CHAPTER 6: NUTRITION

6.1 TYPE OF NUTRITION

Nutrition = process by which organisms obtain nutrients and energy from food.

Type of nutrition
Autotrophic
Nutrition

Photosynthesis

Chemosynthesis

Definition
Examples
Living organisms that are capable of producing Plants
its own food from simple inorganic compounds Bacteria
Organisms that synthesis food from inorganic Green plants
compounds such as water and carbon dioxide Algae
using sunlight as source of energy
Organisms that synthesize food from simple Sulphur bacteria
inorganic compounds using energy released
from oxidizing minerals like nitrates, carbon
dioxide and sulphides
Living organisms that feed on other living things

Heterotrophic
Nutrition

Holozoic Nutrition

Saprophytism

Parasitism

6.2 BALANCED DIET

1. A balanced diet contains the main nutrients which include carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
vitamins, minerals, water and roughage in the correct proportions to meet the bodys daily
requirements.
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The importance of a balanced diet:

to allow the organism to function efficiently by providing daily energy requirement
for effective metabolism and maintain a healthy life
for growth and repair damage tissues
to supply essential nutrients

Daily energy requirement

1. Energy can be obtained from carbohydrates and fats. Proteins are only used if there is a
shortage of carbohydrates and fats.
2.

Energy requirement vary according to:

(a) Age

- Children and teenagers require more energy because they

have a higher metabolic rate
(b) Sex
- A male adult need more energy because they usually have
relatively less fatty tissues as heat insulator and a higher rate
of metabolism
(c) Body size and weight
- People with bigger body size and weight will require more
energy for their basal metabolism
(d)
Occupation
and - A person who does heavy work will need more energy than a
lifestyle
person who only moderately active, and thus requires more
energy than a sedentary worker.
(e) Pregnancy and lactation - Pregnant women and breast-feeding mothers require more
energy.
(f) Climate
- A person who lives in a cold country needs more energy to
maintain his body temperature than a person living in the
tropics.

Determination of energy value in food samples

Energy value of food = Defined as the energy produced when 1 gram of food is completely
burned. The unit for energy value of food is joule per gram (J/g) or
kilojoules per gram (kj/g)

Energy value if food can be measured through the use of either simple calorimeter or
bomb calorimeter.

Simple calorimeter

Bomb calorimeter

Balanced Diet

Diet refers to the kind of food that we eat and drink regularly.
A balanced diet contains carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibers and
water in the right proportions.

Class of food

Importance

Carbohydrate

Protein

Fat

4. Water

Water makes up 70% of total body mass.

Each day about 2.5/3.0 litre of water is lost in the body through sweating, excretion,
defecation and respiration.
Functions of water includes:
a) Solvent for various biochemical reactions
b) To transport hormones, ingested food, heat and gases.
c) Coolant that carries away heat to be eliminated.
d) Providing structure and support
e) Essential component of the blood, digestive juices and lubricant in joints.

5. Vitamins and Minerals

Name of
Sources
the vitamin
Vitamin A
Green leafy
vegetables, carrot,
milk, milk products,
fish, fish liver oil.

Vitamin D

Fish liver oil, milk,

butter, eggs,
manufactured by
the body in
sunlight. It is called
sunshine vitamin.

Vitamin E

Milk, egg yolk,

wheat germ, green
vegetables,

Functions

Deficiency diseases

Increases
resistance
power against
diseases,
protects the
eyes from
infections,
helps in seeing
in dim light,
required for
making
rhodopsin.
Helps the body
absorb calcium
from food.

Retarded growth, health of the skin is

affected, night blindness leading to
Xerophthalmia.

Anti-oxidant,
protects
vitamins A,C,D

Poorly understood in humans.

Causes sterility in rats.

Brittle bone, Osteomalacia in adults.

Rickets in children. Smptoms - poor
growth, deformation of bones
resulting in bow legs and defective
ribs.

vegetables oils,

Vitamin K

Vitamin B1

Vitamin B2

Vitamin
Niacin B3.
Nicotinic
acid
Vitamin B6

Vitamin
Folic acid

Vitamin B12

Vitamin C

Green vegetables
legumes, milk
products, meat,
egg yolk, produced
by bacteria in the
gut.
Whole cereals,
wheat germ, green
vegetables, soya
bean, yeast, milk,
meat, seafood.
Unpolished rice.
Peas, beans, oil
seeds, green
vegetables, yeast,
milk, liver, meat,
eggs, fish
Cereals, yeast,
meat, liver

Whole grains,
green vegetables,
fish, meat,
groundnuts,
potato, tomato
Green vegetables,
sprouted seeds,
cereals, egg and
liver
Milk, milk products,
eggs, fish, meat
and liver
Citrus fruits like
lemon and orange,
gooseberry(amla),
guava, green leafy
vegetables,
papaya, tomato,
sprouted grams

and K and poly

unsaturated
fatty acids.
Helps in
clotting of blood

Spontaneous bleeding, blood takes

long time to clot.

Helps the body

to oxidize food
to release
energy

Beri-beri affects nervous system,

muscles become weak causing
cramps, pain, numbness, may lead to
paralysis. Retarded growth in
children.

Necessary for
healthy skin,
eyes and
nerves

Photophobia eyes become sensitive

to sunlight. Dry skin, sores on corners
of mouth, tongue and lips.

Necessary for
enzyme
activities

Pellagra Skin legions, rashes,

diarrhoea

Necessary for
amino acid and
fatty acid
metabolism

Dermatitis, Diarrhoea, Dementia

(mental sickness) characterized by
3D symptoms.

Necessary for
the production
of RBC and
nucleoprotein
synthesis.
Helps in
formation of
blood.
Helps to bind
the cells
together and in
the use of
calcium by
bones and
teeth.
Necessary for
production of
strong skin and
collagen fibre

Haemoglobin content of the blood will

drop. The number of RBC is reduced.

Acute anaemia

Scurvy Symptoms general

weakness, bleeding gums and
internal organs, anaemia and swollen
legs.

synthesis.
FUNCTIONS AND SOURCES OF MINERALS
Mineral
Source
Functions
Calcium
Milk, cheese, Form strong &
anchovies,
healthy teeth &
cereals
bones
Assists in blood
clotting
Necessary for
muscle
contraction &
transmission of
nerve impulses
Magnesium
Cereals,
Necessary for
green
muscle
vegetables,
contraction
milk, meat
Necessary for
transmission of
nerve impulses
As a cofactors for
various enzymes
Phosphorus
Milk, meat,
Forms strong
cereals, eggs
bones and teeth
Form ATP in cell
respiration
Sodium
Table salt,
Maintains the
meat, eggs,
balance of water
milk
in the body
Maintains the
osmotic pressure
in the body
Needed for
transmission of
nerve impulses
Potassium
Milk, meat,
For transmission
banana, green
of nerve impulses
vegetables
For muscle
contraction
Iodine
Prawns,
Produces
cockles,
thyroxine hormone
seafood,
seaweed

Effects of deficiency
Rickets
Osteoporosis
Prolonged bleeding

Weak muscles
Convulsion
(Sawan)

Brittleness of bones
Tooth decay

Muscular cramps

Disorder in the nervous system

Goitre

Cretinism in children
6

Iron
Fluorine

6.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Liver, spinach,
nuts, egg yolk
Drinking

water, tea,
vegetables

Forms
haemoglobin
Harden enamel of
teeth, bones

Anaemia
Dental caries

Dietary Fibre (Roughage)

stimulates peristalsis and assists the movement of food in the intestine
helps to prevent constipation
may protect colon cancer
contains less fat and cholesterol which may decreases the risk of cardiovascular
diseases

Selection of an appropriate balanced diet:

Target group
Pregnant women

Infants

Children

Teenagers

Athletes

Appropriate balanced diet

Adequate nutrients are needed for her own self & the foetus in
the womb
More calcium and phosphorus are needed to form strong
bones and teeth for the baby.
More iron-to build red blood cells to prevent anemia
Avoid nicotine, caffeine and alcohol
Rapid growth need more protein
More calcium and phosphorus
Mothers milk contains all the nutrients and antibodies.
Have slower growth rate compared to babies
Need more protein for growth
Need more carbohydrates and fats to supply energy because
they are very active.
Need extra vitamin D
Minerals such as iodine is needed to produce thyroxine for
physical and mental development
More calcium and phosphorus.
Between the ages 12-19
Grow very fast
For girls, puberty begins at 12 years; rapid growth
For boys, puberty begins at 14 years; rapid growth
Need a lot of protein to build new protoplasm as well as
calcium and phosphorus.
Very active, hence need more energy through carbohydrates.
Female teenagers need more iron as they lose blood during
menstruation.
Include more carbohydrates to supply energy to carry out the
vigorous activities in sports.
More protein to build and replace damaged tissue.
Calcium, sodium and potassium are needed to strengthen
bones and to prevent muscular cramps.
7

The aged

Vegetarians

People with
specific diseases

55 years and above undergo the process of aging and slow

growth.
Lose their appetite and are less active
Diet should be rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals to
maintain good health and repair tissues.
Have weaker and more brittles bones, need more calcium
and phosphorus.
Less active; need less carbohydrates and fats.
Avoid food that contains high amount of fats, sugar and salt.
Vegetables and fruits to replenish water in their body.
Has to rely on alternative source of proteins since diet lacks
animal source of protein.
Should consume more nuts and grains.
Depends on the disease
Ex: osteoporosis: need more phosphorus, calcium and
vitamin D.

Food Test
Test For

Food test

Starch

Iodine test

Reducing
sugar

Benedicts test

Protein

Millons test

Observation

Biurets test
Lipid

Ethanol-emulsion test
Grease spot test
Sudan III test

Vitamin C

DCPIP test

Percentage of Vitamin C in fruit juice

=
Concentration of Vitamin C in fruit juice
=

6.3 MALNUTRITION
1. Malnutrition is failing health that results from not eating a balanced diet over a long
period of time.
2. Malnutrition refers to:
(a) undernutrition: resulting from inadequate consumption or excessive loss of nutrients
(b) overnutrition: resulting from overeating or excessive intake of specific nutrients
3.

Effects on malnutrition

(a) Kwashiorkor
caused by protein deficiency
symptoms:
(i) swelling legs
(ii) underweight
(iii) moon face
(iv) swollen abdomen
9

(v) thin muscles but fat present

(vi) dry, sparse, thin hair
(vii) apathetic, little interest in his surrounding
(viii) stunted growth
(b) Marasmus
caused by deficiency of energy and protein foods in children
symptoms:
(i) underweight
(ii) old man face
(iii) thin muscles, thin fat
(iv) stunted growth

10

Effects of Excessive Intake and Deficiency in Nutrients on Health

Nutrient
Carbohydrate

Effects of excessive intake

Lipid

Protein

Vitamins

Minerals

11

Effects of deficiency

6.1

FOOD DIGESTION

6.1.1
Human Digestive System
Consists of the alimentary canal and the glands and organs associated with it.
The alimentary canal is like a tube that extends from the mouth to the anus.
Most of its length is coiled in the abdominal cavity.
Basic functions of human digestive system:
(a) Ingestion: taking food into the body
(b) Peristalsis: food substances moved along the alimentary canal by muscular
contractions
(c) Digestion: mechanical digestion by physical breakdown of food and chemical
digestion by enzymes
(d) Absorption: Absorption of soluble food into the bloodstream
(e) Egestion: Elimination of undigested food from the body

2.

Digestion of Carbohydrates, proteins and lipids

Site
(a) In the mouth

Activity
Digestion of food begins in the mouth which includes:
(i) Mechanical digestion:
Involves the chewing of the large pieces of food into small pieces.
This makes it easier to swallow the food and increases the surface
area for digestive enzymes
(ii) Hydrolysis of starch to maltose
Saliva contains salivary amylase to hydrolyse starch to maltose.

The food particles are rolled into small ball called bolus. During
12

swallowing, the bolus is forced into pharynx and then into the
oesophagus

(b) Oesophagus

(c) Stomach

Food bolus is moved down the oesophagus by peristalsis

Mucus is secreted by the oesophagus wall to lubricate the passage
of the bolus.
When the cardiac sphincter relaxes, the food bolus enters the
stomach.

The gastric glands presented in the epithelium of the stomach wall

secrete gastric juice containing:
(i) Hydrochloric acid
provides an optimum pH (1.5 2.0) for pepsin and rennin
kills bacteria in the food
stops the action of salivary amylase
(ii) Enzyme pepsin
Hydrolyses the protein into polypeptides

(iii) Enzyme rennin

Converts caseinogen into casein

Food remains in the stomach for 2 to 4 hours.

The semi-liquid food is called chime.
The pyloric sphincter relaxes to allow the chime to enter the
duodenum.

13

(d) In the small

intestine

consists of duodenum, jejunum and ileum

(i) Duodenum
The presence of food in the duodenum stimulates the pancreas to
release pancreatic juice and the liver to produce bile.
Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
The function of bile:
o Bile contains bile salts which emulsify the lipids and breaks
them into smaller droplets.
o Pancreas secretes pancreas juice into the duodenum.
Pancreas juice contains sodium hydrogen carbonate,
pancreatic amylase, trypsin and lipase
o Bile and pancreas juice neutralize the acidic chime from the
stomach and provides an optimum alkaline medium for
digestive enzyme in the duodenum.
In the duodenum:
1. Pancreatic amylase hydrolyses the starch to maltose

2.

Trypsin hydrolyses polypeptides into peptides

3.

Lipase hydrolyses lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

(ii) In the intestine:

The epithelial cells in the villi of the small intestine contain enzymes
to complete the digestion of food
1. Maltase hydrolyses maltose to glucose

2.

Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose to glucose and fructose

3.

Lactase lactose to glucose and galactose

4.

Eripsin hydrolyses peptides into amino acids.

14

3.

At the end of the digestion:

The complex carbohydrates are broken into simple sugars
Proteins are broken into amino acids
Lipids are broken into glycerol and fatty acids

Summary:
Site of
action

pH

Enzymes

Reaction

Mouth

Stomach

Duodenum

Small
intestine

15

6.1.1

Digestion of Cellulose in Ruminants and Rodents

1. The alimentary canals of herbivorous mammals such as ruminants and rodents contain
microorganism that can produce cellulase to digest cellulose.
Ruminants

Ruminants are herbivores characterized by a four-chambered stomach (rumen,

reticulum, omasum and abomasum)
Examples: cows, sheep and goats.
The digestion of cellulose by ruminants:
(i) The grass is mechanically digested by grinding action of the teeth
(ii) The partially masticated food is passes to the rumen (the largest compartment).
Fermentation occurs.
The anaerobic bacteria and protozoa partially break down the cellulose into glucose
and organic acids.
(iii) The partially digested food enters the reticulum and undergoes further fermentation.
(iv) The food is then regurgitated to the mouth for further grinding.
(v) The chewed food is swallowed into the omasum where water and some nutrients are
absorbed.
(vi) Then, the food is channelled to the abomasum (the true stomach) for digestion of
proteins.
Rodents

Rodents are mostly herbivores or omnivores

Examples: rabbits, rats and mice
They have a large caecum containing symbiotic bacteria and protozoa. These
microorganisms secrete cellulase to digest cellulose.
Food is digested two times in the alimentary canal:
(i) The first faecal pellets produced at night contain partially digested food and are moist
and soft.
(ii) Rodents eat pellets directly from the anus. The faecal pellets pass through the
alimentary canal again to be more fully digested.
16

(iii) The second dry, hard faecal pellets produced during the day are not eaten.
Similarities and differences between the digestive process in human, ruminants and
rodents:
Humans

Ruminants
Similarities

Rodents

Differences
Omnivores
One chambered stomach
Small, short caecum
Microorganisms in digestive
tract does not secrete
cellulase to digest cellulose
Food passes through
alimentary canal once
No regurgitation

6.1.1

Problems associated with food digestion

1. Incomplete digestion of food

Causes: excessive eating, drinking or an inability of the body to digest the ingested food
Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and a bloated stomach
Preventive measures: proper chewing of food, eating moderately and following a
balanced diet
2. Gallstones
Causes: eating high cholesterol diet, obesity and aging
Symptoms: fever, pain in the upper right abdomen, nausea, vomiting and jaundice
The presence of large stones blocks the bile duct. The lipids are not emulsified and lipid
digestion is less effective.
Treatment: In severe cases, the gall bladder may be removed by surgery or laparoscopy
3. Reduced production of specific digestive enzymes
Decreased production of lactase causes lactose intolerance in some babies and older
adults.

17

6.2

If a person with lactose intolerance eats dairy products containing lactose, diarrhoea may
result. The bacteria in the colon ferment the lactose. The gas and organic acids
produced causes bloating of the abdomen.
PROCESS OF ABSORPTION AND ASSIMILATION OF DIGESTED FOOD

1. The adaptive features of small intestine to aid absorption of nutrients:

(a) It is 5-6m long in an adult. This gives a longer time for food digestion and more nutrients
to be absorbed.
(b) It has a lot of villi and microvilli to provide a large surface area for more rapid absorption.
(c) It has a thin (one-cell-thick) epithelium to allow digested food to pass easily through it
into the blood capillaries or lacteals.
(d) It has a moist surface.
(e) It is richly supply with blood capillaries to absorb and to transport the absorbed nutrients.

2.
(a)

Absorption and transportation of digested food:

Glucose, amino acid, mineral ions, water soluble vitamins B and C
Diffuses into the blood capillaries
The blood capillaries join to form the hepatic portal vein and transport the nutrients to the
liver.

(b) Fatty acids, glycerol and fat soluble vitamins A, D and E

Diffuses into the lacteals.
Transported from lacteals to lymphatic vessels then return to the blood circulatory
system.
(c) Water and remaining mineral ions
Absorbed from undigested food in the colon together with Vitamin K synthesized by
bacteria in the colon.
3.

The functions of liver

(a) Regulation of
blood glucose
level

When the blood glucose level is high, insulin promotes the

conversion of excess glucose to glycogen for storage in the liver
When the blood glucose level is lower than the normal, glucagon
promotes the conversion of glycogen to glucose.
18

(b) Deamination

(c) Storage
function
(d) Detoxification
(e) Production of
bile
(f) Synthesis of
plasma protein

4.

Excess amino acids cannot be stored and are transported to the

liver.
Liver converts the amino group (-NH2) to ammonia (through a
process called deamination) then into urea which is then excreted
through the urine.
The remaining amino acid portion may be converted to carbohydrate
or fat.
The liver stores:
(i) fat soluble vitamins A and D, and the water soluble vitamin B12.
(ii) Some mineral ions: iron, potassium, cobalt, zinc and copper
Toxins carried by the blood to the liver are chemically modified into
non-toxic substances and are eliminated.
Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. It is
transported to the duodenum to emulsify the fats into small droplets
to increase the surface area for digestion by lipase.
The liver synthesis plasma protein such as fibrinogen and
prothrombin that are needed for blood clotting.

Assimilation

(a) Assimilation refers to how a living organism utilizes the absorbed food substances for
growth, development, reproduction or repair.
(b) Glucose
Glucose is used as main respiratory substrate. It is oxidised to release energy, water and
carbon dioxide.
Excess glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver
Any further excess is converted into lipids
When the blood glucose level decreases below the normal level, glycogen is converted
back into glucose.
(c) Lipids
Lipids are used
o as a respiratory substrate, a major energy reserve in the body.
o to form the phospholipids components of plasma membrane.
Excess fats are stored in adipose tissue under the skin, and around the internal organs.
(d) Amino acids
Amino acids are used:
o in protein synthesis for the production of new protoplasm, growth and repair
o in the formation of enzymes and some hormones
o in the formation of protein part of haemoglobin part of the red blood cells
Excess amino acids are deaminated to form urea which is excreted in the urine.

19

6.3

FORMATION OF FAECES AND DEFECATION

Defaecation is important for discharging waste and unwanted toxic substances from the
colon.

6.3.1

The process of defaecation

Undigested food from ileum enters the colon

Water, minerals and vitamins are absorbed into the blood

stream.
The remaining content in the colon forms feces which
contains undigestible food, dead cells, bile pigments and
bacteria.
Feces is stored temporarily in the rectum.
When the rectum is full, pressure in the rectum causing a
desire to expel the feces from the body.
The sphincter muscle relax, the rectal wall contracts and
feces is eliminated through the anus through defecation.

6.1.1
Role of microorganisms in the colon
There are symbiotic microorganisms living in the human colon such as Escherichia coli.
The symbiotic bacteria synthesis Vitamin B12 and Vitamin K that can be absorbed in the
colon.
Consumption of antibiotics can kill and decrease the microbial population in the colon.
Consequently, Vitamin B12 and Vitamin K cannot be obtained from the colon.
6.1.2

Problems related to defecation

1. Constipation
Constipation is the difficulty or infrequent evacuation of the bowels.
Reasons:
o Too much water is removed by the colon
o Faeces moving too slowly through the colon
o The rectum is unable to expel faeces
Preventions:
o Taking a diet rich in roughage
o Consume more liquids
o Visit toilet regularly
20

Exercise daily

2. Haemorrhoids
Haemorrhoids are a condition in which the veins around the anus or lower rectum are
swollen and inflamed.
Reasons:
o Caused by prolonged constipation or diarrhoea
Preventions:
o Drink a lot of water and eating a high fibre diet
o Empty your bowel as soon as possible when urge occurs
o Exercise regularly
3. Colon cancer
Colon cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the tissues of the colon.
Reasons:
o Carcinogens produced by colon bacteria
o Eating a high fat, low fibre diet
Preventions:
o Eating a high fibre diet
6.2

EVALUATING EATING HABITS

1. Eating habits refer to:

The type of food we eat, and
Frequency and time we eat
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Good eating habits:

taking meals at the appropriate time
refraining from overeating or eating too little during a meal
eating a variety of food
eating a balanced diet
eating sufficient amount of fibre
drinking a least 2 to 3 liter of water daily
avoid excessive fatty and sweet food

21

3.

Health problems related to eating habits:

Health
problems
Definition

Symptoms

Causes

Health risks

Gastritis

Obesity

Gastritis is an inflammation,
irritation, or erosion of the
lining of the stomach.

Nausea
Abdominal bloating
Abdominal pain
Vomiting
Indigestion
Loss of appetite
Vomiting blood

Bacterial, viral and parasitic

infections
Alcohol
Stress reaction
Improper eating habits
stomach ulcers
stomach bleeding.
stomach cancer,

Anorexia nervosa

Bulimia

Obesity is a complex disorder

involving an excessive amount of
body fat.

(BMI) is 30 or higher.
Overweight
Large body size
Commonly has pear shaped body

Inactivity/sedentary lifestyle,
Unhealthy diet and eating habits.

High triglycerides and low highdensity lipoprotein (HDL)

cholesterol
Type 2 diabetes
High blood pressure
Heart disease
Stroke
Cancer
Gallbladder disease
Gynecological problems,
Erectile dysfunction
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

22

Bulimia is a serious,
potentially life-threatening
eating disorder. People with
bulimia may secretly binge
eating large amounts of food
and then purge.
Being preoccupied with your
body shape and weight
Living in fear of gaining
weight
Eating much more food in a
binge episode
Forcing yourself to vomit or
exercise too much
Misusing laxatives
biology,
emotional
health, societal expectations

Dehydration
Heart problems
Severe tooth decay and gum
disease
Absent or irregular periods in
females
Digestive problems
Anxiety and depression
Misuse of alcohol or drugs
Suicide

4. When choosing food, we must consider:

(a) the nutritional contents of food
(b) freshness of food
(c) presence of food additives (Flavouring, colouring and preservatives)
6.1

IMPORTANCE OF HEALTHY DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. A healthy digestive system is essential for:

Proper digestion of complex food into small soluble molecules for the absorption and
assimilation of nutrients in the cells
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Ways to take care of the digestive system:

having good eating habits
avoiding junk foods
cutting down on sugar intake and sweetened food
reducing intake of fatty food

23

6.9

MACRONUTRIENTS AND MICRONUTRIENTS IN PLANTS

Mineral elements = essential chemical elements required by plants to achieve optimal

growth and development.
Macronutrients: nutrients that is required in large amounts
Micronutrients: nutrients that is required in small amounts
Macronutrient
Nitrogen (N)

Function
Symptoms of Deficiency
Important for many growth
Slow growth, stunting, and
and development processes. yellow-green color
A constituent of proteins,
enzymes, and chlorophyll
(needed for photosynthesis).

Phosphorus (P)

Stimulates early growth and

root formation;
promotes seed, fruit, and
flower formation

Slow growth, stunting, and

purplish color on foliage or
dark green color; dying leaf
tips; delayed maturity; poor
fruit or seed development

Potassium (K)

Proper growth of fruits and

flowers, ensuring
good size, color
and quantity.

Slow growth; weak stalks;

small fruit and shriveled
seeds.

Calcium (Ca

Essential part of cell wall

Reduced terminal growth of
structure, must be present for shoots (buds) and roots,
formation of new cells.
resulting in plant death.

Magnesium (Mg)

Essential for photosynthesis

Sulfur (S)

Responsible for characteristic Reduced growth, delayed

odors of plants such as garlic maturity. Light green to
and onion
yellowish foliage on leaves;

24

Leaves curl upward along

margins; marginal yellowing

Micronutrient
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)

Zinc (Zn)

Boron

Copper (Cu)
Chlorine (Cl)
Molybdenum (Mo)

Nickel (Ni)

6.10

Function
Required for formation of
chlorophyll in plant cells.
Assists iron in chlorophyll
formation and serves as
activator for enzymes in growth
process.
Important plant growth
regulator; essential in root and
plant growth.
Regulates metabolism of
carbohydrates in plants. Critical
for new growth in plants and
assists in flower pollination,
fertilization, fruit set.
Activator of enzymes in plants.
Required for photosynthesis
and root growth.
Required by plants for the
utilization of nitrogen. Plants
cannot transform nitrate
nitrogen into amino acids
without molybdenum.
Needed to complete the life
cycle of the plant and viable
seed.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Leaf structure and function

25

Symptoms of Deficiency
Yellow-green color of leaves
Yellow-green color of young
leaves

Yellow-green color, decrease in

stem length; reduced fruit bud
formation
Death of terminal growth;
thickened, curled, wilted leaves;
Reduced flowering.

Stunted growth; death of leaf

tips.
Very rare; wilting followed by
yellow-green color;
Stunting; reduced yield;

Leaf tip necrosis

The physical adaptation of leaves for photosynthesis

Structure
Adaptation
Explanation
Lamina of the
leaf

Bloat, flat and thin

The broad and flat shape provides a large

surface area for the maximum
absorption of sunlight and carbon
dioxide.
Thin leaf allows light to penetrate and
reach the cells. It also allows carbon
dioxide to diffuse rapidly to the cells in
the leaf.

Position of the
leaf

Leaf is positioned at
right angle to rays of
sunlight

To absorb maximum sunlight.

Arrangement of
the leaf

Leaves are arranged in To absorb maximum sunlight.

mosaic pattern so that
they do not overlap.

Upper epidermis

Translucent

Allows sunlight to pass through easily.

The adaptation of the structure of a leaf for photosynthesis

26

Structure
Cuticle

Description
A waxy covering which
protects the leaf

Function
Waterproof: to prevent excessive
water loss
Transparent: to allow sunlight to
penetrate the leaf

Upper epidermis

Covers the upper surface of a

leaf
Does not contain chloroplast

Thin and transparent: to allow

sunlight to penetrate the leaf
and reach the light-trapping
chloroplast

Palisade mesophyll

These cells are packed tightly Packed tightly together: to allow

together in an upright
the cells to receive the
arrangement right beneath
maximum amount of light
Have a high density of
the upper epidermis
These cells are cylindrical and
chloroplasts: to carry out
have a high density of
maximum absorption of sunlight
Coated with a film of water: to
chloroplasts
The cell walls are coated with
facilitate the diffusion of carbon
a film of water
dioxide into the cells

Spongy
mesophyll

Have irregular shape

Irregular shape: to increase the
Contain chloroplasts but fewer
internal surface are of gaseous
than palisade cells
exchange
Have air space that connect
Contain chloroplasts: to carry out
the mesophyll to the stomata
photosynthesis
The cell walls are coated with Have air space: to allow easy
a film of water
diffusion of water and carbon
dioxide
Moist surface: to allow gaseous
exchange to take place
efficiently in the cells

Vascular bundle

Consists of xylem and phloem Xylem: transport mineral ions and

water from the root to the leaf
Phloem: to transport the products
of photosynthesis from the leaf
to the other parts of the plants

Lower epidermis

Forms the lower protective

boundary of the leaf
Consists of guard cells and
stomata

27

Guard cells: control the opening

and closing of stomata
Stomata: allow carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere diffuses
into the leaf and oxygen diffuses
out of the leaf

28

6.1.1

Adaptation of plants from different habitats to carry out photosynthesis

Habitat
Land plants

Adaptation
Most stomata are located on the lower epidermis
To allow maximum carbon dioxide absorption
To prevent excessive evaporation and water loss
Most of the chloroplasts are found in the palisade mesophyll cells
and the spongy mesophyll cells
To facilitate maximum absorption of sunlight

Floating plants

Aquatic plants

Desert plants

The stomata are mostly distributes on the upper epidermis which is

covered by a thick and waxy cuticle
To repel water and keep the stoma open
Chloroplasts are found mainly in the upper epidermis
To maximize the absorption of sunlight
Stomata are not found on the leaves
The cells on the surface are able to absorb water, nutrients and
dissolved gases directly from the surrounding
Chloroplasts are found all over the surface of the plant
To maximize the absorption of sunlight
Leaves contain very few stomata and some have embedded
stomata (sunken stomata)
To prevent excessive loss of water
Chloroplasts are found all over the plant
To maximize the absorption of sunlight

29

6.11

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Chloroplast: The site of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a two-stages process:

(a) Stage 1: the light reaction, occurs in the grana
(b) Stage 1: the dark reaction, occurs in the stroma

30

The Light Reaction

1.

When chlorophyll absorbs light, it becomes activated and this energy is used to:

(i)

split up the water molecule into hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion (photolysis of water).

(ii) excite the chlorophyll to release electrons.

2. Each hydrogen ion receives an electron from the chlorophyll and becomes a hydrogen
atom.
3. The hydrogen atom then enters the dark reaction, where it is combined with the carbon
dioxide to form carbohydrates.
4. Hydroxide ions release their electron to the chlorophyll to restore its neutrality. Hydroxyl
groups are formed, which then combined to form water and oxygen.

The Dark Reaction

1. Carbon dioxide which had diffused into the leaves are combined with hydrogen atom
from the light reaction.
2. (CH2O) is the basic unit for the formation of glucose. Six units of CH2O will combine to
form a molecule of glucose.

6.12

SYNTHESISING FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The rate of photosynthesis is affected by

(c) Light intensity
(d) Concentration of carbon dioxide
(e) Temperature
(f) Water
(a) The effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

The higher the light intensity, the higher the rate of photosynthesis.

31

As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases up to a saturation

point (P)
A further increase in the light intensity (beyond point P) does not increase the rate of
photosynthesis because of the limiting factors such as concentration of carbon dioxide
and temperature.
At very high light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis slows down because the pigment
chlorophyll is damaged by ultraviolet rays.

(b) The effect of concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis

The higher the concentration of carbon dioxide, the higher the rate of photosynthesis.
As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases
up to a saturation point.
A further increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide does not increase the rate of
photosynthesis because light intensity acts as a limiting factor.

(c) The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Changes in temperature will affect the rate of photosynthesis because the dark reaction
of photosynthesis is catalysed by the photosynthetic enzymes.
An increase of 10 0C in the surrounding temperature will double the rate of
photosynthesis
The optimum temperature for most of the plants is 25 0C - 300C
When the temperature is too high, the photosynthesis will stop because the
photosynthetic enzymes are denatured.

(d) The effect of water on the rate of photosynthesis

If the water is not supplied, wilting occurs. This results in the the closing of stomata and
prevents the diffusion of carbon dioxide into the leaves.
As a result, the rate of photosynthesis decreases because of the lower concentration of
carbon dioxide.
32

6.13
1.

PRACTICING A CARING ATTITUDE TOWARDS PLANTS

The importance of photosynthesis

Through photosynthesis, green plants convert the energy from sunlight into chemical
energy and store this energy within organic molecules. These organic molecules provide
fuel for other organisms that eat the plants.
During photosynthesis, plants remove carbon dioxide from the air, and at the same time
produce oxygen.

33

6.14 TECHNOLOGY IN FOOD PRODUCTION

1. The effort by various agencies to diversify food production
(a) Consuming Ulam

Ulam are vegetables salad consists of fresh leaves, fruits and other plant parts which
are eaten raw.

(b) Consuming Various Sources of Proteins

Rabbit meat: rich in proteins, low in fats and cholesterol

Ostrich meat: rich in proteins and low in fats
Fresh water fish: rich in proteins and low in fats

(c) Consuming Mushrooms

Example: button mushrooms, abalone mushrooms, shitake mushrooms

To boost bodys immunity

2. Methods to improve the quality and quantity of food production

(a) Direct seeding

Seeds are sown directly into soil by using special drilling machine.
Advantages/

1.

Less damage compared to transplanting seedlings

2.

Faster, easier, less labour is needed, lower down the production cost

3.

Have earlier crop maturity

(b) Hydroponics

Grows plants in a nutrient solution(not in soil)

2 main methods

1. Water culture plant roots are placed in water containing correct amount of nutrient for
growth. The culture solution is aerated to provide oxygen to plants. It is recycled by a
pumping system and is changed periodically to prevent depletion.
2. Aggregate culture the roots are placed in sand, pebbles or some inert medium to
anchor the plant. Nutrient solution is supplied from below the roots or sprayed above.

Usually carried out in places where light, temperature and water supply can be controlled
(greenhouse)

(c) Aeraponics

34

Vegetables are grown with their roots suspended in the air in greenhouse (soil medium is
not required).
Seedlings are anchored into planting holes through a polystyrene panel on a growing
trough.
Plant roots are periodically sprayed with a fine mist of nutrient solution through a
sprinkler system. The nutrients are readily absorbed by the roots.

Advantages of Hydroponics and Aeroponics

Soil-medium is not required

Plants are less infected by pathogens
No herbicides or pesticides are required
Environment factors can be well-controlled for maximum growth
No cultivation is required
Plants grow more healthily and give higher yields in a shorter time
The growth of plants is uniform
Plant can be grown all year round.
Large scale production of different commercial crops can be carried out
Less space is needed
Low labour cost

(d) Plants breeding

Different plant species with certain beneficial characteristics are selectively bred.
The resulting varieties of plant inherit the characteristics of both parent plants and they
may have
1. Increased nutritional value
2. Higher yields
3. Greater resistance to disease and climatic changes
The most widely planted variety of oil palm is Tenera sp. (crossing of Dura sp. and
Pisifera sp.)
Palm oil can be extracted from the kernel and mesocarp of the oil palm.

(e) Animal breeding

Involve the cross-bleeding of two different breeds of animals.

Function: To change the yields of milk, meat and other farm products.
Examples: hybrid cattle called Mafriwal is bred for its milk (crossing of Friesian cow and
Sahiwal bull) goats, sheep, chickens, ducks.

(f) Tissue culture

Technique which plant can be regenerated from cell / tissue of parent plant in a sterile
culture medium which contain nutrients and growth hormone.
Plantlets produced can be transplanted to nurseries.
Advantages:
1. Enables commercial propagation of clones
2. Increase the agricultural yield of crops plant such as papayas, pineapples, and
starfruits
35

(g) Soil management

Proper soil management includes

o A knowledge of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.
o The application of the properties of the soil and the type of crop to be grown.
Some of the steps to maintain soil fertility include
o Ploughing to improve drainage and aeration of the soil
o Practicing crop rotation which includes a leguminous crop to prevent depletion of
soil nutrients
o Introduction of plant covers to prevent soil erosion and leaching
o Maintenance of organic matter, for example, adding organic manure to increase
nutrients and improve soil texture
o Preventing over-grazing of farm land
o Avoiding excessive use of herbicides and pesticides
o Practicing terracing or contour-ploughing on sloping and to prevent soil erosion

(h) Genetic engineering

Is a technique that can increase the quality and quantity of food production
tremendously.
Enables the characteristics of an organism to be altered by changing the genetic
composition of the organism.
Involves the transfer of a segment of DNA which carries the genetic information or
beneficial genes from one organism to another.
Examples: genes from plants can be inserted into the DNA of animal cells and vice
versa.
The genetically modified organism (GMO) is called a transgenic organism.
Development of this genetic engineering have enabled transgenic crop plants.
Contain genes from other organisms to enhance their growth or nutritional properties.
Example: Golden rice is a transgenic rice in which the gene that codes for the synthesis
of beta-carotene has been transferred from the daffodil plant.

(i) Biological control

In biological control, a pest is controlled by using its natural enemy or predator.

Example include:
o Ladybirds, used to prey scale insects which kill circus fruit trees.
o Owls and snakes, used to control rats in oil palm plantation.
o A female Ichneumon wasp, which lays eggs inside the caterpillar of the rice stem
borer (pest of paddy plant). The larvae feed on the caterpillar on the stem borer
and kill it.
Biological control is an environmentally friendly method. By using the method, the use of
toxic chemical pesticides can be reduced.

Technology in Food Processing

Aim of food processing is to:

o Increase shelf life
o Improve taste
36

o
o

Produce variety of food

Improve appearance of food

Type
Cooking

Fermentation

Drying

Pickling Food

Treating with
salt and sugar

Pasteurisation

Canning

Refrigeration

Method
Cooking at high temperatures or boiling for at
least 5 minutes.
Kills bacteria and most microorganism and
certain spores. Toxins are not always destroyed.
Yeast is added to fruit juices and other
substances.
Produces ethanol that kills bacteria.
Drying under the sun, hot air or in the oven.
Removes water from food. Microorganisms cant
survive without water.
UV light from the sun also kills bacteria and
certain microorganisms.
Food soaked in an acidic solution such as
vinegar.
Organisms cant survive in low pH.
Food is soaked in concentrated sugar or salt
solution.
Microorganisms loses water in a hypertonic
solution.
Milk is heated to 630C for 30 minutes or 72oC for
15 seconds and the rapidly cooled to below
100C.
Kills microorganisms but not the spores.
Maintains nutrient and natural flavour.
Food is packed in cans and steamed at high
pressure and temperature.
The cans are sealed while being cooled.
Vacuum conditions inside the can prevents
growth of microorganisms.
Canned food can be kept for a long time.
This method destroys nutrients of food.
Food is stored below 00C.
Low temperatures slows down activity of
microorganisms.

37

Example