ME30033/ME50155

Mechanical Vibrations and Noise

Handout 1: Noise
Lecture 1 Sound levels, Decibels
or 2+2=5
1.1 Introduction
Noise is often defined as unwanted sound. Sound takes the form of waves travelling through
the air (or any medium, which may be a gas, liquid or solid). These waves consist of pressure
fluctuations and an associated vibration or velocity fluctuation of the medium. The science of
sound is called Acoustics. The behaviour of sound waves in a 3-dimensional space can be
extremely complex, and acoustics can be very highly mathematical. In practice, empirical
approximations are heavily used.

1.2 Sound pressure level

Sound Pressure Level (SPL) is a measure of the sound level detected by an observer at a
particular location.

SPL
detected by
observer

SPL
Directly
radiated
sound waves

(a) Free-field (anechoic) conditions

Reflected
sound waves

(b) Diffuse (reverberant) conditions

Figure 1.1 Different sound fields

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The loudness of sounds detected by the human ear depends on the magnitude of the pressure
fluctuations (it also depends on the frequency, which well come on to later). A suitable
measure of the magnitude is the root mean square (rms) average of the pressure fluctuation:
T

prms

1 2 2

p t dt
T T
2

The human ear can detect sounds with rms pressure fluctuations from about 10 Pa (10-10 bar)
to about 103 Pa (0.01bar). Because of this wide range, it is normal to compress the numbers
into a convenient logarithmic scale. The sound pressure level (SPL or LP) is defined using the
decibel (dB) scale as:
SPL or LP 10 log 10

2
p rms
p
20 log 10 rms
2
p ref
p ref

where pref is defined as 20Pa, which is approximately the threshold of hearing for a young
person. Some typical SPLs are listed in table 1.1.
The Decibel scale is nicely compressed to a convenient range of numbers. Note that a factor of
10 increase in prms corresponds to a 20dB increase in SPL. The smallest noticeable change in
sound level is approximately 1dB.
Typical source

prms (Pa)

SPL (dB)

Threshold of hearing

0.000 02

Faint rustling of leaves

0.000 2

20

Quiet residential area

0.002

40

Conversation

0.02

60

Vacuum cleaner

0.2

80

Pneumatic drill

100

Rock concert, close to

20

120

Effect

at night

speakers

> 85dB: Hearing damage due to

long-term exposure
> 120dB: Hearing damage due to
short-term exposure

Jet engine at 10m

200

140

Rocket engine at 10m

2000

160

130dB: Threshold of pain

Table 1.1 Typical sound pressure levels

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1.3 Sound intensity

This is a measure of the power flow through a unit area.

Intensity = power
per unit area
passing through
imaginary surface

Figure 1.2 Sound intensity

T

1 2
It is given by the equation I
pt u t dt
T T
2

This derives from the power flow being given by force velocity, and pressure being force per
unit area. This is time-averaged. I is often taken to be the energy passing through an imaginary
surface enclosing a sound source, in which case u is the velocity at a point on that surface,
normal to the surface.
Sound intensity has the dimensions of W/m2. It is usually expressed in dB:
SIL or LI 10 log 10

I
I ref

12
where I ref 10 W/m2.

For a wave with no reflections as in figure 1.1(a), the velocity is proportional to the pressure.
pt
where c is the characteristic impedance.
u t
c
For air at sea level and 20C, 1.2 kg/m3 and c 344 m/s.

c 1.2 344 413 kg/m2/s (or Ns/m3).

T

1
So I
c T

p 2 t dt

So LI 10 log 10

1 2
prms
413

2
2
2
p rms
p rms
10 log 10
413 I ref
4.13 10 10

The SPL for the same sound is given by

LP 10 log 10

2
2
p rms
p rms
10 log 10
2
p ref
2 10 5

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2
p rms
10 log 10
4 10 10

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So the sound intensity level and sound pressure level from a point source in reflectionless
(anechoic) conditions are (virtually) the same in dB.
However in a reflective sound field (figure 1.1(b)) the sound intensity level in dB is less than the
sound pressure level in dB. This is because the intensity relates to the energy flow, and waves
travelling in different directions have energy flow in different or opposite directions, so the net
energy flow is less. In fact there may be zero energy flow.

1.4 Sound Power

This is a measure of the total sound power produced by a source, or the sound power passing
through a given area, in W (Watts). Again it is often expressed as a sound power level (SWL) in
dB:
SWL or LW 10 log 10

W
Wref

where W is the sound power in W and Wref is the reference sound power which is 10-12 W.
(note: I ref

Wref
Aref

where Aref 1 m2)

Sound powers are often surprisingly small, as most sources are very inefficient at generating
sound.
Sound power (W)

SWL (dB)

Person speaking loudly

Trumpet
Electric guitar and 100W
amplifier
Saturn V space rocket
Table 1.2 Typical sound powers
Note that sound power is a measure of the sound produced by a source, not the sound
detected by an observer. It is not related to the distance from the source.

1.5 Addition of sounds

When there are two sound sources, we can calculate the sound level produced at a point by
each source individually and then add the result to give the total sound level. However care is
needed, and we cannot just add the values in dB. Two noise sources of 60dB each do not
produce a combined noise of 120dB! Also we do not add the sound pressures. Instead the total
sound is obtained by adding the squares of the pressures (usually! An exception to this rule is
given later). This is because the sound energy or power is related to the sound pressure
squared.

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 SPL

p2
p 2
2

Since SPL= 10 log 10 2 20 log 10

, p p ref 10 10
p
p
ref
ref

So we need to take antilogs of the dB values. For n noise sources:

n SPL
10 log 10 10 10
i 1

SPL tot

In these notes, adding sound levels in dB is represented using the symbol. This is not a
standard convention!
1.5.1 Example
Consider two sources, each of which individually produces a SPL of 60dB at a measurement
location.

A 3dB increase is equivalent to a doubling of sound power ( 10 log 10 2 3dB).

Consider two sources which produce SPLs of 60dB and 65dB.

i.e. only a 1dB increase over the louder sources SPL. In general, when one source produces a
SPL more than about 5dB higher than another source, the quieter source has very little effect
on the overall SPL. This doesnt necessarily mean that the quieter source is not significant! It
may actually be a more annoying or noticeable sound, depending on its tone and other factors.
A rattle in a car may have very little effect on the SPL inside the car, but it can be very
noticeable. The overall SPL does not tell the whole story. Noise is rarely as simple or
predictable as we would like it to be.

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Finally, add two sounds of 2dB and 2dB.

1.6 Conclusions
Noise is unwanted sound. Sound travels through the air as waves, travelling at the speed of
sound.
Sound pressure level (SPL) is a measure of sound level at a location. Sound power level (SWL)
is the power of the sound produced by a source. Sound intensity level (SIL) is a measure of
power flow. These quantities are usually expressed in decibels.

1.7 Problems
1.

Calculate the SPL in dB for these rms pressure levels.

a) 1 Pa
b) 10 Pa

2.

Calculate the sound power in Watts for the following:

a) SWL = 65 dB
b) SWL = 75 dB

3.

The following values are the SPL produced by machines when running on their own.
Calculate the total SPL, to the nearest dB, when the machines are running together.
a) 70 dB, 75 dB, 77 dB
b) 70 dB, 80 dB
c) Four machines, 80 dB each
d) Ten machines, 80 dB each
e) A hundred machines, 80 dB each

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Lecture 2 Wave propagation in one dimension

We shall start off with the much simpler one-dimensional case. Later we shall use practical
empirical approximations for 3-D sound.
The aims of this section are to show the behaviour of waves in a pipe both mathematically and
qualitatively. The phenomena of standing waves and resonance will be described.
1-D wave propagation applies to several important cases, including organ pipes, wind and brass
instruments, hydraulic lines, water pipes etc. Imagine a pipeline containing a fluid (gas or
liquid), with a piston at one end. Now imagine what happens if you move the piston a short
distance at a constant velocity (we shall neglect the time taken to accelerate the piston and
assume a step change to the new velocity).

Figure 2.1 Wave propagation in a pipe

If the fluid was incompressible, the complete column of fluid would have to move as one, at the
same velocity as the piston. However this doesnt happen because a real fluid is compressible.
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Instead, initially the fluid nearest to the piston becomes compressed and moves at the velocity
of the piston. This disturbance propagates along the tube at the speed of sound. The speed of
sound is typically about 340 m/s in air, 1500m/s in water. The fluid itself does not move at this
velocity it only moves at the speed of the piston but the disturbance or wavefront
propagates along the tube at that speed (imagine a Mexican wave in a stadium. Although each
person only moves up and down, the wave seems to move at high speed around the stadium).
For this simple case the pressure can be assumed to be uniform across the cross-section of the
tube, and these waves are known as plane waves. Later we shall consider what happens when
the wave reaches the end of the tube.

2.1 Analysis
The behaviour of pressure waves in a gas in a rigid pipeline can be analyzed by considering a
short element of length x as shown in Figure 2.2. We shall assume that the diameter is
sufficiently small to assume no radial velocity or pressure variations and consider variations in
one dimension only. We shall also ignore viscous friction (this is usually a fairly small effect
anyway).

Figure 2.2 - Short element of fluid in pipe.

Applying Newton's second law gives:

p A m

u
u
Ax
t
t

(1)

For the limit as x tends to 0,

p
u

x
t

(2)

We can also apply continuity of mass.

Rate of change of mass = mass flow in mass flow out
Ax

= uA u u A
t

uA u u u u A u u A (ignoring u term)

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(3)

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Hence x

u u
t

or as x tends to 0,

(4)

u
t
x
x

(5)

Provided that the particle velocity u is relatively small (u << c), the second term is negligible, so:

u
.

t
x

(6)

The density is related to the pressure by the bulk modulus B. This is defined as
B

(7)

By the chain rule for differentiation,

so from equation (6)

p p

t p t B t

p
u

t B t
x

or

(8)

Differentiating (2) w.r.t. x, and (8) w.r.t. t, we get

(9)
(10)
Combining equations (9) and (10), we obtain the partial differential equation
(11)

Define c

. It turns out that this is the speed of sound.

2 p 1 2 p

x 2 c 2 t 2
This is the Wave Equation. It also has the same form for velocity:

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(12)
2u 1 2u

x 2 c 2 t 2

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It can be shown that two possible solutions of the wave equation are

px, t f t x

, and px, t g t x c .

(13)

The first solution represents a wave travelling in the positive x direction at speed c, and the
second solution a wave travelling in the negative x direction.

Figure 2.3 A pressure pulse travelling in the positive x direction, shown at two positions,
showing the delay in the pulse at a position x (Fahy and Walker 1.6)
Similar equations also apply for velocity u:
u x, t

1
1
gtx
f t x , and u x, t
c
c
c
c

(14)

The velocity wave is proportional to the pressure wave and the ratio is the characteristic
impedance c :
u x, t

p x, t
c

More generally, we may have waves travelling in both directions:

g t x c
1
f t x c g t x c
u x, t
c
px, t f t x

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(16)

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2.2 Speed of sound in air

The speed of sound depends on the bulk modulus. To determine this we shall assume that
isentropic compression applies, because we are dealing with high frequencies and rapid
changes, so pV constant where is the ratio of specific heats. Considering rapid
compression from p 0 to p:

p p0
0

(17)

Differentiating w.r.t. density:

(18)

Evaluating this at p p0 and 0 , we get

(19)

p
so B p0 .

(20)

The pressure-density relationship for air is

RT0
RT
so c
where , R and M are
M
M

constants.
For dry air at 20C, the speed of sound is 343m/s. It increases with temperature but is
independent of pressure.

2.3 Solution for sinusoidal pressure variation

Sound is usually considered in terms of its frequency components, largely because this is how
the ear interprets it, but also because it is often easier to analyse this way. A single frequency is
represented by a sinusoidal pressure variation.

px, t Ax cost x Re Px e jt where Px Ax e j x .

(21)

The exponential form is more convenient for this analysis. P is the complex amplitude, which
contains both amplitude and phase information. We can differentiate the exponential form
w.r.t. x and t:
2 p

x 2

(22)

2 p

t 2

(23)

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Substituting these into the wave equation (12)

2 p 1 2 p

0:
x 2 c 2 t 2

(24)

so

(25)

For this to be true for all t, the contents of the square brackets must equal zero.
2P 2

P x 0
x 2 c 2

(26)

This is known as the one-dimensional Helmholtz Equation. It is in fact the Fourier Transform of

the wave equation j .

t

General solutions to this equation are:

P Fe
U

jx

Fe

jx

Ge

jx

(27)

jx

Ge
c

(28)

F and G are complex numbers and depend on the boundary conditions. F represents a
jx

pressure wave travelling in the positive x direction. The e

term is effectively a phase lag or
delay which increases linearly with increasing x and represents the motion of the waves along
the line in the direction of increasing x . G is a pressure wave travelling in the negative x
direction and e

jx

is a phase lag which increases with decreasing x.

The pressure P is equal to the sum of the two pressure waves. The velocity U is equal to the
difference between the two waves as they are travelling in opposite directions.
c
. For example, for a mid-range frequency f of 1000Hz in air with
f
c = 340m/s, = 0.34m. For f = 100Hz, = 3.4m. Wavelength decreases with frequency.

The wavelength is given by

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2.4 Conclusions
We have determined equations for wave behaviour in the time domain and the frequency
domain. The frequency domain solution will be useful when analysing reflections and
resonance.

2.5 Problems
Calculate the speed of sound at sea level, at a typical airliner cruise altitude of 10,000 m, and at
Concordes cruise altitude of 18,000 m, given the following data.
Sea level temperature 20C (293 K)
Lapse rate (drop in temperature with altitude): 6.5 K per 1000 m up to 11,000 m
Temperature above 11,000 m: -56.5C
Pressure/density relationship for air

RT
,
M

where R = 8.3145 J/mol/K, M = 0.02896 kg/mol and T = temperature in K.

Ratio of specific heats = 1.4.

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Lecture 3 Reflections and Standing Waves

3.1 Closed ends
Consider a simple pipe with a piston at one end moving sinusoidally, and the other end closed
as shown in figure 3.1. The piston generates a pressure and velocity wave G in the pipe. This
travels along the pipe at the speed of sound. The wave is reflected at the end producing a wave
F travelling in the opposite direction. Further reflection occurs at the piston, and so on.
x=0

x=L

Figure 3.1 Pressure and velocity amplitude along the length of a closed-ended pipe
The fluid velocity at the piston is equal to the piston velocity v:

v A cost U Lcost
A is the piston velocity amplitude and U L is the fluid velocity amplitude at x L .

Reflections occur at the pipe ends. If the pipe end is closed at x 0 , the velocity is zero, so
U(0)=0. Thus from Equation (28), at x 0

(29)
so the wave F is reflected back with no change in its amplitude or phase. Substituting into (27):

(30)

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Similarly by substituting into (28),

(31)

The pressure amplitude Px varies along the pipe in the form of a rectified sinewave
( sin x or cosx ). The troughs (minimum amplitude points) are called nodes and the peaks
anti-nodes. Nodes are spaced a half wavelength apart, as are anti-nodes. Velocity nodes also
occur at the positions of the pressure anti-nodes, and velocity anti-nodes at the pressure
nodes. A pressure anti-node and a velocity node appear at the pipe end. Also, the phase does
not vary along the length of the pipe, so there is no apparent movement of the waves along the
pipe. This is called a standing wave.

3.2 Open ends

Perhaps surprisingly, reflections also occur at an open end. Consider figure 3.2. Here P(0) = 0
and from Equation (27):
(32)
i.e. the reflected wave is inverted or has a phase shift of 180. The complex amplitudes of the
pressure and flow at a distance x are given by
(33)

(34)

x=0

x=L

x
Figure 3.2 Pressure and velocity amplitude along the length of an open-ended pipe

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Q: What is the sound intensity in a blocked pipe with a sinusoidal input?

Other boundary conditions may give phase shifted or attenuated reflections.

An example of measured pressure amplitude in a pipe is shown in figure 3.3, for two
frequencies. Note that the wavelength, and the spacing between nodes, is shorter at the higher
frequency.

Figure 3.3 Measured standing wave in a pipe.

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3.3 Resonance
Fluid in a pipeline will oscillate at its resonant frequencies following a disturbance. In practice
there will always be some damping so that the oscillations will die away. If a sinusoidal flow or
pressure input is applied at one end, high amplitudes may be generated at or near resonance.
For this analysis, we shall assume no damping.
3.3.1 Case 1: closed-closed tube
Consider a pipe, length L, with both ends closed (at x=0 and x=L). Equation (31) is
U x

2 jG x
sin
c
c

The velocity amplitude at x=L is U L

2 jG L
sin
0.
c
c

n . The second condition defines the natural

c
or resonant frequencies, at which the gas will oscillate following some disturbance.

This equation is satisfied either by G 0 or

c 2c
nc
.
,
, ...,
c
2L 2L
2L
These are sometimes called closed-closed or fixed-fixed modes, as both ends of the pipe are
closed (fixed).

The resonant (or natural) frequencies are where

0, , 2 , 3 etc, or f

In practice there will be some damping due to viscous friction, and there will need to be some
source of excitation. This could take the form of a piston oscillating at one end of the tube. With
a piston oscillating sinusoidally at the right-hand end, the pressure amplitude at point x is given
by
x
Ajc cos
c
Px
L
sin

where A is the piston velocity amplitude. According to this equation, if the piston oscillates at a
resonant frequency the pressure amplitude will be infinite. In practice the amplitude would be
finite because of damping and non-linearities.

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3.3.2 Case 2: closed-open or open-closed tube

Similar equations can be derived for an open-ended tube, giving us the closed-open or fixedfree modes. Assuming that the end is open at x = 0, the velocity amplitude is given by the
equation
U x

2G
x
cos
c
c

Assuming that the end is closed at x=L,

U L

2G
L
cos
0
c
c

L
This is satisfied by G = 0 or cos
= 0. The latter condition defines resonance, where
c
2n 1c
L 2n 1
c 3c
or f

,
, ...,
c
2
4L 4L
4L

3.3.3 Case 3: open-open tube

x
Assuming that the end is open at x = 0, from equation (33) Px 2 jG sin
c
L
Also assuming that the end is open at x = L, PL 2 jG sin
0
c

c 2c
nc
L
This is satisfied by G = 0 or sin
, the
,
, ...,
=0. The resonant frequencies are f
2L 2L
2L
c
same as for the closed-closed case.

3.4 A pipe as a musical instrument

Fundamental
frequency

Harmonic series

Frequency of nth
frequency

Closed-closed

c
2L

1,2,3,4

nc
2L

Closed-open,
open-closed

c
4L

1,3,5,7

(2n 1)c
4L

Open-open

c
2L

1,2,3,4

nc
2L

Each of these three cases has a series of resonant frequencies at integer multiples of the first
frequency (although for the closed-open or open-closed case the series consists of oddnumbered multiples). These are known as the fundamental frequency (or first harmonic),
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second harmonic, third harmonic etc. A musical note is generally composed of a whole series of
these harmonics. The tone or timbre of the sound is governed by the balance between the
amplitudes of these harmonics. The fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to the
length of pipe.
Wind and brass instruments produce notes at the resonant (natural) frequencies of the column
of air in the tube, generated by a vibration source at the blown end.
The open-open case is effectively what occurs in a flute, recorder or organ pipe, where air flow
across a sharp edge produces von Karman vortices and pressure fluctuations at one end. In a
flute or recorder, the effective length L depends on the position and number of open holes
(although it is not as simple as one single open end). In an organ, pipes of different length are
used for different notes.

Most reed instruments (clarinet, saxophone etc) act as closed-open pipes. The vibrating reed
acts as the vibration source, and the open holes act as the open end although in a more
complicated way, as there may be several small open holes. Brass instruments also work in this
way, but the pitch is changed in two ways: by changing the tube length using valves or a slider,
or by changing the frequency of the vibration source at the players lips to generate different
tones (overtones) in the harmonic series. However there is an added complication: the tube is
usually conical or tapered in some way (except in a clarinet, which is mainly cylindrical). This
can be shown to give a harmonic series equivalent to an open-open tube.
Note that if we were to block the end of an organ pipe we would change it from open-open to
open-closed. This would reduce its fundamental frequency by a factor of two, shifting it down
one octave. It would also change its tone, largely because only the odd harmonics would be
generated (note the form of the frequency series). This is one reason why flutes (open-open)
sound different to clarinets (closed-open), though there are many other reasons.

3.5 Conclusions
Reflections occur at closed and open ends of tubes. These cause standing waves to occur.
Resonances and anti-resonances occur at certain frequencies. These occur at multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
Musical instruments rely on resonance to produce musical notes. The different tones of
different instruments are the result of different end conditions and the shape of the tube,
among other factors.

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3.6 Problems

1.

Calculate the speed of sound in air, where

Density = 1.2 kg/m3
Ratio of specific heats = 1.4
Pressure = 1 bar
Hence calculate the first natural frequency of:
a. an organ pipe of length 1.1m, with two open ends
b. an organ pipe of length 1.1m, with an open and a closed end
c. an organ pipe of length 0.55m, with an open and a closed end

2.

A 10m long pipe is full of air and open to the atmosphere at one end. At the other end is
a piston moving sinusoidally with a displacement amplitude of 10mm (i.e. 20mm peakpeak). The piston has the same diameter as the pipe. The air density is 1.2 kg/m3 and
speed of sound of 342 m/s. Determine the maximum pressure amplitude and velocity
amplitude and the location(s) along the pipe at which these occur, for a piston
frequency of
(a) 20Hz
(b) 25Hz.
Hint: You first need to calculate the piston velocity amplitude. Assume that the air
velocity is equal to the piston velocity at that end. Then, using the equations
P Fe

jx

Ge

jx

, U

Fe

jx

Ge
c

jx

apply the open-end boundary condition at x 0 and then the piston boundary condition
at x L to find F and G.

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Lecture 4 Wave propagation in three dimensions

The wave equation and the Helmholtz equation can be extended to three dimensions:

2 p 2 p 2 p 1 2 p
2P 2P 2P 2

P0
and
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2
1 2 p
2
2
or p 2 2 and P 2 P 0
c t
c
2

4.1 Natural frequencies of an enclosed box

It can be shown (Fahy & Walker) that a solution of the wave equation in a rigid-walled cuboidal
enclosure of size (Lx, Ly, Lz) is
px, y, z, t A cos

n y y
n xx
n z
cos
cos z cos n t
Lx
Ly
Lz

n
where n c x
Lx
For a cube,

ny

Ly
2

nz

L
z

Different combinations of integers nx, ny and nz, give different natural frequencies and different
mode shapes. Unlike in the 1-D case, the natural frequencies are not equally spaced and get
closer and closer together at higher frequencies.

4.2 Refraction
Sound waves have many similar properties to light waves. They can be reflected from a surface,
and the reflection occurs at the same angle relative to the surface as the incident wave.
Refraction can occur when sound travels into a region with a different speed of sound, at an
c
oblique angle. As the frequency stays the same, the wavelength must change ( ) so the
f
direction changes as shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Refraction of sound waves

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Sound travels at a speed that is independent of movement of the source, but is relative to
movement of the air. That is, sound travels faster downwind.
Whilst sound is directional, it tends to be less directional than light. This is because sound has
much longer wavelengths. Diffraction around obstacles occurs where the wavelength is long
relative to the obstruction. High frequency sound is more directional than low; this is why a
sub-woofer can be placed in any convenient place in a room, whilst the position of the mid-tohigh frequency speakers is important for the spatial image of the sound.
4.2.1 Questions
1. Why can distant sounds across a lake at night sometimes be heard unexpectedly loudly?

2. Why does a distant sound seem louder when its source is upwind of the observer?

4.3 Effect of distance

The sound power produced by a source is equal to the total sound power passing through a
surface S enclosing the source. It is related to the sound intensity by the equation

W IdS
S

where I is the component of the sound intensity vector in the direction normal to the surface.
We can use this to estimate the SPL at a distance from a source. The equations that follow are
approximate as they assume that the source radiates equally in all directions and that there are
anechoic conditions (except for perfect reflection off the floor in cases 4.3.2, 3, 5 and 6).
4.3.1 Point source, sound radiation in all directions
Imagine the idealised case where we have a point source of sound suspended freely in mid-air
with no reflections (it is valid to assume a point source if the dimensions of the source are much
less than the wavelength of the sound).
The sound intensity I normal to the surface of a sphere surrounding the source at radius r will
be uniform over the sphere, so we can say that
W IA I .4r 2

or I

W
4r 2

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Doubling the radius results in a reduction in

sound intensity I by a factor of 4. This is the
inverse square law.
Also, as conditions are assumed to be
anechoic, the sound pressure level is equal
to the sound intensity level in dB:
W
SPL = SIL = 10 log 10
I 4r 2
ref

(note: I ref

Wref
Aref

where Aref 1 m2)

The SPL and SIL reduce by 6dB when the

distance from the source is doubled.
4.3.2 Point source close to reflective surface, hemispherical radiation
This more realistic case occurs when a sound source is located close to the ground or a wall.

Sound travelling downwards is reflected off the surface. Provided that the source is close to the
ground, the sound radiation is uniform.
W
SPL = SIL = 10 log 10
I 2r 2
ref

SWL 8 20 log 10 r

That is, a 3dB increase on the spherical case, section 4.3.1.

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4.3.3 Point source far from reflective surface

If the distance between the source and surface is large (
, say), the hemispherical
radiation assumption does not apply. In this case we can consider a true source and a virtual
reflected source, and add the sound from the two.

4.3.4 Line source

Consider an infinitely long line source, suspended in air with anechoic conditions.

For a unit length, where W and SWL are the sound power per unit metre, consider the sound
produced from one point on the line. The overall sound level can be found by integration along
the length of the source.
The sound intensity I produced by an infinitesimal length x , where x is the distance along the
Wx
source line from the nearest point to the observer, is I
, since the distance from
4 r 2 x 2

that point on the source to the observer is

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r 2 x2 .

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Since there are anechoic conditions, the mean square pressure can be related to the intensity:
2
prms
cI

Integrating,

So the sound falls off by only 3dB per doubling of the distance.
For a finite length source, this model holds for points close to the line (r<<L). If r>>L the
behaviour tends towards that of a point source.
4.3.5 Line source close to reflective surface

Reflections off the surface result in a 3dB increase in SPL.

SPL SWL 3 10 log10 r

This is roughly equivalent to a busy road, provided that r b , where b is the average

spacing between cars. If r b , the noise is dominated by the nearest car and hemispherical

radiation (case 4.3.2) applies.

For several lines of traffic, calculate the SPL from each line individually, then add.

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4.3.5.1 Estimation of SPL per m for a line of traffic

4.3.6 Line source far from reflective surface

If the distance between the source and surface is large (
and a virtual reflected source, and add the sound from the two.

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, say), consider a true source

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4.3.7 Example

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4.4 Conclusions
3D wave propagation is more complex than 1D. Resonances occur in a box or room, but these
are usually not considered in its analysis. Empirical/statistical approximations are used instead.
We have derived estimates for the sound pressure level at a distance from some simple sound
sources.

4.5 Problems
1.

Calculate the first 10 natural frequencies of air in a box of internal dimensions 1m x

0.7m x 0.6m. (note: you need to try different combinations of small values of nx, ny and
nz , including zero).

2.

Traffic on an urban road is modelled as four lines of noise sources. Lane 1 consists of
lorries, 30m apart, each with a SWL of 110dBA. Lane 2 consists of cars 20m apart, each
with a SWL of 100dBA. Traffic travelling in the opposite direction is identical, so lane 3 is
identical to lanes 2 and lane 4 to lane 1. Each lane is 5m apart.
Estimate the SPL at a distance of 30m from the nearest lane.

3.

(a)

Traffic on a single lane one-way road is approximated by cars uniformly spaced 30m
apart, each with a SWL of 100dBA. An observer is 10m from the road. Assuming uniform
hemispherical radiation from each car, and by considering a sufficient number of cars,
estimate the SPL at the observer:
when a car is passing the observer;
30m

10m

(b)

when the nearest two cars are equidistant from the observer;
30m

10m

(c)

assuming a uniform line source;

(d)

assuming a uniform line source and assuming that the cars and the observer are 2m
above the surface.

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Lecture 5 Sound Measurement

5.1 The Human Ears Response
The human ear is an extremely sensitive pressure transducer, but it is more sensitive to some
frequencies than others. It has a poor sensitivity at low frequencies and is most sensitive to
mid-to-high frequencies. Sounds with frequencies below about 20Hz or above 15-20kHz cannot
be heard (although high SPL sounds below 20Hz may be felt). Perceived loudness is sometimes
measured in phon. Figure 5.1 shows contours of equal loudness. The bottom line shows the
threshold of hearing. It shows that the threshold for frequencies of about 500Hz-5000Hz is
about 0dB, but the threshold rises rapidly below 100Hz, meaning that low frequency sounds of
low SPL cannot be detected. The ear has a non-linear response; at higher loudness levels the
curves level off a bit, so the ear becomes more sensitive to low frequencies at high SPL. If
music is played loudly, the bass becomes more audible.

Figure 5.1 Relationship between frequency, SPL and loudness

(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal-loudness_contour)

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Figure 5.2 The human ear

Often noise measurements are weighted to follow the response of the human ear. The most
common is A weighting. Measurements are quoted in dB(A) or dBA.

Figure 5.3 A weighting curve (from

http://www.diracdelta.co.uk/science/source/a/w/aweighting/source.html)
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For example, a sound consists of three components:

70dB at 100Hz
65dB at 500Hz
60dB at 1000Hz
To find the overall sound level in dB(A), first add the weighting value for each frequency to the
dB level at that frequency. Then add the antilogs of the weighted values.

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5.2 Measurement of Sound Spectrum

The fundamental transducer for air-borne noise measurement is the microphone. Portable sound
level meters are available which contain a microphone, filters and meter giving the measurement
in dB. A typical device is shown in Figure 5.4.
An instrumentation microphone will generally have a flat response to all frequencies in the
audible range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The complete signal may be used to represent the overall
noise level.

Figure 5.4 Sound level meter

Often an overall dB measurement is too crude to be of much use and more information can be
obtained by breaking the sound down into its frequency spectrum. There are two ways to do
this: using narrow band filters and using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT).
5.2.1 Narrow-band filters
The microphone output may be filtered using analog (electronic) or digital filters to give the noise
level in a selected frequency band. The frequency bands are spaced equally on a logarithmic
scale. In this way the complete noise spectrum can be built up, typically in one octave, 1/3 octave,
1/12 octave or 1/24 octave bands. An octave is a 2:1 frequency ratio; thus an octave band may be
from 100 Hz to 200 Hz, for example. A third octave is a 21/3:1 frequency ratio (a major third,
musically speaking). A twelfth octave is equivalent to one semitone in the musical scale.
A typical 1/24 octave band measurement is shown in figure 5.5. By analysing the frequency of the
peaks it may be possible to determine the source of the noise. This spectrum was measured in a
car with the engine running at 840 rev/min. The engine harmonics are at multiples of this
frequency (in Hz). The power steering pump has 10 vanes and runs at the same speed as the
engine. The dominant engine and power steering harmonics can be seen in the spectrum.
(note: each band is 2

24

or 1.0293 times the frequency of the previous band).

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Figure 5.5 Typical 1/24 octave band spectrum measured in a car

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5.2.2 FFT analysis

This is usually performed using a digital spectrum analyser. The signal is sampled digitally and a
digital Fourier transform is performed on it to obtain its spectrum. A fast Fourier transform (FFT)
is a very efficient algorithm for this purpose. The spectrum provides great detail with narrow
frequency bands uniformly spaced on a linear frequency scale. It can be used to pinpoint
accurately the harmonic components of the noise. This detailed information can often be used to
pinpoint the source of the noise by relating the frequency of the predominant noise harmonics to
the operating speed of the machinery. An example of a measured amplitude spectrum of pump
noise is shown in Figure 5.6. This is a twelve-vane pump running at 840 rev/min. The fundamental
840
frequency is equal to (speed in rev/sec) (number of vanes) =
10 140 Hz. The
60
fundamental frequency and harmonics produced by the pump can clearly be seen at multiples of
840
140 Hz. Smaller harmonics at multiples of shaft speed (
14 Hz) can also be seen.
60

Figure 5.6 Amplitude spectrum of pump noise

5.3 Conclusions

The ear is an extremely sensitive transducer, but has an uneven or non-linear response. Its
response varies with frequency and amplitude.

Microphones are used to measure sound pressure levels.

Measurements may be weighted to correspond to the ears response.

Sound power level is difficult to measure, and requires special acoustic chambers or
specialist instrumentation. This will be considered next.

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5.4 Problems
A sound has been measured using an octave band analyser and split into bands with the
following centre frequencies:
125Hz:
250Hz:
500Hz:
1000Hz:
2000Hz:
4000Hz:
By estimating the A weighting
weighted SPL.

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80dB
73dB
70dB
65dB
61dB
60dB
factor at the centre of each band, estimate the overall A

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Lecture 6 Measurement of Sound Power,

and More Addition of Sounds
It is necessary to be able to measure the sound power of machinery. However the sound power
of a source cannot easily be measured directly. There are several methods, most of which
determine it indirectly from sound pressure measurements, taking account of the
characteristics of the room.

6.1 Anechoic chamber

In anechoic conditions, the sound pressure level (SPL) and sound intensity level (SIL) are
equal. SPL is measured using a microphone moved over a regular grid of points surrounding
the source. Remember that the sound power is equal to the integral over a surface surrounding
the source of the intensity normal to that source:

W IdS
S

The SWL can be estimated from the average of the measured sound pressures times the area
of the imaginary grid surface:

2
A n
A n p rms
I

n
n i 1
i 1 c

A n SPL
SWL 10 log10 10 10
n i 1

A possible arrangement for this test is shown in figure 6.1. The microphone is moved over the
hemispherical surface. A disadvantage is that an anechoic chamber is required; this is not
feasible for large machinery or a jet engine, for example. A large open space may be a possible
alternative.

Reflecting plane

Figure 6.1 SWL measurement in anechoic chamber

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6.2 Reverberant chamber

In an enclosed chamber the sound energy is dissipated as heat in the walls, so the sound power
is equal to the rate of energy dissipation in the walls. This is given by the equation

R
SWL SPL 10 log 10 C where RC is the room constant with units of m2 (see lecture 9).
4
The SPL should be measured at several locations within the chamber and averaged:

RC n SPL 10
SWL 10 log 10
10
4n i 1

Ideally the reverberant chamber should be of an irregular shape to avoid room resonances. The
value of RC can be determined by measurement of the reverberation decay time in response to
an impulsive sound, using the equation:
RC

0.16V
T

where V is the room volume (m3) and T is the time for the sound energy to decay by 60dB.

Without carpet
With carpet

Figure 6.2 Reverberation decay (from http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/demos.html)

6.3 Sound intensity measurement

The sound power can be estimated from n sound intensity measurements over an imaginary
surface of area A enclosing the source:

W IdS or W
S

A n
Ii
n i 1

This is true if there are reflections, and even if there are other noise sources outside of the
surface (the net effect will cancel out as the sound energy passes in and out through the
surface). This means that this method can be used in a normal working environment.

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The main problem is how to measure the intensity I, as a microphone only measures sound
pressure. It can be measured using a special intensity probe, consisting of two closely spaced
microphones x apart, as shown in figure 6.3.
T

1 2
I
pudt
T T
2

Since

p
u
(Newtons second law),

x
t

1 p
1 p p2
dt 1
dt

x
x

A problem with this method is that the microphones have to be very closely matched in their
p p1 p 2

response, otherwise the approximation

will be seriously wrong. It requires
x
x
expensive, high quality equipment and careful calibration.

Figure 6.3 Intensity probe, with two microphones 1cm apart

6.4 dB algebra
When adding or subtracting noise sources or frequency components: take anti-logs.
Y
X

10

X dB Y dB 10 log 10 10
10 10

Y
X

10

X dB Y dB 10 log 10 10
10 10

Each noise component must have the same weighting or scaling.

dBA dBA dBA

dB dB dB
dBA dB

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When applying weightings, attenuation, gain, transmission loss: just add or subtract. This is
equivalent to a multiplication factor.
dB dB dB

dBA dB dBA

dBA dBA

dBA dBA dB

dB dBA

6.5 Addition of sounds with the same frequency

If two sources are synchronised and produce noise at exactly the same frequency, the previous
rule for adding sounds doesnt apply. The instantaneous pressure is given by the sum of the
instantaneous pressure produced by each source alone:

pt p1 t p2 t
Let p1 P1 cost . If p2 is in phase with p1, p2 P2 cost
so pt P1 P2 cost and the amplitude is the sum of the individual amplitudes.
However p2 is more likely to be out of phase with p1, p2 P2 cost , in which case the
overall amplitude is given by P 2 P12 P22 2P1 P2 cos (cosine rule). The overall amplitude
may be significantly less than that when theyre in phase, and cancellation may occur with a
minimum of P1 P2 if .

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6.6 Beating
If two sources produce noise at slightly different frequencies, an effect called beating may
occur as the two waves drift in and out of phase. For example consider the combination of two
sinusoidal sounds

p1 P1 cos t , p2 P2 cos t
p P1 cos t P2 cos t = P1 P2 cost cost P1 P2 sint sint
or if P2=P1,

pt 2P1 cost cost

This appears as a sound of a single frequency , increasing and decreasing in amplitude over a
period of

seconds.

Figure 6.4 Beating produced by two sounds at 98Hz and 102Hz,

with equal and unequal amplitudes
This beating effect can be quite unpleasant. It is sometimes heard on aircraft when two engines
run at slightly different speeds.

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6.7 Conclusions
Sound power cannot be measured directly but is usually calculated indirectly from sound
pressure measurements in special conditions.
Sounds with the same frequency may reinforce or cancel each other. Sounds with slightly
different frequency may cause an unpleasant beating effect.

6.8 Problems
1.

Which of these are valid calculations? If valid, write the answer with the correct units
and give an example where this equation might apply.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

2.

70 dB 10 dB
60 dBA + 5 dB
60 dBA + 50 dBA
60 dBA - 50 dBA
33 dB 30 dB
70 dB 80 dBA
70 dBA 80 dBA 75 dBA

Two loudspeakers each produce a pure 1000Hz tone. One on its own produces an SPL of
90 dB and the other produces an SPL of 95 dB. Calculate the maximum and minimum
SPL that could be produced by the two together if the signals are in-phase and out-ofphase.

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Lecture 7 Noise control

7.1 Introduction
High noise levels in the workplace are a common and serious problem. Recent statistics suggest
that 17% of the UK population have significant hearing loss. 1.7 million UK workers are regularly
exposed to noise levels above 85 dB(A), and 0.6 million UK workers to levels above 90 dB(A).
Prolonged exposure to these noise levels is known to be potentially damaging to hearing.
Stringent UK and EC legislation is in place to control workplace noise.
Medium noise levels can cause annoyance, loss of productivity, communication problems and
complaints. A noisy vehicle or other product may lose sales or suffer warranty claims, and
customers may choose a quieter alternative.
Noise transmission can be reduced by barriers and enclosures. However it is often better to
reduce the noise at source by choosing a quieter machine, where possible.

7.2 European Union Noise at Work Regulations:

EU Physical Agents (Noise) Directive 2003
Limits are set for workers exposure to noise based on a daily average noise level and a
instantaneous peak pressure. Two action levels are defined.
First action level:

LEX,8H = 80 dB(A) and peak pressure = 112 Pa

Above this level, employees have the right to demand suitable hearing protectors
Second action level: LEX,8H = 85 dB(A) and peak pressure = 200 Pa
Above this level, employees must be provided with suitable hearing protection which
reduces risk below exposures at the second action level. Clearly marked ear protection
zones must be implemented into which no employees must enter unless wearing
hearing protection.
The regulations state that:

every employer shall ensure that a noise assessment is made when any employee is
likely to be exposed at or above any action level;

records must be kept of noise assessments;

employers shall reduce risk of hearing damage to the lowest level practicable;

noise exposure must be reduced other than by provision of hearing protection if the
second or peak action levels are reached;

ensure that hearing protection is maintained and used;

provide information to employees if any action level is exceeded.

The daily noise exposure level LEX,8H is a time-weighted average of the noise exposure level
over a nominal 8-hour working day as follows, where T = 8 hours.
[

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If the noise levels vary for different periods of the day, the daily noise exposure level can be
calculated by summing the equivalent level for each period. For n sound pressure levels Lpi
each of duration ti:
(

Alternatively the equivalent level of each period can be calculated:

[ ]
The total exposure can be calculated by adding the levels.

Example 1. Calculate the daily noise exposure level LEX,8H for 4 hrs at 84 dBA , followed by 3 hrs
at 91 dBA , and then 1 hr at 94 dBA.

Example 2. If workers experience 4 hours at 79 dBA and 2.5 hours at 87 dBA, what level is
allowable over the final 1.5 hours if LEX,8H of 85 dBA is not to be exceeded?

Hearing damage can be caused by sudden very loud sounds as well as by prolonged exposure to
medium-level noise. The regulations also limit the peak pressure at any instant. The peak
pressure limits correspond to a very much higher level than the daily limits. For example the
second action level limit is 200Pa. This corresponds to a sound of roughly 137dB.
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7.3 Open-topped barriers

Open-topped barriers, walls or partitions are used outdoors to reduce road and rail traffic
noise, or indoors in offices and shop floors. They can block sound by reflection or absorption.
However they are only partially effective; although a barrier can completely block a line of
sight, sound can bend around the barrier by diffraction. An approximate calculation of
attenuation can be obtained using the Fresnel number

2L

A B d

where L = increase in sound path from source to observer caused by barrier.

Figure 7.1 Open-topped barrier

The attenuation produced by the barrier is given approximately by the equations
Att dB 12 10 log 10 N 0.3 for a point source
Att dB 8 10 log 10 N 0.3 for a line source. This can be used for a road barrier where the
stream of vehicles can be approximated to a line source.

These are shown in figure 7.2.

The actual performance depends on many factors including: shape of barrier; barrier material;
type of ground surface; reflections from buildings and other objects (including the opposite
barrier). It also depends on frequency.

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Figure 7.2 Attenuation of a barrier

7.3.1 Example
In the diagram below, the car produces a SWL of 100dBA. Estimate the SPL heard by the
policeman: (a) without the barrier; (b) with the barrier. Assume the sound is at 1000 Hz.

4m

6m
2.5m

1.5m

1m

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7.3.2 Multiple paths

There may be several possible noise transmission paths, e.g. over barrier, under barrier, around
end(s) of barrier, through barrier.
To calculate the noise reduction produced by a barrier, where there are several noise
transmission paths:

Assume nominal value of SPL (or calculate SPL without barrier);

Calculate SPL due to each path;

Add the SPLs together (remember how to add dB values).

Compare (subtract) SPL without barrier.

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7.3.3 Example
A barrier is 1.5m high and 4m long. It is calculated by the Fresnel method to give the following
attenuations:

14dB over the top;

17dB around one end;

21dB around the other end.

It is also calculated by the mass law (see next section) to attenuate sound travelling through it
by 25dB (i.e. transmission loss or TL = 25dB).
Calculate the overall attenuation.

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7.4 Conclusions
There are strict rules for workplace noise to try and prevent hearing damage. Noise can be
reduced by using quieter machinery, by using enclosures or barriers, or by using ear defenders.
There are also rules for environmental noise which we havent covered here.
Open-topped barriers block the direct transmission of sound, but sound can diffract over the
top. They are commonly used in offices, with absorbent surfaces to absorb some of the sound.
High walls can help reduce road noise. They are less effective at low frequency.

7.5 Problems
1. A worker receives 1.5 hours at 96dBA, 0.5 hours at 100dBA and 6 hours at 80dBA.
Calculate the noise exposure over the 8 hour period.
2. A worker receives 2.5 hours exposure at 89dBA. Calculate the noise level which the
worker can then experience for the remaining 5.5 hours without exceeding the
maximum permitted exposure of 85dBA.
3. Forestry workers are to be protected from the noise of a mechanical saw by means of a
barrier 2.5m high erected 1m from the machine. The noise of concern is at 1000Hz.
The transmission loss of the barrier at this frequency is 23dB. The attenuation round
one end is 27dB and round the other end 35dB. Noise cannot go under the barrier.
Calculate the attenuation of sound travelling over the barrier from G to H using the
Fresnel method. By adding the sound transmitted via the various routes (through, over,
around the barrier) calculate the overall attenuation due to the barrier. Estimate the
SPL at H due to a SWL at G of 100dB.

H
1m
0.5m

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2.5m
2.5m

1.5m

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Lecture 8 Noise control: Partitions and enclosures

A solid partition can be used to block the transmission of sound. Most of the sound will be
reflected back towards the source, some will be absorbed, and some will be transmitted
through the partition. The partition is likely to have the unwanted side-effect of increasing the
sound level at the source. Small gaps can greatly reduce the performance of the partition.

The Sound Transmission Coefficient is defined as

transmitted wave power

incident wave power

The Transmission Loss (TL) or Sound Reduction Index (SRI) = 10 log 10

For a partition, 10dB is poor, 30 or 40dB are good.
For anechoic conditions outside, the SPL close to the outside of the barrier is given by
SPLOUT transmitted wave = incident wave TL

For a reflective partition, the reflected wave amplitude is almost the same as the incident wave
amplitude. The pressure amplitude at the inside face is approximately the sum of the incident
wave amplitude and the reflected wave amplitude (neglecting any phase shift). Therefore the
incident wave is approximately half the pressure amplitude at the inside face.
Incident wave SPLIN 6 dB
So SPLOUT SPLIN 6 TL
However, if reverberant conditions exist outside, the SPL will be higher than this. An equation
for this will be given later.
Transmission loss can be measured using two adjoining chambers with an opening between
them. The chambers can be anechoic or reverberant. The measured barrier is fitted and tightly
sealed in the opening. Sound is generated in one chamber and the sound level measured on
both sides of the barrier.
Some measured transmission loss results are shown in figure 8.1.

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Figure 8.1 Transmission loss measurements (from Crocker: Noise and Vibration Control, Wiley)

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8.1 Mass law

Except at very low frequencies, most attenuation from a solid partition is due to its mass, not its
stiffness or damping. The transmission loss is given approximately by the mass law:
TL 20 log10 f 47 dB

where is the mass per unit area. Some typical densities are given in table 8.1.
Small holes or gaps may have a large effect.

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8.2 Coincidence
The mass law neglects the effects of stiffness or damping. Stiffness of the material may lessen
the transmission loss because bending waves can occur in it.
Sound waves oblique to a plate may set up bending waves in the plate. If the wavelength of the
bending waves is similar to the wavelength of the sound waves in the air, a form of resonance is
set up, called coincidence.

The wavespeed for bending waves, c B , increases with frequency. The speed of sound in the air,
c , is independent of frequency. The critical frequency is where the wavelength in the air and
in the plate are equal, which occurs when cB c . Coincidence occurs around and above the
critical frequency where c B c .

A high critical frequency is given by thin, heavy, low stiffness plates. This is perhaps the
opposite of what would be expected, as high mass and low stiffness generally gives a low
natural frequency.
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The transmission loss is reduced by up to 12dB at the critical frequency. The reduction starts
about an octave below the critical frequency and continues for about two octaves above. A very
approximate equation for transmission loss above the critical frequency is
TL 20 log 10 f 57 dB

For a given material, the product of thickness and critical frequency is a constant. Typical values
are given in table 8.1.
Material

Density

Critical frequency (Hz)

thickness (m) f C t

Concrete

~2300 kg/m3

19 Hz.m

Brick

~1900 kg/m3

22 Hz.m

Glass

~2600 kg/m3

12.7 Hz.m

Plasterboard

~800 kg/m3

40 Hz.m

20 Hz.m

Plywood

~700 kg/m

Steel

7800 kg/m3

12.4 Hz.m

Table 8.1. Typical densities and critical frequencies

Figure 8.2 shows the coincidence effect in glass, and how its frequency reduces with thickness
whilst the transmission loss increases with thickness.

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Figure 8.2 Transmission loss measurements for glass, showing how the TL increases with
thickness and the coincidence frequency reduces with thickness (from
http://blog.gjames.com/2013/01/24/reducing-noise-with-the-right-windows/)
Panels with low damping, such as glass or steel, exhibit the strongest coincidence effect. The
coincidence effect can be reduced by replacing plain glass with laminated glass (figure 8.3) or
adding a damping sheet to a metal panel (figure 8.4). Coincidence is less marked for materials
with high damping or a fibrous structure, such as wood (figure 8.1).

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Figure 8.3 The effect of lamination on the sound insulation of glass (from
http://blog.gjames.com/2013/01/24/reducing-noise-with-the-right-windows/)

Figure 8.4 Transmission loss of steel panel (from

http://www.hmmh.com/cmsdocuments/Vibrations-Noise_Locomotive-Ross.pdf)

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8.2.1 Example
Estimate the transmission loss for 100mm concrete and 16mm plasterboard, for a range of
frequencies. Plot these on figure 8.1.

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8.3 Enclosures with multiple surfaces

If there are areas with different transmission losses, we can calculate the overall sound
transmission coefficient by a weighted average of the sound transmission coefficient.

A A1 1 A2 2
where A is the total area and A1, A2 etc are the areas of materials 1, 2
8.3.1 Example
Consider a 50mm thick concrete wall of dimensions 5m x 3m, containing a 4mm thick glass
window of area 1m2. Calculate the overall transmission loss at 1000Hz.

A hole can be considered as an area with zero transmission loss 1 .

For example, in the above wall there is a hole of 0.1m2. Calculate the transmission loss now.

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Enclosing the source may cause an increase in the SPL inside the enclosure, as the sound is
being trapped inside, especially if the enclosure is made from hard, reflective materials. This
reduces the effectiveness of the enclosure. This can be avoided by adding an absorbent layer
(foam, fibre) inside the enclosure.

8.4 Conclusions
Solid enclosures, partitions and walls reduce sound transmission by reflecting and absorbing
the sound energy. The effectiveness of the wall depends on its mass. A stiff material may be
less effective than a very flexible material, as bending waves can occur in the material causing
coincidence.
Approximate equations are available for the transmission loss.

8.5 Problems
1. The noise levels impinging on a 120mm thick brick wall are as specified below. Calculate
the overall A weighted SPL (a) on the near side of the wall, and (b) on the other side,
using the mass law.
Density of brick

1900 kg/m3

Critical frequency thickness

22 Hz.m

Freq. (Hz)

125

250

500

1000 2000 4000 8000

SPL (dB)

95

99

104

107

111

109

102

2. A partition wall 6m 3m contains a door 2m 0.9m made of the same materials as the
wall. There is a 10mm gap around the entire door. The wall also contains a window 2m
1m. Estimate the overall TL of the partition at (a) 500Hz; (b) 2000Hz.
Wall:

density = 800 kg/m3; thickness 30mm; critical frequency thickness = 20 Hz.m

Window:

density = 2600 kg/m3; thickness 4mm; critical frequency thickness = 13 Hz.m

Gap:

sound transmission coefficient = 0.35 at 500Hz, 0.11 at 2000Hz

What difference does the gap make at each frequency?

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Lecture 9

Enclosures and Absorbent Materials (I)

9.1 Absorption
Most materials that form effective sound barriers work by reflecting the sound. They do not
absorb the sound energy and can significantly increase the sound level on the source side.
To absorb sound energy a material must contain many small air pockets or capillaries. Air
moving in the material will dissipate energy as heat due to viscous friction. Most such materials
are light and would be poor as barriers to sound transmission (with a transmission loss of 10dB
or so). However they can be used inside a room or chamber for reducing reflections and hence
reducing reverberant noise. This can reduce sound levels and improve the acoustic quality or
clarity for music and speech.
The sound absorption coefficient is defined as

wave power absorbed by the surface

wave power incident on it

This depends on frequency and usually increases with frequency.

For several surfaces, the average absorption coefficient is given by the weighted average
according to the equation
A A11 A2 2 A3 3

Some typical absorption coefficients are listed in table 9.1.

Material

Glass

0.04

Plastered solid wall

0.06

Plasterboard

0.1

Concrete floor

0.05

Polyurethane foam ceiling tile

0.6

Rubber floor tile

0.1

Heavy pleated curtains

0.5

Person

A 1.1m

Table 9.1 Typical absorption coefficients

(note: these may vary in a wide range, and will vary with frequency)
The Room Constant RC is defined as RC

A
1

where A is the total surface area in the room, and is the average absorption coefficient over
those surfaces.
If = 0, the room is fully reverberant.
If = 1, the room is anechoic.
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Neither of these extreme values can be achieved fully.

The sound pressure level in a reverberant room can be expressed approximately by the
equation

Q
4
SPL SWL 10 log 10

2
RC
4R

Q
This represents direct noise
and reverberant noise
2
4R

RC

Q = 1 for spherical uniform radiation

Q = 2 for hemispherical uniform radiation
In practice the reverberant noise is usually greater than the direct noise, except very close to
the source. The reverberant noise also varies with position in the room; the equation only gives
the average value.
9.1.1 Example
An unfurnished office of dimensions 10m10m4m has plastered solid walls, 40m2 of windows,
plasterboard ceiling and concrete floor.
(a) Calculate the overall sound absorption coefficient. Estimate the SPL 5m from a source
of SWL 100dB.
(b) Estimate the overall sound absorption coefficient and SPL for the same room
containing a polyurethane foam ceiling, 10m2 of heavy curtains and 20 people.

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9.2 Use of absorbent materials with partitions or enclosures

A sound absorbent layer may be used to increase . The sound energy is dissipated as heat
inside the material. The best materials are porous; air movement inside the holes dissipates
energy. These materials are typically lightweight and would be poor as sound insulators or
barriers. They need to be used in conjunction with a heavy insulating barrier. A sound
absorbent layer is most effective where the acoustic velocities are high, i.e. near an anti-node.
Near a wall the acoustic velocity approaches zero, so they are best placed a small distance from
the wall about a quarter-wavelength. In practice there will be multiple frequencies and
multiple wavelengths so the exact positioning is not critical.

An absorbent layer is best placed on the inside of an enclosure or on the source side of a
partition. It should have the effect of reducing the reverberant sound level on the source side.
As the sound level outside the enclosure depends on the sound level inside, a similar reduction
in the outside the enclosure should be achieved.
An absorbent layer on the outside of the enclosure may have little effect as it wont change the
SPL inside, and will have little effect on the transmission loss of the barrier.
Generally an absorbent material is most effective at higher frequencies, and a thicker layer is
needed for good low frequency performance. Cones and wedges of absorbent material are
extremely effective and are used in anechoic chambers.

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9.3 Problems
1. Estimate the room constant from the measurements in figure 6.2 of the notes, with and
without carpet. Hence estimate the SPL if there is a source with a constant SWL of 90
dB. Neglect the effect of frequency.
Dimensions of room: 9.25 m long, 7.65 m wide, 3.15 m high
2. The Stereophonics are due to play at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. Calculate the
total amplifier power in Watts needed to produce a peak SPL of 108dB at a typical seat,
assuming reverberant conditions.
People in audience: 50,000;
area of one person and seat: 2 m2;
absorption of one person and seat A = 1.1m2.
Area of concrete: 60,000m2; absorption coefficient = 0.02
Area of steel: 25,000m2; absorption coefficient = 0.01
The roof is closed.
The turf has been removed and the pitch area can be assumed to be concrete.
Average loudspeaker acoustic efficiency (Sound power out / amplifier power in) = 1%
3. The Millennium Stadium is packed to watch Wales win the Grand Slam . Calculate the
SPL produced by 40,000 ecstatic fans singing Cwm Rhondda, assuming reverberant
conditions.
Assume an SWL of 95dB per singer.
The roof is open with an opening area of 6,000m2 (assume = 1 for the open roof).
Total number of people: 74,000;
area of one person and seat: 2 m2;
absorption of one person and seat A = 1.1m2.
Area of concrete: 50,000m2; absorption coefficient = 0.02
Area of steel: 20,000m2; absorption coefficient = 0.01
Area of grass: 8,000 m2; absorption coefficient = 0.5

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4. An office 15m 12m 4m has windows of area 14m 2m in one wall and 10m 2m at
each end. The ceiling is covered with 25mm thick acoustic tiles, and the floor is tiled.
There are 30 chairs and desks.
Absorption coefficients :
Frequency
(Hz)

250

500

1000

2000

Ceiling

0.35

0.70

0.75

0.65

Walls

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.04

Windows

0.06

0.04

0.03

0.02

Floor

0.005 0.01

0.02

0.045

Absorption A (m2)
Frequency
(Hz)

250

500

1000

2000

Desk & chair

0.05

0.05

0.10

0.15

Person

0.75

1.10

1.30

1.40

Desk & chair area 2 m2, person area 2 m2.

Calculate the average absorption coefficient for the room at each frequency when 20
people are present.
Calculate the reverberation times (see section 6.2).
The office contains a printing machine producing the following sound power level (SWL):
Frequency
(Hz)

250

500

1000

2000

SWL (dB)

69

70

68

68

Calculate the reverberant SPL (dB) in the room due to this machine.

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Lecture 10 Enclosures and absorbent materials (II)

10.1 Enclosure or partition in a reverberant room

If a sound source is enclosed by an enclosure (box) or partition, the SWL emitted by the
enclosure or partition is given by the equation, where AP is the surface area of the enclosure or
partition:
SWLOUT SPLIN TL 6 10 log10 AP

If the room is reverberant, the SPL is given approximately by the equation

4
SPLOUT SWLOUT 10 log 10
RC

4A
SPL IN TL 6 10 log 10 P

RC

Or SPLOUT SPL IN TL 10 log 10 AP 10 log 10 RC _ OUT

where RC _ OUT is the room constant for the room outside of the enclosure or partition,
including the surface of the enclosure/partition.

10.1.1 Example
(a)

A compressor produces a SWL of 100dB at 250Hz. It is located in a room 10m 5m

4m high. The average absorption coefficient for the room 0.1. Estimate the
reverberant SPL.

(b)

A hardboard enclosure 1m 1.5m 1m high is placed over the compressor. The

properties of the hardboard are: TL = 12dB; 0.15 . Estimate the SPL in the room
now.

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10.2 Experiment: Noise control using an enclosure

Outline of experiment
The effect of enclosing a sound source using a small enclosure is to be investigated. The effect
of foam lining part of the inside of the enclosure is also to be investigated. Measured and
calculated sound levels will be compared and transmission and absorption equations tested.
Apparatus

Loudspeaker connected to a laptop. Band-limited random noise generated in 700

1400Hz band (i.e. octave band centred at 1kHz).

Plywood box, 0.4m cube, 12mm thick, with small hole to accept microphone of sound
level meter.

Foam, 40mm thick, 0.3 x 0.38m (2 pieces), plus small piece to isolate speaker from floor.

Sound level meter.

Tasks

1. Measure background SPL ..................................................................................................................

2m from source

2. Measure SPL:

0.3m from source (just

0.2m from source

outside box, if

(inside box, if present)

present)

(a) Without box

(b) With box
(c) With box and foam inside

3. How much does the box reduce the SPL at a distance? ....................................................................
4. How much does the box increase the SPL inside the box? ................................................................
5. How much does the foam reduce the SPL inside the box and at a distance? ...................................

4
6. Estimate SWL from case (b) (with box) using SPL IN SWL 10 log 10 , assuming 0.1
RC
for wood.

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7. Estimate the transmission loss of the plywood and estimate the SPL outside the box.
Compare with the measured SPL.

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10.3 Conclusions
Hard materials reduce transmission by reflecting the sound energy. They have the unwanted
effect of increasing the sound level on the source side.
Absorbent materials can be used to absorb noise and reduce reverberation, and improve sound
quality. They are not generally very effective at blocking the transmission of sound. They can be
used in conjunction with a hard partition or enclosure. The absorbent material should generally
be on the source side.
Many equations and data are available for calculating sound levels with barriers, enclosures,
partitions and absorbent materials. However they are very approximate because many
unknown factors are involved.

10.4 Problems
A pump and motor in a concrete lined plant room 8m 6m 5m high produce the following
reverberant noise levels.
f (Hz)

250

500

1000

SPL (dB)

80

82

80

Absorption coefficients are given below.

f (Hz)

250

500

1000

, concrete

0.03

0.05

0.05

, plywood

0.10

0.15

0.25

, plywood + foam

0.30

0.65

0.75

Estimate the overall sound power level (SWL) in dB.

The pump and motor are then enclosed, on top and sides, by a 2m 3m 2m high enclosure
made of plywood (density = 800 kg/m3; thickness 20mm; critical frequency thickness = 18
Hz.m).
At each frequency calculate the reverberant SPL in the enclosure and in the room. Calculate
the overall SPL in dB, and deduce the overall reduction in SPL achieved by the enclosure.
A sound absorbent foam layer is now fitted inside the plywood enclosure. Calculate the SPL
in the room at each frequency, the overall SPL in dB, and the reduction in SPL (dB) achieved
by using the foam.

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Answers to problems
(fuller solutions will be given online later)
Lecture 1
1. 94 dB, 114 dB
2. 3.2 W, 32 W
3. (a) 80 dB
(b) 80 dB,
(c) 86 dB (a 6dB increase),
(d) 90 dB (a 10 dB increase)
(e) 100 dB (a 20 dB increase)

Lecture 2
343m/s, 303m/s, 295m/s

Lecture 3
1. 155.5Hz (Eb below middle C), 77.7Hz (Eb one octave lower), 155.5Hz (Eb below middle C).
2. (a) Pmax = 599 Pa at 4.27 m from open end, Umax = 1.46 m/s at 0 m and 8.55 m from open end
(b) Pmax = 5410 Pa at 3.42 m from open end, Umax = 13.2 m/s at 0 m and 6.84 m from open end
Lecture 4
1. 171.0, 244.3, 285.0, 298.2, 332.4, 342.0, 375.4, 412.5, 420.3, 445.2Hz
2. 80dBA
3. 73dBA, 71dBA, 72 dBA, 72 dBA
Lecture 5
1. 72dBA
Lecture 6
1.
(a) valid, 60 dB (e.g. sound of level 70 dB with a barrier of attenuation 10 dB)
(b) valid, 65 dBA (e.g. sound of level 60 dBA amplified by a gain of 5 dB)
(c) invalid (double A weighting)
(d) valid, 10 dB (e.g. SPL without barrier minus SPL with barrier gives attenuation of barrier)
(e) valid, 35 dB (two sounds added together)
(f) invalid (adding sounds of mixed weightings)
(g) valid, 81.5 dBA (three sounds added together)
2.

99 dB, 88 dB

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Lecture 7
1. 92 dBA
2. 80 dBA
3. 81 dB without barrier, 18dB attenuation, 63 dB with barrier
Lecture 8
1. 115 dBA, 56 dBA
2. With gap: 28 dB at 500 Hz, 33 dB at 2000 Hz.
Without gap: 33 dB at 500 Hz, 37 dB at 2000 Hz. Difference = 5 dB, 4 dB.
Lecture 9
1.

SPL = [83, 86] dB.

2.

128,000 W

3.

95 dB

4.

= [0.14, 0.24, 0.27, 0.24]

T = [1.1, 0.54, 0.46, 0.53] s
SPL = 58 dB

Lecture 10
SWL = 90 dB
SPL in enclosure = [84 86 82] dB, total = 89 dB
SPL in room = [63 57 56] dB, total = 65 dB
Reduction obtained using box = 21 dB
With foam, SPL in room = [58 48 48] dB, total = 58 dB
Reduction obtained using foam = 7 dB

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Formulae
Natural frequencies of an open-open or closed-closed tube: f n

nc
2L

Natural frequencies of an open-closed or closed-open tube: f n

(2n 1)c
4L

e jx cos x j sin x ,

Trigonometric/exponential relations:

e jx e jx
cos x
2

e jx e jx
,
sin x
2j
Sound pressure level: SPL or LP 10 log 10
Sound intensity level: SIL or LI 10 log 10
Sound power level: SWL or LW 10 log 10

2
p rms
p
20 log 10 rms , where pref = 20Pa
2
p ref
p ref

I
I ref

where Iref = 10-12W/m2.

W
where Wref = 10-12W.
Wref

Point source, uniform spherical radiation at distance r:

SPL SWL 11 20 log10 r

Point source, uniform hemispherical radiation:

SPL SWL 8 20 log10 r

Uniform line source:

SPL SWL per m 6 10 log10 r

Uniform line source on reflective surface:

SPL SWL per m 3 10 log10 r

SPL
SPL

10

10 log 10 10
10 10

Addition of uncorrelated sounds: SPLtot

A weighting coefficients
Freq. (Hz)

125

250

500

1000

2000

4000

8000

A weighting (dB)

-16

-9

-3

-1

Noise exposure limits

First action level:

LEX,8H = 80 dBA and peak pressure = 112 Pa

Second action level: LEX,8H = 85 dBA and peak pressure = 200 Pa

Exposure limit value: LEX,8H = 87 dBA and peak pressure = 200 Pa
Equivalent level of a period of time t: LEQ LP 10 log 10

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t
where T = 8 hours
T

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Attenuation of a barrier
N

2L

where L = increase in sound path caused by barrier

Att dB 12 10 log 10 N 0.3 for a point source

Att dB 8 10 log 10 N 0.3 for a line source.

SPLWITH BARRIER SPLWITHOUT BARRIER Att (or TL)
Mass law:

TL 20 log10 f 47 dB below coincidence

TL 20 log10 f 57 dB above coincidence

Sound transmission coefficient: 10

TL

10

or TL 10 log

Average sound transmission coefficient or absorption coefficient of surface with multiple

materials:

A A1 1 A2 2 A3 3 ,
A A11 A2 2 A3 3
A
1

Room constant:

RC

Reverberation time for decay by 60dB:

SPL in a reverberant room:

Q
4
SPL SWL 10 log 10

2
RC
4R

or, if directly radiated sound is neglected,

4
SPL SWL 10 log 10
RC

0.16V
RC

Sound power emitted by a partition or enclosure:

SWLOUT SPLIN TL 6 10 log10 AP

Sound pressure outside a partition or enclosure:

SPLOUT SPLIN 6 TL
Anechoic conditions outside:
(SPLOUT is defined near the outside surface)
Reverberant conditions outside:

SPLOUT SPL IN TL 10 log 10 AP 10 log 10 RC _ OUT

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