University of Colorado, Boulder

TEACHING JAZZ IMPROVISATION:

A Criticism of Pedagogical Models and Practices in
Higher Education

Intro to Music Bibliography

Brian Dean
11-16-06 (Revised)
1

INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEMS OF JAZZ EDUCATION

Jazz Education has changed from the days of early jazz pioneers, when musicians mainly
used their ears, and played alongside popular song-stylists. In such one-on-one settings, young
players were able to imitate and absorb the sounds, styles, rhythms, melodic and improvisational
practices of their idols. Bars, clubs and records were the teachers or schools of jazz.
Declining since the 1960s, jazz venues and the number of people listening to and buying jazz
albums today have forced jazz education primarily into high schools, conservatories and
institutions of higher learning. Once the foundation of jazz improvisation, aural traditions have
been replaced by pedagogy that places emphasis almost entirely on theoretical approaches. Little
weight is given to the practice of learning standard jazz repertoire, and the significance of its
historical context in improvisation.
Clare Fisher (Jazz Pianist-Composer) was judging a college
jazz festival in 1965 when a tenor saxophonist came to him and
asked for some critical advice. Clare volunteered that there had
been a notable lack of stylistic depth in his playing and suggested
that he spend a little more time researching more traditional
players. With that the student drew back and exclaimed,
Traditional? Why, my listening goes all the way back to John
Coltrane! 1
This attitude prevails today in many, and speaks to a lack of perspective among young
jazz students. The profound influences of musicians like John Coltrane have had dramatic
effects on current pedagogical methods and practices in jazz education. Unfortunately, many
students today still cite sources from an incomplete historical perspective, as if jazz education

began with John Coltrane! Most student improvisers today study the same famous solos, play
along to the same Jamey Abersol 2 recordings, and use the same pattern-oriented, theoretical,
chord-scale approaches. The result is a cookie cutter approach to jazz, [and] a generic sound to
[jazz] players now that there wasn't before.''3
Modern university jazz curricula cause several problems in jazz education that need to be
addressed. Failing to provide specific jazz improvisation and aural development curricula early
on in college closes the window of opportunity for most students to reach their potential.
Alternatives to theory-based improvisational methods can be explored only if students are
exposed to improvisational concepts early-on. The result would be a curriculum that teaches
advanced improvisational concepts in thematic development and melodicism rooted in the
repertoire of jazz standards4. Ultimately, jazz education must provide uniformity, structure and
continuity to students throughout their education.

1
2
3
4

Coker, The Jazz Idiom, 2.

Jamey Abersol, known for rhythm-section accompaniment recordings of standards that provide students a means of practicing improvisation.
Leclare, Personal Interview, 2004.
Jazz Standardrefers to piece that is widely known, performed, and recorded among jazz musicians or once part of popular song repertoire.

IMPROVISATION AND JAZZ: A BRIEF HISTORY

The art of improvisation has been a part of music for centuries. Early classical music
could hardly be performed at all without improvisation, and certainly was not intended by its
composers to be performed by musicians who lack the ability to improvise freely and
imaginatively. 5 In the later part of the 19th century, Franklin Taylor signified the importance of
improvisation in the 1st edition of the Grove Dictionary (1889): The power of playing
extempore evinces a very high degree of musical cultivation, as well as the possession of great
musical gifts. 6 One hundred years later, Gunther Schuller, defined Jazz Improvisation as A
manner of playing extemporaneously, i.e., without benefit of written music. Improvisation, if it
is not absolutely essential to jazz, is considered to be at the heart and soul of jazz by most jazz
musicians and authorities. It is equitable [comparable] with composing on the spur of the
moment. 7 Jazz did not invent improvisation; but it did in a very real sense re-discover it. It
[jazz] is responsible for much of its individuality and expressiveness [nowadays]. 8 The
majority of all ensemble performances under the heading of jazz contain improvisation and/or
written components. From its inception through most of the 1960s, jazz was primarily conceived
for entertainment and dancing in bars and clubs of major metropolitan cities. Since that time,
jazz education pioneers have promoted festivals, workshops, conferences and introduced
theoretical texts and curricula in high schools and Universities that all have evolved into modern
jazz education.
ACCEPTED PRACTICES IN JAZZ IMPROVISATION
A relatively new field of study, jazz pedagogy is only offered in handful of institutions.
Many jazz educators did not receive degrees in jazz pedagogy but learned their methodologies
5
6
7

James, Essays on Jazz, 10.

Grove, Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, S.v. Improvisation.
Schuller, The Influence of Jazz, 12.

through apprenticeship and experience. Increasing numbers of schools are providing degrees in
jazz studies and performance calling attention to the need for more adequately trained jazz
educators. Most current universities curricula concerning jazz improvisation provide courses in
jazz theory and analysis. What little improvising experience a student has coming into college is
primarily developed through performance practice in their respective ensembles (big bands
and/or combos) and possibly with their private instructor. In most universities, students dont
study jazz improvisation until after theyve completed the two-year music theory sequence. Yet
ironically, most have been playing in jazz ensembles since their freshman year, with the
expectation of being able to perform improvised solos. Only by their junior year will most
students have the opportunity to take jazz improvisation courses, which vary by school in content
and focus. Jazz improvisation courses typically teach students several theoretical methods to
correctly improvise over a given set of chord changes.
Chord-scales9 (a scale associated with a chord of a song/tune10) and guide tones11 are
currently the primary resources in courses that teach improvisation. Hundreds, if not thousands
of books are studied in universities worldwide on the subject of jazz improvisation, making the
business of selling improvisational methods quite lucrative. University of Miami jazz professor
Gary Kellers commonly studied book The Jazz Chord-Scale Handbook attempts to provide a
comprehensive resource book for jazz chord/scale information organized in a way that shows not
only the sources of the various scales and chords, but their relationship as well.12 To
correctly utilize possible note choices in jazz improvisations, students are encouraged to study
and put into practice as much theoretical information as possible.
8

James, 9.
Chord-Scaletheoretical scale/mode associated with a chord of a tune.
Songcomposition originally having words deriving from popular music. Tunecomposition that does not have words, but songs can be
played without the use of words.
11
Guide Tonestones of a chord that harmonically identify the immediate tonality
12
Keller, The Jazz Chord-Scale Handbook, 2.
9

10

Modern jazz education adequately addresses the significance of jazz theory and analysis
in jazz improvisation performance practice. However, most specific curricula address the
pedagogy of teaching creativity in a vague, varied, incomplete manner, often overlooking basic
elements of improvisation. Keller writes that The process of listening to and imitating great
players is probably the most important exercise for assimilating this information [jazz theory].
An intellectual understanding of the scales and chords used in jazz composition and
improvisation is also essential, especially if one wants to progress beyond imitation. 13
Most of the great jazz improvisers had a thorough understanding and command of music
theory. Nonetheless, courses in jazz theory didnt exist during the bulk of Louis Armstrong,
Charlie Parker and Miles Daviss careers (among most others). The questions we must ask
ourselves are: How do we teach jazz theory as a component of jazz improvisation, while
addressing the application of this material in producing artistic, structured, meaningful jazz
improvisations? And how do we address these issues at the beginning of a jazz students college
career as opposed to the end? The problem with jazz pedagogy therefore is not one of material
or substance, but structure and direction. Teaching different improvisational methods focusing
on aural development and repertoire early in a students college career will give students a more
comprehensive, structured, self-guided approach to jazz improvisation.
These issues can be addressed through revamping existing courses, or by developing new
ones. Already a staple in most universities, the jazz combo provides an ideal platform for
addressing alternative improvisational performance practices and methodologies. Open forums
in teacher-facilitated discussion, performance demonstration and criticism will ultimately
develop proficiency in self-evaluation and improve improvisational skills and creativity.
Introducing students to jazz improvisation early on in college also suggests development of freshman

improvisation curricula. The course would emphasize improvisational devices, ear-training and
reinforce basic theoretical information. Freshman improvisation courses could be offered in conjunction
with music theory curriculum and/or as an honors course for advanced students reinforcing music theory
and aural development.
DEVELOPING AURAL SKILLS IN IMPROVISATION
Modern music education provides few courses specifically addressing aural development,
yet jazz musicians are consistently told to work on their ears. Considering the historical
significance of the aural processes in jazz, the pedagogy of jazz ear-training is severely lacking.
The ear can be cultivated and we can learn to tap into our musical memory14 for
improvisational materials. Students can be taught how to listen to themselves and place theory,
patterns, or preconceived devices, in the back of their mind by relying on our ability to prehear
our ideas. Focusing on our ears while improvising creates a direct path to content that is
creative, meaningful to us, and to our audience.
Prehearing is an aural process used in improvisation in which musicians hear or conceive
pitches and/or abstract shapes and/or rhythms they will play immediately before they are
executed. When we speak, we constantly monitor and edit our grammar and syntax. Prehearing
is much the same process. In performance, proficient jazz improvisers spontaneously monitor
and edit their solos because they do not have the luxury of time. Many young improvisers
execute fast rhythms and melodic fragments without regard to overall shape, structure or
thematic development within the solo. Teaching students to edit themselves by applying the
concept of prehearing develops continuity, structure, and cohesiveness in jazz improvisations.
Any good writer edits their work, and jazz improvisers should be taught to do the same.

13
14

Keller, 6.
Coker, 15.

How is prehearing achieved? By encouraging students to execute simple rhythms and

combinations of rhythms at very slow tempos in their improvisations, they can be taught to play
only the pitches that they are hearing, and edit out unnecessary material. One exercise involves
improvising on a jazz standard with moderate use of rhythm in the melody such as Autumn
Leaves. By improvising pitches over the composers written rhythms and phrasing of the
melody, the improviser is able to focus solely on preheard pitches. Rather than improvising
using run-on sentences, or excessive phrase lengths that have no direction, the improviser will
inherently produce more quality content that is cohesive and creative.
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT AND MELODICISM
Improvisation in music exists in various forms. Burnett addresses three types of
improvisation in music that include: pure or free improvisation, thematic or structured
improvisation, and the third being a combination of the two. In 1889, Grove Encyclopedia
researcher Franklin Taylor defined pure improvisation as the art of playing without
premeditation, the conception of the music and its rendering being simultaneous. 15 Legendary
improvisers such as Louis Armstrong, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis and Keith Jarrett all strived
for structured, yet free approaches to soloing, providing a sense of both structure and
continuity balanced with a perceived lack of structure or randomness. They achieved this
through commitment to thematic improvisation and development.
The single most important aspect of thematic development in jazz improvisation is
teaching students to commit to a single topic or motif. In the 1st movement of Beethovens
famous 5th symphony, his opening four-note motive is repeated and undergoes development
throughout. Like Beethoven, legendary jazz improvisers understood importance of thematic
development in creating interest in a musical line. Melodic themes add another layer of

complexity to performances. While music education teaches the concept of thematic

development, it does little to provide for an application to jazz improvisation. Studying thematic
development in transcriptions of definitive performances of artists such as Louis Armstrong,
Charlie Parker, Miles Davis and Keith Jarrett will help students gain a better understanding in
their own improvisations. Jazz greats also understood the devices used in constructing and
deconstructing themes such as ornamentation16, rhythmic displacement17, sequencing18, and
phrase-linking19. By committing to the concepts of thematic development and melodicism,
students will discover new territories and find greater depth in their jazz improvisations.
Another method, rooted in song structure, melody and theme, Thomas Hines defines the
practice of melodicism as the inclusion of melodic elements in an improvised solo: motives
from songs, attractive note choices, [and] a lyrical shape.20 Thematic improvisation can be
structured based on melodic or rhythmic themes, variation, motifs, and/or song structure.
Perhaps the most common device used by professional jazz improvisers and a significant
pedagogical approach in jazz improvisation, melodicism is almost absent in jazz education.
Melodicism is simple to teach, yet develops a foundation for content in improvising based on the
component of song that transcends jazz theory.
A recent D.M.A dissertation by Dr. Phillip Strange showed that renowned jazz pianist
Keith Jarrett utilizes motives directly derived from the melody of the tune in his improvisations.
Strange found that among other things, Jarrett connects and develops his own ideas through the
use of his own motives and motives of the song melody.21 By remaining perpetually connected

15
16
17

18
19
20
21

Taylor, S.v. Pure Improvisation.

Ornamentationembellishes or decorates a single note or group of notes in a melodic line
Rhythmic displacementalters the way in which rhythms of a motive are executed within a phrase through; augmentation, diminution, metric
modulation, truncation, etc.
SequencingAn exact repetition of a motive, melodic pattern, or shape using the same or different pitches.
Phrase-LinkingLinks the last part of a motive or phrase to a new idea that ultimately evolves into the new motive.
Hines, Melody and Melodicism in the Teaching of Jazz Improvisation, 46.
Strange, Keith Jarretts Up-Tempo Trio Playing, 317.

to the song melody, Jarrett demonstrates that the motives of melody of a tune profoundly
influence improvisation. Youre not improvising if you dont use the theme.22 Improvisers
relying on theoretical approaches can not utilize the song melody as a source of improvisational
content and thematic development. It aint the notes, its how you play em! 23
THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING THE REPERTOIRE
Jackie McLean [alto saxophonist] had a lot of natural
ability, but he was lazy I would tell him to play a certain tune,
and he would tell me he didnt know it. What do you mean you
dont know it? Learn it, I would say. So he would tell me some
shit about the tunes being from another time period, and that he
was a young guy and that he didnt see why he had to learn all
that old shit. Music has no periods; music is music. I like this
tune, this is my band, Im playing this tune, so you learn it and
learn all the tunes, whether you like them or not. 24
Miles Davis
While Jackies situation (as a member of Miles Daviss band) is somewhat different than
most students today, it is a reality that many young jazz musicians face. While they have some
awareness of important historical figures and songs in jazz, many see popular song repertoire as
old and dated. Early recordings may be dated in their sound or style, but are certainly a
necessary component of improvisational vocabulary25 and in satisfying employers or

22
23
24
25

Jarrett, The Virtual Jazz Age, 36.

Maggio, Personal Interview, 2003.
Davis, Miles: The Autobiography, 153.
Vocabularyin jazz improvisation, refers to the material in which students draw from for improvising. This can in include (but is not limited
to) recordings, popular song, tunes, transcriptions, patterns, and jazz theory.

10

educational requirements. Datedness and specific repertory choices however, involve matters
of interpretation.
Most of the popular songs of the 1920s, 30s, and 40s were love songs composed during
times of War for Broadway shows, dancing, and entertainment. Song lyrics utilized poetic
language that has all but disappeared in modern American society. Such poetry dominates early
jazz song standards, expressing heartfelt emotions that are considered inappropriate, oldfashioned, or just silly today. David Baker says, Honor the past; imagine the future.''26 Do we
really understand the historical significance or popular song in our culture in the early 20th
century, and what it continues to mean today? Have all the possible contributions of historical
popular song repertoire to jazz been exhausted? Studying jazz repertoire adds yet another layer
of complexity to jazz improvisations.
Learning repertory is as much as a case of memorizing tunes as learning to think in new
ways.27 Throughout our jazz education we are told over and over again, you must learn the
repertoire! Repertory is the single most significant component of the jazz language; it must be
studied, discussed, analyzed and put into practice in improvisation. With all the tools and
resources available to jazz students today (the internet, ipods, napster, etc.), they have only
begun to tap into the possibilities that popular song repertoire has to offer when combined with
modern jazz attitudes, repertoire and pedagogy.
We must realize that all of the great jazz masters studied popular song as well as the fact
that they lived when the songs were still popular! These were songs that were sung in homes
with families growing up, before television, and the music you would hear on the radio.
Teaching jazz repertory in institutions today shows respect for the past and the future. Students

26
27

Baker, David Baker and the Lenox School of Jazz, 45.

Berliner, Thinking in Jazz, 92.

11

whom have studied jazz repertoire have a foundation for content in improvising that transcends
jazz theory. Melody, phrasing, structure, and thematic development are all components of
standard jazz repertoire. The more repertoire students absorb the more vocabulary they are able
to spontaneously draw from, artistically and abstractly applying reportorial concepts to their
improvisations.
THE FUTURE OF JAZZ EDUCATION: Where Do We Go From Here?
The existing pedagogy must undergo a transformation if jazz education expects to remain an
integral component of higher institutions. We must reevaluate the overall significance of courses
such as jazz theory in a students college education. Universities need to take a look back to the
informal schools where virtually all of the great jazz artists learned to play. While jazz theory
should be learned, and mastered, more emphasis needs to be placed on the history and repertoire,
aural maturity, and alternative approaches to improvisation such as thematic development and
melodicism.
With little cohesion of the pedagogy from school to school, and region to region, jazz
education must provide cohesiveness and uniformity throughout a students degree, while
continually challenging them to explore the complex layers of improvisation. By providing
courses early on in a college, students will have more of an opportunity to succeed as
improvisers. Virtually no schools offer freshman improvisation curricula, and this problem must
be addressed. For this reason, we must utilize courses such as the jazz combo currently available
to students. While several other issues in jazz pedagogy deserve attention, for the time being,
much of the responsibility lies with individual educators. In addition to teaching students how to
be proficient and creative improvisers we must teach them how to continually evaluate,
reevaluate and reinvent themselves throughout their careers.

12

Selected bIBLIOGRAPHY
Baker, David N. David Baker and the Lenox School of Jazz. Interview by Darius Brubeck.
Jazz Education Journal 35 (Sept.-Oct. 2002): 42-5, 48-55.
Baraka, Amirir. Jazz Criticism and its Effect on the Art Form. New Perspectives in Jazz. Ed.
David Baker, 55-70. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Berliner, Paul F. Thinking in Jazz: The Infinite Art of Improvisation, ed. Philip Bohlman and
Bruno Nettl. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
Coker, Jerry. The Jazz Idiom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975.
Davis, Miles D. Miles: The Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989.
Gates, Henry Louis Jr. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary
Criticism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Giddens, Gary. The Evolution of Jazz. New Perspectives on Jazz, ed. David Baker, 33-44.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Grove, George ed. Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1st ed. London: MacMillan,
1889. S.v. Improvisation, by Franklin Taylor.
Hines, Tom. Melody and Melodicism in the Teaching of Jazz Improvisation. Jazz Educators
Journal 32 (May 2000): 46-9.
James, Burnett. Essays On Jazz. New York, NY: Da Capo Press, 1990.
Jarrett, Keith. The Virtual Jazz Age. Musician 208 (March 1996): 35-6, 102.
Keller, Gary. The Jazz Chord-Scale Handbook. Rottenburg: Advance Music, 2002.
Kernfeld, Barry ed. The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz, 2nd ed. New York: Grove Dictionaries,
2002. S.v. Improvisation.
Leclare, Shannon. Personal Interview by Jason Squinobal. Boston: August 23, 2004
Maggio, Vincent L. Interview by Brian Dean, September 2003, Miami. Notetaking. University
of Miami Piano Lesson, Miami.
Mandel, Howard. Sketches of Miles. Down Beat (Dec. 1991): 16-20.
Morgenstern, Dan. The Evolution of Jazz. New Perspectives in Jazz, ed. David Baker, 45-54.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Mymit, Chuck W. A Beginners Approach to Jazz Improvisation. New York: Chappell and Co.,
1973.
Schuller, Gunther. The Influence of Jazz on the History and Development of Concert Music.
New Perspectives on Jazz, ed. David Baker, 9-24. Washington: Smithsonian Institution
Press, 1990.
Schuller, Gunther. Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development, vol. 1. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1968.
Squinobal, Jason. The Lost Tools of Jazz Improvisation. Jazz Education Journal 38
(December 2005): 49-51.
Strange, Phillip M. Keith Jarrett's Up-Tempo Jazz Trio Playing: Transcription and Analysis of
Performances of Just in time. D.M.A. diss., University of Miami, 2003.
Walser, Robert. Out of Notes: Signification, Interpretation, and the Problem of Miles Davis.
Jazz Among the Discourses, ed. Krin Gabbard, 165-188. Durham, NC: Duke University
Press, 1995.

13