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Transformer Overview
- Basic Construction
- Lightning / LV Surges
- Voltage Regulation / Flicker
- Life Cycle Costing / DOE Efficiency Ruling
10:00-10:15
Break
10:15-12:15
2:45 3:00
Exams/Discussions/wrap-up
Generation
Transmission
Substation
Distribution - Outdoors
Distribution - Downtown
Distribution - Indoors
Transformer Function
SS
SS
SS
- natural impedance's
typically 1.5-2.0%
for SPS construction...
SS
- natural impedance's
typically 1.5-2.0%
for SPS construction...
P S
- good dielectric
strength...
S P P S
- typically good on
thermal performance...
- natural impedance's
typically 2.5-3.5%...
- MUST be interlaced...
S P
P S
S P P S
S P P S
S P
Disk Windings
Pan-Cake Windings
Transformer Function
D
x H = J + t
x E = - t
Amperes Law
Faradays Law of Induction
D=
=0
where,
H = Magnetic Field Strength
E = Electric Field
D = Electric Displacement
J = current density
= Magnetic Field
= Charge Density
Transformer Ratings
Transformers are rated in Volt-Amperes @ a specified Maximum
Average Winding Temperature Rise in degrees Centigrade.
For example, a 25 kVA 65 Deg C rise transformer is rated to transform 25,000 Volt
Amperes from one voltage/current level to another voltage/current level WITHOUT
exceeding an Average Winding Rise of 65 Deg C above the Ambient.
Vpri
Npri
Vsec
Nsec
N = turns ratio =
Vpri = Vsec x N
and
Npri
Nsec
Isec = Ipri x N
Transformer - Turns/Volts/Current
25 kVA
120
7200
240
120
3240 turns
N =
Isec =
Ipri =
108 turns
3240
108
= 30 : 1
25,000 VA
240 V
25,000 VA
7200 V
= 104.7 Amps
= 3.47 Amps
Iex
A
Vrated
NL Watts
%Iex =
Iex
Irated
x 100
low impedance
bolted short...
LL Watts
%IZ =
VIZ
Vrated
x 100
Rated Current is put into the HV terminals with the LV Shorted... the
Load Loss and Impedance Voltage (IZ) are measured...
%Reg = pf x IR + q x IX +
%IX =
IZ2
q =
IR2
pf2
( pf x IX - q x IR)2
200
xK
(vector form)
Ztscalar = Rt2 + Xt 2
then,
ISC AMPS =
kV x 1000
Zt
scalar
tscalar = tan-1(Xt/Rt )
(scalar form)
(scalar form)
In addition to the TRANSFORMER, the LV Fault Current is also limited by the Impedances of the
SYSTEM to/from the Transformer, the LV circuit to/from the Fault, and the impedance of the
FAULT complexity is added with Line-Line and/or Line to Neutral Faults and the connections (Y-Y
or Y-D)... And of course the transformation base levels
Transformers - Efficiency
Efficiency =
Power OUT
Power IN
OR
H2
H1
H2
> 200kVA
> 8,660kV
X3
X2
ADDITIVE
X1
X1
X2
X3
SUBTRACTIVE
Transformer Polarity indicates the direction of current flow through the HV windings
with respect to the direction of the current flow through the LV windings
Polarity is either ADDITIVE or SUBTRACTIVE
40
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
10
100
1000
16.00%
14.00%
12.00%
10.00%
8.00%
6.00%
4.00%
2.00%
0.00%
120.00%
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
Cumulative Pct
100.00%
R/W
Emerg FPC
Const Equip
Emerg- Cust
Dig-In
Vehicle
Misc
UG PRI
UG Sec
OH Sec
Overload
Connector
Storm
Unknown
Tree
Lightning
Defective Equip
0.00%
Animal
Pct
Transformer Outages
1995-1996
Cause Code
Lightning
Lightning acts as a current source which deposits a large charge of electrons on the
power line. This charge appears as a current wave propagating along the power
line.
The current wave has a very steep wave front, i.e., high di/dt. The power system is
highly inductive. The voltage produced is V=L di/dt. This can result in voltages
approaching 1 million volts.
Such voltages will fail the insulation system of transformers and other equipment.
MOV Arrester
Typical MOV Arrester characteristics 10 kA = 30 kV
Voltage
ar
e
in
to
s
i
s
Re
Current
kV
Voltage
Arrester Voltage
Across
=
+
Transformer Lead Voltage
Transformer Voltage = 30 kV + 48 kV = 78 kV
for a 10 kA stroke with a 20 kA/usec rise time.
The Transformer BIL for 12470 GRDY/7200 is 95 kV...
The probability of a stroke > 10 kA is 95%...
30kV
MOV
Arrester
#6 Copper
Lead Length +/- 6 feet
Current
Voltage
= Arrester Voltage
Across
Transformer
MOV Arrester
Tank mounted or under oil arresters cannot be used on wye-delta banks due to
single phase switching over voltages. Under Oil arresters are used only on
single bushing transformers.
48
OVRLOAD
5%
SEC
10%
NONE
4%
HVPROB
43%
LVPROB
19%
LVPOS
17%
LEAD
2%
LEAD
1%
OVRLOAD
1%
LVPOS
18%
NONE
11%
LVPROB
36%
P S
- good dielectric
strength...
S P P S
- typically good on
thermal performance...
- natural impedance's
typically 2.5-3.5%...
- MUST be interlaced...
S P
- natural impedance's
typically 1.5-2.0%
for SPS construction...
SS
SS
SS
- natural impedance's
typically 1.5-2.0%
for SPS construction...
SS
H1
HV
LV
LV
H2
During the 1970s, the installed failure rate of distribution transformers began to rise
dramatically!!!
Teardown analysis began to show a special failure signature which became known
as The Anonymous Failure this is a turn-turn or layer-layer dielectric failure
near the grounded end of a single bushing transformer
And this seemed to be associated with the Non-Interlaced Shell Type Construction
H1
HV
LV
LV
H2
Arrester
E=L
di
dt
The majority of LV surges probably enter the Transformer through the LV ground
connections... either due to Primary Arrester operation or from the ground following
direct or nearby strokes...
HV
LV
LV
kV
HV winding layers
H1
The rapidly changing magnetic field induces a very high voltage in the primary
winding...
The lightning arrester connected across H1 to H2 does not see any voltage...
kV
HV winding layers
H1
The high layer to layer stress in the HV winding will cause coil failure near either
end of the coil... but usually at or near the grounded end of the winding...
HV
LV
LV
LV
LV
Non-Interlaced
290 kV winding voltage
to ground...
kV
Interlaced
3 kV to ground...
H2
HV winding layers
H1
Interlacing the LV winding balances the winding and significantly reduces the
stress due to LV Surges...
Non-Interlaced
Peak 80 kV
Interlaced
Peak 1 kV
H2
HV winding layers
H1
Interlacing the LV winding balances the winding and significantly reduces the
stress due to LV Surges...
1.0 %
0.5 %
Failure
Rate
interlaced types
non-interlaced types
Lightning - Summary
The proper application and choice of Arresters can reduce the failure
rate significantly especially in the Southeastern USA
Arrester Lead length can be very important
About 50% of lightning surges come from the low side on the smaller
kVA transformers, Interlaced windings and/or LV Arresters can reduce
winding failures
68
(vector form)
Ztscalar = Rt2 + Xt 2
then,
ISC AMPS =
kV x 1000
Zt
scalar
tscalar = tan-1(Xt/Rt )
(scalar form)
(scalar form)
In addition to the TRANSFORMER, the LV Fault Current is also limited by the Impedances of the
SYSTEM to/from the Transformer, the LV circuit to/from the Fault, and the impedance of the
FAULT complexity is added with Line-Line and/or Line to Neutral Faults and the connections (Y-Y
or Y-D)... And of course the transformation base levels
To translate the %Impedance ( %IZ ) into Real and Reactive components, we use the transformer impedance factor, Ft.
Ft = [ [(Secondary voltage in kV)^2] / kVA rating of Transformer ] x 10
Rt = Ft x %IR ohms
Xt = Ft x %IX ohms
%IR and %IX are calculated from the Load Loss watts (LL) and Impedance (%IZ) of the specific transformer.
%IR = LL / (kVA x 10)
%IX = sqrt[ %IZ^2 - %IR^2 ]
The conductor length is multiplied by 2 as the current must have a return path. If the return path conductor is not the same
size and characteristics as the line conductor the calculation must be adjusted accordingly.
Flicker
Flicker is typically the voltage drop caused by the Locked Rotor Current
required to start a air-conditioner compressor motor.
The duration of this current for residential air conditioners varies from
4 to 20 cycles. A voltage drop occurs in each component of the system,
i.e., Transformer and Conductors, based on the magnitude of the current
and the impedance of the components.
The most common occurrence is during the startup of residential air
conditioners. Customers see this as a dimming of the lights or, under
extreme conditions, as a shrinking of the TV picture.
Y1
Volts
400
Y2
Amps
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
-100
-100
-200
-200
-300
-400
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
Channel A (V)
0.25
0.30
Channel A (I)
0.35
0.40
-300
0.45 Sec.
Rotor
Start Winding
Run Winding
Start
Run
Line
Potential Relay
Start Capacitor
Start
Run
Line
200.0
150.0
LRA
100.0
50.0
0.0
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Tons
4.5
5.0
5.5
Potential Relay
Start Capacitor
Start
Run
Line
Y1
Volts
400
Y2
Amps
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
-100
-100
-200
-200
-300
-300
-400
0.00
0.05
0.10
Channel A (V)
0.15
Channel A (I)
0.20
-400
0.25 Sec.
Summary
83
Capital Dollars
The purchase cost of a transformer is amortized over the
expected life. This is done by applying a Fixed Charge
Rate (FCR) to the purchase price...
Price x FCR = Annualize Fixed Cost
The result is an annual cost which is uniform for the life of
the unit...
FCR (%) = Fixed Charge Rate - The cost of carrying a capital investment
made up of:
- The weighted cost of capital (stocks, bonds)
- Depreciation on the investment
- Taxes (Income, Ad valorem, Gross Receipts)
- Insurance
Expense Dollars
Expense costs such as Cost of Losses or future Change-Out are
levelized to an annual form with the Capital Recovery Factor which
considers only the cost of money and time
Change Out Cost x CRF = Annualize Change Out Cost
The result is an annual cost which is uniform for the life of
the unit...
Annuity
Present
Value
Future
Value
The A Factor
A = $ per No Load (excitation) Loss Watt
A =
SC + 8760 x EC
1000
$/watt
where,
SC = Avoided Cost of System Capacity ($/kW-yr) - - The levelized avoided
(incremental) cost of generation, transmission, and primary distribution
capacity required to supply the next kW of load to the distribution
transformer coincident with the peak load.
EC = Avoided Cost of Energy ($/kWh-yr) - - The levelized avoided (incremental)
cost for supplying the next kWh, which may be produced by the utilitys
generating units or purchased from an energy supplier.
The B Factor
B = $ per Load (winding) Loss Watt
B =
1000
where,
RF = Peak Loss Responsibility Factor - Defines the relationship between the
transformer peak load and the transformer load at the time of system peak load.
LsF = Loss Factor - A ratio of the annual average load losses to the peak
value of load losses on the transformer. LsF = [(K2n*tn)/t]/K2peak
NOTE: An empirical relationship for loss factor for RESIDENTIAL transformers is the
Propst/Ganger relationship: LsF = 0.15 (Load Factor) + 0.85 (Load Factor)2
Evaluation Forms
The Transformer Evaluation Equation may be written as:
Type
description
form
- EFC
1.0
Capital form
- PW
Present Worth
FCR/CRF
Expense form
- AC
Annual
FCR
Annuity form
Band of Equivalence
The BOE was described by the Shincovich and Stephens (EEI 1981)
as a way to address the uncertainty of the future estimates on factors
such as Energy Costs, Loading, etc 1% was suggested!
Uncertainty of course can result in HIGHER or LOWER future costs!
However, this idea has been expanded as a tool to force lower first prices
at the expense of future costs 3-10% BOE is not uncommon!
BOE reduces the actual value of the Loss Evaluation Factors
Typically, a 3% BOE effectively reduces the A&B Factors by or more!
A & B Variance
95
http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/
Distribution Transformers
The first step in developing energy conservation standards was the
Secretarial determination in 1997 that, "Based on its analysis of the
information now available, the Department has determined that energy
conservation standards for transformers appear to be technologically
feasible and economically justified, and are likely to result in significant
savings" 62 FR 54809 (October 22, 1997).
The Department of Energy (DOE) conducted two rulemakings for
Distribution Transformers:
an energy conservation standard
a test procedure
http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/
http://www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/appliance_standards/
TSL-1 = NemaTP1
TSL-2 = 1/3 between TP1 and TSL-4
TSL-3 = 2/3 between TP1 and TSL-4
TSL-4 = minimum Life Cycle Cost
TSL-5 = max Energy Savings with no change in LCC
TSL-6 = max Energy Savings
98.70%
98.80%
98.90%
99.00%
99.00%
99.10%
99.20%
99.20%
99.30%
99.40%
99.40%
TSL-2
98.40%
98.56%
98.73%
98.85%
98.90%
99.04%
99.10%
99.21%
TSL-3
98.43%
98.59%
98.76%
98.99%
99.04%
99.18%
99.24%
99.35%
TSL-4
98.46%
98.62%
98.79%
99.14%
99.19%
99.33%
99.39%
99.50%
98.91%
99.01%
99.08%
99.17%
99.23%
99.32%
99.24%
99.29%
99.36%
99.40%
99.44%
99.09%
99.19%
99.26%
99.35%
99.41%
99.50%
99.42%
99.47%
99.42%
99.46%
99.50%
99.27%
99.37%
99.44%
99.53%
99.59%
99.68%
99.60%
99.65%
99.48%
99.50%
99.55%
@ 50% Load
The DOE rule resolves the issue between Single and Three Phase designs by
using the same Efficiency Value for the Single Phase design for the equivalent 3
Phase kVA
For example, the required efficiency value for a 3 150 kVA transformer is the same as a 50 kVA 1
unit. (3 x 50 = 150 kVA)
3
3
3
3
TSL-2
between NEMA TP-1 & TSL-2
slightly greater than TSL-3
TSL-3
45-300 kVA
500 kVA
750 kVA
1000-2500 kVA
For the final rule, DOE set average A & B values of A=3.85 and B=1.16 $/watt 1 and B=1.93 $/watt 3
TSL-2
TSL-3
TSL-4
TSL-5
TSL-6
1.77
2.39
3.15
3.63
6.9
9.77
123.1
167.3
218.5
252.7
483.1
679.5
34.1
46.4
60.9
71
134.9
188
Hg (t) reductions
3.7
4.3
4.9
6.4
6.5
Conclusion
Q/A?
Don A. Duckett, P.E.
Technical Sales Engineer
HD Supply Utilities
(407) 402-0944
Don.Duckett@ieee.org