Prologue:

"India is, the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the
grandmother of legend, and the great grand mother of tradition. our most valuable and most instructive
materials in the history of man are treasured up in India only." Mark Twain
The history of India is as long as civilization itself. It is, undoubtedly, one of the most interesting
histories of the world. The contributions to humanity can be summarized by a quote:
"It is true that even across the Himalayan barrier India has sent to the west, such gifts as grammar and
logic, philosophy and fables, hypnotism and chess, and above all numerals and the decimal system." - Will
Durant, American Historian

As a set of Hindu entities forming the nation of Hindustan, it has been through multiple cycles of rise and
fall. In ancient times, these were classified into Yugas.
There are artifacts in India which can be seen in the New Delhi Museum of Indian History, located near
the Parliament on Janpath. The beads on display, as an example, are as good or better in shape than many
available today in stores.
Located in the New Delhi museum on Janpath, the
museum houses some of the stone tools are thought to be at
least 0.3 million years old.
There are also
Rock paintings
in Bhimbetka,
on the
outskirts of
Bhopal,
estimated to be
about 30,000
(upper
Paleolithic
period) years
old. These
include paintings of animals, horsemen, hunters etc. and puts the date of these drawings earlier than most paintings
of this nature anywhere in the world.

The history is so old that most of the puranas can be called "Mythology". However, sufficient evidences
exist to say that major portions of Mythology and folklore could actually be true. We are leaving out the
debate of whether some of these notes in this book are mythology or real history and we are also not
indulging in the controversies surrounding the dates of various incidents. Attempt is being made to
merely document the sequence of events regards to what many details in the Puranas, Ramayana and the
Mahabharatha say. Researchers like N.S. Rajaram and David Frawley have tried to say that Harappan
civilization represents the material remains of the Vedic Age.
Hinduism was born on the banks of the Indus and fabled Saraswati. Hinduism, more a way of life than a
religion, is expounded in the four vedas and the puranas which were essentially written over the ages.
The country, in ancient times, bound by vedic Hinduism, spanned over the entire subcontinent from
Afghanistan across present day India including Sri Lanka.
Early History:
As explained in the documentary, "The journey of Man", some natural forces (famine, other) might have
caused man to come out of Africa over the Red Sea, which was then land, and follow the coast lines into
India. While some early migration of hunter-gatherers had possibly happened, with anecdotal proof seen
above, more substantial emigration from Africa into India probably started about 20,000 years ago. Over
time, these people settled along the fertile plains of the Indus and the Saraswati forming early predynastic era cities such as Mehrgarh, and other cities along the banks of Saraswati.

Pre-Dynastic Era: 5000BC 3500BC

Early sites on the Saraswati River, then India's largest, flowing west of Delhi into the Rann of Kutch;
Rajasthan is a fertile region with much grassland, as described in the Rig Veda. The culture, based upon
barley (yava), copper (ayas) and cattle and these are reflected in the Rig Veda as well. There is not too
much evidence to prove details of this era but the Puranas talk of Svayambhava Manu and his wife
Saurava who could be dated to be around 5000BC. There are described 14 Manus in all:
1) Svayambhuva, (2) Svarocisa (3) Auttami (4) Tamasa (5) Raivata (6) Caksusa (7) Vaivasvata (8)
Savarni (9) Daksa Savarni (10) Brahma Savarni (11) Dharma Savarni (12) Raudra (13) Rauchya (14)
Bhautya
During this pre-dynastic/Pre-vedic era, on the banks of the Saraswati and its
tributary the Drishadvati along with the areas along the banks of the river
Sindhu (Indus) and its 5 total tributaries, civilization developed. This has
been termed by historians as the Sapta Sindhu Civilization or SSC. There
was a lot of development of art and culture. A classic example of metal work
was found in the Harrapan site dancing girl.
The picture of the pot and necklace from the time of 3000-3500BC shows the skills
of the artisans. The Sapta-Sindhu Civilization may have extended into

Southern India according to Dr. S. R. Rao emeritus scientist at the marine

archaeology unit of the National Institute of Oceanography) - "In Andhra
Pradesh, when I excavated two small neolithic sites (new stone age or around
5000 BC), I got Harappan material. In a place called Bandipur Salachenu we
got typical Harappan beads How did this happen? What did they give in
return? So there was some contact with the south." Mohenjo Daro and Harrappa cities start (based on
current excavation down to 45 feet - this is continuing below 45 feet but is hampered by underground
water). 20% of Harrappans lived in cities, 80% in villages and towns. By systematic comparisons of
Indian, Egyptian, and Babylonian science, it shows that Harappan civilization corresponds to that of the
Sutric period, which came after the Vedic period. From this, it follows that the Rg Veda is the product of
an earlier layer of civilization (before the rise of Egypt, Sumer, and the Indus Valley). As a result, the
currently held view of Mesopotamia as the cradle of civilization may not be tenable.
By 5000 B.C., Mehrgarh had a population of 20,000. By this time, people started building many villages
and cities along the Saraswati, and Rishis (Seers/priests) were thinking about the world around us and
sharing their knowledge with each other verbally - that (combined with ancient mother goddess worship
and animal sacrifice) was the beginnings of Dharma (Hinduism) - the first major religion in the world.

The Yugas:
Hindu timeline was divided up into four major yugas or eras. No one actually knows the exact start and
end dates of these yugas. What we do know is when the start and the end of the yugas were with respect
to the kings or key incidents. The yugas are categorized in subsequent sections. The rest of this historical
timeline is classified below into the different yugas.
1) Krta Yuga : Most of the portions of the Rigveda can be put into this Yuga. This is the yuga where the
basics of Hinduism was created and told in the early Vedas starting from Rigveda (started circa 2700BC)
and the Atharvane veda (possibly around 2400BC).
2) Treta Yuga : Called later vedic period starting from when Bhagiratha invites Ganga to come down
from the mountains, and the rise of Ikshvakus. This is an era where some of the dynasties were in
expansion mode. The Treta yuga is generally thought to end with Rama and after the war with Ravana in
Lanka.

3) Dvapara Yuga : After Rama the power of influence gradually seems to be more in favor of the Purus or
Bharatas at least as inferred through writings by Vyasa, from the Iksvakus. The yuga culminated with
after Krishna dies and post The Mahabharata war. On an international timescale this is estimated to be
around or before Moses and Rameses-II who are guestimated to have been around 1280BC.
4) Kali Yuga : Present day yuga supposed to end with Kalki. We are supposedely in the first phase or
prathama bhage.

Krta Yuga - Rig Vedic Period Early vedic period:

The latter half of the 4000-3000BCE can be termed as the start of Rig Vedic period. Vaivasvata Manu
and the dynastic reign is considered to have happened during that period. During this period, thanks to the
puranas we know of stories of many of our fabled ancestors and the formation of major dynasties. The
most important families of rishis of the era were the families of ; Bhrgu, Kashyapa, Atri. The important
dynastic creations were
-

the Chandravamshi (lunar dynasty) out of which came the Ikshvaku clan of which Rama was one of the
illustrious deities and
the Suryavamshi (solar dynasty) out of which was born the Puru clan of which the Kauravas and the Pandavas
were members.

King Yayati: A key portion of history and the formation of the first princely states in the Indian
subcontinent, comes this era comes - the story of King Yayati, the son of King Nahush. Yayati had two
wives, Devyani, the daughter of Asura-guru, Sukracharya and the other was Sharmishtha. Devyani was
the mother of Princes Yadu and Turvasu and Sharmishta was the mother of Druhya, Anu and Puru. All of
the Princes earned good names and fame during time of Rig Veda and were jointly called as Panchjanya.
At the end of his reign, Yayati distributed his kingdom amongst his five sons. This is the start of the
major dominions in the North.
-

To Prince Puru, his favorite son, he gave the dominions between Ganges and Yamuna. These are areas around
todays Delhi. The place is thought to have been called Nabha Prithvi or navel of the earth.
To Prince Yadu he gave the dominions in the southwest which included Charmvati ( chambal ), Vetravati
(Betva ) and Shuktimati ( Keyn ). These are regions around Gujarat.
To Prince Druhya he gave western regions of Yamuna. These are regions around todays northwest Pakistan
and potentially even south-east Afghanistan.
To Prince Anu he gave portions possibly in todays Kashmir and finally
To Prince Turvasu received the south eastern territories of Riva which could fall in the area of larger Bengal.

Together they formed the first major princely states in the north.
Bharata! The Puru.
Around 3000BC, in the Puru dynasty near Delhi a famous king, Dushyanta marries Shakuntala and
together they have a son by name Bharata. Their story has been dramatized by famous poet, Kalidasa.
abhtir e kas tyajyj jva jvantam tmajam
kuntala mahtmna dauanti bhara paurava
bhartavyo 'ya tvay yasmd asmka vacand api
tasmd bhavatv aya nmn bharato nma te suta

Therefore, O thou of Puru's race, cherish thy highsouled son born of

Sakuntala
and because this child is to be cherished by thee even at our word,
therefore shall this thy son be known by the name of Bharata (the
cherished).

Bharata was an ambitious king who expanded his kingdom and is credited to have done a lot of
development. He expanded his kingdom by waging wars and was then called sarvadamanah or the
subduer of all. It is believed that India is named Bharat, today, after this great king. The subsequent
kings in this dynasty were called Bharatas of the Puru clan. After Bharata, there was a succession of great
kings.

Divodasa, a descendant of Bharata has thought to have waged many wars and expanded his kingdom. He
coveted the 100 fortified cities ruled by Sambara, a descendant of Anu. Divodasa with the help of Indra
destroys 99 of the 100 cities.
Divodasa is also believed to have invited the rajarishis of the
surrounding kingdoms to call into session, one of the first
conferences (sammelanas). There were 7 of them in the
beginning and they were credited to have started the Rig Veda.
The seven rishis were from the families of : Angirasas, Atri,
Agastya,
Bhrigu,
Kashyapa,
Vishwamitra,
Vasista.
Grtsamadas, Kanvas joined the writing of the Rig Veda later.
The Bharatas themselves were given an honored seat at the
table. The adjoining table shows which of the families
contributed to the Rigveda. The Rigveda itself is thought to be
historical, with the author of almost every hymn documented.

All in all, written by many authors from the above

mentioned families over a period of perhaps 400 years,
there are 10 mandalas in all with 10552 verses. The
geographies covered in each of the chapters clearly
show the expansionist movement of the Bharata
dynasty. Mandala 6 was probably the first and the rest,
in order, mandalas 3, 7, 4, 2, 5, 7, 8 and 9. The
progression of references to various rivers can be seen
in the adjoining picture. The Bharatas eventually
capture the Soma lands guestimated to be somewhere in
todays Afghanistan.

Sudas:
In the middle portion of the Rig vedic period is clearly in Krta yuga. The Bharatas were in expansionist
mode led by kings such as Bharata, Sudas, Divodasa and others. Its this growing power base of the
Bharatas that could have potentially brought about the "battle of the 10 kings" or Dasharagnya war.
The unexpected outcome, caused by flooding or Parusni/Ravi, the Bharatas prevailed! The war delivered
to them larger territories and wealth. Sudas, the Bharatha took over the main area on the Saraswati and to
its North, East and West of it.
The 10 groups were: (1) Purus against (2) Yadus (3) Turvasas (4) Druhyus (5) Anus (6) Pakthas
(ancestors of present-day Pathans) (7) Bhalinases (8) Alinas (9) Vishanins (10) Sivas
This was Hindustans first recorded great war also called today as the battle of the ten kings. This
was an epic battle, possibly around 2700BC, a sort of the first Mahabharata war and has been described
in the Rig Veda mandala 7. Excerpts below:
The battle itself took place on the banks of the Parusni (Ravi). The warriors of Sudas are described as white-robed (shvityanca),
wearing hair-knots on the right side of their heads (daksinataskaparda), having flying banners (krtdhvaj) (RV 7.83.2), while the
ten kings do not sacrifice (yajyava). It appears (7.18.5) that Sudas managed to cross the Parusni safely, while his foes, trying to
pursue, were scattered by a flood and either drowned or were slaughtered by Sudas' men. Rigveda 7.18.17 stresses that this was a
victory against all odds, compared to a ram defeating a lion:
Rigveda 7.18.9: As to their goal they sped to their destruction: they sought Parusni; e'en the swift returned not. Indra
abandoned, to Sudas the manly, the swiftly flying foes, unmanly babblers.
Rigveda 7.18.9: They went like kine unherded from the pasture, each clinging to a friend as chance directed. They who
drive spotted steeds, sent down by Prsni, gave ear, the Warriors and the harnessed horses. (trans. Griffith)
Kavaa and the Druhyu were "overwhelmed by Indra" while still in the water (7.18.10). The slain warriors of the Anu
and Druhyus are numbered 6,666
Rigveda (7.18.14): In the aftermath of the battle, the Bharatas under Sudas (7.33.6), received tribute from the Ajas, the
Sigrus and the Yaksus (= Yadu, 7.18.20), and Indra destroyed the seven fortifications of the enemies, and gave the
treasures of Anu to Sudas (7.18.13).

Arrow heads, harpoons, spear tips from that era have been
found and photo is shown.
The Puru dynasty ruled for at least another 1000 years or
more continuing on beyond the great war, Mahabharata.
Over time the power and influence moved from (earlier
Iksvakus to) Purus to Magadha or present day Bihar.

The Great
Earthquake
River
Saraswati starts to reduce:
During the great earthquake of circa 2800-2700 BC, there was a
massive destruction of cities all along the Saraswati. One such is
Kalibangan located in Rajasthan. It is possible that the reduction of
Saraswati started around that era. What is claimed is that when
Balarama went on his teertha yatra around 1500BC or so, this river
was down to the size of a nullah or a small stream. While theories
exist, its probable that the Sutlej and the Yamuna rivers captured most
of the waters of Saraswati and Drishadvati. The path of the rivers along
with the deep ravines cut by the vedic rivers can be clearly seen on
google earth today.

Towards the end of Krta yuga, a powerful king Sagara, had ambitions of expanding his empire. He does the
aswamedha yagna and lets his horse run claiming all lands the horse went over. The horse enters Sage Kapilas
ashram who then ties the horse, indicating that Sagara has to fight for that territory. 60000 troop army is destroyed
by Kapila and turned to ashes. Sage Kapila, the victor, wants Sagara to clean up the ashes. Sagara sends his
grandson Anshuman to pacify the sage and help request Ganga to wash the ashes away so that the souls may achieve
salvation. This could be the start of the tradition for Hindus to release the cremation remains into the Ganges.

Treta Yuga:
River Ganga and Bhagiratha:
Despite much austerity and prayer, neither Sagara, nor Ansuman after him, nor his son
Dilipa, could get Ganga to appear on earth. Finally, it was Dilipa's son Bhagiratha,
shown in the picture praying towards the Gangotri glacier at Gangotri, who after severe
austerities, convinced Ganga-mata to come down to earth. However, the impact of her
fall would be so severe, that it could be borne by none less than Shiva himself.
Therefore, Bhagiratha went into meditation again and obtained Shiva's consent after
many more austerities. Finally, the river came down and fell into Shiva's hair, and thence
to earth. Bhagiratha led the way on horse back and the river followed. In this manner they reached the spot where
lay the ashes of the sixty thousand soldiers. The scenery in the drive to Gangotri and the strenuous walk through and
over the clouds to Gaumukh (glacier) is most beautiful.
Vishwakarma The celestial architect:
Vishwakarma, the celestial architect, is said to have existed during the Treta Yuga. He invented innumberable kinds
of handicrafts, ornaments and was a famous sculptor. Other notable creations of Vishwakarma are: Pushpaka
Vimana of Ravana. Vishwakarma also made 2 of the famous celestial bows. He gave one to Vishnu called
Vishnudhanus and the other to Shiva called Shivadhanus. Over time, Shivas bow passed on to Janaka, Sitas
father. Vishnu had passed on the Vishnudhanus on to Richika, Parasuramas grandfather who gave it to Parasurama.
During Sitas svayamvara, Rama is asked to string the bow. Effortlessly he lifted the bow, which gods and daithyas
had not been able to lift. Gods assembled in the sky to witness the stunning feat of Rama. He raised the bow and
bent in order to string it. But the bow was not equal to his strength and broke in to two. After Parasurama gets to

know of this he gets very upset at Rama. A sequence of events followed and finally Parasurama hands over the big
celestial Vishnudhanus bow to Rama which he later uses to kill Ravana.
Towards the end of the Treta yuga, the kingdom
of Ayodhya had gained a lot of influence. Rama,
son of Dasharatha was sent off for 14 years.
During his travels (picture) to the south, through
Dhandakaranyam, Sita is
kidnapped by Ravana and
taken to Lanka. After
forming allegiances with
vahnaras from the south,
Rama crosses over to
Lanka over a bridge built
by Sugreeva's Vahnara
army between todays
Rameshwaram and
potentially Sri Lankas Dhanushkodi. With
Hanuman by his side, Rama kills the demon,
Ravana and retrieves Sita. The entire episode is
captured in Ramayana by Valmiki. Much later in
time Rama was deified as an incarnation of
Vishnu. Rama builds the city of Luvapura,
todays Lahore in Pakistan, and gives it to his
son Luva. The direct descendant of Rama,
Brihadbala was killed by Abhimanyu in
Mahabharata war as noted by Vyasa.
The passing of Rama is generally deemed to be at the end of the Treta Yuga.

Dvapara Yuga:
The winds of change were sweeping across the north. Power and influence
generally seemed to be around Hastinapur and Indraprastha (todays
Delhi). The Puru clan, descendants of the Bharatas, were in control. The
old fort or purana kila, shown in the adjoining picture still stands. It is
guesstimated that this fort was Indraprashta built by the Pandavas. If true,
then its been in existence and continuous use till 1641AD till the Red Fort
was built. Many artifacts have been found from at least the Mauryan times
around 300BC. A key point here, Chandragupta Maurya had noted that
138 generations had passed from the Great War, Mahabharata, till
320BC. Probably the most prolific author of all time, Vyasa Mahamuni existed during this time. Vyasa
was the biological grandfather of the feuding cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas. While history is
normally written by the victors, one can only assume, that being the grandfather, he did not have to take
sides and his notes could have been unbiased. Apart from the Mahabharata, he also re-wrote all the 18
puranas of the time, and
composed the entire
Bhagvatam which talks of
what we call today, the bigbang theory, and the
dashavatara or evolution.
Vyasa is supposed to have
stayed in the cave shown in

far left in Badrinath and Ganesha, his scribe, stayed at the beginning of the path in the cave shown in the
picture immediately on the left. The story goes that the Pandavas believe they are the rightful heirs to
Hastinapur, Puru, empire. The Kaurava cousins, with support of their steward father, Dritharastra, have
the control. The situation goes worse over time and the events signal the start of a civil war which was
fought in Kurukshetra, which is west of todays New Delhi. With Sri Krishna by their side, the Pandavas
are victorious and the eldest, Yudhistra then sits on the Indraprashta throne. Bhisma, a key figure and the
commander-in-chief of the Kauravas, before his passing, gives the 5 Pandavas and Krishna advice on
Rajanithi. This advice, even by todays measures, was a masterpiece. He is the one who coined the much
used phrase, circumstances make friends and enemies.
The death of Krishna, killed accidentally by a hunters arrow, after the
Mahabaratha war is termed to be the end of the Treta yuga and the
start of present day Kali Yuga. The 5 Pandavas leave the kingdom in
the hands of their grandson, Parikshit and walk northwards to the
Himalayas. Legend has it that they come across the raging Saraswati
(as it is called in that portion) and had no way to cross over. Bhima
pushes a massive rock that happens to be standing and it falls across
the river. You can walk over this today. The raging waters are
supposed to be coming out of Manasarovar and flow into Alakananda
and then merge with Mandakini at Deva-Prayag to form Ganga. The
Pandavas walk across this Bhim-pul shown in the picture and go over to Indras lands.

Kali Yuga:
The country was divided into 16 mahapadagnanas or 16 princely states
ruled by their royal families. During the period from 1000BCE to
480BCE there was a lot of development in culture, science and religion.
Baudhayana (800BC) came up with what we call today as Pythagoras
theorem long before Pythagoras. He is also one of the earliest authors of
the Sualaba sutras. He also is credited to making early attempts of finding
area of a circle, finding the square root of 2. On an international timeline
750BC is thought to be the time of the Trojan war (Prium against
Menelaus and Achilles)
Gautama Sidharta or Budha (560BC to 486BC) founded a Buddhism which was
spread later during the Ashokas period (280BC) outside India. After Buddha died his
ashes and relics were put on 8 elephants and sent in 8 different directions. These were
housed in Stupas. The original stupas were lost in time until they were dug up during
Mauryan times and housed in new stupas, including the one at Sanchi, exist today. One
set of Buddhas relics along with the original container is currently in the Delhi museum.
The golden mandapam was provided by the Govt of Thailand and all of this is shown in
the adjoining picture.
Lord Mahavira who founded Jainism, was born roughly around 599 B.C. He was born in the royal family of
Kshatriyakund, a part of the republic of Vaishali. His father was King Siddhartha and his mother was Queen
Trishala. When he was in his late 20's his parents died. That is when he decided to become a monk. He left all his
worldly possessions including clothing and went into seclusion to become a monk. After 12 years of strict
meditation and ascetic lifestyle, he finally gained enlightenment and spiritual knowledge and came to be known as
Lord Mahavira. Numerous people were inspired by him and converted to Jainism. He left his mortal form around
527 B.C at the age of 72. The Jains celebrate this day as Diwali the day when Lord Mahavira attained liberation is
the last day on the Hindu calendar that is celebrated as Diwali. Today, it is amongst the smallest religions with
about 10 to 12 million followers.

Pataliputra Magadha (todays Bihar): Sisunaga dynasty is supposed to have been formed by
Sisunaga around 660BC. Little is known of Sisunaga himself but one of his descendants who later
became king was Adjatasatru. Adjatasatru visited Buddha around 490BC in Pataligrama and then built a
fort around an old town and town was thought to have been renamed then. Pataliputra later became the
capital of erstwhile Magadha which along with current Delhi, has held the seat of power and religious
learning longer than any other city for the Hindus. Today the city is called Patna. When the greek
historian visited Pataliputra around 300BC, he wrote that this was possibly the largest city in the world at
the time with 512 towers surrounding the city and on the banks of Ganga.
North: Mauryan Dynasty 320BC 185BC (9 kings in all)
Chandragupta Maurya: Around 330BC, Alexander the great, in order to
exact revenge on the Persians who 150 years earlier had burned down Athens
(see movie 300), made expeditions to the east from Greece. Alexander
defeated Darius and burned down Persepolis and ended, permanently, the
Achamedian dynasty which had been in power for over 500 years. After
destroying the Hindu kingdoms in todays Afghanistan, he proceeded east of
Himalayas and defeated Porus or Purushotham on the river Indus in 326BC.
One of the first dates in Indian history where East met the west that can be
termed accurate is 327BC when Alexander crossed the river Jehlum. He meets
with Chandragupta Maurya, son of a concubine of the Nanda King. Chandragupta learns some of the
battle tactics from Alexander and then later with the help of Chanakya/Kautilya, manages to usurp the
Nanda throne in Pataliputra. The story goes that Chanakya rushes to Pataliputra to get the help of the
Nanda King to stop the conquest of the westerners, possibly Alexander. There was a huge displacement
of the population on the west of the Himalayas causing disruption in his town, Taxila (or todays
Rawalpindi). Having been insulted and thrown out of the Nanda court he vows to get rid of the king and
replace him with someone who can help stop the invaders. Chandragupta, having become king with
Chanakyas help, naturally made his first expeditions to the west to retrieve the Hindu territories
conquered by Alexander. Alexander had died by then but Seleucus Nikator, his general had been ruling
the areas from Persia till the Indus. Changragupta defeats Seleucus, kills him and marries his daughter. He
annexes to Mauryan empire all the areas of the west of the Indus held by Selucids, past Afghanistan. His
expansions then included all territories down to the Cauvery in the South with the exception of
Kalinga(Orissa) . The size of his empire was not exceeded until 1800 years later under the Moghul
emperor Akbar.
Ashoka (274BC 232BC): After Chandragupta another noted King was Ashoka his grandson. All details
of Ashoka were lost until recent times but few other kings of that era has left behind so many artifacts
than Ashoka. After the bloody battle with Kalinga, after seeing over 100,000 perish, Ashoka turned to
Buddhism and non-violence. He later sent his daughter Sangamitra and his son Mahinda to China and
far-east, through Afghanistan to spread Buddhism. Its because of this that there is enormous Buddhist
population in the far-east and in China.
Some of what you can see today, are the Ashoka pillar with 4 lions on top which is, even
today, the Indian national emblem and its on the front of all Indian passports as well.
Ashoka re-built stupas at Sanchi, Amaravati, Barhut and Gaya. The
one at Sanchi was repaired during the Sunga dynasty which
followed the Mauryas. He also contributed to the Nalanda
university, supposedly one of the earliest universities in the world
along with the one at Taxila. Nalanda was totally destroyed later in
th
the 13 century by the muslim general Bhaktiar Khilji and the university burned for 3 months. Untold
amount of Hindu writings and history were potentially destroyed in that one act. The non-violence
movement and neglect of the army over time gradually weakened the Mauryan empire after Ashoka.

North: Sunga Dynasty 185BC-75BC: The last Mauryan, Brhdrata, was assassinated by the Brahmin
general, Pushyamitra Sunga, around 185BC. Magadha then went back into an expansionist mode to
regain a number of lost territories. While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Sunga
dynasty, it is recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and other learning
flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras and Mahabhasya were composed in
this period , Panini composed the first Sanskrit grammarian Ashtadayai. It is also noted for its subsequent
mention in the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the later Gupta period, and
romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, with a background of court intrigue. Artistry on
the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura school, which is considered the indigenous
counterpart to the more Hellenistic Gandhara school of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The last of the Sunga
emperors was Devabhuti (8373 BCE). He was assassinated by his minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is
said to have been fond of the company of women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the
subsequent Kanvas. There were also troubles in the northwest by the Kushans by then.

South: Tamil Chola Dynasty 300BC 1279AD:

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest ruling dynasties in India. This is the Tamil kingdom from
the south originating in the Cauvery river basin. This empire is probably the
reason for the extension of Hindu culture into the Malaysian region and further
beyond. This can be noticed by the temple architectures in those regions. The
inscriptions by the Mauryans include mention of the Cholas as well. There
were several great rulers, however, the two that need special mention are
RajaRaja Chola (around 1000AD) and his son, Raja Rajendra Chola. The
whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a
period of two centuries and more. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty
became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-east Asia. The power of the new
empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the celebrated expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra
Chola I undertook and by the overthrow after an unprecedented naval war of
the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to
China. During the period 10101200, the Chola territories stretched from the
islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the
Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular
South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied the
islands of the Maldives.[4] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to
North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of
Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago. The Chola
dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyas, who
ultimately caused their downfall. Hundreds of constructions of Cholas, including temples built by the
great RajaRaja Chola around 1000AD shown in the picture are still present today all over South India.
The Cholas were superseded by the Pandyas after Sundara Pandian defeated the last of the Cholas in
1279AD. Sundara Pandian also eliminated the Hoysalas, a Kannada dynasty which had close linkage with
the Cholas. The Chola constructions many of which still stand today are masterpieces. The south-eastern
coastline in India is also called the Coromandal coast a possible derivative of Chola Mandalam.
South Chera Dynasty 5th century BC to 1102AD
Again, it is one of the longest dynasties anywhere in the world. The Cheras, were,
comparatively, one of the smaller but distinct kingdoms in todays Kerala. The
dynasty was one of the three, with Pandyas and Cholas, sharing the southTthe later
Travancore kingdom, whose descendants are thought to be from the Venad line of
the Cheras were in power from 1729 till 1949, till the formation of the Indian
union. Of the many notable kings, Swati Thirumal was a big patron of music and

arts. The family became matriarchical after fall of the original Chera kingdom around 1100AD. The royal
family now still stays in the palace in Trivandrum.
Kushans 30AD 230AD: An important piece of Indian history because of the first evidence of the
entry of Chinese tribes into Hindu India along with a loose federation of Iother Central asian peoples. In
the 1st century BC, the Guishuang gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into
a tight confederation under yabgu (Commander) Kujula Kadphises. The name Guishuang was adopted in
the West and modified into Kushan to designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call
them Yuezhi. Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south
into the region traditionally known as Gandhara (an area primarily in Pakistan's Pothowar and then under
Kanishka-I expanding all the way into Mathura. The capital was later moved to Mathura possibly because
the Kushans were unable to hold on to the western territories. Ultimately the last great king Vasudev was
killed by the Sassnids. The dynasty plodded along till about 375AD with very small territories. The later
kings who were not receptive to foreign rule eliminated all remnants of these foreigners including
beheading all the supposedely kushan statues in Tokari Tila.
North: Gupta Dynasty 320AD-550AD Indias Golden Period: The story goes that the influential
Lichavis who had gained prominence gave their daughter in marriage to a street urchin Sri Gupta. As part
of the dowry they gave Sri Gupta some old ruins called Pataliputra. This was the start of the Gupta which
aggressively expanded to include almost all of North India. The peace and prosperity created under
leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors. This period is called the
Golden Age of India and was marked by extensive inventions and discoveries in science, technology,
engineering, art, dialectic, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy that
crystallized the elements of what is generally known as Hindu culture. Chandragupta I, Samudragupta,
and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The high points of this cultural
creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[7] The Gupta period produced scholars
such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma and Vatsyayana who made great
advancements in many academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during
the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as
a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, Malay Archipelago and
Indochina. It was during this period that Chandragupta-II sent his archeologists to find Ayodhya. After
finding Ayodhya they found what was thought to be the birthplace of Rama. Thus was created by the
Guptas the perfect warrior and then Ramayana was re-written for the masses. The empire was gradually
weakend by invaders from the west most notably the Huns and the Sakas. The Gupta empire, however,
managed to push back the Huns out of the country around 530AD. Huns never got a strong foothold and
eventually totally vanished. The key contributions to science was the concept of zero, that the earth moves
around the Sun, eclipses, Chess, the standardization of the decimal system we have today, that the earth is
round and not flat, that the moon and planets shine because of reflection of the Sun etc. The empire was
then superseded by Harsha Vardana and later by the Palas or the Bengal dynasty.
South - Karnataka Empires: Chalukyas 543AD to 782AD
The major Karnataka empires consisted of: Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Eastern Chalukyas,
Hoysalas, Vijayanagar and Mysore from 543 to 1947. There were other small vassals. The mighty
Chalukyas were a royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and
12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest
dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the
6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba
kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakesi II. After the death of
Pulakesi II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled
from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle
of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the

Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern
Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone
in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The Chalukyas aligned with the
Rashtrakutas and the Rajputs to push back the Arabs in the battle of Rajasthan in 738AD mentioned
below, arresting their expansion beyond Sindh.
Vatapi Ganapathy: The Chalukyas with their capital in Badami had a very famous Ganesha called the
Vatapi Ganapathy. Songs have been sung about this idol. In 642AD, during the reign of Pallava King
Narasimhavarman, to exact revenge, he invaded the Chalukyas and defeated King Pulakesi II. The
Pallava general, Param Jyoti annexed Badami the capital and then took away the famous idol and
installed it Tiruchengattankudi where it is said to still exist. Badami stayed in the hands of the Pallavas for
13 years and then illustrious and benavolent Vikramaditya II avenged the defeat and regained all of the
lost territories.
Muslim Incursions: 644AD: A key turning point in history is when some pirates hijacked an arab ship in
the high seas. During conversations with the Arabs to retrieve their trading ship, it became known that the
navy was almost non existent. The incursions started in Sindh province with the conquest of Sindh by the
Ommayid from todays Iraq. The expansion took them across to Gujarat including most of Gujarat. The
disintegration of the Gupta empire offered little resistance for this expansion. The disintegration of the
Guptas also caused the formation of the Rajputs and their princely dominions. In 730AD, under the
leadership Nagabhata-I with the alliance from other Rajput clans and the Chalukas and others utterly
defeated the invaders and pushed them across the Indus after abandoning all their lands. The Hindu
kingdoms did not evict the muslims from Sindh for whatever reason. The arabs took almost a century to
re-establish themselves and made another attempt in the 9th century but were defeated again by the
Rajputs.
North: Bengal Pala Dynasty 781AD 1174AD: Palas ruled most of the North all the way to current
Tamil Nadu coastline and the most notable being Dharmapala and Devapala who expanded the empire
from Afghanistan down to Tamil Nadu. The Pala kings devoted themselves in public welfare and social
reform. The Palas adopted the policy of religious toleration and co-existence of the Buddhists and the
Hindus. Pala kings won the heart of the people by welfare activities like digging tanks and establishing
towns took place in many folklores in the rural areas of Bengal. The Mahipala Geet (Songs of Mahipala)
is still popular in the rural areas. Palas adopted aggressive policy and began the period of expansion under
Dharmapala and Devapala. At its height Dharmapala's empire covered most of northern and central
region of the Indian Subcontinent. His successor Devapala extended the boundaries of the empire further
to Assam in the east, Kamboja in the north-wast and the Deccan in the south. Devapala united much of
South Asia under his rule, a feat only achieved before by Ashoka the Great. The successors of Devapala
had to contend with the Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakutas for the supremacy of the Kannauj
Triangle. After Narayanpala the Pala empire declined but was revived once more under the vigorous
reigns of Mahipala and Ramapala. The Palas suffered defeat at the hands of the Cholas in the 12th century.
Adi Sankaracharya 800AD: The revival of Hinduism
Born a Namboodiri Brahmin in Kerala, Adi Sankaracharya was key in
arresting the spread of Buddhism in India and the revival of Hinduism. One
of his key achievements is piecing back the Geeta together and translating it
for the masses. He walked the entire country starting at age 6 and died at the
young age of 32. He spent a large part of his
short life living in the cave shown on the left on
the hill in Joshimat in Uttaranchal. There he did
penance and after receiving enlightenment he
propounded his philosophy. He also traveled to Mount Kailash and to lake
Manasarovar and brought back with him and installed in Joshimat a Spatika

Lingam which is shown on the left. There are now many Shankara Mutts around the country in India.
1000AD and beyond:
Prithviraj Chauhan 1149-1192AD: As it happens in the annals of history, a few key incidents change
the entire course. Such was the case around 1192AD. Prithviraj Chauhan (1149-1192AD), the ruler of
Pitorgarh who ruled Delhi and major territories in the north all the way to Gujarat was attacked by
Mohammed of Ghor. Prithviraj prevailed in 1191 in the first battle of Tarrain in Haryana. In spite of much
appeals from the nobles to kill Mohammed and his generals, who were in chains, Prithviraj released them
when they begged for mercy. Mohammad returned in 1192 and defeated Prithviraj in the 2nd battle of
Tarrain and then took him back to Ghor as a prisoner. The Ghori then installed his slave Iltutmush as the
king in Delhi and there started the muslim rule in Hindustan in Delhi under the slave dynasty.
Moghuls 1521 to 1869AD: Babur, the grandson of Timur Lame, a descendant of Gengiz Khan (hence
the name Moghul a variation of Mongol) approached the Amir of then Iran to obtain an army of 12000
troops on loan. With the army he crossed into India through the Kyber and in the 1st battle of Panipat
defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his army. The Moghul then consolidated his rule from Agra fort.
Akbar: After briefly losing Delhi/Agra to Hemu by Baburs son Humayun, Akbar, born in Amarkot in a
Rajput house and nominated leader of the moghuls at age 9, with the help of his general Bairam Khan
regains Delhi and Agra in the 2nd battle of Panipat in 1565. Akbar then went into an expansionist mode
and greatly expands the moghul empire over the next 30 years. This was done initially by conquests but
later through marriage and other alliances with the Rajputs in the west and all the way in the east upto
Assam. Many of
the former Hindu
kings remained
in power but
plead allegiance
to the emperor.
The extent of the
empire by the
year 1605 had
reached the same size as that of Mauryan dynasty 1800 years earlier. Akbar also constructed the entire
city of Fatepur-Sikri close to Delhi. The city is not habitable today because of lack of water. The Indian
empire at the time of Akbar was larger than the British empire ruled by Elizabeth-I. Akbar during his
reign had greatly constrained the influence of the overbearing nobles and mullahs and had included in his
court great people such as Birbal, Todarmal and others. He also treated other religions fairly including
people of all sects in his court and abolishing the non-muslim tax called Jiziya. Many puranas were rewritten during his time.
Shah Jahan, Akbars grandson, (1627-1658) built the Taj Mahal. During his reign a large part of the
GDP, which was then possibly the largest in the world,
went to service the nobles and their projects. Huge
sums of money were also spent in large constructions
such as the massive Red Fort located in Delhi, in 1641.
The capital was then moved from Agra to Red Fort in
1641. Even today, the independence day speeches are
given from the ramparts of this fort.
The treasury was gradually being depleted and then by the end of his regime the government was almost
bankrupt. Aurangazeb, a very orthodox muslim, reinstated the Jiziya. He expended a lot of efforts and
money going after the 2 muslim dominions of Golconda (Hyderabad) and Bijapur. After much efforts he
finally managed to gain control of the 2 dominions in the south at a high cost. He installed his relative
the Nizams in charge of the dominions. After Aurangazeb in 1707, the rulers were weak and the
kingdoms in various parts of the country regained their independence. In 1738, Nader Shah, from Persia

conquered Kandahar, the last outpost of the Hotaki dynasty. His thoughts now turned to the Mughul
Empire of India. This once powerful moghuls were falling apart as the nobles became increasingly
disobedient and the Hindu Marathas made inroads on its territory from the south-west. Its ruler
Muhammad Shah Rangila was powerless to reverse this disintegration. Nader asked for Afghan rebels to
be handed over, but Mughal emperor refused. Nader used the pretext of his Afghan enemies taking refuge
in India to cross the Moghul border and capture Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, Sindh and Lahore. He then
advanced deeper into India crossing the river Indus before the end of year he defeated the Mughal army at
the huge Battle of Karnal in February, 1739. After this victory, Nader captured Mohammad Shah and
entered with him into Delhi. When a rumour broke out that Nader had been assassinated, some of the
Indians attacked and killed Persian troops. Nader reacted by ordering his soldiers to plunder the city.
During the course of one day (March 22) large number of people in Delhi were killed by the Persian
troops, forcing Mohammad Shah to beg for mercy. In response, Nader Shah agreed to withdraw, but
Mohammad Shah paid the consequence in handing over the keys of his treasury, and losing the Peacock
Throne to the Persian emperor. The Persian troops left Delhi at the beginning of May 1739. Nader's
soldiers also took with them thousands of elephants, horses and camels, loaded with the booty they had
collected. The plunder seized from India was so rich that Nader stopped taxation in Iran for a period of
three years following his return. This may one of the only recorded Persian incursions into India. By mid
18th century, after reigning for about 230 years, the moghul empire was waning. The Sikhs from the
northwest and the Marathas from the southwest bore down on them and ground them down containing
them to Delhi and its surroundings. Finally, the British followed their philosophy of divide and conquer
and used one against the other to gain total control of India over time with the last of the Moghuls,
Bahadur shah being killed in 1869. Their descendants finally emigrated to Pakistan and are now in
Karachi.

South: Karnataka Empires 543AD 1565AD:

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas The Karnataka dynasties have generally been large and powerful. The
early Chalukyas lasted from around 543AD upto 782AD described above. The
Rashtrakutas, supposedly descendants of the yadavas starting from Satyaki, ruled
mainly from their base in Gulbarga region. First growing under the shade of the
Chalukyas, they eventually deposed the last Chalukya in 753AD and gained control of
larger Karnataka. Gradually as the Cholas grew weaker they expanded all the way
down into Chola territories. Their territories, shown in map, stretched down from
todays Gujarat all along the western coast controlling trade with muslim empires in the
middle-east. Although Hindus generally, they contributed to Jain culture and some of their
contributions can be seen in the Ellora caves (picture) which exist today.
Working with their feudatory, the western Ganga dynasty they helped build
Jain monuments such as in Sravanabelagola. This is a masterpiece shown
in the adjoining picture. The Rashtrakutas finally deposed with the return
of the Chalukyas also known as the western Chalukyas who ruled over
the Karnataka region for next 200 years from 973AD to 1189AD. There are a lot of
inscriptions all over Karnataka from around the time frame of the Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas. During the overlapping times of the Chalukyas and the Cholas the border between the
Kannada kings and the Tamil kings constantly moved around with the Kannada kings on the west and the
Tamil kings in the east.

Hoysalas 1026AD-1343AD
Beginning as subordinates of the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas from Belur area,
gained more influence on the southern side of the Chalukya empire. As the tussle for
power between the Cholas successors, Pandyas and the Kakatiyas rose, Veera Ballala
took advantage of the situation and defeated the powerful Pandya king and took control

of the region. Towards the end of the 13th century, most of the Tamil lands fell under the Hoysalas. Its
thought that Bangalore was founded during this time. There were about 11 kings in all and the last of the
kings, Veera Ballala III eventually ceded the regions to the Vijayanagar Empire. A visit to the towns of
Belur and Halebid even today shows the work done by this dynasty.

Vijayanagar Empire 1336AD 1565AD:

Started under Harihara I, Vijayanagar empire gained influence and later control of almost all of South
India. The empire grew under Rama Devaraya. They originated
in the northern parts of the Hoysala kingdom and gained control
during the waning days of the Hoysalas who eventually merged
with the Vijayanagar empire. During this timeframe the muslims
were in aggressive expansion mode in the north. The Khiljis
were on a rampage going all the way east and sacking Pataliputra
and torching Nalanda. The high point of the empire was during
the reign of Krishna Devaraya (1509 to 1529). At one time, he fielded an army that was nearly 750,000
soldiers. During his reign he had stoppedl the muslim advances crushing the Gulbarga and Bijapur
sultanates, defeating the Golconda kings and imprisoning the commanders. While
planning a campaign against the Adil Shahi kings he took ill and died. It is during his
time that the current massive Tirupati temple, shown, was constructed on top of the
seven hills. Today, the Tirupati temple is one of the richest religious places in the
world. During the reign of Rama Raya, the allied forces of all the muslim kingdoms
finally defeated the Vijayanagar kingdom in the Battle of Talikota in January of 1565.
What followed was a plunder of the capital. There was a weak recovery in later years
but that finally ended as well assimilated into the Nizam rule. A visit to Hampi and Vijayanagar cities is
an absolute must. The places are now major tourist destination from people all over the world.
Mysore Wodeyars 1399 1947 (present):
Founded in todays Mysore by Yaduraja, in 1399, it remained a small kingdom for a long time. During
the time of the Vijayanagar empire the kingdom remained as a vassal state till the fall of Vijayanagar in
1565. In the power vaccum that followed, Raja Wodeyar extended the
borders and shifted the capital to Srirangapatna located today 3 miles
outside the city of Mysore across the Cauvery bridge. The kingdom
expanded greatly under the reigh of Chakka Devaraja between 1673 and
1704. The muslim general, Hyder Ali usurped the throne in 1760 and then
followed by his son Tippu Sultan ruled till 1799 when Tippu was
defeated by the British in the 4th battle of Mysore. Allied in the war with
British, the Wodeyars were re-instated as the head of Mysore. The kingdom lasted till independence in
1947 during which time the The last king Jayachamaraja Wodeyar and Mysore joined the Indian union.
His son, Srikanta Datta Narsimharaja Wodeyar, today, stays in Mysore and has been actively involved in
politics today. The Mysore palace is one of the most beautiful palaces and a must see during Dassera.
Marathas 1674-1818: The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Hindu imperial
power that existed from 1674 to 1818. The empire was founded and consolidated by Maharaja Shivaji
Bhosale. He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital, and successfully fought
against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. The Maratha Empire waged guerilla warfare for 27 years
with the Mughals from 1681 to 1707. Shivaji was called the mountain rat by Aurangazeb. The maratha
army was much smaller than the moghul imperial army and therefore had to focus on speed, surprise on
their enemies. They used tactics such as cutting off the food supplies and other logistics key to enemies
success/survival. Shivaji appointed Peshwas as the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire. After the
death of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire continued its war against the larger moghuls and greatly

weakened them. With the Sikhs bearing down from North-west and the Marathas from the south, the
moghuls found themselves highly contained around Delhi by the start of the 19th century. Marathas then
expanded greatly under the rule of the Peshwas. The empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the
south, to Attock (modern-day Pakistan) on the Indus River in the north and led Expeditions to Bengal in
the east. A major setback happened in 1761 when the Maratha army had a key reversal, lost a decisive
battle with the afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali in the 3rd battle of Panipat. Abdali cut off access to
water and food to the Maratha army and the exhausted army was routed and fled. The Peshwas under
Madhavrao Peshwa reinstated the Maratha authority over North India. In a bid to effectively manage the
large empire, semi-autonomy was given to strongest of the knights which created a confederacy of
Maratha states. They became known as Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the
Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, Bhonsales of Nagpur. In 1775, the British East India Company
intervened in a succession struggle in Pune which became the First Anglo-Maratha War. Marathas
remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars
(18051818) which left Britain in control of most of India. The Gaekwad, Scindia and Holkar families
still very influential today and in various businesses and in politics.
British India 1800s 1947: The British entered India through a trading post called the East India
company. First started in Calcutta and Madras the company focussed on
doing business. Gradually, to grow the business they took more control
through a divide and rule policy, using one king against another. Their first
major victory and foothold was in Calcutta. In 1757, in the battle of
Plassey, the british, under lord Clive, defeated Siraj-ud-daula, the ruler of
Bengal. The rumors are that british borrowed a then massive sum of Rs
50,000 from a marwadi businessman and paid off Mir Kasim the kings
general. During the battle which lasted for 1 day, Siraj-Ud-Daula and his forces took to battle. They fired
on the British and it started to rain. The british covered their cannons and the gunpowder while that of the
king got wet. When the major assault was to take place, Mir Kasim and most of the troops stood down,
having been paid off, and gave the victory to the british. The british supposedly never returned the money
to the marwadi businessman. This was one of Britains first foothold in Indian soil. In the south, the
British sided with the Karnataka hindu kings who had lost their territories to the muslim general, userpur,
Hyder Ali and later his son Tippu Sultan, the tiger of Mysore. The British were routed in the 1st and 2nd
battle of Mysore where they came across rockets shown in the picture. This was the first time they had
come across rocket artillery launched from early rocket launchers. The British took back the technology
and improved it and then used the technology against the French during their 100 years war. In a fateful
incident, according to some stories, Purniah, the prime minister of Tippu, whose daughter was violated by
Tippu, finally opened the gates to Srirangapatna fort and let the british come in. During the conclusive
British attack on Srirangapatna on May 2, 1799, a British shot struck a magazine of rockets within the
Tippu Sultan's fort causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke, with cascades of
exploding white light, rising up from the battlements. On May 3, a breach was made in the wall. On the
afternoon of May 4 when the final attack on the fort was led by David Baird (a former captive of Tippu's),
he was again met by "furious musket and rocket fire," but this did not help much; in about an hour's time
the Fort was taken; perhaps in another hour Tippu had been, and the war was effectively over. It was
Baird who discovered Tippu's body, "with three bayonet wounds and a shot through the head." After the
fall of Srirangapatna, 600 launchers, 700 serviceable rockets and 9,000 empty rockets were found. Some
of the rockets had pierced cylinders, to allow them to act like incendiaries, while some had iron points or
steel blades bound to the bamboo. By attaching these blades to rockets they became very unstable towards
the end of their flight causing the blades to spin around like flying scythes, cutting down all in their path.
Independence movement Mahatma Gandhi
Born in Porbandar on Oct 2nd 1869, Gandhi has been one of the most prominent figures the world has
seen. Through a philosophy of total non-violence, Gandhi united the Indian peoples and led India to

independence from the British. Over the years he gained support of all the leaders of the time including
Nehru, Rajaji, Sardar Patel and the masses. By employing non-cooperation and peaceful resistance
through what he called mass disobedience he brought the British government to the negotiating table.
He was famous for his many quotes which can be found online. Some examples are:
When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways of truth and love have always won. There have been tyrants,
and murderers, and for a time they can seem invincible, but in the end they always fall. Think of italways.
Freedom is not worth having if it does not connote freedom to err. It passes my comprehension how human beings, be they
ever so experienced and able, can delight in depriving other human beings of that precious right.

Post Independence: 1947 to present:

India has prided itself over the ages to be a leader in thought(religion), science and industry. Freedom of
expression has always been the hallmark of the civilization. History has seen the rise and fall of
civilizations and India has been no exception to that rule. Most have had one big success but what is
unique is that India has bounced back
many times as has been seen. With
GDP as a measure, India along with
China has dominated the world
scene. During the time of
independence Indian GDP ranking
was as low as 46th in the world and
with a population of over 350 million.
Today with over 1 billion people, India
is in the top 5 in the world, enjoying
significant growth rates especially
after the liberalization by the
government in early 1990s. A chart of
GDP as a percentage of worlds GDP
since 1000AD is shown. India is
expected to be in the top 3 with the
US and China by 2050. Starting from the early man, pre-dynastic peoples of the sapta-sindhu-civilization
and through the eras of the Aryan and Dravidian peoples growth India has come a very long way.
References:
1) PBS Documentary "The Journey of Man"
2) Royal Chronology of India - check online
3) Gods, Sages and Kings by David Frawley
4) http://www.indiadivine.org/audarya/hinduism-forum/189124-archeological-evidence-krishnas-presence.html
5) New Delhi Museum of Indian History, Janpath Road
6) Bhimbetka, outskirts of Bhopal on the Indore-Bhopal road
7) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudhayana
8) Photos: From Vajapey collection
9) Wikipedia, its contributors and through it all the references mentioned.
10) History of India by James Gense
11) Google Earth pictures of Saraswati basin
12) Vatapi Ganapathy story from Hari Narayan mahodaya
13) http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_gdp_per_cap_in_195-economy-gdp-per-capita-1950
14) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India
15) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_C_(Y-DNA)
16) http://hinduism.about.com/od/history/a/indiaquotes.htm
17) http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/mahavira.html
18) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vardhamana
19) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism