8.

4 Moving About
1. Vehicles do not typically travel a constant speed
-Identify that a typical journey involves speed changes
-Distinguish between the instantaneous and average speed of vehicles and other
bodies

Describing Motion
Speed
- A vehicle is stationary at the start and the end of the journey. When
moving it will often change speed and direction. These changes in
motion determine where the journey ends and how long the journey
takes.
Instantaneous and average speed
- The average speed of a vehicle will determine how long it takes to
cover a given distance.
- Instantaneous speed is, of what the vehicle is doing at a particular time
as the speed changes and no information is given
- Kinetic energy of a vehicle depends on the instantaneous speed
- Speed of an object is calculated by dividing the distance travelled by
the time taken.

-Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities in equations

Scalar & Vectors

- Scalar: Some physical quantities, only the magnitude of the quantity is
important. These quantities are called scalars. Speed, distance and
time are scalar quantities
- Vectors: Quantities that require the direction of the quantities being
taken into account are known as vectors. Vectors have both magnitude
and direction. Velocity, displacement and acceleration are vector
quantities

-Compare instantaneous and average speed with instantaneous and average

velocity

Instantaneous and average speed is how long it takes a vehicle to

travel over a given distance and instantaneous speed is of what the
vehicle is doing at a particular time, however instantaneous and
average velocity is not how long it takes a vehicle to travel but it is the
objects speed in a particular distance.

-Define average velocity as: vav = r/ t

Velocity
- Displacement (r): The vector quantity related to distance. The
displacement between two points is given by the length and direction
of a straight line.
- Velocity (v): The vector quantity related to speed. The velocity of an
object is the objects speed in a particular direction.
- Average velocity (Vav) is calculated by the equation: vav = r/ t
These definitions mean that the magnitude of an objects velocity is
not always the same as its speed.

2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand

the effects of acceleration and deceleration.
-Describe the motion of one body relative to another

Relative motion
- When describing the velocity of a vehicle, we usually give the velocity
that would be measured by a stationary observer, such as someone
standing by the side of the road. However, the velocity measured by
another moving observer would be different.

-Identify the usefulness of using vector diagrams to assist solving problems

Vector diagrams
- Vector subtraction is more complicated because the motion of the
object is in two dimensions.
- Vector calculations in one dimension are relatively simple and may
even be worked out intuitively. Vector diagrams make it much easier to
describe and analyse the problem allowing the correct calculations to
be made.

-Explain the need for a net external force to act in order to change the
velocity of an object
-Interpret Newtons second Law of motion and relate it to the equation:
F=ma

-Identify the net force in a wide variety of situation involving modes of

transport and explain the consequences of the application of that net fore in
terms of Newtons Second Law of Motion

Newtons 2nd Law

- Newtons 2nd Law describes how a net external force causes
acceleration. It states that: The acceleration is proportional to the force
applied, and is in the direction force is applied.
- Acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass (m) of the object the
force (F) is applied to: F=ma

Force is a vector quantity. When a number of forces act on the same

object the net force is the vector sum off all of them. If the net force
of an object is zero, the object will not accelerate.

-Describe the actions that must be taken for a vehicle to change direction,
speed up and slow down.

Acceleration
- Moving objects rarely travel with a constant velocity. Their velocity will
change. The magnitude of the velocity will either increase or decrease
or it will change direction. In each case, the object is accelerating.
-Define average acceleration as: aav=v/t., therefore aav=vu/t.

Average acceleration
- Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The unit is (m/s/s or ms to
the power of -2) which is defined as: aav=v/t
- If u is the velocity at the start of the acceleration (The initial
velocity) and v is the velocity at the end (Final velocity), then the
average can be given by: aav=vu/t.

-Describe the typical effects of external forces on bodies including:

-Friction between surfaces
-Air resistance
-Define the terms mass and weight with reference to the effect of
gravity

Mass and weight

- The weight force: this gravitational force on the vehicle is the effect of
the Earths gravitational field. Weight force is always towards the
centre of the earth
- Mass is a measure of the amount of a matter in an object whereas
weight is the force applied to the object by the Earths gravitational
field.
- Normal force: This is when the weight of the vehicles pushes down on
the road, the road surface pushes up.
Friction between surfaces
- Forces between the road and tyre: when the tyre grips and rolls over
the road surface this is known as rolling friction. This retarding force
causes the vehicle to slow down if no force is applied to overcome it.
Friction between tyre and asphalt or concrete > friction between tyre
and dirt or ice.
- The vehicles velocity is affected by which direction the wheels are
facing which puts force on the vehicle to the left.

The forces between the wheel and the road depend on the forces
applied with the wheel. The wheel is attached to the engine, the wheel
goes in the same direction as when the engine turns. If breaks are
applied then force is applied to the opposite direction
Air resistance
- As the vehicle moves upwards it forces air out of its way. As it does
this, the air pushes back creating a retarding force. This is called air
resistance

-Outline the forces involved in causing a change in the velocity of a vehicle

when:
-Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator
-Pressing on the accelerator
-Pressing on the brakes
-Passing over an icy patch on the road
-Climbing and descending hills
-Following a curve in the road

Coasting with no pressure on the accelerator

- No forward force on the vehicle
- Friction and air resistance produce a force in the opposite direction the
vehicles motion
- Weight force and normal force cancel each other out, therefore the
vehicles slows down
Pressing on the accelerator
- Force towards the front of the vehicle, and net force on vehicle
depends on magnitude of the force travelling at the same velocity.
- If less than retarding forces, vehicle will slow down
Pressing on the brakes
- A force opposes the vehicles motion
- Therefore, net force is towards the vehicle
Passing over an icy oath on the road
- Friction between tyres and road decreases, so the force that the road
can apply to the vehicle decreases.
- If the force is greater between the tyre and vehicle the vehicle would
be uncontrollable, the vehicle will continue to slide until a force great
enough opposes the force applied to the road surface by the tyre.
Climbing and descending hills
- When the vehicle is climbing the component of the weight force
perpendicular to the road will be equal to the normal force. The weight
and normal force will oppose the direction of the vehicle
- When the vehicle is descending the weight force will act to accelerate
the vehicle

Following a curve in the road

- Force is applied to the side of a vehicle
- Force changes the direction of the vehicle
- When force is perpendicular to direction of vehicle, it will travel in a
circular path
For vehicles travelling around curves
- The force on an object in circular motion is given by
- F=mv2/r
- V is instantaneous velocity, and r is radius of the circular path

3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are

an important aspect in understanding motion.
-Identify that a moving object possess kinetic energy and that work done on that
object can increase that energy

Energy and Work

- Kinetic energy: Energy in motion
- All moving objects have kinetic energy
- Amount of kinetic energy that an object possesses depends on its
mass(m) and velocity(v): EK= 1/2xmv2.
- Kinetic energy depends on its velocity, its kinetic energy will change
when its velocity changes. Physical quantity that describes changes in
energy is called work (W). As work is change in energy, it is measured
in joules: W = Fs
- F = force on object, s = Displacement of object while forcing is
acting on it

-Describe the energy transformations that occur in collisions

-Define the law of conservation of energy

Energy Transformations and Collisions

- When vehicles collide each vehicle exerts a force on the other. From W
= Fs, each vehicle does work on the other, so the kinetic energy
changes of each vehicle, these changes are governed by the law of
conservation: Energy cant be created of destroyed, it can be
transformed from one form to another
- Law of conservation of energy applies to the total energy of the
whole system, not just the energy of individuals. When two objects
collide, the total energy of the system before the collision is the sum
of the kinetic energy of each object. The total energy after the
collision is the sum of the kinetic energy of each object, and any
other energy that is released as a result of the collision.
- Elastic collisions: When kinetic energy is conserved the total kinetic
energy after the collision is equal to the total kinetic energy before

the collision, and no other energy is released as a result of the

collision.
Inelastic collisions: This is when energy is not conserved. The total
kinetic energy of the objects before the collision is always greater
than the total kinetic energy of the objects after the collision. Kinetic
energy that is lost is converted to other forms of energy.
Collisions between vehicles are inelastic collisions, this is
transformed into other forms of energy such as:
Heat: when parts of the vehicles move against each other and are
compressed and reshaped, heat is produced.
Sound: When vehicles collide large sounds are produced, this
energy is released and moved through the surrounding air.
Energy of deformation: Shape of vehicle is distorted, which requires
energy.

4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or

the driver
-Define momentum as: p = mv
-Define impulse as the product of force and time

Momentum in collisions
- Momentum describes how difficult it is to change the motion of an
object. It is the product of the objects mass and velocity: p=mv
- When a force acts on an object, its momentum will change
instantaneously, this is called impulse: Impulse=Ft
- Impulse relationship allows for the average force during a collision to
be calculated.
- Momentum is also governed by a conservation law. The law of
conservation of momentum states: The total momentum in a closed
system remains constant

-Explain why momentum is conserved in collisions in terms of Newtons Third

Law of Motion

Newtons Third Law

- The law of conservation of momentum is a consequence of Newtons
3rd Law which states: Forces occurs in pairs. Both forces are of equal
magnitude but opposite direction.
- When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object
exerts and equal and opposite force on the first, hence the total
momentum of the system is conserved

-Solve problems that apply the principle of conservation of momentum to

qualitatively and quantitatively describe the collision of a moving vehicle with:
-A stationary vehicle

-An immoveable object

-Another vehicle moving in the opposite direction
-Another vehicle moving in the same direction

A collision between a moving vehicle and a stationary vehicle

- Stationary vehicle will experience a force in the direction of motion of
the moving vehicle
- Moving vehicle may continue to travel in this direction, or may recoil
and move in the opposite direction. Total momentum after collision =
momentum of the moving vehicle before collision
A collision between a moving vehicle and an immovable object
- The vehicle will recoil is in contact with an immovable object, which
violates the law of momentum
- But the immovable object is attached to the earth, so the earth
experiences a change in momentum which is opposite to the change
experienced by the vehicle.
- Earths mass > mass of vehicle, Earths change in velocity is
infinitesimal.
A collision between a moving vehicle and a vehicle moving the
opposite direction
- Consequences are determined by the momentum of each vehicle and
the total momentum.
- Both vehicles may recoil, or both may move off in the one direction if
the initial momentum of one vehicle was sufficiently greater than the
other.
- Momentum is a vector quantity, so the magnitude of the total
momentum < the sum of the magnitudes of the individual vehicles.
A collision between a moving vehicle and a vehicle moving in the
same direction
- The back vehicle must be moving faster than the front vehicle
- The back vehicle may recoil, and both vehicles will continue to move in
the same direction

5. Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects of changing

momentum
-Define the inertia of a vehicle as its tendency to remain in uniform motion or at
rest
-Discuss reasons why Newtons First Law of Motion is not apparent in many real
world situations

Newtons 1st Law

- An object will remain in uniform motion or at rest unless acted on by a
net external force.
- This law is often called the Law of inertia, because inertia is defined as
an objects tendency to keep doing what it was already doing.

Newtons 1st Law of motion doesnt apply to many real world situations
e.g.
A book pushed across a table will stop as soon as the pushing force
ceases & a vehicle will soon come to a stop if the drivers foot is taken
off the accelerator. This is because in these two situations, there are
retarding forces caused by an interaction between the object and its
surroundings which results in the objects deceleration.
The inertia of objects in vehicles during collisions often results in injury
for the vehicles occupants.
In a collision objects will continue to move regardless of the fact that
the vehicle has come to a stop. The vehicles occupants will be injured
by these unrestrained objects.
Similarly unrestrained objects body parts will continue in their original
motion whereas restrained body parts will experience the same
acceleration as the vehicle.

-Assess the reasons for the introduction of low speed zones in built-up areas and
the addition of air bags and crumple zones to vehicles with respect to the
concepts of impulse and momentum

Building Safer Roads

- To prevent injury low speed zones in built-up areas have been
introduced. Reducing the initial velocity of vehicles reduces the change
in momentum required to stop the vehicle. Impulse=Ft shows that if
impulse is decreased, the minimum time required to stop is decreased,
hence reducing speed limits reduces the likelihood of collisions by
decreasing the amount of time vehicles require to stop.
- If collision does occur, the vehicles momentum will be lower, reducing
the impulse caused by the collision.

-Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features of motor vehicles

Building Safer Vehicles

- Airbags: The airbag slows down the occupants head by exerting a force
on the airbag, and having the force returned by Newtons 3 rd Law. The
magnitude of the force depends on the impulse and the duration of the
impact. The airbag slows down the heads motion hence reducing
injuries as a result of collision
- Crumple zones: The cabin of the vehicle maintains its shape and the
crumple zones are deformed, which then reduces the force on their
bodies. However crumple zones are only effective for reducing injury in
the front and rear, it is ineffective in side on collisions. Also a vehicle
with a bulbar are designed to protect the vehicle, which causes injury
to the occupants.
- Seatbelts: By Newtons 1st Law the occupants body will continue to
move and this will exert a force on their bodies. By Newtons 3 rd Law,
the seatbelts will exert a force on their bodies in the opposite direction
to their motion. Seatbelts prevent serious injuries however; minor

injuries can be sustained due to the force being applied over a small
area, and by unrestrained parts moving due to their inertia.
Antilock braking: Antilock braking systems are designed to prevent the
vehicle from skidding and sliding between the tyres. In an antilock
braking pad sensors detect when the wheels stop turning which then
leads to the brakes quickly releasing and reapplying up to 20 times a
second, reducing the amount of time required to stop the vehicle and
allows the driver to maintain control. It is effective by reducing the
effects of driver error, the time it takes for the vehicle to stop and
enabling the driver to maintain control.