Prepared by Sofia for teknologi pengolahan nabati

cereals

Wheat

Rice

Maize

Barley

Sorghum

Oat

Pseudo cereals

Buckwheat

Quinoa

Amaranth

Characteristics of
Cereals
- Grain structure
- Chemical composition
- Physical characters

 Pericarp
- 5% of kernel
- 6% protein, 2% ash, 20%
cellulose, 0.5% fat and the
remain is NSP

Seed coat; contains pigment

Endosperm (83%): aleuron layer
and starchy endosperm

Germ (2.5-3.5%): protein (25%),

sugar (18%), oil (16%) and ash

Cell wall and endosperm of wheat

Hard wheat cell
wall

soft wheat cell wall

Hard wheat
endosperm

soft wheat
endosperm

Rice husk and starch granules

Surface of rice husk

Starch granules and protein

bodies near aleurone layer

Starch granules in the

center

 4 main parts: bran/hull

(pericarp, epidermis and
seed coat), germ,
endosperm and tip cap
Varied kernel color: yellow,
white, red, blue, dark
brown, purple
Hull = 5-6% and coated with
a layer of wax
Germ = large, 10-14%
Endosperm has translucent
(near aleurone) and opaque
part ( near center)

Corn Endosperm

Opaque part of endosperm

Hard part of endosperm

Grain structure
shape: spherical, weight: 20-30mg, color: bronze, white, red, yellow, or brown
pericarp + seed coat: 7.9%, germ: 9.8%, endosperm: 82.3%
KETERANGAN
A : GERM
B : FLOURY
C : FLINTY
D : PERICARP

E : TESTA

Parts of sorghum grain

Outer edge of kernel with

testa layer

Vitreous part of endosperm

 Hull 25% of the total weight

The caryopsis = groat
Appearance of groat is similar to wheat
kernel but its covered by trichomes
Have higher fat and protein contents
than other cereals
Good source of enzymes;
lipase is very active, need to be
denatured, otherwise milled products
have a very short shelf life caused by
fatty acids oxidation

Composition

Post harvest

Tugas kelompok : kompilasi video tentang pemanenan dan post harvest dari :
Wheat (klp 1)
Jagung (klp 2)
Rice (klp 3)
Sorghum (klp 4)
Barley/ oat/ millet (klp 5)
Profile pseudo cereals (klp 6)

Storage of cereals
Grains generally are harvested one (or twice) / year, but consumed through
the year must be stored

Grains have low moisture content can keep for several years (even
decades under ideal-low temperature, inert atmosphere- storage condition)

Basic types of storage:

a. Simple methods; piled the grain on the ground, bagged grain stored in
shelter

b. Bulk storage in bins (silo; constructed of steel/concrete) size few to

thousands ton

Moisture/Aw management for safe storage

moisture content determines economic value and quality stability of grain during

storage
Different cereals have different max. moisture level for safe storage
12-13% for rice
13 % for barley, maize, oats and sorghum
14 % for wheat
Above the max. level of water, fungal growth begins
Fungal growth is the most damaging factors in grain storage, and Aw controls the
fungal growth
Generally molds do not grow at equilibrium RH <70% (Aw grain <0.7)
Spore germinates at Aw 0.75

Drying cereals
Low temperature drying; uses air force without heating above ambient
conditions. Benefits: cools the grain, safe storage, grain functionality is not
damaged by heat. Disadvantages: required long time process and use air with
low RH

High temperature drying; the air used is heated to higher temperature to

remove water from grain. Advantage: fast. Disadvantages: high cost, grain
may suffer from stress cracks, increased brittleness, susceptible to breakage,
bulk density changes and discoloration, loss germination capacity, loss
breadmaking capacity (for wheat), poor separation of starch and protein
(maize wet milling) reduced yields high quality maize grits (dry milling)

Aeration

Needed for:

Avoid increasing temperature inside bin/grain storage

Decrease moisture accumulation at particular point in the grain mass

Grain respiration
Even after harvested, viable grain is still alive and respires
Respiration causes grain loses weight
Rate of respiration is affected by :
Moisture content
Micro-organism (fungal) development (when Aw grain approaches 0.75)
Temperature
Oxygen supply
Damaged kernel (higher % of damaged kernel = the higher respiration
rate)

Indicators of grain deterioration

Loss of viability (germination test is
needed for grains are subjected for seed/
malting)

Physical changes: losing its natural luster

(becomes dull)

Changes in odor: detected sour and

musty (apek) smell

in wheat trade, term sick wheat =

wheat that suffered storage deterioration
which the germ is dead, dark and
fluorescent (mostly) due to fungal attack

Microflora, mycotoxins, insects and rodents

Cereals are hosts of microflora (mostly fungi; Aspergillus, Penicillium) =
need to control storage condition properly to prevent damage

Certain fungi are capable producing toxic (mycotoxins):

Fusarium toxins such as trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins can kill
(after applied to the skin of) mice/rabbit within 24 h

Aspergillus flavus produces aflatoxin

Insects can live inside (weevils deposit egg inside grain, borrers and moths
lay the egg outside kernel, but larvae tunnel into kernel) and outside
(beetles, cadelles) kernel. They eat the grain, produce broken kernel, grain
dust and contaminate grain (major sanitation issue). Storage grain at
<17oC limit the growth of insects.

Rats and mice can destroy millions tons of food/y. A rat can produce
1500 rats/year.

Functional characteristics
and
bioactive compounds

Starches from cereals

Generally between 60-75% of grain weight
Major constituent of food products: bread, breakfast cereals, cooked rice,
pasta, noodles

Can be degraded to glucose then provides energy for (human) body

Determine physical properties of foods: gelling of puddings, the thickening
of gravies, the structure of bread crumb, the setting of cakes etc.

Starches from different cereals vary widely in size, shape, ratio of amylose
and amylopectin, and gelatinization temperature

Gelatinization temperature in oC : wheat (51-60), rice (68-78), corn (62-72),

sorghum (68-78), barley (51-60)

Proteins of cereals
Proteins can be classified to:
Albumin (soluble in water)
Globulin (soluble in dilute salt solution)
Prolamins (soluble in 70% ethanol solution); the name is different; gliadin (wheat), zein
(corn), kafirin (sorghum), avenin (oat), hordein (barley).

Glutelins (soluble in dilute acids/ bases); name glutenin (wheat), oryzenin (rice),
hordenin (barley)

Most of enzymes are albumin and globulin (found in aleuron, bran, germ and endosperm
near aleuron); while prolamin and glutelins are storage proteins (proteins that stored in
endosperm and be used during germination)

Some of proteins cannot put in the 4 classification: such as glycoprotein,

 Mostly responsible
for the breadmaking capabilities
of wheat flour

Contains 85% protein (gliadin

and glutenin), 3.5-6.8% lipid,
0.5-0.9% minerals and 7-16%
carbohydrate
Unique properties = forms a
viscoelastic dough when it is
mixed with water
Gliadin (MW 30000-50000)=
viscous properties
Glutenin (MW 12000-134000) =
elastic properties

Gluten

Gliadin

Glutenin

Minor constituents
Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP): cellulose and hemicellulose (arabinoxylan,
-D-glucan, arabinogalactan = dietary fiber constituents)

Cellulose is major component of pericarp (40-50%), while endosperm has

only >0.3% cellulose

Hemiscellulose are composed from not only D-glucose, but it may contain
pentoses, hexoses and phenolics such as D-xylose, L-arabinose, D-galactose,
D-glucose, D-gaacturonis acid, 4-O-methyl-D-glucuronic acid, and ferulic
acid

Water-unextractable arabinoxylans of wheat have a high water holding

capacity, -D-glucans of barley have a high viscosity-forming potential and
can form gels

Phytic acid and pytase

Majority of Phosphate (70-75%) of
phosphorus in cereals occurs as phytic
acid = inositol hexaphosphoric acid. It
chelates divalent cations (Ca, Fe, Zn,
Mg) so they cannot be absorbed in the
intestinal tract

Phytase is enzyme esterase that

hydrolizes phytic acid to inositol and
free phosphoric acid

Cereals based (food)

products

Wheat based food products

Rice based products

Corn products

http://www.sdcorn.org/2014/07/getting-a-bang-out-of-corn-2/

Cereals based food

products processing
technology

Wheat flour milling

Corn starch extraction

Noodles and bread making technology

Quick breakfast oat

Wheat
flour
milling

Oat products
Mostly are used for feed for horses, poultry, and other animals
Limited crops are processed for human consumption

 remove foreign materials (seeds,

sticks, and dirt) and unsuitable
oat grains: double oats, (= grain
are poorly developed, resulting in
high percentage of hull), pin oats
and light oats

Taken from: Delcour JA and Hoseney RC. 2013. Principles of Cereal Scie. And Tech. 3rd ed. AACC International. St. Paul, MN

 Heat the oat for 1 h to

reach 93oC and lose 34% moisture.

Benefits:
Desirable slightly- roasted flavor
Hull more friable and easy to
remove
Inactivates kernel lipolytic
enzymes increases product
shelf life

Production of quick- and instant-cooking oats

The groats are cut into 3 or 4 pieces, steamed
and flaked by rolling, cooled by air, packaged.
Instant-cooking flakes are thinner, faster to
cook and become mushy quickly

Corn and sorghum starch (commercial) production

Wet milling process
Grain cleaning
Steeping
Milling and fraction separation
Starch processing

Damaged kernels

Grain cleaning
To remove: large and small
pieces of cob, chaff, sand, weed
seeds, other cereal grains,
other undesirable foreign
material
(broken)/ damaged kernels may
be removed for livestock feed
The reason why damaged
kernel should be removed

Whole intact
kernels

Rate of water
8%/h
absorption during
1st 4 h steeping

5%/h

Final moisture
equilibrium

12 h

12 h

Rate of solid
released to
steeping-water

3%/5h

3%/36h

Solid loss in
steep-water/48h

3.8%

3%

Steep-water pH

Increased faster

Protein content in 2x higher (at

steep-water
12h) and 60%
higher (at 48h)

Steeping
Aim: to soften the kernel and to produce optimum milling and
separation of corn components
Done for 24 40 h at 48C to 52C, consisted of 3 stages:
1st: the fermentation phase (8 12 h ); Lactobacillus sp. produces
lactic acid up to 2%; the kernels near-complete hydrated; When the
sulfur dioxide level exceeds 100 300 ppm the fermentation stops.
2nd: the sulfur dioxide diffusion stage (8-12h); the sulfur dioxide
diffuses into the hard-to-reach interior cells of endosperm
3rd: the sulfur dioxide dominated stage, characterized by high
concentrations of sulfur dioxide (up to 2500 ppm) in the water

At the end of steeping, kernels should have:

absorbed water 45% (wet basis);
released 6.0 6.5% dry substance into the steepwater;
absorbed 0.2 0.4 g of sulfur dioxide per kg;
sufficiently soft when squeezed between the fingers.
The germ is easily liberated

Water absorption and soluble(s) removal

Water absorption by kernels in water or sulfur dioxide solutions
causes a volume expansion of 55 65%.
Absorption of lactic acid reduces internal pH of kernel in about 12 h,
(with the high temperature-50oC) results in death of all living cells in
the germ.
As a result, cell membranes become porous, and soluble sugars,
amino acids, proteins, minerals, etc. leach into the steepwater.

Effects of Sulphur dioxide

sulfur dioxide weaken the glutelin matrix by breaking inter- and
intramolecular disulfide bonds
the protein matrix gradually swells, becomes globular, and finally
disperses. Causes ease of starch recovery
Protein dispersion increased as the sulfur dioxide concentration
increased to 0.4%.
Lactic acid produced some apparent softening
Proteins of freshly harvested corn are swelling faster and dispersion
more complete than those of old dry corn.

Role of lactic acid bacteria

Raw corn carries natural bacteria, yeasts and molds which are capable
of rapid multiplication in aqueous systems.
Steeping at 45 55C favor development of lactic acid bacteria.
The produced lactic acid lowers the pH of the medium, and restricting
growth of most other organisms.
Proteolytic activity of lactobacillus contributes to protein degradation
Steeping at 55C is favorable for propagation of Clostridium spp.,
bacteria which produces acetic acid. This acid does not give benefit
effect on starch yield or quality.

Milling and fraction separation

Germ separation: steeped grain is coarsely ground with water in an
attrition mill in preparation for de-germination
Fiber separation: de-germed grain (contains fiber and pieces of hard
endosperm) is more thoroughly milled. Fiber then can be separated by
screening based on difference between the fine particle sizes of starch
granules and gluten particles, and the larger endosperm and pericarp
particles.)
Starch-protein separation from de-fibered mill starch (mixture starch and
protein). The low density of hydrated gluten particles (1.1 g/cm 3 ) as
compared with starch (1.5 g/cm 3 ) permits their ready separation by
settling or centrifugation.

*gluten adalah nama dagang protein jagung, gluten disini fungsionalnya tidak sama dengan gluten gandum

Starch processing
The finished starch slurry may be further processed
1. dried directly and sold as unmodified corn starch;
2. modified by chemical or physical treatment then rewashed to
remove residual reactants, and dried;
3. gelatinized and dried;
4. hydrolyzed either completely to D-glucose or partially
hydrolyzed to give mixtures of soluble oligosaccharides and Dglucose which can be fermented to yield ethanol and other
products.

Characteristics of corn and sorghum starch

Check this videos and article

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIp_zhBIZ7s (tortilla chip)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=704tA5z7XjY (popcorn)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfsgkfPDb7M (bread)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=75bfUmqx82s (pasta)
Asian noodles (I sent the file by email)

 BeMiller, J and Whistler, R. 2009. Starch: Chemistry and Technology

3rd Edition. Academic Press-Elsevier. New York
Delcour JA and Hoseney RC. 2013. Principles of cereal science and
technology 3rd Edition. AACC International. St Paul, Minnesota