HOME WORK TITLE NO.

: 2
COURSE CODE: CAP 306
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: LECT. JASLEEN
DOA:
DOS: OCT 10, 2009
ROLLNO: D3803A03
SECTION NO: D3803

DECLARATION:

I declare that this assignment is my individual work. I have not copied from
any other students’ work or from any other source, except where due
acknowledgement is made explicitly in the text, not has any part being
written for me by other person.

KIRTI SINGH

Evaluator comments…………………………………………………………………………..

Marks obtained ………. out of …………….

 PART A

Ques1. The Nyquist theorem is one of the deciding factors in data

communication. The fiber optics as well as the copper wires are
communication mediums. Do you think the theorem is valid for the fiber
optics or for the copper wires?

Ans: - Nyquist theorem says that if you have a function whose Fourier spectrum does
not contain any sines or cosines above f, then by sampling the function at a frequency of
2f you capture all the information there is. Thus, the Nyquist theorem is true for all
media.
The concept behind digitizing sound. Working at Bell Labs, Harry Nyquist discovered
that it was not necessary to capture the entire analog waveform; rather samples of the
wave could be taken at various points. He also found that in order to have enough
information in the sample pool to reconstruct the original waveform, the sampling rate
must be at least twice the signal bandwidth.
Nyquist theorem is a sampling theory, doesn't matter what the media is, as long as the
transmission is on a TDM system.
Ques2. Noise affects all the signals which are there in air. There are some
communicating modulation techniques. Noise affects which of the
modulation technique the most.

Ans: - In order to study the effects of noise upon radio communication, an amplitude-
modulation radio system was set up in the laboratory and provision was made for
generating electrical interference and introducing it, together with the speech-
modulated carrier from the transmitter, into the receiver. In addition, arrangements
were made for producing ambient noise at the talkers' and listeners' positions, so that
the separate effects of acoustic noise and radio noise could be compared and their
combined effects could be studied. By means of word articulation tests, the intelligibility
of speech heard over the radio system was determined as a function of signal-to-noise
ratio for each of a number of types of noise. Several principles of noise reduction were
studied, and basic parameters of the radio link were varied systematically so that their
influence upon the effects of noise could be determined. With regard to ambient noise, it
was found that exclusion of noise at the microphone is even more important as a
prerequisite for effective radio communication than it is for effective interphone
communication, especially if either compression or premodulation clipping is employed
in the radio transmitter. Noise exclusion at the listeners' end of the line is also important
because, for optimal intelligibility under difficult conditions, it is necessary for the noise
reaching the ear through or under the earphone cushions to be at least 10 decibels less
intense than the noise coming through the earphones from the receiver. The deleterious
effect of electrical interference was found to depend greatly upon the relation between
certain characteristics of the noise and corresponding characteristics of the receiver
circuits. In general, interferences with continuous spectra are more detrimental than
those with line spectra, and non-impulsive types more detrimental than impulsive types.
Noise-reducing circuits were ineffective against random fluctuation noise, but in the
presence of certain types of impulse interference, limiters and canceling circuits
provided such great improvement in performance that it was possible to maintain
satisfactory communication despite a 35-decibel reduction in carrier intensity. As a
general principle, it appears that, whenever there is a characteristic difference between
the wave forms or the spectra of the signal and the interference, the impairment of
intelligibility by electrical interference may be reduced by employing amplitude-selective
or frequency-selective circuits in the radio receiver.
Ques3. An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal element. If 10,000
signal elements are sent per sec, find the Baud Rate and Bit Rate?

Ans: -
Given:
Number of bits in each signal element= 4
Number of signal elements sent each second= 10000

Now, baud rate= number of signal elements, and

Bit rate= baud rate × number of bits per signal element.

So baud rate= 10000 bauds per second

Bit rate= 10000 × 4= 40000 bps
Ques4. What are the reasons for the imperfection caused in transmission
media? How the perfection can be measured?

Ans: - A device including an element for receiving an electrical signal comprising a

high-frequency data signal component and a low-frequency power supply component.
The electrical signal is conveyed in an electrical cable of an electrical installation. The
device further includes impedance matching operative in a band of frequencies of the
high-frequency signal component, the impedance matching being determined as a
function of one or more characteristics of the electrical cable. Such a device can be
integrated into a socket outlet or an electrical device or take the form of a socket
adaptor.
Signals travel through the transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfections
cause impairment in signal. This means that the signal at the beginning and end of the
medium are not same. What is sent in and what is received. There are three types of
impairment usually occur. These are attenuation, distortion and noise. Attenuation
means the loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy so that it can overcome the resistance of the
medium. That is why a wire carrying electrical signals gets worm, if not hot, after a
while. Some of the electrical energy in signal is converted to heat. To compensate for
this loss, the amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Distortion means that signal changes its form or shape. Distortion occurs in a composite
signal that is made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own
propagation speed through a medium and, therefore its own delay in arriving at the final
destination. Noise is another problem occurred during the transmission of data. Several
types of noise like thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise may
corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which
creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise comes from
the sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as a sending antenna and
transmission medium acts as the receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on
other.
Ques5. There are numerous multiplexing techniques available. What in
your opinion is the most appropriate multiplexing technique for the fibre
optics as well as copper wires?

Ans: - Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing is the process where multiple channels are combined for transmission over
a common transmission path.

There are two predominant ways to multiplex:

• Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Time Division Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

In FDM, multiple channels are combined onto a single aggregate signal for
transmission. The channels are separated in the aggregate by their FREQUENCY.

There are always some unused frequency spaces between channels, known as "guard
bands". These guard bands reduce the effects of "bleedover" between adjacent channels,
a condition more commonly referred to as "crosstalk".

FDM was the first multiplexing scheme to enjoy wide scale network deployment, and
such systems are still in use today. However, Time Division Multiplexing is the preferred
approach today, due to its ability to support native data I/O (Input/Output) channels.

Time Division Multiplexing

Timeplex is probably the best in the business (IMHO) at Time Division Multiplexing, as
it has 25+ years or experience. When Timeplex was started by a couple of ex-Western
Union guys in 1969 it was among the first commercial TDM companies in the United
States. In fact, "Timeplex" was derived from TIME division multiPLEXing!

In Time Division Multiplexing, channels "share" the common aggregate based upon
time
Ques6. While transferring the data from the transmission medium there
are various aspects of your data getting tempered by other users? What in
your opinion is the most secure and insecure transmission medium? Justify
your answer with an example.

Ans: - There are three broad categories of media: Wire, fiber and wireless. On a very
high level, it could be said that fiber is the most secure as it is the hardest to tap. Cable is
a little more secure, as physical access is not hard to tap and sniff the passing traffic.
Then there is wireless, it broadcasts point-to-point or well beyond the facility in all
possible directions. Anyone that can pick up the signal may be able to sniff sensitive
information. Although there is a second item we must consider, and that is the physical
and technical controls that have been implemented. Wireless can be made more secure
by using WPA, encryption or 802.1x. A cabled network can be fully switched, use
encryption and have implemented VLANS. So the point would be that even seemingly
weaker systems can have controls implemented to make their security more robust.
 PART B

Ques1. Assume a stream is made of ten 0s .Encode this stream, using

following encoding schemes .How many can you find for each scheme?
• Unipolar
• NRZ-L
• NRZ-I
• RZ
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester

Ans: -

Unipolar: -

NRZ-L: -

NRZ-I: -
0 0

0 0
Ques2. Two channels, one with bit rate of 150kbps and another with a bit
rate of 140kbps, are to be multiplexed using pulse stuffing TDM with no
synchronization bits. Answer the following:
• What is the size of frame in bits
• What is the frame rate?
• What is the duration of a frame?
• What is the data rate?
Ans: -
Ques3. Contrast & compare sampling rate & received signal?

Ans: - sampling rate: The sampling rate, sample rate, or sampling frequency
defines the number of samples per second (or per other unit) taken from a continuous
signal to make a discrete signal. For time-domain signals, it can be measured in samples
per second (S/s), or hertz (Hz). The inverse of the sampling frequency is the sampling
period or sampling interval, which is the time between samples.

The concept of sampling frequency can only be applied to samplers in which samples are
taken periodically. Some samplers may sample at a non-periodic rate.

Sampling theorem

The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that perfect reconstruction of a signal is

possible when the sampling frequency is greater than twice the maximum frequency of
the signal being sampled, or equivalently, when the Nyquist frequency (half the sample
rate) exceeds the highest frequency of the signal being sampled. If lower sampling rates
are used, the original signal's information may not be completely recoverable from the
sampled signal.

For example, if a signal has an upper band limit of 100 Hz, a sampling frequency greater
than 200 Hz will avoid aliasing and allow theoretically perfect reconstruction.
Also called a sample rate. Typically expressed in samples per second, or hertz (Hz), the
rate at which samples of an analog signal are taken in order to be converted into digital
form. A PC’s sound card typically will sample a received analog signal, such as through a
microphone, and digitize it for use by the computer. A higher sampling rate provides a
better quality reproduction than a lower sampling rate.

In telecommunications, received signal strength indication (RSSI) is a

measurement of the power present in a received radio signal.

RSSI is generic radio receiver technology metric, which is usually invisible to the user of
device containing the receiver, but is directly known to users of wireless networking of
IEEE 802.11 protocol family.
RSSI is often done in the intermediate frequency (IF) stage before the IF amplifier. In
zero-IF systems, it is done in the baseband signal chain, before the baseband amplifier.
RSSI output is often a DC analog level. It can also be sampled by an internal ADC and
the resulting codes available directly or via peripheral or internal processor bus.
Ques4. Synchronization is the problem in data communication. Explain?

Ans: - synchronization between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue in

data transmission. if the multiplexer and demultiplexer are out of synchronization a bit
belonging to one channel may be received by the wrong channel. For this reason, one or
more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These bits,
called framing bit, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allow the demultiplexer to
synchronize with the incoming steam so that it can separate the time slots accurately. in
most cases, this synchronization information consists of one bit
Ques5. Can bit rate be less than the pulse rate? Why or why not?

Ans: - In telecommunications and computing, bitrate (sometimes written bit rate,

data rate or as a variable R or fb) is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed
per unit of time.

The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second (bit/s or bps) unit, often in
conjunction with an SI prefix such as kilo- (kbit/s or kbps), mega- (Mbit/s or Mbps),
giga- (Gbit/s or Gbps) or tera- (Tbit/s or Tbps). 1 kbit/s has almost always meant 1,000
bit/s, not 1,024 bit/s, also before 1999 when SI prefixes were defined for units of
information in an IEC standard.

The formal abbreviation for "bits per second" is "bit/s" (not "bits/s"). In less formal
contexts the abbreviations "b/s" or "bps" are often used, though this risks confusion
with "bytes per second" ("B/s", "Bps").
A pulse generating system generating a series of relatively low-speed or low-frequency
pulses from a high-speed stable crystal oscillator, utilizes a 66-stage MOS shift register
as a divisor. A second source of very high-frequency clock pulses provides a control of
the pulse width of the several pulses within the pulse generating system. Disclosed
herein are two systems which function in a similar manner and each are provided with
suitable control members to control the generation of the lower frequency output pulses
from the pulse generating system.
Ques6. A signal is sampled. Each sample represents one of four levels. How
many bits are needed to represent each sample? If sampling rate is 8000
samples per second, what is the bit rate?

Ans: - first of all, we need to calculate number of bits per sample. Actually, we need 2
bits. One bit for the sign and 1 bit for the value. A 3-bit value can represent 23=8 levels,
which is more than what we need.

Therefore, number of bits per sample= 2

Sampling rate= 8000 samples per second [given]

Now, bit rate= sampling rate × number of bits per second

Therefore, bit rate= 80000 × 2

= 160000 kbps