Refinery Products Blending

Tri TRUONG HUU

Tel: 0932 445 199
Mail: thtri@dut.udn.vn

Vung Tau, 2015

About Instructor
Current job position:
Lecturer - Researcher, Chemical Engineering - Oil and Gas
University of Science and Technology - The university of Da Nang

Studies:
2011-2012: Postdoctorant, LMSPC - University of Strasbourg - France;
2008-2011: Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical Engineening - University of
Strasbourg - France;
2000-2001: Master of science in Petroleum Products and Motor, IFP - France;
1997: Engineer in Chemistry of Oil Refining and Petrochemistry, Hanoi
University of Technology.

EMERGENCY EVACUATION INSTRUCTION

Whenever you hear the building alarm or are informed of a
general building emergency:
Leave the building immediately, in an orderly fashion;
Do not use elevators;
Follow quickest evacuation route from where you are;
If the designated assembly point/area is unsafe or blocked due to
the emergency, proceed to the alternate assembly point;
Report to your Work Area Rep at the assembly point to be checked
off as having evacuated safely;
Specific safety requirements for TODAY.
Today: NO testing of fire alarm systems

COURSE OUTLINE

Total duration: 1 day;

Lecture: 1 day;

OUTLINE
1. Energy and environmental issues;
2. Classification of fuels;
3. Product specifications (TCVN system);
4. Product blending system;
5. Fuel additives;
6. Petroleum Products blending;
7. Blending calculation and learner programming.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
When you complete this module you will be able:
To grasp main characteristics of petroleum products and
their significance in regard to needs of end-users;
To grasp main specifications of petroleum products (TCVN);
To grasp the general calculation in a refinery;
To grasp the blending calculation and the product blending
system.

COURSE ASSESSMENT
Lecture:
The multiple-choice (knowledge based questions) section of
the test is scored based on the number of questions you
answered correctly;
Multi-choice test :

questions

Passing grade: 80%;

No additional points are subtracted for questions answered
incorrectly;
Even if you are uncertain about the answer to a question, it is
better to guess than not to respond at all.

INTRODUCTION

Introduction

The worlds primary energy consumption (this value varies

depend on source).

Source : BP 2014

Introduction

Petroleum is one of the most important fuels derived fossil energy

sources;

Petroleum-based fuels have been used to power automotive

vehicles and industrial production for well over 100 years;

A large part of energy consumption is in form of engine fuels;

Fuels for internal combustion engines produced from primarily

sources are composed of combustionable molecules;

Introduction

Different gas, liquid, and solid products are usable as engine

fuels.

These fuels are classified:

Crude oil based: Gasoline, diesel fuels, and any other gas and
liquid products;

Non-crude oil based: Natural gas based fuels (compressed natural

gas (CNG))

Biofuels: methanol, ethanol, any other alcohols and different

mixtures of them; biodiesel; biogas oil (mixtures of iso- and nparaffins from natural tryglicerides).

Introduction
Environmental issues

Soot

C6H6

PM

Sulfur compounds + Oxyen SOx acids

Introduction
European emission standards for light commercial vehicles 1305 kg, g/km

For
Diesel

For Gasoline

Introduction
European emission standards

Introduction

The path toward zero emissions

Introduction

The progression toward zero emissions

Introduction

The path toward zero emissions

Introduction

EU gasoline specifications

Introduction

EU gasoline specifications

Introduction

European Gasoline specifications trends

Introduction

World context:
High
Low
Low

RON,

sulfur content,

benzene content,

Limited

aromatics content,

Limited

olefins content,

No

lead

Introduction

World context:
High octane gasoline requirement:
RON = ... 90 92 95 98

???

Why we need High octane gasoline ?

Introduction
New

gasoline specifications require:

Maintaining a high octane number;

Meeting reduced sulfur content;

Meeting reduced Aromatics and Benzene

specifications;

Meeting reduced Olefines specifications.

I
n
t
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o
d
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n

Introduction

Typicaly gasoline pool

Typicaly gasoline pool

composition in USA

composition in EU

(before 2000)

(before 2000)

Introduction

The mechanism of the development of vehicles and fuels

Introduction

Over the years, fuel specifications have evolved considerably to

meet the changing demands of engine manufacturers and
consumers;

Both engines and fuels have been improved due to

environmental and energy efficiency considerations;

New processes have been developed to convert maximum refinery

streams into useful fuels of acceptable quality at reasonable
refinery margins.

Classification
of fuels

Classification of fuels

The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

Gasoline: A volatile mixture of liquid hydrocarbons generally

containing small amount of additives suitable for use as a fuel in a
spark - ignition internal combustion engine;

Unleaded gasoline: Any gasoline to which no lead have been

intentionally added and which contains not more than 0.013 gram
lead per liter (0.05 g lead/US gal);

E85 (E5) fuel: A blend of ethanol and hydrocarbons in gasoline

with 7585% (<5%) of ethanol. E85 (E5) fuel ethanol must meet
the most recent standard of a region or country;

Classification of fuels

The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

Racing gasoline: A special automotive gasoline that is typically

of lower volatility, has a narrower boiling range, a higher
antiknock index, and is free of significant amounts of oxygenates.
It is designed for use in racing vehicles, which have high
compression engines;

Liquified Petroleum gases: (LPG) Gas phase hydrocarbons,

mainly C3 and in low quantity C4. Their quality is determined by
the country or regional standards.

Classification of fuels

The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

Compressed natural gas (CNG): Predominantly methane

compressed at high pressures suitable as fuel in internal
combustion engine;

Aviation turbine fuel A refined middle distillate suitable for use

as a fuel in an aviation gas turbine engine;

Diesel fuel A middle distillate from crude oil commonly used in

internal combustion engines where ignition occurs by pressure
and not by electric spark.

Classification of fuels

The fuel industry categorizes the different types of fuels as follows:

Low or ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD): Diesel fuel with less

than 50 and 10 mg/kg respectively;

Biodiesel: A fuel based on mono-alkyl esters of long-chain fatty

acids derived from vegetable oils or animal fats. Biodiesel
containing diesel gas oil is a blend of mono-alkyl esters of long
chain fatty acids and diesel gas oil from petroleum. A term B100
is used to describe neat biodiesel used for heating, which does not
contain any mineral oil based diesel fuel.

Product Specifications
Product

ASTM

Description

Specs

Standard Specification for Automotive Spark Ignition

Gasoline

D4814

Jet

D1655

Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuels

Kerosene

D3699

Standard Specification for Kerosene

Diesel

D975

Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils

Fuel Oil

D396

Standard Specification for Fuel Oils

Engine Fuel

NSRPs Specification of LPG

NSRPs Specification of Gasoline

NSRPs Specification of Gasoline

NSRPs Specification of Kerosene

NSRPs Specification of Diesel fuel

NSRPs Specification of Diesel fuel

NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

NSRPs Specification of Jet A1

Aviation Gasoline:BS EN 589:2004

NSRPs Specification of Fuel Oil

NSRPs Specification of Paraxylene

NSRPs Specification of Benzene

Product blending system

Purpose of blending

The process units produce various product components and base

stocks, which must be combined or blended, sometimes with
suitable additives, to manufacture finished products;

These finished products are generally grouped into the broad

categories:

LPG;

Gasoline;

Kerosene, Jet fuel;

Diesel;

Fuel oil, and so forth.

Purpose of blending

Increased operating flexibility and profits result when refinery

operations produce basic intermediate streams that can be
blended to produce a variety of on specification finished
products;

The objective of product blending is to allocate the available

blending components in such a way as to meet product
demands and specifications at the least cost and to produce
incremental products which maximize overall profit.

Purpose of blending

Blending methods normally employed include:

Batch blending;

Partial in-line blending;

Continuous in line blending.

Petroleum products are shipped in bulk using:

Pipelines;

Marine tankers;

Occasionally road or rail facilities.

Batch blending

In batch blending, the componemts of a product are added

together in a tank, one by one or in partial combination;

The materials are mixed until a homologenous product is

obtained.

Batch blending

Additives are added and

mixed thoroughtly
After laboratory analysis

Batch blending
Jet Mixer

Batch blending

Batch blending is most adaptable to use in small refineries, in

which a limited variety of blends are to be produced.

In a refinery, the cost of extra blending tanks, pumps, and

related equipment may not be as large as the cost of
instrumentation and equipment needed for in-line blending; and
for this reason, many large refineries continue to use the batch
blending system because of its ease and flexibility of its
operation.

Partial in-line blending

Partial in-line blending is accomplished by adding together

product components simultaneously in a pipeline at approximately
the desired ratio without necessarily obtaining a finished
specification product;

Final adjustments and additions are required, based on laboratory

tests, to obtain the specification product;

In this case, the mixing is required only for final adjustment;

Additives are added as a batch into the blending header during

the final stages of the blend or final adjustment stage.

Partial in-line blending

The required components are pumped simultaneously from each

base stock tank through the appropriate flow controller into a
blending header, so an individual pump is required for each
component.

The capacity of the pump must be established to permit

simultaneous pumping and delivery of one day's blend to product
tanks within a reasonable time (about 6 hours);

The quantity of each component of a blend must be proportioned

by the use of a flow meter and control valve.

Partial in-line blending

Partial in-line blending

Flow controllers are set to a predetermined rate and flow is

recorded;

Flow meters used for partial in-line blending need not be

extremely accurate (accuracy ranges of 5%)

Mixers are required in final storage tanks for correction of blends

by addition of components.

Partial in-line blending

Partial in-line blending is suitable for moderate-sized refineries,

where the cost of blend tanks would be excessive and blending
time must be minimized.

Blending time is substantially reduced because of the following:

Simultaneous pumping of components instead of consecutive

pumping, as is the case in batch blending;

Reduction of overall mixing time;

Elimination of multiple gauging operations.

Continuous in-line blending

In this way, all components of a product and all additives are

blended in a pipeline simultaneously, with such accuracy that,
at any given moment, the finished specification product may be
obtained directly from the line;

The accuracy and safeguards included in the system, so no

provision is necessary for reblending or correction of blends;

Various methods of controlling individual flow rates with

interlock provisions have been used to ensure delivery of only the
specified material.

Continuous in-line blending

Continuous in-line blending

An individual pump is required for each component, the quantity

of each component of a blend must be accurately delivered;

The recording flow meters and flow control valves used to

proportion components are similar to those used for partial in-line
blending, but a greater degree of accuracy is necessary (An
accuracy of 0.25% or better is expected);

To ensure continued accuracy of the blends under varying

operating conditions, the blending equipment is designed to
provide for adjustment of individual component flow in
proportion to total flow.

Continuous in-line blending

Two types of blending controls are used to adjust component

flows to desired rates: a mechanical system or an electronic
system;

To ensure the accuracy of the blend, it is necessary to calibrate

meters frequently. One method of meter calibration is to remove
the meter from the system and replace it with a calibrated space
meter;

Continuous in-line blending is best for large refineries that

make several grades of products.

Continuous in-line blending

Advantages:
1. Reduced blending time.
2. Minimum finished product storage, since components are
stored and blended as required.
3. Increased blending accuracy with minimum "give away" on
quality.
4. Reduction in loss through weathering of the finished
product.
5. Minimum operating personne.

Continuous in-line blending

Disadvantages:
1. When products are transferred directly to a pipeline or bulk
transport, a complete blender is required for each product,
which must be loaded simultaneously. For example, if a tanker is
to be loaded with two grades of gasoline simultaneously, two
blenders are necessary; otherwise, the advantage of reduced
product tankage cannot be realized.
2. There is extreme difficulty in correcting errors, if they occur
(the only possible errors are human errors).
3. High initial investment and high maintenance cost of instruments.

Fuel additives

Fuel additives

Additive is a chemical compound (substance) which is used in

small dosages in order to add or improve properties of virgin
fuels.

Conventionally, chemical compounds added in:

High concentrations (>1%) called blending components;

Lower concentrations ( <1%) called additives.

In modern automotive fuels, a combination of several chemical

additives is used in order for the fuel to meet the desired
performance level;

Sometimes allways the additive is even used to realize better

margins by diverting a value- added product to other applications.

Fuel additives

There are six reasons for using additives in fuels:

To improve handling properties and stability of the fuel;

To improve combustion properties of the fuel;

To reduce emissions from fuel combustion;

To provide engine protection and cleanliness;

To establish or enhance the brand image of the fuel;

To increase in the economic use of the fuel.

Fuel additives

Motor engine gasoline additives and their functions:

Fuel additives

Motor engine gasoline additives and their functions:

Fuel additives

Additives for Gasoline Distribution Systems

Antioxidants

Metal deactivators

Antistatic agents

Corrosion inhibitors

Sediment reduction agents

Dyes

Dehazers

Fuel additives

Additives for gasoline vehicle system

Antiknock additive (was tetra ethyl lead, which is now phased out)

Anti-valve seat recession additive (also phased out due to metallurgy

change in the engines)

Carburetor detergents (gradually being phased out due to the

introduction of injectors)

Deposit control additives

Deposit modifiers

Friction modifiers

Lubricity improvers

Fuel additives

Additives of diesel fuels and their functions :

Fuel additives

Additives of diesel fuels and their functions :

Fuel additives

Additives for Diesel Distribution System

Antifoam agents

Antistatic agents

Biocides

Corrosion inhibitors

Sediment reduction agents

Dyes

Demulsifiers

Flow improvers/wax crystal modifiers/wax dispersants Metal

deactivators

Markers to check origin

Stabilizers

Fuel additives

Additives for Diesel Vehicle System

Cetane improvers

Combustion improvers

Deposit control additives

Injector detergents

Lubricity improvers

Friction modifiers

Fuel additives

Additives for gasoline and diesel distribution systems are used in

refineries to meet minimum fuel specifications at the optimum cost
without compromising on the yield of the products;

Fuel quality standards have undergone a ratcheting-up gradation

with progressive improvements in engine design and more
stringent environmental regulations;

These changes in fuel quality have involved:

Reductions in: S, Ar, benzene, PHA, olefins, and lead;

Improvements in ON, CN, oxidation stability, and storage stability.

Gasoline blending

Gasoline blengding

The purpose of blending is not only to ensure the specification

techniques but also the specification environments;

During the blending of gasolines not only the physical and

chemical properties of each blending component has to be
considered but also those contributions that may be harmful
material emissions;

Quality of combustion (structure each substance)?

Volatile organic compounds (RVP, Distillation cure)?

The formation of toxic compounds the exhaust gas (Ar, Olefin, S...)?

Gasoline blengding

Gasoline blengding

The blending stocks for gasoline:

Cat.Naphtha (FCC naphta);

Reformate (CR);
Alkylate;
Isomerate;
Full range Naphtha;

Naphta obtained from others

process:
hydrocracking,
Visbreaking, Delayed coke ...
Butane;
Oxygenate gasoline: MTBE,
ETBE, ethnol...
Additives

Typicaly gasoline pool composition in USA

Gasoline blengding

Typicaly gasoline pool

Typicaly gasoline pool

composition in USA

composition in EU

(before 2000)

(before 2000)

Gasoline blengding

The main source of the benzene content (ca. 80%) is the

reformate, but the benzene content of the C5-C6 fraction of the
coker process, as well as of LCN, LSR, and

hydrocracking

gasolines, is also significant;

The quantity of reformate and LCN determines definitely the

other aromatic content (ca. 65%);

The olefin content depends definitely on the used quantity of

LCN (ca. 90%).

Gasoline blengding

The olefin content depends definitely on the used quantity of

LCN (ca. 90%);

In many refineries, the polymer naphthas and naphthas from

variants of thermal cracking processes have different effects on the
olefin content.

The sulfur content is determined by the fraction of HCN.

Gasoline blengding

The main sources of the volatile organic compounds (VOC) in

gasolines are n-butane (ca.25%), ethanol (ca.12%), alkylate (ca.
8%), reformate (ca.15%), HCN (ca.5%), LCN (ca. 23%), and
coking C5-C6 fraction (ca.1%).

The reformate and cat.naphthas favor the formation of nitrogen

oxides (reformate ca.21%; HCN: ca.40%; LCN: ca.30%; n-butane:
ca.5%; isomerate: ca. 4%; coking C5-C6 fraction: ca. 2%).

Gasoline blengding

The formation of toxic materials and their emission quantities

depend on mainly the proportions used of reformate and the
cat.naphthas (reformate ca. 60%; HCN ca.14%; LCN ca.16%; nbutane: ca.5%; isomerate: ca. 2%; coking C5-C6 fraction: ca.1%;
alkylate: ca. 2%).

Knocking phenomenon

Knocking (also called knock, detonation) in spark-ignition

internal combustion engines occurs when combustion of the
fuel/air mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in response to
ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel
mixture explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion
front;

When unburned fuel/air mixture beyond the boundary of the

flame front is subjected to a combination of heat and pressure
for a certain duration (beyond the delay period of the fuel used),
detonation may occur.

Knocking phenomenon

Detonation is characterized by an instantaneous, explosive

ignition of at least one pocket of fuel/air mixture outside of the
flame front;

A local shockwave is created around each pocket and the

cylinder pressure may rise sharply beyond its design limits.

Normal
combustion

Engine knock

Engine knock

Engine knock is a soud that is made when the fuel igintes too
early inthe compression stoke;

Severe knock causes severe engine damage, such as:

Decreased thermal efficiency of

engine;

Increased the toxic compounds in

the exhaust gas;

Possibility of mechanical damage

to the engine.

Octane number (ON)

Octane number is defined as the percentage of iso-octane in

a blend of iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) and n-heptane,
which will give the same engine performance as could be
achieved by the actual fuel sample.

An engine runs with 100% pure iso-octane, the power rating is

100% (knock free) and is defined as 100 octane number;

An engine is run with 100% n-heptane, a straight chain

hydrocarbon, there will be tremendous knocking in the engine
and the octane number is taken as zero;

Octane number (ON)

Octane number (ON)

The ON of the gasoline sample, therefore, falls within 0 100;

The ON of a hydrocarbon is a function of its chemical

composition: Isoparaffins and aromatics have high octane
numbers while n-paraffins and olefins have low octane
numbers;
Aromatic > olefin branched > iso-parafin > naphten
branched > olefin normal > naphten > n-parafin.

Octane number (ON)

Octane number is a parameter defined to characterize

antiknock characteristic of a fuel (gasoline) for spark ignition
internal combustion engines;

Octane number is a measure of fuel's ability to resist autoignition during compression and prior to ignition;

Higher octane number fuels have better engine performance.

Octane number (ON)

Octane values is measured in a standard engine, developed by

Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine.

RON

MON

Octane number (ON)

RON correlates with low speed, mild driving conditions;

MON relates to high speed, high severity conditions;

Most gasolines have higher RON than MON, this difference is

called fuel sensitivity: S = RON MON;

For fuels of same RON, high S gasoline has lower MON;

Antiknock Index = (RON + MON)/2.

RdON

RONR100 (RON)

Octane number (ON)

Gasoline Blend Stock Properties

Octane number (ON)

Blending octane and RVP of ethers and alcohols

Volatility of engine gasolines

The volatility characteristic of engine gasolines has a

fundamental influence on the performance of (4 stock) sparkignition engines.

Volatility is characterized generally by the gasolines Reid

vapor pressure and distillation curve. The vapor-liquid ratio is
often considered as well.

Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure

exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed
phases (solid or liquid) at a given temperature in a closed system;

The equilibrium vapor pressure is

an

indication

of

liquid's

evaporation rate. It relates to the

tendency of particles to escape from
the liquid (or a solid);

A substance with a high vapor

pressure at normal temperatures is
often referred to as voliatile.

Reid Vapor Pressure

In reality, vapor pressure is usually measured in a bomb Reid, result

obtained called vapor pressure Reid (RVP);

RVP is defined as the absolute vapour pressure exerted by a liquid at

100 F (37.8 C) as determined by the test method ASTM-D323;

4V
V

Reid Vapor Pressure

RVP should be concerned:

Warm-up vehicle;
Vapor lock;
Evaporation losses.

The RVPs for gasoline are generally between 350 and 1000
mbar, depend on seasons and country.

Distillation curve

Gasoline is a mixture of more than 400 volatile and flammable liquid

HC ranging from 4 to 12 carbon atoms/molecule, the boiling range falls
in the range 30 - 215C;

In the laboratory, Gasoline is

distilled at atmospheric pressure
according to the standard ASTM
method of distillation (ASTM
D86);

A sample of 100 mL is placed

in a standard distilling flask and
the vapour is condensed through a
condenser, liquid is collected in a
graduated cylinder.

Distillation curve

Initinal Boiling Point (IBP): The temperature at which the first drop
of distillate appears after commencement of distillation in the standard
ASTM laboratory apparatus;

Final Boiling Point (FBP): The maximum temperature observed on

the distillation thermometer when a standard ASTM distillation is
carried out;

After the IBP, distillation is continued and the temperature of the

vapour

and

the

cumulative

volume

percent

collected

are

simultaneously reported (5 percent: T5, 10 percent: T10, 15 percent: T15, 20

percent : T20 and etc...);

A distillation curve plots temperature versus the amount of distillate

collected or inverse.

Distillation curve
Typical results for an ASTM D86 distillation of a gasoline

FBP

IBP

Losses

Residue

Distillation curve

Distillation curve

Distillation curve

Gasoline volatility should be arranged

according to weather conditions particularly ambient Temperature

Distillation curve

IBP, T10 should be concerned:

Start up at cold temperatures;
Vapor lock;
Evaporation losses.

T50 should be concerned the acceleration.

T90, FBP should be concerned:

Oil dilution;
Power;
Spark plug fouling;
Pollution.

Jet Fuel blending

Jet Fuel blending

The key product properties of Jet fuel are:

Freezing point

Smoke point

Sulfur content

Flash point

Plant layout of a refinery

Jet Fuel blending

Smoke point

The smoke point is determined as the height of the flame (in

millimetres) produced by this oil in the wick of a stove or a lamp
without forming any smoke;

The smoke point for an oil varies widely depending on origin

and refinement;

The greater the smoke point, the better the burning quality;

Smoke point is related to the hydrocarbon type composition of

such fuels, a high smoke point indicates a fuel of low smoke
producing tendency.

Jet Fuel blending

Smoke point
1. Tetrahydronaphtalen C10H12
2. Mezitilen (C6H3(CH3)3)
3. Aromatics extracted from
kerosene fraction
4. Kerosen fraction without
aromatics
5. Cetene, C16H32
6. Cetane, C16H34

12 34 56

Jet Fuel blending

Smoke point

Higher amount of aromatics in a fuel causes a smoky

characteristic for the flame and energy loss due to thermal
radiation;

Pure isooctane has a reference smoke point of 42.8 mm,

whereas 60 vol % isooctane and 40 vol % toluene have a
reference smoke point of 14.7 mm;

Jet Fuel blending

Sulfur content

Sulfur content is of great importance when the oil to be burned

produces sulfur oxides that contaminate the suraoundings;

Hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans cause objectionable odors, and

both are corrosive;

Their presence can be detected by the Doctor test (ASTM D-484,

ASTM D-4952, IP 30);

The total sulfur content of burning oil should be low, less than
0.25% by weight (ASTM D-1266, IP 107).

Jet Fuel blending

Flash point

The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid gives

off enough vapor to ignite when an ignition source is present;

The flash point of a petroleum product is the lowest temperature at

which it can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air; at the flash
point, the vapor may cease to burn when the source of ignition is
removed;

For safety considerations, the flash point of kerosene is in excess of

38C, to prevent the inclusion of highly inflammable volatile fractions
in kerosene distillates.

Jet Fuel blending

During flight, the temperature of the fuel in the aircraft tank

decreases lead to form solid hydrocarbon crystals, which restrict
the flow of fuel in the fuel system of the aircraft (clog filters);

Freezing point is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon

crystals formed during cooling disappear when the fuel is reheated.

Test method ASTM D2386:

Freezing point of Jet A1
should be around -50oC

Diesel blending

Diesel blending

Diesel blending is simpler than gasoline blending because the

limitations are fewer.

The key product properties are:

Cetane number;

Sulfur content (in some countries);

Specific gravity;

Aromatics (PHA?).

Diesel blending : Sulfur content

Total sulfur content varies considerably in petroleum products.

Control of sulfur content is particularly important for petroleum
products that are to be burned in engine, heating applicances or
lamps.

Sulphur in diesel fuel can cause combustion chamber deposits,

exhaust system corrosion, and wear on pistons, rings and
cylinders;

Sulfur is measured on the basis of both quantity and potential

corrosivity;

The measurement of potential corrosivity can be determined by

means of a copper strip procedure.

Diesel blending : Sulfur content

Sulfur content
Experimental result :
[S]=0,06% wt PM, soot : 2,1%*.
[S]=0,85%wt PM, soot :5,8% *.
[S]=2,9% wt PM, soot : 12,2% *.
* deposited on piston and segment

Diesel blending : Sulfur content

Sulfur content

Diesel blending : Cetane number

Cetane number (CN) is a measure of the ignition delay of a diesel

fuel, the shorter of the ignition delay, the higher is its cetane
number and inverse;

The cetane number of a diesel fuel is defined as the percentage of

cetane, arbitrarily given a cetane number of 100 (short ignition
delay), in a blend with alphamethyl-naphthaline given a cetane
number of 0 (long ignition delay), which is equivalent in ignition
quality to that of the test fuel.
C11H10
C16H34

CN = 100

CN = 0

Diesel blending : Cetane number

The importance of cetane number is very evident.

As low CN usually causes an ignition delay in the engine, this

delay causes starting difficulties and engine knock;
Poor fuel economy;
Loss of power;
Sometimes engine damage
White smoke and odor at start-up on colder days.

As low CN, combustion is violent, noisier, and less efficient

with a high level of exhaust emissions;

White exhaust smoke is made up of fuel vapors and aldehydes

created by incomplete engine combustion.

Diesel blending : Cetane number

As high CN tend to:

Reduce combustion noise;
Increase engine efficiency;
Increase power output;
Start easier, especially at low temperatures;
Reduce exhaust smoke;
Reduce exhaust odor.

To assure acceptable cold weather performance,

CN required: 45 55

CN of diesel fuels can be improved by adding additives such as

2-ethyl-hexyl nitrate or other types of alkyl nitrates.

Diesel blending : Cetane number

The calculated cetane index is a useful tool for estimating the

ASTM cetane number where a test engine is not available for its
determination or where the quantity of the sample is too small for
use in a test engine;

There are two test method for approximate cetane number were
also developed.

ASTM D 976
CI = 454.74 1641.416 + 777.742 0.554(T50) + 97.083(log T50)2

: Density at 15oC, g/mL;

T50: Mid-boiling temperature, oC.

Diesel blending : Cetane number

CI = 454.74 1641.416 + 777.742 0.554(T50) + 97.083(log T50)2

Diesel blending : Cetane number

ASTM D 976
CI = 45.2 + 0.0892T10N + (0.131 + 0.901B)T50N + (0.523
0.420B)T90N + 0.00049(T210N T290N) + 107B + 60B2

Where:
: Density at 15oC, g/mL;
T10N= T10-215, oC;
T50N= T50-260, oC;
T90N= T90-310, oC;
B = e(-3.5DN)- 1;
DN = 0.85.

The calculated cetane index is particularly applicable to straight

run fuels, catalytically cracked stocks, and their blends.

Diesel blending : Cetane number

CI can also measure from different parameters of the fuel, is

termed its diesel index (DI) or aniline point (PA) (ASTM D-611,
IP 2)
CI = PA 15.5; with PA : aniline point C
or
CI = 0.72 DI + 10;
where

DI

API.PA ( F )
100

Diesel blending : Specific gravity

SG is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil

to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature;

SG is of limited usefulness as a direct measure of diesel fuel

quality;

SG is related to heat content and affects the volumetric fuel

consumption of an engine;
Minimum SG: this limit is necessary to obtain sufficient maximum
power for engine (flow controlled by regulating volume);
Maximum SG: this value is necessary to avoid smoke formation at
full load.

Diesel blending

CI versus density of component produced by different technologies.

Diesel blending

The sulphur and aromatic content range of different gasoil streams.

Diesel
blending

Management
control

of

fuel blending

and
motor

Diesel
blending

Blend Optimization
and

Supervisory

System (BOSS)

Diesel blending

The main components of the blending technology package are the

following:

Interface for monthly linear programmed refinery models for

middle period recipes

Timing system for optimalizing future products and blending

orders

Online multivariate control and optimalization system for

feedback from control equipment to enable inline certification
and transport of products.

Diesel blending

The controlled blending of fuels assures consistent profits for the

refineries, and the application of suitably admixtured products
having favorable hydrocarbon compositions means numerous
advantages for the users as well:

Smooth performance of vehicles;

More efficient fuel use;

Lower

maintenance

maintenance cost.

needs,

longer

engine

life,

lower

Diesel blending

Smooth performance of vehicles

Easy cold start

Smooth idle

Good combustion

Optimal track behavior (no vibration, engine stop, etc.)

Excellent acceleration

Low noise pollution.

Diesel blending

More efficient fuel use:

Reduction of fuel consumption

Reduction of exhaust gas

Emission exhaust gas with more preferable composition.

BLENDING CALCULATION

Blending calculation

The main purpose of product blending is to find the best way of

mixing different intermediate products available from the refinery and
some additives in order to adjust the product specifications;

Product qualities are predicted through correlations that depend on

the quantities and the properties of the blended components;

The final quality of the finished products is always checked by

laboratory tests before market distribution.

Gasolines are tested for ON, RVP and Distillation curve;

Jet fuel is tested for Freezing point and smoke point;

Gas oils are tested for DI, pour point and viscosity.

Blending calculation

The desired property blend of the blended product may be

determined using the following mixing blend rule:

Pi is the value of the property of component i

qi is :

Mass;

Volume;

Molar flow rate.

Blending calculation

Additive properties:

Specific gravity;
Boiling point;
Sulphur content;
Etc...

Properties are not additives:

RON
Viscosity;
Flash temperature;
Pour point;
Aniline point;
RVP;
Cloud point.

Blending calculation

Reid Vapor Pressure is not an additive property. Therefore,

RVP blending indices are used.

xvi is the volume fraction of component i.

Blending calculation

Flash Point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

blending indices are used.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
BIFPi is the flash point index of component i.
FPi is the flash point temperature of component i, in K;
The best value of x is 0.06.

Blending calculation

Another relation to estimate the flash point blending index is

based on the flash point experimental data.

where :
FPi is the flash point temperature of component i, in oF;
The flash point blending index is blended based on wt% of
components.

Blending calculation

The pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil can be

stored and still capable of flowing or pouring, when it is cooled
without stirring under standard cooling conditions.

Pour point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

blending indices are used.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
PPi is the pour point of component i, in oR.

Blending calculation

Cloud point is the lowest temperature at which oil becomes

cloudy and the first particles of wax crystals are observed as
the oil is cooled gradually under standard conditions.

Cloud point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

blending indices are used.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
BICPi is the cloud point blending index of component i;
CPi is the cloud point temperature of component i, in K;
The value of x is 0.05.

Blending calculation

Cloud point is the lowest temperature at which oil becomes

cloudy and the first particles of wax crystals are observed as the
oil is cooled gradually under standard conditions.

Cloud point is not an additive property. Therefore, flash point

blending indices are used.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
BICPi is the cloud point blending index of component i;
CPi is the cloud point temperature of component i, in K;
The value of x is 0.05.

Blending calculation

Aniline point is not an additive property. Therefore, aniline point

blending indices are used.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
BIAPi is the aniline point index of component i;
APi is the aniline point of component i, in oC.

Blending calculation

Specific gravity is an additive property and can be blended

linearly on a volume basis.

The specific gravity of a blend is estimated using the mixing

rule:

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i.

Blending calculation

The smoke point is the maximum flame height in millimetre at

which the oil burns without smoking when tested at standard
specified conditions.

where :
SPBlend is the blend smoke point in mm;
APBlend is the aniline point;
SGBlend is the specific gravity of the blend.

API is not an additive property, and it does not blend linearly.

Therefore, API is converted to specific gravity, which can be blended
linearly.

Blending calculation

Viscosity is not an additive property; therefore, viscosity

blending indices are used to determine the viscosity of the
blended products.

A number of correlations and tables are available for evaluating

the viscosity indices.

where :
xvi is the volume fraction of component i;
BIvisi is the viscosity index of component i.

Blending calculation

Octane number: If the octane number of a blend is calculated by

the linear addition of an octane number for each component, the
following equation can be obtained.

Where: xvi is the volume fraction of component i, and ONi is the

octane number of component i.

Many alternative methods have been proposed for estimating the

octane number of gasoline blends since the simple mixing
rule needs minor corrections.

Blending calculation

Octane number: The following octane index correlations depend

on the octane number range as follows.

Blending calculation

Octane number: The octane number index for a blend can

be determined using the following equation:

Where: xvi is the volume fraction of component i, and BIONi is

the octane number index of component i that can be determined
from above equations.

Products blending at BSR

Characteristics of components used to blend

Products blending at BSR

Blending schematic

Products blending at BSR

Blending schematic

Products blending

Blending schematic

Products blending at BSR

Products blending at BSR

Results of products blending

Products blending at BSR

Results of products blending

Products blending at BSR

Results of products blending

Products blending at BSR

Blending schematic

Products blending

Blending schematic

Products blending at BSR

Results of products blending

Products blending at BSR

Results of products blending

Products blending

Blending schematic

Linear Programming

What is Linear Programming

Terminology

Objective Function function z to be maximized;

Feasible Vector set of values x1, x2,,xN

that satisfies all

constraints;

Optimal Feasible Vector feasible vector that maximizes

the

objective function.

Solutions

Will tend to be in the corners of where the constraints meet

May not have a solution because of incompatible constraints or

area unbounded towards the optimum.

What is Linear Programming

LP is the most widely applied method for optimising many

diverse applications, including refineries and chemical plants;

The application of LP has been successfully applied for selecting

the best set of variables when a large number of interrelated
choices exist;

A typical example is in a large oil refinery in which the stream

flow rates are very large, and a small improvement per unit of
product is multiplied by a very large number.

What is Linear Programming

This is done to obtain a significant increase in profit for the refinery;

Optimisation means the action of finding the best solution within the
given constraints and flexibilities;

LP is a mathematical technique for finding the maximum value of

some equation subject to stated linear constraints;

Refinery optimisation using an LP model has been proven to bring

economic gains higher than unit-specific simulation models or advance
process control techniques;

Once all the data is configured, the model is updated with the variable
data.

What is Linear Programming

The required variable data includes the following: Crude oil or

any other raw material prices with minimum and maximum
availability:

Selling prices with minimum and maximum demands for the

refinery products;

Available process unit capacities;

Available inventory stocks with minimum and maximum storage

limits;

Quality specifications, etc,

What is Linear Programming

Word programming used here in the sense of planning

For N independent variables (that can be zero or positive)

maximize

Subject to M additional constraints (all bn positive)

Thank you for

your attention