Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ON
DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT
OF
SHOCK VELOCITY RECORDER
Submitted to:
Thapar Institute Of
Engg. & Technology, Patiala
For the partial fulfillment of degree of
Bachelor of Engineering
in
Electronics & Communication
Harbans Lal
(Project Incharge)
Deputy Director
Zone 3, TBRL
Chandigarh
Nidhi Jain
1000636
Thapar Institute of
Engg. & Technology
Patiala
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Nidhi Jain, Roll No. 1000636, of Thapar Institute of Engg. and
Technology, Patiala has undergone six months project semester industrial training from
Jan 1, 2003 to June30, 2003 at Terminal Ballistics Research Lab (TBRL), Chandigarh.
She was assigned the project titled Design and development of shock velocity
recorder.
The work reported meets the standards necessary for partial fulfillment of requirement of
degree of B.E. Electronics & Communication awarded by Thapar Institute of Engg. and
Technology, Patiala.
Place: Chandigarh
Date:
Harbans Lal
Deputy Director,
Zone-III
DECLARATION
This is to certify that the project report titled Design and development of PC based
firing control unit submitted by Rajwinder Singh, Roll No.9902758, student of B.E
Electronics & Instrumentation , IITT College of Engineering, Pojewal is a record of the
students own work. The work presented has been done by him under my supervision and
guidance.
The reported work is of desired standards and has not been submitted in any other
university or institution for the award of any other degree or credentials.
Harbans Lal
Project Incharge
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincerest thanks to the director of TBRL, Padam Shri
Sh.V.S.Sethi, for permitting me to undergo 6-months industrial training in this institute.
It is with deep affection and appreciation that I acknowledge my indebtedness to
Mr. Harbans Lal, Deputy Director (Zone 3), not only for his enlightening guidance and
enthusiastic interest but also for his ever available help, cooperation and confidence at I
gained under him.
I sincerely thank Mrs. Rajesh Kumari, Mr. I.P.Singh, Mr. Pankaj Sajan, Mr.
Jatinder Pal, Mrs. Shalini Mahajan, Mr Dhanparkash , Mr Vijay Kumar and all the others
in the lab for their timely help and cooperation.
In the end I would like to thank my family who provided me help backstage and
whose blessings I always treasure.
Nidhi Jain
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. About the Organization Terminal Ballistic Research Laboratory.
1.1 Aim of the Laboratory
1.2 Historical Background
1.3 Specialized Facilities
1.4 Areas of Work
1.5 Achievements
2. About the Blast and Damage Studies Zone.
2.1 Free Air Explosion
2.1.1 Blast Wave
2.2 Underwater Shock Study
2.3 Underground Shock Study
3. Project
3.1 Study of Instrumentation
3.1.1 Sensors
3.1.2 Signal Conditioners
3.1.3 Gauge Calibration
3.1.3.1 Static Calibration
3.1.3.2 Dynamic Calibration
3.1.4 Sensors used in Underground Trials
3.1.4.1 Geophone
3.1.4.2 Accelerometer
3.1.4.3 Blast Mate
3.1.4.4 Etna Accelerograph
3.1.5 Cables used for Data Transmission
3.1.6 Other Instruments used in Blast and Damage Study
3.1.6.1 LCR Meter
3.1.6.2 Strain Meter
3.1.7 Data Recording Instruments
3.1.7.1 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
3.1.7.2 Digital Phosphor Oscilloscope
installed in this lab can be broadly categorized into three groups namely oscillographic,
radiographic and photographic.
High speed and ultra high speed framing and streak cameras.
Flash radiography.
Blast instrumentation.
Fragment launching gas gun for hyper velocity impact phenomena studies.
Shadowgraphy.
1.5 ACHIEVEMENTS:
1.5.1 High Explosives
Preparation of safety data around guns and safety templates for various
armaments.
Development of shaped charge warheads for different targets and tactical roles.
1.5.2 Instrumentation
Evaluation of wooden missiles for mob disposal for Bureau of Police Research &
Development (BPR&D).
Generation of immunity data of armour for Main Battle Tank against attack of KE
Projectiles and small arms fire.
Safety template with the danger zone depth of 35 km permitted conduct of field
trials/exercises, including zeroing of T-72 tanks with 125 mm FSAPDS
ammunition.
The TBRL design for the baffle range has been accepted by the Army and the first
baffle range has come up at Infantry School, Mhow within an area of 2 hectares,
without compromising on safety.
Developed for the simulation of impulse noise (=190 dB) and testing of artificial
earplugs developed by Armed Forces Medical Services.
Designed and developed Bund Blasting Device as per GSQR-573 for breaching
operation; it has been accepted for introduction in service. The device is manportable with a total weight of 24.5 kg.
Designed and developed Multi-mode grenade system replacing the existing 36M grenade for use as an offensive, defensive or rifle grenade.
Broken windows.
Fallen of buildings.
Shattering effect.
Heaving effect.
The zone also deals with various sensors, signal conditioners and computer-based
data acquiring systems for measurement and analysis of intense shock and structure
response. I was associated with both lab and field activities for studying the effects of
free air explosions.
The detonation of explosive convert the original material into gases products at a
very high temperature (3000oC) and pressure (150Kbar) .The conversion takes place at
very high speed releasing a large amount of energy into the atmosphere in very short
duration. The measurement of these events requires very accurate and sophisticated
instruments, having time resolution of the order of microseconds. I was involved in use of
various types of equipments and sensors to record the transient events occurring at the
time of explosion. During the training period I was associated both lab as well as field
activities for studying the effects of
Filter stage.
Analog interfacing.
Charge simulator.
This is the pressure jump of blast wave phase measured by excess pressure above the
atmospheric pressure. It is also defined as the maximum pressure above the atmospheric
pressure level of the positive phase of the blast wave.
DURATION
It is a measure of time period elapsed between the arrivals of shock wave at the point up
till the peak over pressure becomes zero i.e. equal to atmospheric pressure.
IMPULSE
This is the important parameter to determine extend of damage. In pressure time curve, it
may be defined as area under the curve i.e. specific impulse (impulse/unit area). It
depends on peak over pressure, duration and decay constant. The blast parameters
calculated from blast profile contribute to define the damage on different targets.
Peak-over
Pressure
Impulse
Negative
impulse
Duration
Damage
14 Kg/cm2
2.5 Kg/cm2
Lungs injury.
1.6 Kg/cm2
1 Kg/cm2
Eardrum burst.
0.02 Kg/cm2
Damage to windowpanes.
Shock Wave.
Bubble Wave.
The two different phenomena produce two different effects on the target. While
the shock wave is responsible for producing a shattering effect, the bubble phenomenon
produces a heaving effect. The damage is caused by the cumulative effect of these two
phenomena.
Under water techniques are used for studying the following phenomenon.
Shock energy in primary & secondary shocks is estimated, for the performance
evaluation of explosive related with its shattering and heaving power.
Under water explosion facility in T.B.R.L consists of tank fabricated from 20 mm thick
mild steel plate. Tank is 6 m diameter & 6m in depth. 1/3 of tank is embedded in ground,
to make it able to with stand high pressure. Small spherical charge up to the weight of
100g of explosive can be carried out in the tank. Pressure transducers are required to
position at required depth and at predetermined distance from point of explosion to
record the blast profile.
The figure above shows the water tank of TBRL in which underwater trials are
conducted.
The assessment of damage due to creating & ground shock effects to structures by
under ground explosive and optimization of depth of burst for maximum damage.
g to 105 g. As this shock travels in the surrounding soil it decays very fast into ground
motion. The dominant frequency in ground motion lies between 1-30Hz.
The instrumentation system used for capturing ground motion in this region is as
under.
Geophone
Accelerometer
Blast mate
Etna accelerograph
3. PROJECT
My Project at BDS zone, TBRL has been divided into two parts:
Mechanically robust.
Non - pyroelectric.
Chemically stable.
Insensitive to humidity.
No hysterisis effects.
Reproducible.
Linear response.
Pyroelectric effects (the appearance of the charge on the faces of crystal due to a
change in temp of crystal) are observed with materials such as Barium Titanate and
Tourmaline. Other materials such as lithium Sulphate, Rochelle salt, are very brittle and
sensitive to humidity conditions.
Advantages in selecting the quartz crystal as sensing element:
Chemically stable.
Mechanically stable.
Non-pyroelectric.
These disadvantages can be obviated by using multiple crystal piles and by ensuring that
pressure is applied only to certain faces of crystal.
A quartz crystal is oriented with respect to three orthogonal axes designated X, Y
& Z. Z-axis is one of the optical symmetry. Light passed through crystal along this axis
suffers no change in polarization. X and Y-axes are polar axis, mutually perpendicular to
each other and perpendicular to Z- axis. When the crystal is strained in the direction of a
polar axis only, charge separation occurs. Equal and opposite charges are induced in the
conductors placed on surfaces cut perpendicular to a polar axis and the charge is the
linear function of the strain.
Components required for the construction of a pile are
2 Dural pistons
marked accordingly. Essentially this involves placing the crystal on a grounded plate and
applying the pressure on a metal electrode placed on the other surface. The polarity of
charge collected by the electrode is determined by connecting the crystal to DSO and
observing the deflection.
The blast gauge consists of pile of 12- octagonal x-cut quartz crystal of
approximate 0.01-inch thickness, 1.0-inch diameter. The crystal faces are of evaporated
aluminum or gold. The pile is formed to increase the gauge sensitivity. All 12 crystals are
assembled with proper polarity axis marker with copper foil electrodes. Both sides of
copper foil are coated with a solution of pure bitumen dissolved in benzene and allowed
to dry. This assembly is kept in a temperature-controlled oven at 140oC for two hours.
The pile is cooled in vacuum for 24 hours after which it is cleaned with benzene to get
extra bitumen out.
The following figure shows a gauge pile assembly.
Electrode
Crystal and electrodes used in gauge.
Copper foil tabs, which form the alternate electrode, are grouped and soldered. The
insulation resistance measured from insulation tester is more than 50000 - 60000 M ohm.
Crystal
+
-
Secondary
Explosive
+
+
A test pressure of 1kg/cm2 is applied at each side of the pile to confirm the proper
adhesion to crystal electrode .The complete pile is assembled in a brass body, having an
aerodynamic shape. The gage has sensitivity of 100pC/psi, and natural frequency of 200
kHz. It can be used for pressure measurement in the range of 1-200psi.
Various other gauges used are Lollipop gauge, under water gauge and PZT gauge
normally called as shock arrival gauge. Figure above shows the four gauges generally
used in blast and damage studies.
Trans
ducer
Out
Low Pass
Filter
14KHz
Charge to
Voltage
Converter
Sensitivity
Control
Amplifier
and gain
control
O/P
Low pass
Filter
150 KHz
Charge
simulator
purpose calibration facility has been created with in the instrument itself. A charge
simulator has been in corrupted, which provides calibration signal in five steps from
10pC to 10000pC at frequency of 1 KHz. The calibration signal can be fed internally to
each channel one by one through a channel select control. The output of charge simulator
system is also available externally in voltage form.
Manometer
Blast
Gauge
Release
valve
Cellofin
Sheet
+
_
Compressor
Solenoid
Charge
Amplifier
DSO
The gauge is fitted inside a small chamber, which is mounted on a bigger chamber. The
two chambers are separated by a cellophane diaphragm, which is pre-heated in an oven to
avoid sagging when pierced. The big chamber is filled with air to a pressure of 10 psi.
The diaphragm is punctured by a solenoid with a pointed pin. The gauge senses the
sudden release of air pressure. The signal from the gauge is fed to a charge amplifier, the
output of which is fed to an oscilloscope.
The sensitivity of the gauge is calibrated from the relation:
G= (total charge in pc x gauge deflection)/ (Cal. Deflection x chamber pressure)
The deflection due to gauge and calibration signal is measured from the records. The
chamber pressure is taken from a mercury manometer, just prior to puncturing the
diaphragm. Total charge in Pico-coulomb is obtained from the chart prepared from
measurements of the components of the preamplifier and calibration voltage.
G2
G1 Charge
G3
G4
One Meter
G3:
Three Meters
G2:
Two Meters
G4:
Four Meters
In practice a minimum of four gauges are mounted around the explosive charge
either at the same distance or at different distances in a line, all depending upon the
experimental requirements.
A transducer used is a geo phone, which measures ground particle vibrations. Geo-phones
can be categorized as uniaxial transducers and triaxial transducers. Uniaxial transducers
measure particle velocity in one direction. Triaxial transducers measure particle velocity
in three directions i.e. x ,y ,z .
GEO-PHONE OPERATION:
Functionally a geo-phone sensor is a coil of wire suspended around a magnet. The
magnet is free to move in a field of magnetic flux lines. By Lenzs law induced voltage is
proportional to the speed at which flux lines are traversed. Induced coil voltage is
therefore proportional to the relative velocity of the coil to the magnet. In practice, it does
not matter whether the coil or the magnet moves only the motion and speed relative to
each other are important.
COIL
INDUCED
VOLTAGE
move and the resulting magnet versus coil motion induces a voltage, which is
proportional to particle velocity.
3.1.4.2 ACCELOROMETER:
Accelerometer is an instrument used to measure shock and vibration. It can be
initialized by mass element connected to the case by spring and a damping medium. The
transducing elements produces an electrical output proportional to the displacement of
the mass element relative to the case and also proportional to the acceleration applied to
the case.
Accelerometer uses a sensing method in which acceleration acts on a seismic
mass (proof mass) that is restrained by and whose motion is usually damped in a spring
mass system.
Damper
Mass
Spring
F= k X
3.1.4.3 BLASTMATE:
Blast Mate is used to record full field analysis of an event i.e., peak particle
velocity, peak acceleration, peak displacement, peak vector sum, zero crossing frequency
and peak air (sound) pressure.
Using the Blast Mate we can do event monitoring. Event monitoring measures
both ground vibrations and air pressure. Blast mate measures transverse, vertical and
longitudinal ground vibrations. Transverse ground vibrations agitate particles in a side to
side to motion. Vertical ground vibrations agitate particles in an up and down motion.
Longitudinal ground vibrations agitate particles in a forward and backward motion
progression outward from the event site. Events also affect air pressure by creating what
is commonly referred to as air blast. By measuring air pressures, we can determine the
effect of air blast energy on structures measured on the linear L scale or as perceived
by the human ear, measured on the A weight scale.
MICROPHONE:
The microphone measures air pressure. There are two types of microphones, linear L
(standard) and A weight (optional).
MEASUREMENT SCALES:
The Blast Mate supports two sound pressure measurement scale: linear L and A
weight:
LINEAR L:
Linear measurement is generally used to measure the effect of low frequency air pressure
on buildings. The linear scale records sound pressure without modification in the 2 to 300
Hz range. Measurement units may be in absolute, Pascal or relative dB scales.
A WEIGHT:
A weight measures noise levels people may consider an annoyance. The signal is then
converted to root mean square (RMS).
Units are measured using the decibel scale dB (A).
SOUND PRESSURE:
The Blast Mate III calculates two sound pressure parameters i.e., peak sound pressure and
zero crossing frequency, recorded by the microphone.
FEATURES:
Full PC compatibility.
On-line Help.
Upgradeable.
Rugged design.
Oscillator
Capacitive
Demodulator
Amplifier
Transducer
Calibration
Coil
Functional
Analog
Test Pulse
Output
Calibration
Control
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The oscillator applies an AC signal of opposite polarity to the two moving capacitor
plates. When the accelerometer is zeroed and when no acceleration is applied, these
plates are symmetrical to the fixed central plate and no voltage is generated.
Acceleration causes the coil and Capacitive sensor plates, (which are a single assembly
mounted on mechanical flextures), to move with respect to the fixed central plate of the
capacitive transducer.
This displacement results in a signal on the center plate of the capacitor, which become
unbalanced, resulting in an AC signal of the same frequency as the oscillator being
passed to the amplifier. The amplifier amplifies this AC signal. This error signal is then
passed to the demodulator where it is synchronously demodulated and filtered, creating a
DC signal in feed back amplifier. The feed back loop compensates for this error signal by
passing current through coil to create a magnetic restoring force to balance the capacitor
plates back to their original null position.
The current traveling through the coil is thus directly proportional to the applied
acceleration. By passing this current through a complex impedance consisting of a
resistor and capacitor, it can be converted to voltage output proportional to acceleration
with a bandwidth of approximately 200 Hz. Selecting a particular resistor values are
determined by a high accuracy network, so the range can be set at 0.25g, 0.5g, 1g, 2g and
4g without re-calibrating the sensor span. The capacitor and overall loop is selected along
with resistor to ensure an identical transfer function on each range. The voltage output of
the resistor capacitor network is set at 2.5volts for the acceleration value corresponding to
the particular range. This voltage is then applied to the amplifier. The low power
amplifier amplifies this signal by either 1 or 4 to give a single ended output of either 2.5
or 10volts. A second amplifier is also present which inverts the signal form the first and
can be connected to the negative output lead. The system is used to study the ground
acceleration; it has built in triaxial forced balanced accelerometer, which has a range of
4g, with a nature of frequency of 100 Hz. The system has built ion 2Mb flash memory
with an addition of PCMCIA memory card to extend its memory capacity up to 8Mb. The
system has internal battery of 12V and 6.5 Ampere-hour and the sample rate of the
system is 100-250 cycles per second with 18- bit resolution. The system has three channel
frequency response is DC-80Hz Features:
(1) Each coil is equipped with a calibration coil. Applying a current to this simulates the
effect of acceleration applied to the sensor.
(2) The calibration coils are open circuit in normal, to prevent cross talk and noise pick
up. To utilize this, the enable signal must be activated by a DC voltage 5 volts to 12
volts with respect to ground.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Full scale range:
+ 4g
Frequency response:
DC to 80 Hz @sps
Resolution:
Sampling rate:
Input range:
+ 2.5volts
Characteristic impedance:
Breakdown voltage:
2.7KV
Nominal capacitance:
69pF/m
Nominal attenuation:
Inner diameter:
0.193mm, 14 strands
5.59mm
6.48mm
8.0mm
AUTO MODE: This means that the instrument will itself select whether the
device is an inductor, capacitor or resistor. The value is displayed in Henry, Farad
or ohm.
Series.
Parallel.
This LCR meter is actually an AC bridge with the component under test forming
one of the arms. As each component has its own resistance, capacitance and
inductance it can be denoted and tested as any of the following two ways.
INDUCTOR
INDUCTOR
Series
R
Parallel
The low value components are measured in series combination and the higher valued
components in parallel.
Frequency selection: There are four frequencies to choose from as the bridge source.
1. 100Hz
2. 1KHz
3. 10KHz
4. 100KHz
There are certain optimum recommended values by the manufacturers for the various
combinations. Polarizing voltage can also be given to electrolytic capacitors for providing
a bias.
as a quarter bridge in 3-wire system using three parallel cables. The third line is used for
connection to dummy arm of the bridge formed in bridge box to compensate the affection
of ambient temperature to lead wires.
B
STRAIN GAGE
Output
Voltage
Input
Voltage
Digital sensitivity setting method: First select rated output of instrument from the
range of 1 to 10V. Secondly set the strain value corresponding to the output with
digital switch provided.
sound intensity, 2x10-10 bar is taken as the reference level of 0 dB. The formula used
for conversion of dB level to actual level is
dB = 20 log10(P/P0)
Where P = pressure in bars
P0 = 2*10-10 bar
The sound level meters used in the lab measure the dB level of blast. Using above
formula the actual pressure level obtained from the blast can be found.
The important considerations in using the sound level meters are:
Octave filters: Accessories such as octave filters are also required if a detailed
analysis of the response is to be made.
The SLM used in the lab is Bruel and Kjaer make. It is a portable device and can be
operated on a 6V battery for 8 hours. The important specifications of the unit are:
153 dB
Frequency weighing:
Resolution:
0.1dB
Polarizing voltage:
Storage rate:
1 value/sec
The microphone used is free field prepolarized condenser microphone. It has a linear
frequency response till 10 KHz and has a sensitivity of 50mV/Pa.
The unit gives a direct display of the dB level of the ambient pressure. Additional values
reported include maximum pressure level, over range and under range.
Magnetic Recorders.
Graphical Multimeters.
scope provides the facility of switching selectable to analog operation as one of the
operating modes.
The basic advantage of digital operation is storage capability, the stored waveform
can be repetitively read out, thus making transient appear repetitively and allowing their
convenient display on the scope screen.
The voltage and time scales of display are easily changed after the waveform has
been recorded, which allows expansion (typically to 64 times) of selectable portions, to
observe greater details.
A cross hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on the waveform and
the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen.
Pre-triggering capability is also a significant advantage of DSO. Pre-triggering
recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points to be recorded An
adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that the trigger may
occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored information.
Digital Oscilloscopes look at an input signal at discrete sampling instants, rather
than continuously like an analog real time oscilloscope. They are therefore only aware of
the state of the signal at these instants and are completely ignorant of what happens in
between the samples.
The Digital Oscilloscopes offer unheard of bandwidth when compared to analog
oscilloscopes. The bandwidth limiting factors are Input Attenuator, Y-Amplifier, YDeflection Plate and of course the CRT itself. The Digital Oscilloscopes avoid all these
limitations at one fell swoop by simply not attempting to deal with the whole signal in
real time. Instead it takes samples of the instantaneous voltage of the input signal on
successive cycles and assembles these samples to form a picture of the complete
waveform.
Thus the main requirement for a sampling oscilloscope is a circuit capable of
accurately sampling the input waveform at regular intervals.
A/D
AMP
DEMUX
ACQUISITION
MEMOR
DISPLAY
DISPLAY
MEMORY
GENERAL FEATURES:
Bandwidth:
100MHz
Memory:
High resolution, high contrast LCD displays with temperature compensation and
1K/channel
replaceable backlight.
APPLICATIONS:
1. FAST FOURIER TRANSFORMS: The FFT computes and displays the
frequency contents of a waveform, which is acquired on a math waveform. FFT is used in
the following applications:
looks quite different from the DSO. It has special features designed to recreate the
intensity grading of an analog CRT.
The DPO combines the best of the analog and digital worlds while going beyond
both technologies. With one instrument, its now possible to capture all of salient
information about a waveform in three dimensions: amplitude, time and the intensity axis
that reveals amplitude distribution over time. It offers all the traditional benefits of the
DSO, from data storage to sophisticated triggering. It answers, as, well the need for
analog-like-characteristics, such as intensity-graded display and real-time behaviour, by
digitally emulating the chemical phosphorescence process that creates the intensity
grading in an analog oscilloscopes CRT.
The DPO is able to continuously acquire and display three-dimensions of
information because of its parallel processing architecture that integrates the display and
acquisition systems. The microprocessor is devoted to measurement automation and
analysis. This is very different from the typically DSO in which every bit of data going to
the display must pass through the processor, which is also carrying out computations,
managing the oscilloscopes user interface, etc. This parallel processing enables the DPO
to support an exceptional waveform capture rate that provides a real-time display of
signal activity. Conventional DSOs acquire signals only a small fraction of the time
less than 1 percent. The rest of the time is spent processing the acquired waveform data
and creating the display, and, incidentally, ignoring all the signal activity occurring while
that is being done. In contrast, the DPO creates the waveform image directly in the
acquisition system as fast as the signal can be triggered. As a result, the image responds
to waveform activity in real time, and an abundance of data accurately represents the
waveform.
Rather than relying on a chemical phosphor as an analog scope does, the DPO has
purely electronic Digital Phosphor thats actually a continuously updated database. This
database has a separate cell of information for every single pixel in the scopes display.
Each time a waveform is captured it is mapped into the Digital Phosphor databases cells.
Each cell representing a screen location that is touched by the waveform gets reinforced
with intensity information. When the digital phosphor database is fed to the
oscilloscopes display, the display reveals intensified waveform areas, in proportion to the
GENERAL FEATURES:
Bandwidth:
500MHz
Memory:
50K/channel
1GS/s
them to record 4 channel * 160 KHz measured data on the one cartridge in digital format
for 2 hours continuously.
AIT (Advanced intelligent tape) is new standard for high speed, large capacity
streamers (computer data backup). Today high-density magnetic recording technology
has achieved 25GB of storage capacity and 24 Mbps data transfer rate. The newly
developed AME (Advanced metal evaporated) tape assures remarkable output with
reliability and durability. The table of contents (TOC) information and file position
information is written into the in built memory.
The difference in the operation of magnetic recorders and digital storage
oscilloscopes is that a DSO is a trigger-based device. It would not store the signal if it is
not triggered. But the magnetic recorder is always ready and stores all the signals that are
input without any need for triggering.
MAJOR FEATURES:
Easy operation.
High quality recording and playback with low power consumption i.e.
1.6A at AC 100V and 7A at DC 12V.
It has different displaying modes such as Combo mode, View mode, Meter mode
etc.
It has one important key namely "Save and Print". GMM can use an optical serial
interface cable to communicate with a PC or printer.
Frequency display can be obtained in many ways such as Hz, duty cycle, pulse
width or period.
Input Impedance:
10Mohm
Accuracy:
6hrs
Measurement range:
3V 1000V
PARALLEL PORT: A parallel port sends and receives 'n' data bits at a same time
over (n+1) lines along with common ground line. This allows data to be
transferred very quickly; however the cable required is more bulky. Parallel ports
are generally used to connect PC to printer and are rarely used elsewhere.
SERIAL PORT: A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a time over one
wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer each byte of data this way, only
few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex) communications is possible
with only three separate wires - one to send, one to receive, and a common signal
ground wire.
latched and can be written and read under program control using the processor In or Out
instruction. The adapter also has five steady-state input points that may be read using the
processors in instruction.
In addition, one input can also be used to create a processor interrupt. This interrupt can
be enabled and disabled under program control. Reset from the power-on circuit is also
ORed with a program output point, allowing a device to receive a power-on reset when
the processor in reset.
The input/output signals are made available at the back of the adapter through a rightangled, PCB-mounted, 25-pin, D-type female connector. This connector protrudes
through the rear panel of the system, where a cable may be attached.
When this adapter is used to attach a printer, data or printer commands are loaded into an
8-bit, latched, output port, and the strobe line is activated, writing data to the printer. The
program then may read the input ports for printer status indicating when the next
character can be written, or it may use the interrupt line to indicate "not busy" to the
software.
The output ports may also be read at the card's interface for diagnostic loop functions.
This allows faults to be isolated between the adapter and the attached device.
PROGRAMMING CONSIDERATIONS :
The printer adapter responds to five I/O instructions: two outputs and three inputs. The
output instructions transfer data into two latches whose outputs are presented on the pins
of a 25-pin D-type female connector.
Two of the three input instructions allow the processor to read back the contents of the
two latches. The third allows the processor to read the real time status of a group of pins
on the connector.
A description of each instruction follows
OUTPUT TO ADDRESS 278/378/3BC HEX:
Bit
Pin
The instruction captures data from the data bus and is present on the respective pins.
These pins are each capable of sourcing 2.6 am and sinking 24 am. It is essential that the
external device not try to pull these lines to ground.
OUTPUT TO ADDRESS 27A/37A/3BE HEX:
Bit
Pin
17
16
14
This instruction causes the latch to capture the least significant bits of the data bus. The
four least significant bits present their outputs, or inverted versions of their outputs, to the
respective pins shown above. If bit 4 is written as 1, the card will interrupt the processor
on the condition that pin 10 transitions high to low.
Open collector drivers pulled to +5 Vcc through 4.7 k resistors drive these pins. They
can each sink approximately 7 Amp and maintain 0.8 volts down level.
INPUT FROM ADDRESS 278/378/3BC HEX:
This command presents the processor with data present on the pins associated with the
corresponding output address. This should normally reflect the exact value that was last
written. If an external device should be driving data on these pins (in violation of usage
ground rules) at the time of an input, this data will be ORed with the latch contents.
INPUT FROM ADDRESS 279/379/3BD HEX:
This command presents real-time status to the processor from the pins as follows.
Bit
Pin
11
10
12
13
15
same bit positions. Note that data bits 0-2 are not included. If external drivers are dotted
to these pins, that data will be ORed with data applied to the pins by the output latch.
Bit
Pin
17
16
14
13
12
25
11
24
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
23
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14
So it's also the Pin layout on the solder side of the Male DB-25 Cable Connector that
plugs into it
Hardware inverted means that line is active low or in other words the signal is inverted by
the parallel card's hardware. The above table uses "n" in front of the signal name to
denote that the signal is active low e.g. error. If the printer has encountered an error then
this line is low. This line normally is high, should the printer be functioning correctly. The
"Hardware Inverted" means the signal is inverted by the Parallel card's hardware. Such an
example is the Busy line. If +5v (Logic 1) was applied to this pin and the status register
read, it would return back a 0 in Bit 7 of the Status Register.
The output of the Parallel Port is normally TTL logic levels. The voltage levels are the
easy part. The current you can sink and source varies from port to port. Most Parallel
Ports can sink and source around 12mA. However these are just some of the figures taken
from Data sheets, Sink/Source 6mA, Source 12mA/Sink 20mA, Sink 16mA/Source 4mA,
and Sink/Source 12mA. The best bet is to use a buffer, so the least current is drawn from
the Parallel Port.
PORT ADDRESSES:
The Parallel Port has three commonly used base addresses. These are listed in
table 2, below. The 3BCh base address was originally introduced used for Parallel Ports
on early Video Cards. This address then disappeared for a while, when Parallel Ports
were later removed from Video Cards. They has now reappeared as an option for Parallel
Ports integrated onto motherboards, upon which there configuration can be changed using
BIOS.
When the computer is first turned on, BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) will determine
the number of ports the computer has and assigns device labels LPT1, LPT2 & LPT3 to
them. The BIOS first looks at address 3BCh. If a Parallel Port is found here, it is assigned
as LPT1, and then it searches at location 378h. If a Parallel card is found there, it is
assigned the next free device label. This would be LPT1 if a card wasn't found at 3BCh or
LPT2 if a card was found at 3BCh. The last port of call is 278h and follows the same
procedure than the other two ports. Therefore it is possible to have a LPT2, which is at
378h and not at the expected address 278h.
In the MS-DOS operative system three parallel ports, called LPT1, LPT2 and LPT3, are
supported. So we can find three addresses dedicated to these ports in the memory map of
the PC.
ADDRESS
3BCh-3BFh
NOTES
Used for parallel ports, which were incorporated into video
378h-37Fh
278h-27Fh
P1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
2
8
2
9
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
4
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
330
2
0
3
1
4
2
5
3
C O N N EC TO R D B25
My objective was to control switching of the relays using the parallel port and also
ascertain the dynamic parameters of the hardware like voltage levels at certain points.
This required both data input and output from the computer.
To understand data input and output from port, I used the following circuit. The
controlling software was written in C/C++.
#include <iostream.h>
#include <dos.h> /* required for delay function */
#define DATA 0x03bc
#define STATUS DATA+1
#define CONTROL DATA+2
void main()
{
int in;
while(1)
{
in = inportb(STATUS);
if (((in^0x80)&0x80)==0)
/* if BUSY bit is at 0 (switch is closed) */
{
outportb(DATA,0x00); /* turn LED on */
delay(100);
outportb(DATA, 0x01); /* turn it off */
delay(100);
}
else
{
outportb(DATA,0x01);
/* if PB not depressed, turn LED off */
}
}
}
This program helped me understand how to output data and use the hardware inverted
bits.
Serial cables can be longer than Parallel cables. The serial port transmits a 1
as -3 to -25 volts and a 0 as +3 to +25 volts where as a parallel port
transmits a 0 as 0 volts and a 1 as 5 volts. Therefore the serial port can have
a maximum swing of 50 volts compared to the parallel port, which has a
maximum swing of 5 volts. Therefore cable losses are much less in serial
cables.
Lesser number of wires are needed for the serial communication as compared
to parallel communication.
Devices, which use serial cables for their communications, are split into two
categories. These are DCE (Data Communication Equipment) and DTE (Data Terminal
Equipment). Data Communications Equipment are devices such as modem, adapter,
plotter, etc while Data Terminal Equipment is the computer or terminal.
The electrical specifications of the serial port is contained in the EIA (Electronics
Industry Association) RS232 Standard. It states:
DTE to DCE is the speed between your modem and computer, sometimes referred
to As your terminal sppeed. This should run at faster speeds than the DCE to DTE speed.
DCE to DCE is the link between modems, sometimes called the line speed.
Serial port is preferred where the requirement is of very fast data acquisition rate.
RS-232 C: RS-232 stands for Recommended Standard number 232 and C is the latest
version of the standard. The full RS-232C standard specifies a 25-pin D connectorof
which 22 pins are used. The RS-232 standard states that DTE devices use a 25-pin male
connector and DCE devices use a 25-pin female connector. The user can therefore
connect a DTE device to a DCE using a straight pin-for-pin connection.
25 Pin Connector on a DTE device:
PIN NUMBERS:
1. Protective Gound
2. Transmitted Data(TD) Outgoing Data (from a DTE to a DCE)
3. Received Data(RD) Incoming Data (from a DTE to a DCE)
4. Request To Send (RTS) Outgoing flow control signal controlled by DTE
5. Clear To Send(CTS) Incoming flow control signal controlled by DCE
6. Data Set Ready(DSR) Incoming handshaking signal controlled by DCE
7. Signal Ground Common reference voltage
8. Carrier Detect (CD) Incoming Siganl from a Modem
20. Data Terminal Ready (DTR) Outgoing handshaking siganl controlled by DTE
22. Ring Indicator (RI) Incoming signal from a modem
In a perfecet world, all serial ports on every computer would be DTE devices with 25pin male D connectors. All other devices to would be DCE devices with 25-pi female
connectors. This would allow you to use a cable in which each pin on one end of the
cable is connected to the same pin on the other end.
The TD (transmit data) wire is the one through which data from a DTE device is
transmitted to a DCE device. This name can be deceiving , because a DCE device to
receive irs data uses this wire. The TD line is kept in a mrk condition by the DTE device
when it is idle. The RD(receive data) wire is the one on which data is received by a DTE
device and the DCE device keeps this line in a mark condition when idle.
RTS and CTS lines are used when hardware flow control is enabled in both the DTE and
DCE devices. The DTE device puts RTS line in a mark condition to tell the remote device
that it is ready and able to receive data. If the DTE device is not able to receive
data(because eit is full), it will put thisline in the space condition as a signal to the DCE
to stop sending the data
CTS is complement of RTS wire. The DCE device puts this line in amrk condition to tell
the DTE device that it is ready to receive the data.
DTR(Data Terminal Ready) and DSR(Data Set Ready) are used by some serial devices to
simply confirm that a device is connected and is turned on.
CD(Carrier Detect) is used by a modem to signal that it has made a connection with
another modem.
initial shock; while it has a much lower peak pressure, it is much broader and much more
energetic.
INPUT
COMPAR
ATOR
MULTIVIBRATOR
FLIPFLOP
INHIBIT
CIRCUITRY
OUTPUT
intervals as the comparator changes states. All pins of any unused comparators should be
grounded.
immunity to Vcc noise of typically 1.5 volts is also provided by internal latching
circuitry.
Once fires, the outputs are independent of further transitions of the inputs and are
a function only of the timing components. Input pulses may be of any duration relative to
the output pulse. Output pulse length may be varied from 40 nanoseconds to 28 seconds
by choosing appropriate timing components. With no external timing components (i.e.
Rint connected to Vcc, Cext and Rext/Cext open), an output pulse of typically 30 or 35
nanoseconds is achieved which may be used as a dc-triggered reset signal. Output rise
and fall times are TTL compatible and independent of pulse length.
Pulse width stability is achieved through internal compensation and is virtually
independent of Vcc and temperature. In most applications, pulse stability will only be
limited by the accuracy of external timing components.
TRUTH TABLE OF MULTIVIBRATOR
INPUTS
OUTPUTS
A1
A2
Q(BAR)
H
H
H
H
Jitter-free operation is maintained over the full temperature and Vcc ranges for
more than six decades of timing capacitance (10 pF to 10 F) and more than one decade
timing resistance (2k to 40k for the SN74121). Throughout these ranges, pulse width
is defined by the relationship t=Cext.Rt (ln2)=0.7Cext.Rt. In circuits where pulse cut-off
is not critical, timing capacitance upto 1000F and timing resistance as low as 1.4 K
maybe used. Also, the range of jitter-free output pulse widths is extended if Vcc is held to
5V and free air temperature is 25 deg Celsius. Duty cycles as high as 90% are achieved
when using maximum recommended Rt. High duty cycles are available if a certain
amount of pulse width jitter is allowed.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Supply Voltage:
7V
Input Voltage:
5.5V
50ns
40k(maximum)
tPLH :
45ns
tPHL :
50ns
0oC to 70oC
-65oC to 150oC
1000F
dc. The flip-flop also has memory since its output will remain as set until something is
done to change it.
In a J-K Flip Flop the variables J and K are called the control inputs because they
determine what the Flip Flop does when a clock edge arrives.
1
2
13
12
O UTP UT
CLK
3
4
5
O U T P U T (B A R )
J-K FLIP-FLOP
TRUTH TABLE OF J-K FLIP FLOP
CLK
X
J
0
0
1
1
K
0
1
0
1
Qn+1
Qn
0
1
Toggle
The 7473 contain two independent J-K Flip Flop with individual J-K, clock, and
direct clear inputs. The 7473 are negative edge triggered flip-flop. The J and K inputs
must be stable one set up time (Set up time is the minimum amount of time that the data
bit must be present before the clock edge hits) prior to the high to low transition for
predictable operation. When the clear is low, it overrides the clock and data inputs forcing
the Q output low. Also, there should be some minimum amount of time for which the data
bit must be present after the clock edge arrives, called the hold time for predictable
operation.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Supply Voltage:
5volts
20ns
0ns
0oC to 70oC
20 MHz
-65oC to 150oC
tPLH :
15ns
tPHL:
15ns
INPUT(B)
H
X
L
Operating Conditions:
Supply voltage:
5 volts
0oC to 70oC
tPLH:
11ns
tPHL:
7ns
OUTPUT(Y)
L
H
H
pulse of the J-K flip-flop. The J input is kept at permanent high and the K input at
permanent low. So whenever a pulse is given to the J-K flip flop the output comes out to
be high at the falling edge of the pulse. So the input signal at the comparator gives a low
to high transition at the flip-flop. To stop the re-triggering the output of the system is
connected as an input to the multivibrator (a low to high edge). Hence no condition is
satisfied from the truth table of the multivibrator to give a pulse again at the output of
multivibrator. Hence no re-triggering occurs.
The system is reset by the clear signal from the NAND gate. The inverse output
(Q bar) of the J-K flip flop is sent as an input to the NAND gate whose output gives input
to the clear of the J-K flip flop. A low signal makes the clear signal active (because it is
active low). A de-bouncing circuit is made out of NAND gate and a SPDT mechanical
switch. When the switch is pushed there is a low signal at the clear input, which makes
the J-K flip flop inactive.
The coming of the signal on the system is notified by the switching off of the LED which
otherwise remains glowing. The low to high pulse is recorded on the Oscilloscope in
single sequence mode. As the system is multi channel the six records are taken on a logic
analyzer (32-channel). For the different channels there is some delay between
occurrences of events at recorder. This difference is due to the placement of the various
gauges in the field. As pressure arrives at the gauges at a time delay, so the records of the
various channels varies in time interval of microseconds. We know the distance between
the various gauges and also the time interval between the arrivals of events at these
gauges. So using the basic formula of speed=distance/time, we can calculate the velocity.
1st Gauge
2nd Gauge
T1
3rd Gauge
T2
T3
4th Gauge
So Velocity is the respective distance divided by the respective time, e.g. distance
between the first and second gauges is to be divided by T 1, distance between the second
and the third gauges is to be divide by T2, and so on. Then the mean of these different
velocities is calculated to get the average figure.
Simultaneous Conversion
Counter Method
Continuous Conversion
taken out, depending on the output of the comparator. Then the second MSB is set in and
a comparison is made to determine whether to reset the MSB flip flop. The process id
repeated down to the LSB, and at this time the desired in the counter. Since the
conversion involves operating on one flip flop at a time beginning with the MSB , ring
counter maybe used for flip flop selection.
The successive approximation method, thus is the process of
approximating the analog voltage, by trying one bit at a time beginning with the MSB.
Each conversion takes the same time and requires one conversion cycle for each bit.
Thus, the total conversion time is equal to the number of bits, n, times the time required
for one conversion cycle. One conversion cycle normally requires one cycle of the clock.
As an example, a 10 bit convertor operating with one megahertz clock has a conversion
time of 10X10-6 =10-5=10s.
When dealing with conversion times this shot, it is usually necessary to
take into account the other delays in the system (for example, switching time of the
multiplexer, settling time of the ladder network, comparator delay and settling time).
Another method for reducing the total conversion time of a simple counter
convertor is to divide the counter in the sections. Such a configuration is called a Section
Counter. To determine how the total conversion might be reduced by this method, assume
that we have a standard 8-bit counter. If this counter is divided into two equal counters, of
four bits each, we have a section convertor. The convertor operates by setting the section
conaining the four LSBs to all ones and then advancing the other sections until the
ladder voltage exceeds the input voltage. At this point all the four LSBs are reset, and
this section of the counter is then advance until the ladder voltage equals the input
voltage.
A maximum of 24=16 is required for each section to count full scale. Thus
this method requires only 32 counts to reach full scale. This is a considerable reduction
over the 256 counts required for the straight 8-bit counter. There is, of-course, some extra
time required to set the counters initially and to switch from counter to counter during the
conversion. This logical operation time is very small, however, compared with the total
time saved by this method, this type of convertor is often used digital voltmeters. Since it
is very convenient to divide the counters, by counts of 10. Each counter is then used to
represent one of the digits of the decimal number appearing at the output of the voltmeter.
AD0809: The ADC data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device
with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor
compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation As the
conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized
comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch free and a successive
approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-singleended analog signals.
Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded
multiplexer address inputs. The ADC offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal
temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability and consumes
minimal power. These features make this device ideally suited to applications from
process and machine control to consumer and automative applications.
FEATURES:
Operates with 5 V dc
Standard 28-pinpackage
SPECIFICATIONS:
Resolution:
8bits
Single supply:
5Vdc
Low power:
15mW
Conversion Time:
100s
4. FIELD TRIALS:
During the training period I was also involved in the fieldwork. Some trials in which I
was engaged are:
it gets shorted, indicating a high pulse. This helps in calculating the delay between the
supplying of high voltage from firing unit and energizing of detonator.
MS Block 18 Kg each
Gauge housing
Pressure
sensor
TTLProbe
Soil
APNM-14 mine/
CE Pallet
Electric detonator
vehicle was tested on 27/03/2003 at TBRL Range , Ramgarh to assess its effectiveness
and damage performance against design blast load.
A TNT cast cylindrical charge of weight 10.4 kg was placed in a small cavity made in the
ground underneath the vehicle at a distance of 1.75m from the rear end of the vehicle. It
was detonated by using the electrical detonator. The front wheels of the AMV were
provided protection by stacks of sandbags. Sandbags were also placed inside the vehicle
on the seats to simulate the weight of the personnel and ammunition. A live pig of about
60kg was tied inside the vehicle to test effect of blast on a living being.
Following sensors and recording instruments were used.
Blast Gauges placed around the vehicle at various distances to record the incident
pressure on the vehicle as a result of explosion.
Sound Level Meter placed inside the vehicle to monitor the sound pressure level.
Thermocouple placed inside the vehicle to record the temperature rise at the time
of explosion.
Cameras were placed at distance of 80m to measure the vertical uplift of the
vehicle.
OBSERVATIONS:
It was observed, that the rear door of the vehicle remained closed during the trial.
Also, there was no damage observed on the rear tyres. The blast proof window panes
were intact after the blast. But the side rear view mirrors of the vehicle got damaged. The
rear portion of the vehicle was vertically lifted upward by about 40cm during the trial and
the vehicle remained engulfed in the fire zone for about a second. A crater was formed
under the belly of the vehicle. The pig survived the Blast loading and had no visible mark
of injury and it behaved normally after the trial. The vehicle was made road worthy
within a few hours by the skilled personnel from the Ordnance Factory , Medak.
GLOSSARY
Acquisition: Process of sampling signals from input channel, digitizing samples into data
points and assembling data points into a waveform record.
Attenuation: A decrease in signal voltage during its transmission from one point to
another.
Bandwidth: The highest frequency signal the oscilloscope can acquire with no more than
3 dB attenuation of the original signal.
Blast: Blast is the principle mode of transferring explosive energy to the target,
producing damage by giving a crusting blow, displacing and tumbling the target.
Detonation: The explosion is initiated through the process of detonation. A reaction can
be initiated if sufficient energy is provided at one point in the explosive. This is done by
means of a heated wire, which acts directly upon a small amount of especially sensitive
material thus generating a small low energy impulse (shock).
Digitizing: The process of converting a continuous analog signal such as a waveform to a
set of discrete numbers representing the amplitude of signal at specific points in time.
Equivalent time sampling: A sampling mode in which the oscilloscope constructs a
picture of a repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition
Explosive: An explosive is a substance or a mixture of substances which undergoes
rapid oxidative decomposition, producing a large volume of gases, accompanied by the
liberation of substantial thermal energy, in a very short span of time, when suitably
initiated. This process is known as explosion. Equivalently an explosion maybe defined
as chemical reaction wherein the original substance is converted into a gas at a very high
temperature and pressure within a very short interval of time with the evolution of
substantial quantity of heat..
Graticule: The grid lines on a screen for measuring oscilloscope traces.
Interpolation: A connect-the-dots processing technique to estimate what a fast
waveform looks like based on only a few sampled points.
Lethality: Lethality is the antipersonnel efficiency of a high explosive, that is, the ability
of an explosive to cause damage to others. It is measured in terms of MAE, that is, mean
area effect. In this the area of damage is calculated and the number of targets is known,
by which lethality is calculated.
Qauntizing: The process of converting analog input that has been sampled to a digital
value.
Real time Sampling: A sampling mode in which the oscilloscope collects as many
samples as it can as the signal occurs.
Record Length: The number of waveform points used to create a record of the signal.
Rise Time: The time taken for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from its minimum to its
maximum values (typically measured from 10% to 90% of these values).
Sample Interval: The time interval between the successive samples in a time base. It is
the reciprocal of sample rate.
Sample point: The raw data from an ADC used to calculate waveform points.
Sampling: The process of capturing an analog input at a discrete point in time and
holding it constant so that it can be quantized.
Single Shot: A signal measured by an oscilloscope that occurs only once (also called a
transient event).
Terminal Ballistics: Terminal Ballistics is defined as study of effect of blast or explosion
on a particular target.