TX69299 ch01 frame.

book Page 309 Wednesday, September 4, 2002 2:13 PM

11
Thermal Properties of Food

11.1

Thermal Conductivity

In the heat transfer by conduction processes under steady state, the flow of
heat transmitted (Q) through a solid is directly proportional to the transmission area (A) and to the increase of temperature (T), and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the solid (e). The proportionality constant is
called thermal conductivity:
Q=k

A T
e

Heat conduction under steady state has been used in different experiments
to calculate the thermal conductivity of food, although experiments under
unsteady state can also be used. Either way, mathematical relationships are
sought that allow calculation of the thermal conductivity of a given food as
a function of temperature and composition.
An equation that allows calculation of the thermal conductivity of sugar
solutions, fruit juices, and milk is (Riedel, 1949):

)(

m
k = 326.8 + 1.0412 T 0.00337 T 2 0.44 + 0.54 XWATER
1.73 103 (11.1)

m
is the mass fraction
in which k is expressed in J/(smC); T in C, and XWATER
of water. This equation is valid for a temperature range between 0 and 180C.
Sweat (1974) gives the following equation for different fruits and vegetables:

m
k = 0.148 + 0.493 XWATER

(11.2)

valid for water contents higher than 60%, although it cannot be used with
low-density foods or with foods that have pores (e.g., apples).

309
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Unit Operations in Food Engineering

In the case of milk, FernndezMartn (1982) gives a second order polynomial expression with respect to temperature.
k = A + BT + CT 2

(11.3)

in which the parameters A, B, and C are a function of the fat and nonfat
content of milk.
An equation that allows one to obtain the thermal conductivity of cream
(Gromov, 1974) is:

[411.6 4.26 ( f 10)] 10

k=

1 0.0041 T 30

(11.4)

in which thermal conductivity is expressed in kcal/(hmC), and f is the fat

content between 10 and 60%; is the density of the sample at the corresponding temperature and composition expressed in kg/m3; while T is the
temperature in C in the 30 to 70C range.
Also, FernndezMartn and Montes (1977) gave an expression for cream:

][ (

k = 12.63 + 0.051 T 0.000175 T 2 1 0.843 + 0.0019 T XGV 104

(11.5)

where the thermal conductivity is expressed in cal/(scmC) and temperature

in C in the 0 to 80C range. Also, f is the fat percentage between 0.1 and 40%,
while XVG is the volumetric fraction of the fat phase for values lower than 0.52.
If the food composition is known, it is possible to find its thermal conductivity from the equation:
k=

(k X )
i

V
i

(11.6)

in which ki is the thermal conductivity of the component i, and XVi is the

volumetric fraction of this component.
The volumetric fraction of the component i is given by the expression:
X im
X Vi =

X im

(11.7)

in which X mi is the mass fraction of the component i and i is its density.

Table 11.1 presents the thermal conductivity values of some foods.
Table 11.2 shows the thermal conductivity of the main pure components of
foods, while the conductivity of water and ice as a function of temperature
is given in Table 11.3.
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Thermal Properties of Food

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TABLE 11.1
Thermal Conductivity of Some Foods
Water
Content (%)

Product
Oil
Olive

13.2

83

Soybean
Vegetable and animal
Sugars
Cod
Meats
Pork
Perpendicular to the fibers

75.1

Parallel to the fibers

75.9

Fatty meat
Lamb
Perpendicular to the fibers

71.8

Parallel to the fibers

71.0

Veal
Perpendicular to the fibers

75

Parallel to the fibers

75

Beef
Freeze-dried
1000 mm Hg
0.001 mm Hg
Lean
Perpendicular to the fibers
Parallel to the fibers
Fatty
Strawberries
Peas

11.2

78.9
78.9
78.7
78.7

Temperature
(C)

Thermal Conductivity
(J/smC)

15
100
710
4187
2962
2.8

0.189
0.163
0.069
0.169
0.0870.22
0.544

6
60
4
61
25

0.488
0.54
0.443
0.489
0.152

5
61
5
61

0.45
0.478
0.415
0.422

6
62
5
60

0.476
0.489
0.441
0.452

0
0

0.065
0.035

7
62
8
61
2438
1425
317

0.476
0.485
0.431
0.447
0.19
0.675
0.312

Specific Heat

The specific heat is defined as the energy needed to increase by 1C the

temperature of one unit mass. For foods with a high water content above
the freezing point, the following equation can be used (Siebel, 1982):
m
C P = 0.837 + 3.349 XWATER

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Unit Operations in Food Engineering

TABLE 11.2
Equations for Calculating Thermal Properties
Thermal
Property

Equation as a
Function of Temperature

Component

k (W/mC)

106 (m2/s)

(kg/m3)

C P (kJ/kgC)

Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein
Carbohydrate
Ash
Fiber
Fat
Protein

k = 0.20141 + 1.3874 103 T 4.3312 106 T 2

k = 0.32962 + 1.4011 103 T 2.9069 106 T 2
k = 0.18331 + 1.2497 103 T 3.1683 106 T 2
k = 0.18071 + 2.7604 103 T 1.7749 107 T 2
k = 0.17881 + 1.1958 103 T 2.7178 106 T 2
= 8.0842 102 + 5.3052 104 T 2.3218 106
= 1.2461 101 + 3.7321 104 T 1.2244 106
= 7.3976 102 + 5.1902 104 T 2.2202 106
= 9.8777 102 + 1.2569 104 T 3.8286 108
= 6.8714 102 + 4.7578 104 T 1.4646 106
= 1.5991 103 0.31046 T
= 2.4238 103 0.28063 T
= 1.3115 103 0.36589 T
= 9.2559 102 0.41757 T
= 1.3299 103 0.51840 T
C P = 1.5488 + 1.9625 103 T 5.9399 106 T 2
C P = 1.0926 + 1.8896 103 T 3.6817 106 T 2
C P = 1.8459 + 1.8306 103 T 4.6509 106 T 2
C P = 1.9842 + 1.4733 103 T 4.8008 106 T 2
C P = 2.0082 + 1.2089 103 T 1.3129 106 T 2

T2
T2
T2
T2
T2

Source: Choi and Okos (1986b).

TABLE 11.3
Equations to Calculate Thermal Properties of Water and Ice
Temperature Functionsa
Water

kA = 0.57109 + 1.7625 103 T 6.7036 106 T 2

A = [0.13168 + 6.2477 104 T 2.4022 106 T 2].106
A = 997.18 + 3.1439 103 T 3.7574 103 T 2
C PA1 = 4.0817 5.3062 103 T + 9.9516 104 T 2
C PA2 = 4.1762 9.0864 105 T + 5.4731 106 T 2

(W/mC)
(m2/s)
(kg/m3)
(kJ/kgC)
(kJ/kgC)

Ice

kH = 2.2196 6.2489 103 T + 1.0154 104 T 2

H = [1.1756 6.0833 103 T + 9.5037 105 T 2] 106
H = 916.89 0.13071 T
C PH = 2.0623 + 6.0769 10 3 T

(W/mC)
(m2/s)
(kg/m3)
(kJ/kgC)

C PA1 = For a temperature range between 40 and 0C.

C PA2 = For a temperature range between 0 and 150C.

Source: Choi and Okos (1986b).

m
in which C P is expressed in kJ/(kgC) and XWATER
is the mass fraction of the
water in food.
An equation given by Charm (1971) is:

m
m
C P = 2.309 XGF
+ 1.256 Xsm + 4.187 XWATER

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Thermal Properties of Food

313

in which X mGF and X ms are the mass fractions of fat and solids, respectively.
For milk at temperatures higher than the final point of fusion of milk fat,
the following expression can be used (FernndezMartn, 1972a):

m
m
C P = XWATER
+ 0.238 + 0.0027 T XTS

(11.10)

in which the specific heat is expressed in kcal/(kgC), temperature T in C

m
in a range from 40 to 80C, and XWATER
and XmTS are the mass fractions of
water and total solids, respectively.
Gromov (1979) gives the next equation for cream:

)(

m
m
C P = 4.187 XWATER
+ 16.8 T 3.242 1 XWATER

(11.11)

expressing the specific heat in J/(kg.K), temperature T in Kelvin, for the 272
to 353 K range, and the fat content between 9 and 40%.
Manohar et al. (1991) gave the following equation for tamarind juices:

C P = 4.18 + 6.839 105 T 0.0503 C

(11.12)

in which the specific heat is expressed in kJ/(kg K) if the temperature is

given in Kelvin, and C is the soluble solids content expressed in Brix.
Choi and Okos (1986b) proposed an equation for the case in which the
composition of the product is known:
C P =

(C

Pi

X im

(11.13)

where C Pi is the specific heat of the component i, while X mi is the mass fraction
of the component i.
The specific heat values of different foods are listed in Table 11.4. Table 11.2
also presents expressions for the calculation of the specific heat of pure
components as a function of temperature, while in Table 11.3, equations that
allow calculation of the specific heat of water and ice as a function of temperature are given.

11.3

Density

Density is defined as the relation between the mass of a given sample and
its volume. Different expressions for the calculation of food density can be
found in the literature. Thus, for fruit juices, density can be expressed as a
function of the refraction index according to the expression (Riedel, 1949):
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Unit Operations in Food Engineering

TABLE 11.4
Specific Heat for Some Foods
Water
(%)

Product
Meats
Bacon
Beef
Lean beef
Roast beef
Hamburger
Veal
Prawns
Eggs
Yolk
Milk
Pasteurized, whole
Skim
Butter
Apples (raw)
Cucumbers
Potatoes
Fish
Fresh
Cheese (fresh)
Sardines
Carrots (fresh)

Specific heat
(kJ/kg.K)

49.9

2.01

71.7
60.0
68.3
68.0
66.2

3.433
3.056
3.520
3.223
3.014

49.0

2.810

87.0
90.5
15.5
84.4
96.1
79.8
75.0
80.0
76.0
65.0
57.4
88.2

3.852
3.9774.019
2.0512.135
3.7264.019
4.103
3.517
3.517
3.600
3.600
3.265
3.014
3.8103.935

Source: Reidy, G.A., M.S. thesis, Michigan State

University, 1968.

s2 1
s+2

64.2
16.0185
0.206

(11.14)

where is the density expressed in kg/m3 and s is the refraction index.

Some equations express density as a function of temperature and soluble
solids content. For clarified apple juices, Constenla et al. (1989) presented
the following:

= 0.82780 + 0.34708 exp 0.01 X 5.479 104 T

(11.15)

in which density is expressed in g/cm3, X is the concentration in Brix, and

T is the absolute temperature. This expression can be applied in the 20 to
80C temperature range and in the 12 to 68.5Brix range. These same authors
expresed the density of these juices as a function of Brix and density of
water:
=

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WATER
0.992417 3.7391 103 X

(11.16)

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Thermal Properties of Food

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However, Aguado and Ibarz (1988) gave different expressions for clarified
apple juices in the 5 to 70C temperature range and in the 10 to 71Brix
concentration range. One of these expressions is:
= 0.98998 5.050 104 T + 5.1709 103 C + 0.0308 105 C 2

(11.17)

where density is expressed in g/cm3, C in Brix, and T in C.

Ibarz and Miguelsanz (1989) reported a similar equation for clarified pear
juice in the 5 to 70C temperature range and in the 10 to 71Brix concentration
range:
= 1.0113 5.4764 104 T + 3.713 103 C + 1.744 105 C 2

(11.18)

Alvarado and Romero (1989) presented the following expression for different juices, for temperatures from 20 to 40C and for concentrations from
5 to 30Brix:
= 1002 + 4.61 C 0.460 T + 7.001 103 T 2 + 9.175 105 T 3

(11.19)

in which density is expressed in kg/m3, C in Brix, and T in C.

For sucrose solutions with concentrations between 6 and 65Brix and a
temperature of 20C, Kimball (1986) reported the equation:

C + 330.872
= 0.524484 exp
170, 435

(11.20)

in which density is expressed in g/cm3 and C in Brix.

Manohar et al. (1991) presented a second order polynomial equation as a
function of the total soluble solids content for tamarind juices:
= 1000 + 4.092 C + 0.03136 C 2

(11.21)

in which density is obtained in kg/m3 and the concentration C is expressed

in Brix.
Rambke and Konrad (1970) reported a second order polynomial equation
for milk as a function of the dry mass percentage:
= a + b X o + c X o2

(11.22)

where is expressed in g/cm3 and Xo is the dry mass percentage. The

coefficients of this equation for different temperatures are given in Table 11.6.
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For temperatures higher than the boiling point, the equation of Berstsch
et al. (1982) can be used:
= 1040.51 0.2655 T 0.01 T 2

(11.23)

0.967 + 0.969 10 2 T 0.478 10 4 T 2 f

where is expressed in kg/m3; T is temperature in C for the range from 65

to 140C; and f is the fat content for values between 0.02 and 15.5%.
Andrianov et al. (1968) reported the following equation for cream in the
40 to 80C range and fat content between 30 and 83%:

= 1.0435 1.17 105 XG 0.52 103 + 1.6 108 XG T

(11.24)

in which density is expressed in g/cm3, temperature is in C, and the fat

content XG is the mass fraction.
Choi and Okos (1986b) suggested an expression as a function of the density
of the components of the product:
=

1
X im

(11.25)

in which X mi is the mass fraction of the component i and i its density.

Tables 11.2 and 11.3 show the expressions that allow calculation of the
densities of the pure components as a function of temperature.

11.4

Thermal Diffusivity

A widely used property in calculations of heat transfer by conduction is the

thermal diffusivity, defined according to the expression:
=

k
C P

(11.26)

The value of the thermal diffusivity of a given food can be calculated if the
thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat are known. However, some
mathematical expressions allow calculation of the thermal diffusivity according to water content. Thus, Martens (1980) reported the following equation:

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Thermal Properties of Food

317

m
= 5.7363 108 XWATER
+ 2.8 1010 T

(11.27)

m
is the water mass fraction,
where is the thermal diffusivity in m2/s, XWATER
and T is the temperature in Kelvin.
On the other hand, Dickerson (1969) presented an expression in which the
foods thermal diffusivity is a function only of the water content and its
thermal diffusivity:

m
m
= 8.8 108 1 XWATER
+ WATER XWATER

(11.28)

Choi and Okos (1986b) expressed thermal diffusivity as a function of the

components, similar to other thermal properties:

= i X Vi
i

(11.29)

where i is the thermal diffusivity of the component i and XVi is the volumetric fraction of such component.
Table 11.5 presents thermal diffusivity values for some foods. Tables 11.2
and 11.3 show the expressions that allow calculation of the thermal diffusivities of pure components:
TABLE 11.5
Thermal Diffusivity for Some Foods
Product
Fruits, Vegetables
Avocado (pulp)
Seed
Whole
Sweet potato

Cherries (pulp)
Squash
Strawberries (pulp)
Beans (pure)
Peas (pure)
String beans (cooked)
Limes
Apples
Applesauce

2003 by CRC Press LLC

Water
(%)

Temperaturea
(C)

Thermal Diffusivity
105 (m2/s)

92

85
37
37
80
80

24 (0)
24 (0)
41 (0)
35
55
70
30 (0)
47 (0)
5
26122
26128
4122
40 (0)
030
5
65
5
65
26129

1.24
1.29
1.54
1.06
1.39
1.91
1.32
1.71
1.27
1.80
1.82
1.68
1.07
1.37
1.05
1.12
1.22
1.40
1.67

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Unit Operations in Food Engineering

TABLE 11.5 (continued)
Thermal Diffusivity for Some Foods
Product
Peach
Turnip
Potato
Pulp
Mashed (cooked)
Banana (pulp)
Grapefruit
(pulp)
(albedo)
Beet
Tomato (pulp)
Fishes and Meats
Cod
Hipogloso
Salted meat
Ham (smoked)
Beef
Loinb
Round
Tongue
Water
Ice
a

Water
(%)

Temperaturea
(C)

Thermal Diffusivity
105 (m2/s)

27 (4)
48 (0)

1.39
1.34

78
76
76

25
5
5
65

1.70
1.23
1.18
1.42

88.8
72.2

14 (60)
4.26

1.27
1.09
1.26
1.48

81
81
76
65
65
64
64

5
65
4065
5
65
5
4065

1.22
1.42
1.47
1.32
1.18
1.18
1.38

66
71
68

4065
4065
4065
30
65
0

1.23
1.33
1.32
1.48
1.60
11.82

The first temperature is the initial one, and that in parentheses is the one
of the surroundings.
Data are applicable if the juices exuded during storage remain in foods.

Source: Singh, R.P., Food Technol., 36(2): 8791.

TABLE 11.6
Values of the Parameters of Equation 11.22

2003 by CRC Press LLC

T
(C)

5
20
35
50
60

1.0000
0.9982
0.9941
0.9881
0.9806

Skim Milk
b 103
c 105
3.616
3.519
3.504
3.568
3.601

1.827
1.782
1.664
1.366
1.308

Whole Milk (c = 0)
a
b 103
1.0010
1.0080
1.0137
0.9953

2.55
2.09
1.66
2.11

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Thermal Properties of Food

319

Problems
11.1
Determine the density, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and thermal diffusivity, at 25C, of a food product that has been chemically analyzed, and
whose weight composition is: 77% water, 19% carbohydrate, 3% protein,
0.2% fat, and 0.8% ash.
The method of Choi and Okos is used; therefore, the thermal properties
of each component at 25C are previously calculated. The following table
contains the results obtained.
C Pi

Component

i
(kg/m3)

ki
(W/mC)

(kJ/kgC)

i 107
(m2/s)

Water
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Ash

994.91
1591.34
1316.94
915.15
2416.78

0.6110
0.2334
0.2070
0.2496
0.3628

4.1773
1.5942
2.0376
2.0180
1.1375

1.458
0.927
0.797
1.019
1.332

The volumetric fraction of each component is calculated by means of

Equation 11.7. The mass and volumetric fractions of each component are
presented next.
X mi

X iv

0.77
0.19
0.03
0.002
0.008

0.8398
0.1296
0.0247
0.0024
0.0036

Component
Water
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Ash

Thermal conductivity: obtained from Equation 11.6:

k=

(k X ) = 0.55 W (m C) = 5.5 10
i

v
i

kJ ( s.m.C)

Density: obtained from Equation 11.25:

=

1
= 1085 kg m 3
X im

i
i

Specific heat: obtained from Equation 11.13:

C P = C Pi X im = 3.594 kJ kg C
i

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Unit Operations in Food Engineering

Thermal diffusivity: obtained from Equation 11.29:

= i X Vi = 1.37 107 m2 s
i

It can also be calculated by Equation 11.26:

=
Result:
= 1085 kg/m3
k = 0.50 W/(mC)
C P = 3.94 kJ/(kgC)
= 1.7 107 m2/s

2003 by CRC Press LLC

k
= 1.41 107 m2 s
C P