Fig.
4b shows that the Central Range is raised, and
the largest uplift is near Kuanshan, which is indeed
the highest peak of the chosen cross-section. In the
Western Foothills (area A1 in the gure), secondary
uplifts appear, which may correspond to the deformation of foldthrust belts there. The Coastal Range is

also raised, but its uplifts are less than those of the
Central Range. The Longitudinal Valley is subsiding.
All the above deformations are consistent with the
major topography features of Taiwan.
It should be pointed out that the vertical displacements computed with the models MC and ML can
also predict the rough topography features. However,
they cannot reproduce the GPS data at the same time,
as stated in Section 4.1. Only the model MD can t
both the GPS data and the topographic features simultaneously. For this reason, only the computed results
for the model MD are further analyzed.
4.3. Slips of the faults
The modeled results give the displacements of both
sides of the faults, by which we can evaluate the slip
of the hanging wall with respect to the lying wall. In
Fig. 4c, the vectors show the slips of the faults F1 F4.

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Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

Fig. 5. Comparison of the computed velocities with the GPS data. The curves labeled by MD, MC and ML show the velocities computed with
the model MD, MC and ML, respectively. Dots with error bars give the velocities measured by GPS. On the abscissa, the line segment labeled
by LV corresponds to the location of the Longitudinal Valley. The distance is measured from Chukou.

The largest slip is generated on F4, which is consistent

with the fact that F4 is a decollement. The slip vectors
indicate that the faults F1 and F3 are thrusts, as determined by the observation. In particular, the result
shows that F2 is also a thrust, which ts the assumption that the Longitudinal Valley would be a ramp
valley. In general, the computed directions of fault
slip coincide with the postulations of the thin-skinned
collisional model. However, as shown by the vectors,
the magnitude of slip of F2 is much larger than that of
F3, which is not veried by observation data. Some
authors (e.g. Yu and Liu, 1989; Angelier et al., 1997)
reported the active deformation measured across the
Coastal Range Fault (F3), but nothing is reported
about the geodetic data of the Central Range Fault
(F2). In fact, the existence of the fault F2 is in doubt.
Our modeling provides simply a theoretical possibility of the model. The activity of F2 needs to be
checked by further geological survey.
4.4. Distribution of plastic deformation
In computation with the model MD, plastic deformation appeared at some localities, and it occurred
rst at the contact interface F2. We express the magnitude of plastic deformations by the maximum plastic
shear strain, the distribution of which is given in
Fig. 4c. It shows that the major plastic deformations
occur in the Central Range, which implies that the

deformation of the Central Range is related to plasticity. Furthermore, Fig. 4c shows that large plastic
deformations occur at the eastern ank of the Central
Range, and small ones appear at its western ank.
Meanwhile, the observed metamorphic grades in the
Central Range are higher at its eastern ank and weak
at western ank (Ho, 1986). This may suggest a good
correlation between plastic deformation and metamorphism in the Central Range area. Although there
exists a fundamental linkage between deformation
and metamorphism (Williams, 1994), the quantitative
relationship between plastic deformation and metamorphism is not known yet. Whether the above correlation is essential needs to be further studied.
In addition, as shown in Fig. 4c some plastic
deformation also occurs in the Coastal Range,
which coincides with the results of physical
modeling by Chemenda et al. (1997). However,
according to our model the plastic deformations
in the Central Range are much larger than those
in the Coastal Range.
4.5. Stress distributions
For the model MD, Fig. 6 gives the stress distributions with the magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses. Fig. 6a and b shows the contour maps of
the maximum compressive stress and the minimum
compressive stress, respectively. Fig. 6c shows the

Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

329

Fig. 6. Stress distributions for the model MD. The gure is plotted in the deformed state. Structural elements are the same as those in Fig. 3. (a)
Contour map of the maximum compressive stress. Numerals labeled by the contour lines show the magnitudes of compressive stresses
measured in MPa. (b) Same as (a), but for the minimum compressive stress. (c) Directions of the maximum compressive stresses.

directions of the maximum compressive stress, while

the direction of minimum compressive stress is
perpendicular to it everywhere (not shown in the
gure). In the modeling, the push from the Philippine
Sea plate is simulated by a linearly distributed pressures acting on the right side of the model, i.e. the side
BC in Fig. 3, with magnitudes of 45 and 300 MPa at
the top (point B) and bottom (point C), respectively.
From the contour maps in Fig. 6a and b we can see
that the principal stresses decrease gradually during
their transmission towards the left. This is consistent
with the physical background of a collision. In the
region Central Range, some stress concentration is
generated, which may correspond to larger uplifts
there. In particular, Fig. 6c shows that the direction
of the maximum compressive stress has a trend of
running subparallel to the Central Range Fault
plane, implying that the substance in the Longitudinal
Valley is intruding down below the Central Range.
Overall, the features of the stress distributions
mentioned above satisfy the thin-skinned collisional
model.

5. Discussion and conclusions

Based on a number of recent studies, we present
the thin-skinned collisional model for the Taiwan
orogeny. This model differs from the existing thinskinned tectonics model mainly in that it has
included the suture zone of the plate collision
and faulting in its thin-skinned block, and thus
enables us to probe into the collision pattern and
to compare it with the GPS data. The model is
theoretically tested by the use of the elasto-plastic
nite-element method. In the modeling, three
computation models, namely the discontinuous
model MD, the continuous model MC and the
continental Longitudinal Valley model ML, are
employed. The discontinuous model MD gives a
good tness to the observation data. The results
show that the model MD, with its material parameters restricted in reasonable ranges, can reproduce the velocity distribution measured by GPS
and the major topography features of Taiwan.
Thus, we conclude that the thin-skinned collisional

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Z.-Y. Ding et al. / Tectonophysics 332 (2001) 321331

model is a possible model for the Taiwan orogeny,

and the mountain building in Taiwan may be
determined by the joint effect of plate collision,
thin-skinned tectonics and faulting.
The results obtained from the three models and the
comparison among them can provide us with some
knowledge about the geology of Taiwan:
(1) The theoretical results are in favor of discontinuities at faults F2 and F4, indicating that the
behaviors of these faults are different from the
surrounding media. It implies that the existence of
the Central Range Fault and of the basal decollement
is possible.
(2) The existence of the Central Range Fault
suggests that the Longitudinal Valley is a ramp valley,
and it has two boundary faults, the west-dipping
Central Range Fault on the west and the east-dipping
Coastal Range Fault on the east.
(3) In the Longitudinal Valley area between
Hualien and Taitung, the theoretical result suggests
that the Longitudinal Valley is of oceanic material.
Therefore, the collisional boundary between the
Eurasian plate and the Philippine Sea plate is more
likely at the west-dipping Central Range Fault, rather
than at the east-dipping Coastal Range Fault. The
collision of the two plates has the form that the
plate edges engaged in collisional contact.
Taking these points into account, the model MD
provides, at least theoretically, a new type of plate
convergence boundary in the Longitudinal Valley
area. The oceanic plate thrusts overriding the continental plate along the decollement. The continental
plate is peeled: the upper thin skin above the decollement builds the mountain and its lower part dives into
the oceanic plate.
It should be noted that Chemenda et al. (1997)
proposed an evolutionary model for the Taiwan collision based on the 2-D and 3-D physical modeling, as
well as on the available geological and geophysical
data. According to their model, at the beginning of
collision occurred an EW shortening of the Philippine Sea plate in the Luzon arc. The shortening was
accompanied by the formation of an east-dipping
thrust, which corresponds to the Longitudinal Valley
Fault (the Coastal Range fault in the present paper).
This means a discrepancy between their result and
ours. However, Chemenda et al. (1997) further
predicted an initiation of westward subduction of the

Philippine Sea plate at the eastern margin of the

Luzon arc along northern Taiwan, and deemed that
this subduction is propagating southwards. It implies
that there could be a west-dipping plate boundary
produced during the southward convergence. On the
other hand, Kao et al. (2000) asserted that to the south
of 21.58N, the existence of a subduction zone is
clearly shown by both bathymetry and seismicity,
and to the north of 238N, collision is the predominant
process with broad deformation on both sides of the
suture. Their results suggest that the plate boundary at
the Longitudinal Valley is of collisional type. Thus,
the model MD provides a possible scenario that needs
to be veried by further geological and geophysical
studies.
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Profs. Maosong Li and Jiefan
Huang for their useful suggestions. We wish to
thank especially Dr Mian Liu and the two referees
for their critical comments and suggestions, which
enabled us to improve the manuscript greatly.
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