Module 3 Slides PDF

Control of
Mobile Robots
Dr. Magnus Egerstedt
Professor
School of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Module 3
Linear Systems
How make mobile robots move in effective, safe,

predictable, and collaborative ways using modern
control theory?
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Lecture 3.1 A Simple Robot

So far we have seen
Controls Basics
Mobile Robots
Need to be a bit more systematic in our discussion
Rich class of models:
LINEAR SYSTEMS!!
General enough
Simple enough
Expressive enough
Relevant enough
Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology
3.1.1
Controlling a Point Mass

Given a point mass on a line whose acceleration is directly
controlled:
u
p = u
p
Want to write this on a compact/general form
x1 = p
x2 = p
x 1 = x2
x 2 = u
3.1.2
On State Space Form

x 1 = x2
x 2 = u
x=
x1
x2
Store these variables in a single, 2-dimensional state

variable
x =
x 1
x 2
y = p = x1 =
x2
u
1 0
0 1
0 0
x1
x2
0
1
3.1.3
On State Space Form
x 1
x 2
x2
u
=
x =
=
y = p = x1 = 1 0 x
Or, even more generally
A=
0
0
1
0
, B=
0 1
0 0
0
1
, C=
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
x1
x2
1 0
0
1
3.1.4
A 2D Point-Mass
px = ux
py = uy
u = (ux , uy )
p = (px , py )
x 1 = px
x2 = px
x 3 = py
x4 = py
u1 = ux
u2 = uy
y 1 = px
y 2 = py
A=
B=
C=
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0 0
1 0
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
3.1.5
LTI Systems
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
This is a so-called LTI (Linear Time-Invariant) System on
State-Space form!
x n
u m
y p
A: nn
B : nm
C : pn
x =
A x + B u
y =
C x
n 1 (n n)(n 1) (n m)(m 1)
n1
n1
p1
(p n)(n 1)
p1
3.1.6
Lecture 3.2 State-Space Models

The general LTI model is
x
y
u
state
output
input
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
Main Question: How should the input be selected?

But First: How can such systems be understood? And where
do they come from?
3.2.1
Example 1: The Car Model

Recall our old friend, the car model
c
v = u v
m
If we care about/can measure the velocity:
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx,
c
A = , B = , C = 1
m
If we care about/can measure the position we have the same

general equation with different matrices:
A=
0
0
, B=
0
c/m
, C=
3.2.2
Example 2: Pendulum
Newtons 2nd tells us that
Not linear!
= sin() + cu
1 sin
For small angles we get x = Ax + Bu, y = Cx
A=
0
g/
1
0
, B=
0
c
, C=
3.2.3
Example 3: Two Simple Robots

Consider two robots on a line
x 2 = u2
x 1 = u1
x1
x =
x2
1 0
0 1
(A = 0)
The Rendezvous Problem: Have them meet at the same

location
Idea: Have them aim towards each other:
u1 = x2 x1
u2 = x1 x2
x =
A closed-loop feedback law!
1
1
1
1
x
3.2.4
Rendezvous
3.2.5
Example 4: Unicycle Robot
(x, y)
x = v
y = v
=
1
x = v cos
y = v sin
=
Not linear!
We need to be more systematic/

clever when it comes to generating
LTI models from nonlinear
Still not linear!
systems!
3.2.6
Lecture 3.3 Linearizations
Classifying systems as linear and non-linear is like

classifying objects in the Universe as bananas and
non-bananas.
-unknown
3.3.1
Linearizations
Given a non-linear model
x = f (x, u), y = h(x)

We want to find a local, linear model around an operating
point
(xo , uo ) (x = xo + x, u = uo + u)
The new equations of motion become
= x x o = x = f (xo + x, uo + u)
x
3.3.2
Linearizations
= f (xo + x, uo + u)
x
Taylor
expansion
f
f
= f (xo , uo ) +
(xo , uo )x +
(xo , uo )u + H.O.T
x
u
A
h
y = h(xo + x) = h(xo ) +
(xo )x + H.O.T
x
Assumptions:
f (xo , uo ) = 0
h(xo ) = 0
3.3.3
Linearizations
x = f (x, u)
y = h(x)
x = xo + x
u = uo + u
f (xo , uo ) = 0
h(xo ) = 0
= Ax + Bu
x
y = Cx
A = f
x (xo , uo )
B
=
u (xo , uo )
C = h
x (xo )
3.3.4
Computing the Jacobians
x n , u m , y p , f =
f
=
x
f1
x1
f2
x1
f1
x2
..
.
fn
x1
nn
..
.
f1
f2
..
.
fn
f1
xn
f2
xn
..
.
fn
xn
h1
..
,
h
=
hm
3.3.5
x n , u m , y p , f =
f
=
x
f1
x1
f2
x1
..
.
fn
x1
f1
x2
..
.
f1
xn
f2
xn
..
.
fn
xn
f
=
u
f1
u1
f2
u1
..
.
fn
u1
..
.
nm
f1
um
f2
um
..
.
fn
um
f1
f2
..
.
fn
h1
..
,
h
=
hm
3.3.5
x n , u m , y p , f =
f
=
x
f
=
u
f1
x1
f2
x1
f1
x2
..
.
fn
x1
f1
u1
f2
u1
..
.
fn
u1
..
.
f1
xn
f2
xn
..
.
..
.
f1
um
f2
um
..
.
fn
um
fn
x
n
h
=
x
h1
x1
..
.
hp
x1
..
.
pn
f1
f2
..
.
fn
h1
..
,
h
=
hm
h1
xn
..
.
hp
xn
3.3.5
Example: Inverted Pendulum
= sin + u cos
x1 =
x2
f (x, u) =
g/ sin(x1 ) + u cos(x1 )
x2 = ,
h(x) = x1
y = x1
(xo , uo ) = (0, 0)
A=
f1
x1
f2
x1
f1
x2
f2
x2
=
(0,0)
0
g/ cos(x1 )
1
0
=
(0,0)
0
g/
1
0
3.3.6
= sin + u cos
x1 =
x2
f (x, u) =
x2 = ,
h(x) = x1
y = x1
(xo , uo ) = (0, 0)
B=
f1
u
f2
u
=
(0,0)
0
cos(x1 )
=
(0,0)
0
1
3.3.6
= sin + u cos
x1 =
x2
f (x, u) =
x2 = ,
h(x) = x1
y = x1
(xo , uo ) = (0, 0)
C=
h
x1
h
x2
(0,0)
3.3.6
Example: Unicycle
(x, y)
x = v cos x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 =
y = v sin y1 = x1 , y2 = x2 , y3 = x3
=
u1 = v, u2 =
(xo , uo ) = (0, 0)
1 0
1
A = 0, B = 0 0 , C = 0
0 1
0
0 0
1 0
0 1
x 2 = 0 ???
3.3.7
Punchlines
Sometimes the linearizations give reasonable models and
sometimes they do not
Despite the fact that they are only local approximations, they
are remarkably useful (when they work)
3.3.8
Lecture 3.4 LTI Systems

u
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
Lets figure out how such systems behave.

Start by ignoring the input term:
x = Ax
x(t0 ) = x0
What is the solution to this system?
3.4.1
Solving the ODE

If everything is scalar:
x = ax, x(t0 ) = x0 x(t) = ea(tt0 ) x0
How do we know?
x(t0 ) = ea(t0 t0 ) x0 = e0 x0 = x0
d
x(t) = aea(tt0 ) x0 = ax
dt
initial conditions
dynamics
For higher-order systems, we just get a matrix version of this
x = Ax, x(t0 ) = x0 x(t) = eA(tt0 ) x0

matrix exponential
3.4.2
Matrix Exponentials
The definition is just like for scalar exponentials
eat =
a k tk
k=0
Derivative:
k!
eAt =
Ak t k
k=0
k!
k=0
k=1
k=1
k=0
kAk tk1
Ak1 tk1
Ak t k
d Ak t k
=0+
=A
=A
dt
k!
k!
(k 1)!
k!
d At
e = AeAt
dt
3.4.3
Solving the Controlled Equation

The matrix exponential plays such an important role that it has
its own name: The State Transition Matrix
eA(tt0 ) = (t, t0 )
d
dt (t, t0 ) = A(t, t0 )
x = Ax x(t) = (t, )x( )
(t, t) = I
But what if we have the controlled system: x = Ax + Bu
Claim:
x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
3.4.4

Claim:
x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +

x(t0 ) = (t0 , t0 )x(t0 ) +
I
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
t0
(t0 , )Bu( )d
t0
x(t0 ) = x(t0 )
3.4.5

Claim:
x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
d
d
x(t) = A(t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
dt
dt
d
dt
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
d
f (t, )d
dt
f (t, )d = f (t, t) +
t0
t0
t
(t, t)Bu(t) +
A(t, )Bu( )d
t0
3.4.6

Claim:
x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
d
d t
x(t) = A(t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
(t, )Bu( )d
dt
dt t0
t
d
x(t) = A (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +
(t, )Bu( )d + Bu(t)
dt
t0
d
x = Ax + Bu
dt
3.4.6
In Summary
x = Ax + Bu, y = Cx
y(t) = C(t, t0 )x(t0 ) + C
(t, )Bu( )d
t0
(t, ) = eA(t )
3.4.7
Lecture 3.5 Stability

First order of business is always trying to figure out if the
system blows up or not
Recall the control design objectives:
Stability
Tracking
Robustness
Other objectives
3.5.1
Scalar Systems
It is useful to start with scalar systems to get some intuition
about what is going on
x = ax x(t) = eat x(0)

150
a>0:
100
50
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
3.5.2
Scalar Systems

1
a<0:
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
3.5.2
Scalar Systems

2
a=0:
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
3.5.2
Three Cases
Asymptotically Stable: x(t) 0, x(0)
Unstable: x(0) : x(t)
Critically Stable: in-between (doesnt blow up but doesnt go
to zero either)
a > 0 : unstable
a < 0 : asymptotically stable
a = 0 : critically stable
3.5.3
From Scalars to Matrices?

x = Ax x(t) = eAt x(0)
We cannot say that A>0, but we can do the next best

thing eigenvalues!
eigenvalue
C
Av = v
eigenvector n
The eigenvalues tell us how the matrix A acts in

different directions (eigenvectors)
In MATLAB:
>> eig(A)
3.5.4
Example
A=
1
0
0
1
1 = 1, 2 = 1, v1 =
1
0
, v2 =
0
1
3.5.5
Stability
x = Ax x(t) = eAt x(0)
Asymptotically Stable (if and only if):
Unstable (if):
Re() < 0, eig(A)
We will design
for this!
eig(A) : Re() > 0
Critically Stable (only if):
Re() 0, eig(A)
Critically Stable (if): one eigenvalue is 0 and the rest have

negative real part OR two purely imaginary eigenvalues and
the rest have negative real part
3.5.6
A Tale of Two Pendula

A=
A=
0 1
1 0
0 1
1 0
1 = j, 2 = j
critically stable!
oscillates!
1 = 1, 2 = 1
unstable!
3.5.7
Lecture 3.6 Swarm Robotics

Lets use the stability results to solve the so-called Rendezvous
Problem in swarm robotics
The setup:
Given a collection of mobile agents who can only measure the relative
displacement of their neighbors (no global coordinates)
This is what agent i can measure
Problem: Have all the agents meet at the same (unspecified) position
3.6.1
The Two-Robot Case

We have already seen the two-robot case (scalar does not
matter)
x 1 = u1
x 2 = u2
x1
x2
If the agents simply aim towards each other:
u1 = x2 x1
u2 = x1 x2
x =
1
1
1
1
3.6.2
The Two-Robot Case

A=
1
1
1
1
1 = 0, 2 = 2
critically stable
Fact: If one eigenvalue is 0 and all others have negative real

part, then the state will end up in the so-called null-space of A
null(A) = {x : Ax = 0}
For this particular A, the null-space is
null(A) = {x : x =
, }
3.6.3
The Two-Robot Case

We have that
x1 , x2 (x1 x2 ) 0
Rendezvous is achieved!
If there are more than two agents, they should probably aim
towards the centroid of their neighbors (or something similar)
x i =
jNi
(xj xi )
3.6.4
The Multi-Robot Case

x i =
jNi
(xj xi )
x1
..
x= .
xN
x = Lx
Fact: If the underlying graph is

connected then the graph Laplacian L
has one zero eigenvalues and the rest
are positive
Critically Stable!
..
null(L) = {x : x = . }
3.6.5
The Multi-Robot Case

x i =
jNi
(xj xi )
x = Lx
xi , i (xi xj ) 0, i, j
Rendezvous is achieved!
3.6.6
Rendezvous
3.6.7
Beyond Rendezvous
3.6.8
And Now For Real

2 Kheperas
Same PID go-to-goal controller as before
The proposed high-level controllers are used to pick a
intermediary goal-points
Robots keep track of position using odometry
Positions are communicated rather than sensed (later)
3.6.9
Lecture 3.7 Output Feedback

So now we know that the first order of business is to stabilize
the system such that all the eigenvalues have negative real part
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
?
3.7.1
Back to the Worlds Simplest Robot

u
x =
y=
p
0 1
0 0
1 0
x+
u > 0 if y < 0
u < 0 if y > 0
p = u
0
1
Idea: Move towards the origin!
u = y
3.7.2
Or, In General
u = Ky = KCx
x = Ax + Bu = Ax BKCx = (A BKC)x
Pick, if possible, K such that
Re() < 0 eig(A BKC)
3.7.3
Back to the Robot

x =
x =
0 1
0 0
0 1
1 0
0
1
eig(A BKC) = j
Critically stable!
3.7.4
Back to the Robot
3.7.5
Whats The Problem?

The problem is that we do not take the velocity into account!
We need to use the full state information in order to stabilize
this system!
Problem 1 (How to do that?)
Problem 2 (But we do not know x, we know y?)
Next Module! (and some next lecture)
3.7.6
Lecture 3.8 State Feedback

Need to stabilize the system such that all the eigenvalues have
negative real part Using state feedback!
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx
?
3.8.1
Closing the Loop

x = Ax + Bu
u = Kx
closed-loop dynamics
x = Ax + Bu = Ax BKx = (A BK)x
Pick, if possible, K such that the closed-loop system
is stabilized, i.e.,
Re(eig(A BK)) < 0
Module 4!
3.8.2
Back to the Robot

u , x 2 , K : 1 2
K = k1 k2
0 1
0
k1
x =
0 0
1
0
1
x =
x
k1 k2
k2
3.8.3
Picking the Gains

In the next module, we will pick gains in a systematic manner,
but for now, lets try
k1 = k2 = 1
0
1
A BK =
1 1
eig(A BK) = 0.5 0.866j
Asymptotically stable!
Damped oscillations
3.8.4
Attempt 1
3.8.5
Another Attempt
k1 = 0.1, k2 = 1
0
1
A BK =
0.1 1
eig(A BK) = 0.1127, 0.8873
Asymptotically stable!
No oscillations
3.8.6
Attempt 2
3.8.7
Eigenvalues Matter
It is clear that some eigenvalues are better than others. Some
cause oscillations, some make the system respond too slowly,
and so forth
In the next module we will see how to select eigenvalues and
how to pick control laws based on the output rather than the
state.
3.8.8

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Control of

How make mobile robots move in effective, safe,

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Lecture 3.1 A Simple Robot

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Controlling a Point Mass

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

On State Space Form

Store these variables in a single, 2-dimensional state

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

On State Space Form

Or, even more generally

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Lecture 3.2 State-Space Models

Main Question: How should the input be selected?

Example 1: The Car Model

If we care about/can measure the position we have the same

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Example 3: Two Simple Robots

The Rendezvous Problem: Have them meet at the same

A closed-loop feedback law!

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Example 4: Unicycle Robot

We need to be more systematic/

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Lecture 3.3 Linearizations

Classifying systems as linear and non-linear is like

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

x = f (x, u), y = h(x)

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Computing the Jacobians

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Computing the Jacobians

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Computing the Jacobians

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Example: Inverted Pendulum

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Example: Inverted Pendulum

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Example: Inverted Pendulum

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Lecture 3.4 LTI Systems

Lets figure out how such systems behave.

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Solving the ODE

x = ax, x(t0 ) = x0 x(t) = ea(tt0 ) x0

For higher-order systems, we just get a matrix version of this

x = Ax, x(t0 ) = x0 x(t) = eA(tt0 ) x0

Solving the Controlled Equation

x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Solving the Controlled Equation

x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology

Solving the Controlled Equation

x(t) = (t, t0 )x(t0 ) +

Magnus Egerstedt, Control of Mobile Robots, Georgia Ins<tute of Technology