Rate Equation for

2-Level System
Rate equation for a 2 - level
system is the change in
occupance of N 2 per time :
dN 2
RSt.em. RSp.em. RStim.abs.
dt
dN 2
I

B21 g v ' N 2 A21 N 2

dt
c
I

B12 g v ' N1
c
201

Rate Equation for

Energy Level 1
dN1
RSt.em. RSp.em. RSt.abs.
dt
dN1
I

B21 g v ' N 2 A21 N 2

dt
c
I

B12 g v ' N1
c

202

Capture Cross-Section
B12 B21 Equation 26-9

Define Capture Cross - Section :

hv '
area
B21 g v '
c

Capture
cross-section
area

203

Rewriting Rate Equation

for Two-Level System:
dN 2
I
A21 N 2
N 2 N1
dt
hv '
dN1
I
A21 N 2
N 2 N1
dt
hv '

Total # of atoms is :
NT N1 N 2
204

Two-Level Laser cant

occur because:
Inversion cant happen:
Ninv = N2 N1
= Negative value
Stim. Emiss. + Spon. Emiss.
> Stim. Absorp.
Since Capture Cross Section ()
is the same!
205

Two (2) Common Laser

Systems
3 level
4 level

3 Level

E3
K32 spon
Pump

E2

N2

Ip
hv p

K21 - Lasing

E1

N1
Nt =N1+ N2+ N3
206

nd
2

Common Laser
Systems
4 Level

3
N2

Laser
1

N1

NT = N1 + N2 + N3 + N0
207

4-Level Laser System

N3

3
K31

N2

2
Ip

K21 Rate Laser

N1

1
K30

K32

K20

K10
N0

1
Lifetime

I p Pumping Rate
R I Stimulated
emission

K 32 K 21
K 32 is very fast so e don't reside in N 3 .
N3 0
In fact, the assumption is that e in 3 instantaneously
falls to level 2.

Figure 26-5, p. 557 (Pedrotti).

Photon from pump hvp must have a capture
cross section.
208

Rate Equations for Pumping a Four

Energy Level System: Change in
Occupy per Time
View 4 - level structure and write down rate of
change for each level
Gain from ground

pIp
dN3
K3 N3
dt
hv p

N N Population Change, Level 3, #/sec

0
3

Stimulated emission

dN 2
I
K 32 N 3 K 2 N 2
N 2 N1
dt
hv '
I is laser cavity Irradiance
dN1
I
K 31 N 3 K 21 N 2 K10 N1
N 2 N1
hv '
dt

pIp
dN 0
K 30 N 3 K 20 N 2 K10 N1
N3 N 0
dt
hv p
All the atoms in Four Levels :
N T N 0 N1 N 2 N 3
K 3 K 30 K 31 K 32
K 2 K 21 K 20

209

Rate Equations for Pumping a

Four Energy Level System:
Change in Occupy per Time
Recall K are reciprocal lifetimes :
1
1
1
1
t /
3
point
; 2
; 1
; e
K3
K2
K10
e

p Capture cross section M 2 for pump photons

watt
I p Pump irradiance,
M2
hv p Energy of photons used in pump (joules)

Capture cross section for Lasing photons @v '

210

4-Level Laser Operations

Assumption :
Pump power flux (watt/M 2 ) I p does not empty the ground level (N 0 )
N 0 N 3 ; so N 0 NT N 0 N1 N 2 N 3
dN 3
0 in steady state population inversion; I RT I 0
dt
pIp
1 pIp
K3 N3
NT
N 0 N3
hv
K 3 hv p
dN 2
I
0 K 32 N 3 K 2 N 2
N 2 N1
hv '
d

K 32 p I p
I

N
K
N
N 2 N1

T
2 2
K 3 hv p
hv '

R p 2 relate to pump power input

K pIp
dN1
I
0 31
NT K 21 N 2 K10 N1
N 2 N1

dt
K 3 hv p
hv '

R p1
Solve for N 2 N1 for the gain or inversion population
K 21
K2
1

R
K p 2 K R p1
10
10
N 2 N1
K I
K 2 1 20

K
hv
'

10

"Population Inversion" Function of optical Power

211

Absorption/Loss Coefficient,
dI
I
dz

Change in irradiance :

Use this inversion to produce gain in the

the optical irradiance as it propagates. The
incremental change in irradiance (w/M 2 ) is
(I ) in time going through a volume V
with cross section A and length z
I

I + I
A

hv ' n
I

A
n # of photons generated
Dividing by z :
I hv ' n

z V t

212

Change in Irradiance
through a Volume
I n hv '

z
t V

Each transition produces hv '

V Volume of the gain media
Rate of change eq. of photons
is equal to population rate (N 2 N1 )
n2 I

( N 2 N1 )V slide 205
t
h '
213

Absorption Coefficient
n I

N 2 N1 V
t hv '
Rate of stimulated emission
I
Substitute into
z
I hv '
I

N 2 N1 V

z V
hv '
differential

dI
I N 2 N1 N 2 N1 I
dz
But recall 210; definition
dI
I
dz
Their absorption is negative
N 2 N1
Where is gain coefficient
dI
I
dZ

214

Typically:
dI
I
dz
IL

I0

dI
dz
I
0

IL
ln
I0
I L I0e

Beer's Law
215

Gain Coefficient
How much pump
power is needed?
Gain coefficient

N 2 N1
I L I0e

216

Laser Power Output

Conditions
Set up 2-mirror laser cavity
Derive output irradiance
eq. 26-47
(Pedrotti, derived in
Slides 220-224)
Stability conditions
Homogeneous vs.
inhomogeneous broadening
217

Optical Transitions
E2 + E2
Lasing
Energy
Levels
E1 + E1
Band of
energy
levels

Gain Curve
= (N2 N1)

Max gain for hv = E2 E1

Corresponds to
(E2 E2)
(E1 + E1)

(E2 E1)
(E2 + E2)
(E1 E1)

v
218

Modes of Laser
Gain Curve
= (N2 N1)
Max gain for hv = E2 E1

C
2L

C
2L

3 Modes must be above gain threshold

219

Laser Cavity
Mirror (100% refl.)
A.
L
output mirror (<100%)
L cavity length
L gain media length
B.

Resonants
E E0 sin kz t
Electric field must be phase exactly
after round trip, within cavity
k 2L

2 L m 2 ;

m integer
2L

2L
vm
c
c
v m

2L
resonants occur @c/2L apart and are called modes

220

Threshold Condition
CW Continuous Wave

dI
I0 ;
dz

dI

I0

Lg

R2 2 l2 1

dz
0

I I 0 e Lg ; gain coefficient N 2 N1

Scattering, etc.

Round trip intensity from initial location

I RT
2 L
R2 R1e 0 g ; Milonni & Eberly (Wiley, 1988)
I0
Small signal output (1% coupler); steady state condition
warrants that the intensity remains constant inside cavity
I RT
I RT I 0 ;
1
I0
I RT
2 L
1 R2 R1e T g ; small signal gain coefficient
I0
1
ln
2 T Lg ln 1 R1 R2 ln R1 R2
R
R
2 1
Trig expression, R1 R2 1 x Taylor Exp. x
Steady state - threshhold gain. coefficient - T
1
T
1 R1 R2 other losses per length
2 Lg
Threshhold gain T

1
1
ln
2 Lg R1 R2

221

Ideal 4 Level Laser

No simulated emission transitions from 3 to 1 level;
k31
k
0 in Equation (207) of N 2 N1 force R p1 to z; 20 0
k3
k10
Atoms in energy level 1 fall to zero (ground state) with zero
lifetime, k10 1/ 10
Optical Gain - Equation 26-37 - from slide 207, N 2 N1
gain

0
RP 2 k2

1 I hv ' k2 1 I
I

Where we grouped terms:

Is

Rp 2
k2
hv '

k pIp
R p 2 2 2 32
NT
k3 hv p

0
Saturation irradiance

Setting threshold gain equal to increase population gain

and T equal above,

T
1

1
1
ln
2 Lg R1 R2
I

I Sat.

1 I I
Sat.

2 Lg 0

ln 1 R1 R2

2 Lg 0

I
1 I Sat.
R
R
ln
1

1 2

Irradiance/intensity
inside cavity

222

Laser Output
p NT
k32
I p pumps 0 2
NT
I p (Slide 217)
k3
hv p
As we increase 0 (gain coeff.), it reaches
threshhold and cant get above T

I p pumps

I I I ;
I out

2 K

Transmission
of Mirror 2

I I ; I 2I

I
T2 I T2
2

Positive z direction field

gives output beam

Substitute I from previous slide

223

Laser Output
I out

2 Lg 0
T2
ln 1
R1 R2

1
ln
R1 R2

I Sat.
1
2

R1 R2
ln1 ln R1 R2 ln

1 R1 R2

1 x R1 R2
ln 1 x x Taylor expansion

1 R1 R2 T2 Loss due to
mirror's transmission
+
R1 is 100%, so 1 R2 T2 but there are other losses
such as scattering and spontaneous emission
I out

2 Lg 0 I sat
T2
1
T2 2

224

Output Power Derivation

Pedrotti3 26-19. Derive Eq. (26-47) by a
procedure similar to that leading to Eq. (26-43).
The linear cavity case is complicated by the fact
that the field encounters the gain medium twice in
each round-trip with the losses encountered at the
mirrors interspersed between passes through the
gain medium.
It may be useful to research and then summarize
the solution to this problem.
I1+
I1R1
Right going field:

I2+
Gain Medium

L
dI
I
dz

Iout

I2R2, T2

Left going field:

dI
I
dz
225

Output Power Derivation, cont.

Saturation is due to both the right and left going fields
in the cavity, so we can rewrite Equation (26-40) as:

0
1 dI 1 dI

I dz I dz 1 I I
IS

(1)

1 dI 1 dI
This relation leads to:

0
I dz I dz
Where the above expression is used below:
1 dI 1 dI 1
d
ln I I

dz
I
dz
I
dz

I I
d
ln I I 0

dz
I I eC C
Therefore: ln I I C
Now find the output irradiance shown in Eq. 26-47.
I I I

(2)

I I C

(3)

I out T2 I 2

(4)

Solve (3) for I and substitute into (2): I I

C
I
226

Output Power Derivation, cont.

Take (1) for the I + equation, separate variables and integrate.

0
1 dI

I dz 1 I I
IS

I 2
1
I
I1

I I

1
IS

I
ln 2
I1
Now,

dI 0 dz

1
C
I
I

2
1
I
IS
S
I1 I1 I 2 I 2 C

1
1

0L
I 2 I1

(5)

R1 and R2 are the reflectance of the two mirrors, so that

R1 I1 I1
R2 I 2 I 2
Using the above 3 relationships:
I1 I1 I 2 I 2
I
I1 1
R1

I 2 I 2 R2

Therefore: I1 I 2 R1 R2 and C I 2 R2
227

Example Problem, cont.

Substituting these into (5):

I 2
ln
I
2 R1 R2

1
I I
RR

I S 2 2 1 2

I 2 R2 1
1

0L

I S I 2 I 2 R1 R2

Solve for I 2 :
1
ln
R1 R2

I 2
R2
I 2
I 1 R1 R2 I R2 R 0 L
S
S
1

I 2
IS

R2
1 1

1
ln

R
R
R
L

0
1 2
2

2
R
R
R
1
1
2

I 2
IS

1
R2
1
1
1
2
ln
R
R
R
R
L

1 2
1 2
0
R R
2
R
1
1 2

I 2
1 R1 R2
IS

Iout

R2 1
1

1
2
ln
L

0
R R
2
R
1
1 2

T2 I S

2L ln
R1R2

R
R1R2 1 2 -- Derivation courtesy
R1 of Kyung Lyong Jang

228

2 Mirror Laser
Mirror 2 is output coupler - T2 ; from slide 219
Therefore T1 is a loss if reflectance is not 100%
Also, other losses in cavity
All losses = T1 scattering absorp.
I out

2 Lg 0 I Sat.
T2
1
T

2
2

iff losses are much less than T2

T2 , T2 T2
I out 2 Lg 0 T2

I Sat.
2

Output varies (depends) linearly on 0

(Small signal gain coefficient).
I out I Sat.
Different materials have different (I Sat. ) saturation lifetimes.
I Sat.

k21
hv

2 0
2 0 21

2
1

Lifetime

Higher v ultraviolet, x-ray, are more difficult to build.

229

Small signal gain coefficient 0 depends on

population inversion, N

0 N 2 N1

Fast decay

#
N
Pump rate
Sec.

Pump
rate

gain

N2
N1

i.e., 3 Level Laser

Pout

Gain saturation
round trip intensity in
cavity is constant

Pump rate

Threshhold
What is the optimum output coupler (T2 )?
Solve I out for given loss:

Iout

T
I
I out
2 Lg 0 T Sat.
T S
2

Topt

I out
0
T

2 0 Lg

Topt

T2
Output
coupler
230

Laser Cavity Stability Conditions

0 g1 g 2 1
L
g1 1 ;
r1
g2 1

r1 radius of curvature of mirror

L
r2

Two extremes to get Lasing :

A. L r1 r2 Confocal cavity
g1 g 2 1 11 1 0

B. Concentric Cavity
L 2r
r r1 r2
g1 g 2 1 2 1 2 1
These are limits to cavity length!

231

Laser Line Width or

Lineshape g(v)
Not perfectly monochromatic

vH Full width at half max

Two general mechanisms that cause

freq. broadening:
Homogeneous Physical phenomena in gain
media that affect all atoms in the same manner
that broaden the frequency response of each
atom
Inhomogeneous Physical mechanism that
affects different groups of atoms in different
manners, i.e., He or Ne atoms

232

Homogeneous Broadening
Lifetime Broadening
2 is not exact value, but has some spread
L +

L + 2

Time

Causes:
A. Spontaneous emission
B. Inelastic collision of atoms, which changes its energy
(Pressure, temperature of media)

Pressure Broadening
Elastic collisions of atoms cause delays in emission
Typically the dominant cause of homogeneous bonding (vcol)

g v Lorentzian line shape

g v

Gain Bandwidth : vH

vH
2

2
vH
2 v v0

1
2

1 1

2
v
col

2

2 Lifetime E2 , 1 Lifetime E1 , vcol Rate of collisions

233

Recall Gain Cavity:

Electronic field E E0 sin kz t .

Round trip has to be in phase (exactly).
kz k 2 L 2 L
v
4 L 2 m;
c

4 L

v
c

kz 2 (m)

m 0, 1, 2;

(m is integer)

c
m
2L

Therefore, cavity will have/support any

c
frequency v that has m
values or modes
2L
Modes spacing in frequency is m 1;

c
apart
2L

3 108
1.5 108 Hz
i.e., L 1 meter, v
2 1
Homogeneous broadening gain media only allowes lasing
at one of these frequencies - single cavity mode!

234

Homogeneous Gain Media

Only one mode in cavity

with homogeneous broadening

235

Inhomogeneous Broadening
Doppler effects (gas laser)
causing larger linewidth
Velocity of Ne atoms are moving
with a distribution of velocities
which produce a doppler shift in
frequency, v (train whistle).
Velocity of Ne atoms are moving
in 4 steradians so only z
component is causing frequency
shift

236

Inhomogenous Broadening
Gaussian Lineshape :
1
2

4 ln 2
g v
e
2
vD

v v0
4 ln 2

vD Full width at half max

1
2

8k BT
vD
ln 2 v0
2
Mc

M Mass of atom (atomic mass)

26

6.64 10 kg
237

Inhomogeneous Broadening
vinhomo.> vhomo.

Willis Lamb - @OSC Professor

238

High Intensity is Possible

by Pulsed Operation
Super saturate the cavity; then,
switch it on for a short time
Q switch
Mode lock

Cause population inversion but

dont let it lase
Average power = continuous wave
(CW) operation

239

Laser Types & Wavelength

Gas
HeNe, CO2

Solid State
Nd:YAG
Ruby

Chemical
HF & DF

Free-Electron
X-ray

Range
1nm < < 1mm

Continuous wave CW Power

1 mw to 5 megawatts(?)

Pulsed Power
1015 joules

Pulsed Length, shortest

5 fsec f = 10-15

Cavity Lengths L
Few m < L < km

240

LED Light Emitting Diodes

Emitted photon goes in 4 steradians

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

241

Surface Emitting LED

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

242

Laser Diodes
Electrical & Optical Properties
Cavities, mode behavior
Power current plot
Divergence
Astigmatism
Polarization
Laser Diodes as geometrical
light sources

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

243

Laser Diode Electronic

Properties

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

244

Laser Diode Cavities

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

245

Laser Diode Power-Current

Typical Curve

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

246

Laser Diode Mode Behavior

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

247

Laser Diode Polarization

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

248

Laser Diode Divergence

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

249

Laser Diode Divergence

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

250

Circularize by single-prism
expansion

--Courtesy of Tomasz Tkaczy

251

Gaussian Beam Profiling

and Propagation

Objectives:
Review on Gaussian
beam intensity profile
Geometrical approach to
Gaussian beam profiling
Beam propagation

252

Classical Treatment of
Gaussian Beam
Gaussian beam: Ideally, the irradiance
distribution in any transverse plane is a
circularly symmetric Gaussian function
entered about the beam axis

64% between std. dev.

86.5% energy between w

253

Classical Treatment of
Gaussian Beam (Cont.)

W0 = Beam Waist; smallest radius in that space

Measure distances relative to beam waist
@z = 0
254

Classical Treatment of Gaussian

Beam (Cont.)

The complex electric field amplitude of Gaussian

beam (eq. 27-24 Pedrotti):
Amplitude

Phase

E0W0
2
1
E( , z )
exp 2 exp i kz k
tan ( z / z0 ) t
w( z)
2R( z)
w ( z)

Plane wave

Spherical wave

: Wave number

Phase retardation
= -/2 at z = -
= /2 at z =

x2 y2
Beam irradiance:
2

2 2
W0
I ( , z) E( , z) I0
exp 2

w( z )
w ( z)
2

I 0 E0

2
255

Rayleigh Range
W
z0

2
0

Given without proof:

See equation 27-21

Figure 27-2 (Pedrotti)

256

Classical Treatment of Gaussian

Beam (Cont.)
Rayleigh range (Z 0 ) : The axial distance within which
the beam Intensity drops to and beam radius lies within
a factor of

W02
z0

2 of waist radius W0
w( z0 ) 2W0

2
1
I ( , z0 ) I 0 exp 2
2
W0
Beam divergence angle :
W0
*

tan
z0 W0

W02
if z z0
, we have w( z ) z

*angular spread is fn(wavelength)

and waist is small -- recall Fourier

257

Classical Treatment of Gaussian

Beam (Cont.)
Definition: Beam radius or beam width w(z): the
radial distance of a circle that contains approximately
86% of the power (or irradiance drops down to 1/e2
13.5% of the peak irradiance)
2

z
z
w( z ) W0 1 W0 1
2

z
W
0
0

W02
z0

Beam waist W0: where beam radius is

minimum, i.e. z = 0 plane
The wavefronts are approximately planar near the beam waist
(See page 239)
z02
W0

I 0, z I 0
I0 2
2
2
z

z
0

W0 1 z z0
2
2
W0 2
I , z I0
e 2

W
z
W
z

y
W(z)

258

Classical Treatment of
Gaussian Beam (Cont.)
Radius of Curvature :
W 2 2
z0 2
0
R( z ) z 1 z 1

z
z
@ Rayleigh distance
R ( z 0 ) 2 z0

2 W02

kW02 Radius of wavefront

at the Rayleigh waist

Phase retardation :
z

z
0

( z ) tan 1

( z0 ) 4 Phase at the Rayleigh waist

E0W0
2
E( , z)
exp 2 exp i kz k
( z)
w( z )
2 R( z )
w ( z)

259

Classical Treatment of Gaussian

Beam (Cont.)
2

2 2
W0
I ( , z) I0
exp 2

w( z )
w ( z)
Intensity on z axis :
2

I0
W0
I (0, z ) I 0

w( z ) 1 ( z z0 )

I0
2

I0

I0
2 2z
1

260

Classical Treatment of
Gaussian Beam (Cont.)
Beam power: the total power, , carried by a beam is the
integral of the optical irradiance over a given transverse
plane at a distance z:

1
I (, z )2d I 0 W02
2
0

22
W0
I (, z ) I 0
exp 2

w( z )
w ( z)

y
0
x

22
2

exp 2
2
w ( z )
w ( z)
Relative power carried by an aperture with a radius r0
r

1 0
p(0 , z ) I (, z )2d
0
2r02
1 exp 2
w ( z)
261

Classical Treatment of
Gaussian Beam (Cont.)
Encircled energy by the Beam width w(z) (radius)
normalized contains approximately 86% of the
total power:
0

2 02
0 I ( , z )2 d 1 exp w2 ( z )
1

p w z , z 1 2 86%
y
e
0
p 1.5w z , z 99%
1
p( 0 , z )

w0=1

262

Summary of Gaussian Beam Eq.

2 2
2
Irradiance: I ( , z )
exp 2
2
w ( z)
w ( z)
1
I 0 W02 watts
2
2

2 2
W0
I ( , z) I0
exp 2

w( z )
w ( z)

1 = 1 +i
q(z) R(z) w(z)
W02
Rayleigh range
z0

z
w( z ) W0 1
2
W0

2 1/ 2

1/ 2

z 2
W0 1
z0

w( z0 ) 2W0
2
W 2 2

z0
0
R( z ) z 1
z 1
z
z

tan

W0

ff
z0 W0

263

Example Problem
27-23 The output from a single mode
TEM00 Ar+ laser ( = 488 nm) has a
far field divergence angle of 1 mrad
and output power of 5 watts.
a. What is the spot size at the beam waist?
tan

W0

ff

0.488(103 )

W0

0.155 mm Answer
3
ff
(10 )
b. What is the irradiance at the beam waist?
1
I 0 W02 5 watts
2
2
25
2
1.32
10

I0

2
2
W0 0.155
I 0 1.32 104 w/cm 2

Answer

264

Example, cont.
c. What is the irradiance at the center of the beam
at 10 meters from the beam waist?
2

2 2
W0
I ( , z) I0
exp 2

w( z )
w ( z)
z
w( z ) W0 1
2
W0

2 1/2

z
W0 1
z0

2 1/2

W02 (0.155) 2
z0

154.6 mm
3

0.488 10
w( z ) z
1
W0
z0

2 1/2

2 1/2

10, 000
1

154.6

1.32(104 )
2
I (0,10 meters)

3.15
w
/
cm
652

64.7

Answer

265

Gaussian Beam Profiling with

Knife Edge
y

Knife Edge

1
p ( x, z ) I ( y, z )dy I ( x, z )dx

x

2x
1
1 erf

2
w( z )
erf ( x)

t 2

dt

Knife edge
84%

16%

w( z )
2

Beam radius

w( z )
2

w(z)
266

Error Function Table

Geometrical Approach to
Gaussian Beam (Cont.)
y
Standard Deviation (STD) 86%
beam radius (z): the
radial distance of a circle
(z)
that contains
approximately 63.2% of
the power (or irradiance
drops down to 1/e 36.8% 63.2%
of the peak irradiance)

z
( z ) 0 1 2
k 0
2

1/ 2

z
0 1
z0
2

1/e
= 36.8%

w(z)

1/ 2

1/e2
= 13.5%

268

Gaussian Beam Encircled Energy

Encircled energy by the STD Beam radius (z):
it contains approximately 63.2% of the power
1 r0
p (r0 , z ) I (r , z )2 rdr
0
2r02
1 exp 2
w ( z)

y
r0
x

r02
1 exp 2
( z)
1
p ( ( z ), z ) 1 63.2%
e

p 1.5* 2 * ( z ), z 99%

(z)
w0=
1
269

Spatial Filter (Cont)

Spatial filter: A pinhole centered on the
axis is placed at the Fourier transform
plane (image plane) to block highfrequency noise
The key is to choose the right pinhole
size that blocks unwanted noise but
maximally passes the lasers energy

270

Spatial Filter
Laser beam picks up intensity variation from scattering
by optical defects and particles in the air, known as
spatial noise
When a Gaussian beam is focused through a positive
lens, equivalent to Fourier transform, the image at the
focal plane will be mapped inversely proportional to
the spatial frequencies
Ideal Gaussian profile is imaged directly on axis
Annulus of radius for noisy speckles:

rn f / d n

r
2

w( z )

W
2
where I 0
I (r ) I 0 0 e
W02
w( z )
I Actual I r I Noise

F
W0
271

Beam Expander
Afocal system, or inverted
telescope
Keplerian beam expander
A microscope objective is often used for the
first positive lens

Galilean beam expander

Overall _ Length f1 f 2
Magnification f 2 / f1

272

Spatial Filter (Cont)

Relative power carried with a circle of radius
r0
r
2 02
1 0
p (r0 , z ) I ( , z )2 d 1 exp 2
0
w ( z)
1
p ( w( z ), z ) 1 2 86%
e
p (1.5w( z ), z ) 99%

273

Beam Power & Beam Radius

Relative power through a spatial filter
with a diameter of D:
1
p ( D, z )

D/2

I (r , z )2 rdr

1 W D 2
0
1 exp

2 f
Recommended : Dopt

f
W0

3w( z )

p ( Dopt , z ) 99.3%

274

Beam Imaging
Imaging lens

Spatial filter

A small focused spot

275

Lens Layout

The approaching wavefront refracts at the lens

at different times, depending on its distance
from the optical axes (r).
The delays of the various regions of the
wavefront are proportional to the thickness of
the lens at each radial zone (r), as shown above
for a spherical wave.

A ik
U1 e
r

276

k (r ) k t0 t (r ) nkt (r)
kt0 k (n 1)t (r )

(3.4)

where k(t0 t(r)) is the phase delay caused

by the free space region and it is assumed
that the lens is surrounded by air (n = 1).
The wavefronts velocity in the lens is
slower than in air, so the section of the
wavefront not in the glass will overtake
the section that is in the glass.

277

The emerging wavefront is given by:

U 2 U 0e

ik 0 ( r )

(3.5)

where the input wavefront was

U1 U 0 e

ik0

(3.6)

so the output wavefront is

U 2 U1e

ik ( r )

(3.7)

Since the phase change k (r ) is a function

of thickness, t , at a given zone of radius r , the
lens can be divided into three sections in order
to find the thickness, t (r ). Therefore, the
thickness as a function of zone radius, r , is:
t ( r ) t1 ( r ) t2 t3 ( r )

(3.8)

where t2 is the "edge thickness" of the lens.

278

Dividing the Thick Lens into

Three Sections

279

Sag of Spherical Surface

How much shift do we get to plane through vertex?
r
Spherical Surface
R

s(r)

Center of
Curvature (CC)

x2 + y2 + z2 = R2 if @ coord center.
Equation of a spherical surface in 3-D
for center z = +R (rotational symetric system)
x 2 y 2 ( z R )2 R 2
define z S(r)

x2 y2

( s(r ) R )2 R 2 r 2
s(r ) R R 2 r 2

Circular symmetry
use negative sign (-) due to sign convention
from surface to r-axis is to left.
280

Sag (Cont.)
s (r ) R R 2 r 2
s r R R2 r 2

1/ 2

1/ 2

r
s r R R 1 2
R
2

Since r is small and r / R is squared,

1 can be expanded by a Taylor's series.
Taylor Series/Maclaurin Series :
3

y
y
3
2
n
n
4
f
0

y2
R ...

1 1
2 R 2 22 2! 23 3!
n!
y2
y4
3 y6
s ( y ) R R(1 2 4 3
...
6
2 R 8R 2 3! R
4

We'll use the first two terms:

This is the lost distance
y 2 y 2C
s( y)

sag
by paraxial approx.....
2R
2
Where C is:
C

1
curvature
R

281

The thickness t1 (r ) and t3 ( r ) are related to the sag of a

spherical surface, which can be expressed as:

t1 ( r ) t10 R1 R1 r

2 1/ 2

2
2 1/ 2

t3 ( r ) t30 R2 R2 r

Rewriting the equations:

2 1/ 2

r
t1 ( r ) t10 R1 1 1 2
R1

(3.9)
(3.10)

(3.11)

1/ 2
2

r
(3.12)
t3 ( r ) t30 R2 1 1 2
R2
Assuming the lens radius (r ) is small compared to the
surface radii (R1 and R2 ), a Taylor series approximation
can be made for the square root parts of Equations 3.11
and 3.12, and using the first two terms of that expansion
gives:

t1 ( r ) t10
t3 ( r ) t30

2 R1
r

(3.13)

2 R2

(3.14)
282

Now Equation 3.8 becomes:

1
r2 1
t ( r ) t0

2 R1 R2

(3.15)

So the phase term, Equation 3.4 becomes:

1
r2 1
k (r ) kt0 k n 1 t0

2 R1 R2

(3.16)

1
r 2
1
knt0 k
n 1

2
R
2
1

(3.17)

r2
knt0 k
2f*

(3.18)

Where we will define:

1

1
1

(n 1)
R1 R2
f*

(3.19)

283

Wavefronts

R2 R1 z2 z1

q2 q1 z2 z1

284

Compare Gaussian to
Spherical Wave!
R z Kr
Ee

ei kz t ;

k2
i
i tan z
z0
2 R z

Ee

k2
i
2r

ei kz t

Radius of curvature is function of distance:

z2
R z z 1 2
z0
Waist as a function of distance is:
2

z
2
2
0
W z W0 1 2
z
Due to these Gaussian properties, the distance along
rays are measured in imaginary terms; complex
radius of curvature. Follow Pedrotti 584-586.
1
1

i
or q z z iz0
2
q z R z W z
285

Lens Coupling Gaussian Beam

Lens system just like transferring spherical beam
following 1st order optics

1
1 1

q2 q1 f
Lens(es) can be represented by a matrix:
y 2 A B y1
C D
1
2
286

Complex Radius of Curvature

of Gaussian Beam
Radius of curvature of the beam is related to paraxial
parameters:
y
R

So through a lens system, the radius of curvature of

a beam is:
y2
R2

y2 Ay1 B1

2 Cy1 D1

y2

2
CR1 D
1

AR1 B
AR1 B1

AR1 B

1
2 CR D
CR1 D
1
1
y2

AR1 B
Aq1 B
R2
; q2
CR1 D
Cq1 D
287

Focus of a Gaussian Beam with Lens

a) Complex radius of curvature of laser beam

1 1
i

q R W2
Solve this by two boundary conditions:
@ Waist, R1
1

i
q1
W02
@ Coupling Mirror (2 R2 )
z02

W02 2
R2 z2 1 2 z2 1 (
)
z2

z2

W02
z0

289

Solving:

W 2 0 2
R2 2 z2 1 0

z2
2
W 2 0

0

0.7 1

9
632.8 10 0.7
2
2
6
2

1 7.09 10 W0 0
0.7

1 5.03 1013 W04 0

W04 0

1.8571

5.03 1013

3.692 1014

W0 0 4.38 104 meter

W02
q1 i
i 0.9524

2
z
W 2 ( z2 ) W02 [1 22 ] 5.44(104 ) meter
z0

290

b) Optical system transfer

1 0.7
1

0
1

1
0

R2 1 1
1

2 1.5 1.5
1 0.004
2

0
1

1
0

R3 1

1.5 1 1.5
0.64

0 1
0
1
1
1
0.004
A B 1

0.5
C D 0 1 0.5

1
1.5 0

0.64

0
1 0.7

2
0 1

1 0.53 0.7 0.63

0.53
0.63

Since complex radius of curvature, can't set B 0 for

solving for .
291

c) What is complex radius of curvature q 2 ?

1

632.8 109
i
i
i1.0499
2
2
q1
W0
4.38 104
q1 i 0.9524

q2

Aq1 B
Cq1 D

1 0.53 i 0.952 0.7 0.63

q2
0.53 i 0.9524 0.63
i 0.505 0.952 0.7 0.63

0.63 i 0.505
Multipy by c.c. of denominator
i 0.318 0.6 0.44 0.397

0.255 0.481 i 0.354 i 0.318

q2
0.632 0.5052

0.954
0.041
0.652

q2
0.652

q2 0.0613 i1.463
292

Complex Radius of Curvature

d) q 2 @beam waist of focused beam
q2

i
R2 W2

but R2

109
6.32.8
q2 i
W22
i 2.01107

W22

293

e)

Setting real and imaginary part equal

Real:
0.0613 0
0.0613m
Imaginary parts:
2.0110-7
1.463
2
W2
W2 3.7 104 m

beam waist

294

Collimation of Gaussian Beam

Lens for lasers are easier, no chromatic
abberations
"Collimated distance" is between 2 adjacent
Rayleigh locations, or transverse size has
increased by 2 of waist 2W0

W02
2 z0 2

295

Focusing a Gaussian Beam

1 0
1 z2
1 z1

1
0 1

0
1
1

z2
1 f

1
f

z1 z2
f A B

z1
C D

z1 z2

z1 z2
z2

q
z
z
1

1 1 2

Aq1 B
f
f

q2

1
Cq1 C
z
q1 1 1
f
f

As before in example problem:

W012
q1 i
@ waist, R

W022
q 2 i
@ waist, R

Solving for beam waist and z distance in focusing space.

296

Focused Gaussian Beam

2

1
1 z1
1 W01

f f2
W022 W012
z2 f

f 2 z1 f
W012
2
z1 f

Assumptions :
Focal length Raleigh range
Focal length is small (large power)
W01 W02
2

W012
2
2

Z 0 z1 f

From the above :
W02

2f
W01

Recall if lens diameter 2W01

W02

F/#

Recall diffraction :
2.44 F/# is larger for uniform irradiance
across lens

297

Example:
A HeNe 5 mW laser has a cavity of 34 cm length
with concave mirrors of radius 10 m R1 R2 10 m
632.8 nm
1)

Is the cavity stable/viable for Lasing?

0 g1 g 2 1 Stable cavity condition
0.34
g1 1
;
10

0.34
g2 1
10

g1 g 2 0.066 0.066 0.004356; stable

2)

Where is the beam waist?

1
Center length symmetry
2
z1 z2 17 cm

298

Example, cont.
3)

What is the spot size at the beam waist? W0

z02
R2 z 10 z 1 2
z
z 0.17

z02
10 0.17 1

0.17 2
2 10

1 1.6711
z02 0.17
0.17

z0 1.29 m Raleigh range

W02

W
2
0

1.29 632.8 109

26 108

W0 5.1104 0.51 mm
299

Example, cont.
4)

Determine the spot size on the mirrors?

z2
W z W 1 2
z0
2

2
0

17 2
0.51 1
0.2646
2
129
2

W z 0.514 mm
5)

Determine the beam full angular divergence (ff ) ?

W0

ff W0

tan
2
2 z0 W0 W0

ff
2

ff
2

632.8 109

0.51 103

3.95 104 rad 0.395 mr

ff 0.79 mr
300