The Favona low-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposit,

Waihi, New Zealand

M.P. Simpson, J. L. Mauk, E. Hollinger
Geology Department, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, N.Z.
ma.simpson@auckland.ac.nz

Abstract
Gold-silver mineralised veins at Favona, represent a new low-sulfidation epithermal vein discovery that occurs
less than 1 km southeast of the world-class Waihi deposit. The Favona vein is hosted in Late Miocene andesitic
lava flows and local dacitic tuffs that are intensely altered to quartz, adularia, chlorite, illite or interstratified
illite-smectite (with 10 to 70 % smectite) and pyrite. Adularia is widespread and envelops the veins, whereas
chlorite and illite are mostly restricted to the footwall, and illite-smectite is confined to the hanging wall of the
Favona vein. At shallow levels, kaolinite, cristobalite and rare alunite overprint the above minerals. A polymict
hydrothermal breccia also occurs above and in the hanging wall of the Favona vein and contains clasts of altered
andesite and various quartz vein fragments. Fluid inclusions in quartz veins sampled over a 300 m vertical
interval have a homogenisation temperature range of 175 to 266C and dilute apparent salinities of <1.0 weight
percent NaCl equivalent. This overlaps with the temperatures inferred from clay minerals with illite having
formed at >220C and grading into illite-smectite and local smectite which formed at <220 and <150C,
respectively. The assemblage of quartz, adularia, chlorite, illite, illite-smectite and pyrite formed from upwelling
alkali chloride waters, with the lack of calcite further inferring low concentrations of aqueous CO2. In contrast,
late kaolinite, cristobalite and alunite formed from descending steam-heated acid-sulfate waters. Overall, the
Favona and Waihi deposits are interpreted to have formed at similar levels in a single low relief hydrothermal
system, with each deposit representing a distinct zone of fluid upflow.

Introduction
Favona is a newly discovered Au-Ag vein of the
low-sulfidation epithermal type that occurs less than
1 km southeast of the world-class Waihi deposit,
New Zealand (Fig. 1). This paper describes the
geology, alteration, breccias and presents fluid
inclusion results for the Favona vein; extending a
previous study of the Moonlight, Cowshed,
Gladstone, Amaranth and Union veins (Simpson and
Mauk, 2001). Finally, we make a comparison with
alteration and fluid inclusion results for the Waihi
deposit in order to evaluate the paleohydrology of
the hydrothermal system that formed both
mineralised areas.

Geological Setting
The Favona deposit is located in the southern part of
the Hauraki Goldfield (Fig. 1); a 200 km long by 40
km wide metallogenic province that contains the
greatest concentration of precious metal deposits in
New Zealand (Brathwaite et al., 1989). Over 50
separate low-sulfidation epithermal gold-silver
deposits comprise the Hauraki Goldfield and are
hosted in a thick succession of Miocene to Pliocene
andesites and rhyolites that overlie a block faulted
basement of Jurassic greywacke (Skinner, 1986).
Gold and silver predominantly occur in steeply
dipping quartz veins mainly hosted in the andesite,
with historic (1862 to 1952) and recent mining

(since 1988) producing some 1.73 million kg of AuAg bullion (Brathwaite et al., 1989).
Epithermal quartz veins of the Favona deposit (Fig.
1), are exclusively hosted in andesite flows and very
local lithic-crystal tuffs of the Waipupu Formation
(c. 7.4 to 6.8 Ma) (Brathwaite and Christie, 1996).
These are unconformably overlain by post-mineral
dacite of the Uretara Formation (c. 5.2 Ma) and later
pyroclastic rocks of the Owharoa (c. 2.9 Ma) and
Waikino Ignimbrite (c. 1.5 Ma) (Brathwaite and
Christie, 1996). Faults in the area are poorly exposed
due to the extensive ignimbrite cover. Most faults
have a northeasterly strike and pre-date or are
synchronous with the formation of the veins
(Brathwaite and McKay, 1989). There are nine main
subparallel veins that comprise the Favona deposit
and include the Union, Mascotte, Amaranth,
Cowshed, Gladstone, Moonlight, Silverton, Favona
and Old Favona (Fig. 1). Both Favona and
Moonlight (the likely strike extension of Favona),
represent new vein discoveries that are amenable to
underground extraction. The Au-Ag bearing quartz
veins mostly strike northeast to southwest, although
the Silverton trends northwest to southeast.
Individual veins typically have a strike length of
~200 m (~600 m Amaranth), a vertical extent
exceeding 250 m (>400 m Moonlight), and are on
average 1 to 3 m wide, although portions are an
exceptional 20 m in width (Favona).

Legend

176E

Owharoa and Waikino Ignimbrites

(rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks)

Hauraki Goldfield

Auckland

Waihi area

Uretara Formation
(dacite)

Quartz vein

Waipupu Formation
(andesite)

Cross sections

a
rt h
Ma

Favona
Deposit
Em

e
pir

Ed
wa
rd

Waihi Deposit

Union
tte
co
th
as
an
M
ar
Am

d
he
ws
Co
.
9
1 0

500 m

12 0

on
ert
Silv

l
ya
Ro

ona

Open pit
outline

Fav

200 km

100

gh
nli
oo
M
20

The veins consist of colloform-crustiform banded

quartz, vein breccias and locally abundant quartzpseudomorphed platy calcite (Hollinger and Mauk;
2001). Banded veins are predominantly composed of
quartz (>92-96 %) together with minor illite,
interstratified illite-smectite, chlorite, adularia and
corrensite. Sulfides comprise <1 volume percent of
the veins and are dominated by pyrite and lesser
marcasite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and galena.
Electrum is the only gold-bearing mineral, although
silver is also found in tetrahedrite, acanthite, and rare
naumannite (Hollinger and Mauk, this volume). The
veins and alteration from stratigraphic constraints
formed between 7.4 and 5.2 Ma and overlap with KAr ages of 7.2 and 6.6 Ma for wallrock adularia from
the Waihi deposit (Brathwaite and McKay, 1989).

Hydrothermal Alteration
Hydrothermal alteration and breccias were examined
along two drill line cross sections (1200 and 1000m
N) that transect the Favona vein. Wall rocks
surrounding the vein are typically intensely altered
(>98 to 100 %), with all igneous minerals except
quartz replaced by hydrothermal minerals. The wall
rocks are replaced by a variety of alteration minerals
with the most significant discussed below.

0m

60
0m

0m

0m

G
lad
st
on
e

Old Favona

38S

Fig 1. Surface geological map of the

Waihi area showing the location and
various veins comprising the Favona and
Waihi deposits. The inset shows the
location of the Waihi area within the
North Island, New Zealand. The two
cross sections across the Favona vein
(1200 and 100m N) are presented in
figure 2. Hydrothermal alteration on the
600 and 200m N sections was
investigated in a previous paper by
Simpson and Mauk (2001).

at depth. Both adularia and albite replace plagioclase

phenocrysts and have subsequently been variably
altered to either illite or illite-smectite.
Chlorite, Chlorite-smectite and Corrensite
Chlorite is mainly restricted to the footwall of the
Favona vein and at depth, whereas sporadic
interstratified chlorite-smectite and corrensite appear
in the hanging wall (Fig. 2). Chlorite is a common
mineral that replaces augite and hypersthene
phenocrysts and the groundmass of volcanic rocks.
Illite, Interstratified illite-smectite and Smectite
Illite and interstratified illite-smectite are common
clay minerals comprising up to 30 percent of the
rock by volume. Illite mainly occurs in the footwall
of the Favona vein and at depth (Fig. 2), whereas
illite-smectite, which typically contains 10 to 20
percent smectite, is restricted to the hanging wall.
Locally, the illite-smectite at shallow levels contains
greater amounts of smectite, up to 70 percent, and on
the 1000m N section appears to grade into marginal
smectite. Both illite and illite-smectite replace
plagioclase, adularia and flood the groundmass.
Calcite

Quartz
Quartz is a ubiquitous alteration mineral that
replaces the groundmass and forms 50 to 60 percent
of the rocks by volume. Quartz also prominently
forms colloform banded veins of the Favona vein.
Adularia and Albite
Hydrothermal adularia is a common and widespread
alteration mineral that surrounds the Favona vein
(Fig. 2). By contrast, hydrothermal albite is
extremely rare, coexisting with adularia sporadically

Calcite is only present in two samples at depth and is

late stage overprinting both adularia and illite.
Kaolinite, Cristobalite and Alunite
Minor amounts of kaolinite, often together with
cristobalite, overprint the above minerals at shallow
elevations. Previous investigations by Oldfield
(1990) and Brathwaite (pers. comm., 2001) have
also found alunite in association with the kaolinite.

Cross section 1200m N

Cross section 1000m N

Ig
Ignimbrite

1100m RL

1100m RL
Ignimbrite

Pale
oso
l

Dacite

Dacite

Paleosol

Hydrothermal
Breccia

Hydrothermal
Breccia

1000m RL
(sea level)

Andesite

1000m RL
(sea level)

Andesite

900m RL

900m RL

Adularia
Albite
800m RL

1100m RL

1100m RL

1000m RL
(sea level)

1000m RL
(sea level)

900m RL

900m RL

800E

600E

Cross section 1200m N

700E

50 m

900E

800E

700E

600E

Cross section 1000m N

Chlorite
Chlorite-smectite

Chlorite
Chlorite-smectite
800m RL

Cross section 1200m N

1100m RL

1100m RL

1000m RL
(sea level)

1000m RL
(sea level)

900m RL

900m RL

Illite
Illite-smectite
Smectite

900E

800E

Illite
Illite-smectite
Smectite

800m RL

0
800E

50 m
900E

800E

700E

600E

50 m

Cross section 1000m N

700E

800m RL

700E

600E

900E

800E

50 m

600E

700E

600E

50 m
900E

800m RL

50 m

900E

800m RL

Adularia
Albite

Fig 2. West-east subsurface cross sections along the 1200 and 1000m N drill lines showing A & B) the
distribution of replacement adularia, C & D), chlorite, interstratified chlorite-smectite / corrensite and E & F)
illite, interstratified illite-smectite and smectite.

Hydrothermal Breccias
Polymict matrix-supported hydrothermal breccias
occur above and to the east of the Favona vein. The
breccia is comprised of subangular to subrounded
clasts (up to 15 cm in diameter) of andesite altered to
quartz, adularia, illite-smectite, pyrite and various
vein fragments of colloform-crustiform banded,
massive and rare quartz-pseudomorphed platy
calcite. The breccia matrix is locally intensely
silicified with abundant pyrite, although elsewhere it
is intensely clay (illite-smectite) altered. Limited
intersections in drill core suggest that the breccia has
a vent-like structure.

Fluid Inclusions
Microthermometric measurements were made on
inclusions in quartz and platy calcite. Most
inclusions are two-phase and liquid-rich, although
rare two-phase vapour-rich inclusions also occur in
the platy calcite and are indicative of boiling.
Secondary fluid inclusions in quartz sampled over a
vertical interval of ~300 m have a homogenisation
temperature (Th) range of 175 to 266C, and
generally increase in temperature with depth (Fig. 3).
Whereas, primary inclusions in a single sample of
platy calcite have a narrow Th range of 253 to
267C. Final ice melting temperatures for quartz and
platy calcite range from 0.0 to -0.5 and correspond
to dilute apparent salinities of less than 0.9 weight
percent NaCl equivalent.

Discussion
In the following discussion, we consider the
hydrology of the hydrothermal system that formed
the Favona deposit. We also make a comparison
with the nearby Waihi deposit and comment on the
hydrothermal system that formed both deposits.
Overall, the alteration minerals and zonation patterns
described here are very similar to those determined
for the Moonlight, Cowshed, Amaranth Gladstone,
and Union veins (Simpson and Mauk 2001). Both
the Moonlight and Cowshed veins are surrounded by
widespread adularia and form the dividing boundary
for clay minerals with illite and chlorite restricted to
the footwall and illite-smectite in the hanging wall.
By contrast, the Amaranth and Union vein are
surrounded by adularia, chlorite, illite and pyrite
with local albite and incipient epidote.
Temperature of vein formation and alteration
The inclined zonation of illite to the west grading
into illite-smectite and smectite at shallow levels to
the east (Fig. 2), is similar to the pattern of these
minerals in geothermal systems, where clay
mineralogy commonly correlates with temperature.
Illite typically forms above 220C, illite-smectite
between 150 to 220C, and smectite at less than

150C (Reyes, 1990). This temperature range

overlaps with those determined from fluid inclusions
and accordingly the broad clay mineral zonation
reflects paleothermal gradients of >220 to the west
and cooler conditions of <150C towards the east.
Composition of hydrothermal waters
The alteration assemblage of quartz, adularia, albite,
chlorite, illite, illite-smectite and pyrite reflects
formation from upwelling near-neutral to weakly
alkaline chloride water (Simmons and Browne,
2000), with the absence of calcite further implying
that these waters contained low concentrations of
aqueous CO2 (Browne and Ellis, 1970). The shallow
overprinting assemblage of kaolinite, cristobalite and
alunite is interpreted to have formed from steamheated acid-sulfate water that originated in the
vadose zone due to the oxidation of H2S (Simmons
and Browne, 2001).
Formation depth below the paleowater table
The formation depth of veins below the paleowater
table was assessed from the trapping temperature of
fluid inclusions in platy calcite. Coexisting liquidrich and vapour-rich inclusions coupled with the
platy habit of the calcite are evidence of boiling and
obviates the need for pressure corrections. Based on
an average trapping temperature of 258C and dilute
salinity (<1 wt. % NaCl equiv.) the paleowater table
occurred at 280 m relative to sea level (rsl), and
indicates there has been some 120 to 185 m of
erosion (Fig. 3). The position of the paleowater table
is very similar to that calculated for platy calcite in
the vicinity of the Moonlight and Amaranth veins
which occur at 265 and 280 m rsl, respectively
(Hollinger and Mauk, 2001).
Comparison with the Waihi Deposit
Alteration and fluid inclusion results determined
here are very similar to those for the nearby Waihi
deposit. Wall rocks at the Waihi deposit are
intensely altered to quartz, adularia, albite, illite,
chlorite, pyrite and lesser calcite; albite coexists with
adularia at depth (Castendyk and Mauk, this volume)
and illite grades into a shallow carapace of illitesmectite with 10 to 20 percent smectite (Brathwaite
and Faure, 2002). Calcite is abundant northeast of
the open pit (~61 % of 111 samples; Jennings,
1991), although is rare in the open pit (< 12 % of
130 samples; Castendyk and Mauk, this volume); the
latter is identical to calcite abundance at Favona (<
12 % of 173 samples). Fluid inclusions in quartz
from the Waihi deposit have a slightly hotter Th
range of 151 to 306C (Jennings, 1991; Panther,
1996; Brathwaite and Faure, 2002) and similar dilute
salinities of less than 1.7 weight percent NaCl
equivalent. Based on Th data the paleowater table at
the Waihi deposit occurred at 300 to 325 m above

sea level (Jennings, 1991; Panther, 1996; Brathwaite

and Faure, 2002) The slight difference in elevation
between the two deposits can easily be accounted for
by ~50 m vertical relief over a distance of 1 km and
suggest that the water table may have been slightly
inclined towards the east-southeast. Accordingly,
quartz veins at the Waihi and Favona deposits have
formed below a relatively flat lying water table with
veins developed over similar vertical intervals and
are unconstrained at depth (165 to -410 m rsl Waihi
and 164 to -365 m rsl Favona).
300
0

280 m paleowater table

Amount of erosion
(~155 to 185 m)

physical size and widths of the quartz veins at

Favona, it is proposed that veins at both the Favona
and Waihi deposits developed within two discrete
centres of major fluid upflow (Fig. 4). The inclined
east dipping boundary between illite and illitesmectite centred along the Favona-Moonlight veins
and gradation of illite-smectite into local peripheral
smectite reflect cooler thermal gradients and the
possible eastern margin of the system.
An interesting and currently unresolvable question is
the time period over which both upflow zones were
active. There are two possibilities; 1) that both
centres were active contemporaneously or 2) that
each formed at different times and reflect the
migration of the geothermal system.

200

100

Present surface
elevation above
fluid inclusions

100
200

Sea
Level
300

-100

Frequency

400

5
0

Inclusion
histogram

-200
Inclusions hosted in:
Quartz
Platy calcite

500

100

150

200

250

300

Temperature (C)

Fig 3. Fluid inclusion Th histograms plotted as a

function of sample depth. The hydrostatic boiling
point for depth curve for pure water is constrained
by inclusions in platy calcite that show evidence of
boiling.
Hydrology of the Waihi-Favona hydrothermal
system
Previous studies of the Favona and Waihi deposits
interpreted that both formed within a single large
(~3.5 x 2.5 km) hydrothermal system (Waihi-Favona
hydrothermal system; Oldfield, 1990; Simpson and
Mauk, 2001; Brathwaite and Faure, 2002). Both vein
systems formed beneath a relatively flat-lying
paleowater table with the veins developed over very
similar extensive vertical intervals of some 500 to
600 m. Accordingly, both vein systems and
surrounding alteration have formed at very similar
depths and temperature-pressure regimes. Based on
these similarities and taking into account the

Hydrologic evolution
hydrothermal system

of

the

Waihi-Favona

Alteration and veins at the Favona and Waihi

deposits formed in the shallow part (< 700 m) of a
hydrothermal system analogous to geothermal
systems in the nearby Taupo Volcanic Zone. The
assemblage of quartz, adularia, albite chlorite, illite
and pyrite formed from upwelling alkali chloride
waters that contained low concentrations of CO2
(Fig. 4). Focussed and episodic boiling of these
chloride waters along open conduits at Favona and
Waihi resulted in the formation of gold and silver
bearing colloform banded quartz veins, vein breccias
and quartz pseudomorphed platy calcite. Gases
exsolved during boiling (mainly CO2 and H2S)
ascended with steam to shallow depths and at
Favona these accumulated to cause fluid
overpressuring and the formation of hydrothermal
breccias. Some of the gasses condensed into
peripheral groundwater to form steam-heated acidsulfate and CO2-rich waters. Waning hydrothermal
activity permitted marginal steam-heated CO2-rich
waters in the northeast sector of the Waihi deposit to
invade the former zone of fluid upflow. In contrast,
descending acid-sulfate waters at the Favona deposit
resulted in local overprinting by kaolinite,
cristobalite and alunite.

Conclusions
The Favona and Moonlight veins represent new vein
discoveries that occur near significant historic and
current mine workings. It is proposed here that the
veins at the Favona and Waihi deposits represent
two main centres of fluid upflow in a single low
relief, hydrothermal system. The discovery of these
two new veins highlights the need to understand the
extent and position of veins within the hydrothermal
system as this can be very useful in identifying
potential areas of additional Au-Ag mineralisation.

NW

SE
150
200

250

500
150C
200C

1000
250C

300C

275C

Boiling point for depth profile

Depth below paleowater table (m)

1500

Alkali chloride
water

Steam-heated
acid-sulfate water

Steam-heated
CO2-rich water

Fig 4. Paleohydrologic reconstruction of the Waihi-Favona hydrothermal system. Both the Favona and Waihi
deposits are interpreted to represent two areas of major alkali chloride water fluid upflow. Local steam-heated
acid-sulfate waters developed above the Favona deposit, whereas steam-heated CO2-rich waters occurred on the
northeastern edge of the Waihi deposit.

Acknowledgements
We thank Newmont Waihi Operations for providing
access to the Favona deposit and permission to
publish. We thank Don McKay and Lorrance
Torckler for geologic maps and for insightful
discussions. This research has been funded by the
New Zealand Foundation for Research Science and
Technology (FRST).

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