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KI3241
Kimia Inti dan Radiokimia
Kuliah 01

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Achmad Rochliadi
MS (ITB), Ph.D. (Curtin)
Program Studi Kimia
Institut Teknologi Bandung

Timeline of Atom Model

Democritus
Dalton
Thompson

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Rutherford

Bohr
Schrodinger

History of Atom & Nukleon

400 BC, Definisi atom (Zat yg tidak dapat

dibagi lagi) dikenalkan oleh DEMOCRITUS
(philosopher Yunani).
700 AD, Revelation Allah melalui Al Quran di
surat SABA (34:3) menyatakan ada yg lebih
kecil dari atom (=Zarrah dalam bahasa arab).
1803, Postulat Teori Atom Dalton disusun
berdasarkan hasil percobaan Hk. Kekekalan
massa (Lavoisier, 1789) dan Hk. Perbandingan
tetap (Proust, 1797).

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Penemuan Elektron

1891, Stoney mengusulkan ada muatan listrik

yg terdapat dalam satuan diskrit dari salah satu
komponen atom yg kemudian di sebut sebagai
ELEKTRON berdasarkan percobaan Faraday.
Thomson berdasarkan percobaan Tabung
SINAR KATODA menyimpulkan bahwa
elektron bermuatan negatif dan merupakan
partikel penyusun atom secara universal.
1908, Millikan dan Thomson menemukan
bahwa berat massa elektron adalah Me = 9,106 x
10-31 kg dari angka banding e/m = 1.76 x 1011 C
kg-1 dan muatan elektron adalah -1,6 x 1019 C.

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Thomsons experiment to measure the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron.

A beam of electrons (cathode rays) passes through an electric field and a magnetic
field. The experiment is arranged so that the electric field causes the beam to
be deflected in one direction, and the magnetic field deflects the beam in the opposite
direction. By balancing the effects of these fields, the charge-to-mass ratio of the
electron can be determined.

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Millikan oil drop experiment. A fine mist of oil droplets is introduced
into the chamber. The gas molecules in the chamber are ionized (split into electrons
and positive ions) by a beam of x-rays. The electrons adhere to the oil droplets, some
droplets having one electron, some two electrons, and so forth. These negatively
charged oil droplets fall under the force of gravity into the region between the electrically
charged plates. By carefully adjusting the voltage on the plates, the force of
gravity is exactly counterbalanced by the attraction of the negative oil drop to the
upper, positively charged plate. Analysis of these forces leads to a value for the
charge on the electron.

Penemuan Proton

Elektron bermuatan negatif, sedangkan

atom adalah positif harus ada element
lain yg menjadi penyeimbangnya.
1913, first indication. 1919, Discovery.
Keduanya oleh E. Rutherford.

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http://dbserv.ihep.su/hist/owa/hw.part4?ch=P

Indikasi, ada partikel bermuatan positif

yg bergerak berlawanan dari arah
elektron.
Search by google : Milestone event in particle physic.

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Cathode ray tube with perforated cathode. Electrons collide with gas molecules
and roduce positive ions, which are attracted to the negative cathode. Some of
the positive ions pass through the holes and form a positive ray. Like cathode
rays, positive rays (or canal rays) are deflected by electric and magnetic fields
but much less so for a given value of the field, because positive particles are
much heavier.

Penemuan Neutron

1920, Ramalan Rutherford: Jika atom hanya

terdiri dari elektron dan proton, maka massa
atom ternyata hanya ditentukan oleh massa
proton, Jika ini benar maka massa atom hanya
dari massa atom relatif yg telah diketahui.
Artinya ada partikel pembentuk atom yg lain
(neutron).
1932, Chadwick berdasarkan percobaan
Berilium menemukan partikel yg tidak
bermuatan dan memiliki massa yg lebih sedikit
dari proton yg kemudian diberi nama proton.

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Penemuan Keradioaktifan

1895, William Conrad discovered X-Ray,

something passthrought solids.
1895 a few months later, Henri Becquerel found
similar phenomenan from uranium metal and salts
with different form of radiation, the term of
radiactive introduce.
1898, Marie Curie found that compounds of
thorium were also "radioactive. After painstaking effort she eventually isolated two more
radioactive elements polonium and radium from
ores that contained uranium.
1899, E Rutherford found 3 different radioactivity :
alpha (particle,particle, and gamma (

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The experimental arrangement of the Rutherford experiment. A beam of positively charged a
particles was directed at a very thin iece of gold foil. A luminescent screen coated with zinc sulfide
(ZnS) was used to detect particles passing through or deflected by the foil. Most particles passed
straight through. Some were deflected to some extent, and a few were even deflected backward.
(Note that a circular luminescent screen is shown for simplicity; actually a smaller, movable screen
was used.)

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Rutherfords interpretation of the results of the experiment done by Geiger and
Marsden.

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Percobaan Rutherford yang menunjukkan bahwa ada sub atomic partikel.

Alpha particle

An alpha particle is simply a helium nuclei (He) which

is ejected with high energy from an unstable nucleus.
This particle, which consists of two protons and two
neutrons, has a net positive charge. Although emitted
with high energy, alpha particles lose energy quickly as
they pass through matter of air and therefore, do not
travel long distances. They can even be stopped by a
piece of paper or the outer layers of human skin. These
slow moving particles are generally the product of
heavier elements.

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Example : 23892U ----> 42He + 23490Th

Beta particle

Beta particles are identical to electrons and thus

have a charge of (-1). This type of decay process
leaves the mass number of the nuclei unchanged. A
beta particle is minute in comparison to that of an
alpha particle and has about one hundred times the
penetrating ability. Where an alpha particle can be
stopped by a piece of paper a beta particle can pass
right through. It takes aluminum foil or even wood
to stop a beta particle. The electron that is released
was not present before the decay occured, but was
actually created in the decay process itself.

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Example : 3215P ----> 0-1e + 3216S

Positron
This type of particle production is just the
opposite of Beta particle decay.

Example : Na ----> 0 1e + Ne Notice that is

still has the same zero mass as an electron
but an opposite charge. This is what is
known as an antiparticle of the electron.

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Sinar Gamma

As the name implies, these are not particles but high energy photons
and can be found on the electromagnetic spectrum. They are very
similar to x-rays but have a shorter wavelength and therefore more
energy. The penetrating ability of gamma rays is much greater than
that of alpha or beta particles. They can only be stopped by several
centimeters of lead or more than a meter of concrete. In fact, gamma
rays can pass right through the human body. Gamma rays often
accompany other processes of decay such as alpha or beta. An
example of this was our previous representation of an alpha particle
process.

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U ----> 23490Th + 200 + 42He. A ramification of alpha or beta

particle production is that the newly formed nucleus is left in a state
of excess energy. A way for the nucleus to release this excess energy
is by emitting gamma rays. Since gamma rays have no mass, and are
waves rather than particles, the elements atomic number does not
change after emission.
238

92

Beberapa Sifat Partikel Radioaktif

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Nuclear Chemistry,
the Sun and Life

Do you enjoy spending the day exploring at the beach? How about working in the
garden, playing softball, skateboarding or just being in the warmth of the
magnificent sun. Why is that many societies throughout history have worshipped
the sun? It is because the sun provides warmth and energy, and therefore life itself.
Without this energy from the sun, life could not exist as we know it. Without
nuclear chemistry the sun would not exist.

Have you ever wondered how the sun produces energy? The sun produces energy
through a nuclear chemical reaction called nuclear fusion. Fusion is a nuclear
reaction in which the nuclei of light atoms combine. Through a series of fusion
reactions, a tremendous amount of energy is produced which sustains all life on the
earth.

Nuclear chemistry affects many aspects of our lives everyday. As we shall discover
in this modules, radioisotopes are everywhere! They are in the air we breath, the
water we drink, the soil we till, and the building materials we use for our homes.
They are also found in the foods we eat to nourish the cells of our bodies; therefore,
we all contain radioisotopes.

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Did you know this??

In 1903, Becquerel and the Curies together received the

Nobel Prize in physics. This award was for their
discovery of radioactivity and their other contributions
in this area.
Marie Curie received a second Nobel Prize in 1911 for
the discovery of polonium and radium. She was the first
person to win two Nobel Prizes.
Did you know that the Curie's had a word named after
them? That's right! The curie is a basic unit of
measurement for describing radioactivity.

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Pros and Cons

Did you know that some of the foods we eat have been
treated by exposure to radiation?
Have you ever wondered how we know the age of dinosaur
bones?

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Have you ever known anyone who was treated for cancer
with radiation therapy?
Have you ever wondered how a nuclear submarine is
powered?
Have you ever had an x-ray to look for a broken bone or a
cavity?

Everyday Exposure to Radiation

What do you do on a normal day?

Regardless of what you do on a typical day, go to school, work, or
stay home, in each case you are being exposed to radiation.
Whether you know it or not you are being exposed to radioactivity
everyday of your life.

Nuclear radiation is all around us in the environment. Low-level

radiation is found in the oceans and waterways, the rocks and soils,
the plant materials and in the atmosphere surrounding the planet.
The radiation that we are exposed to can be said to come from two
sources, that which occur naturally and that which is due to the
activities of man.

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Natural Radiation
Terrestrial

Radioactivity in nature comes from two main sources, terrestrial and

Radioactive elements found in rock, soil, water, air, and in food from the
earth make there way in our bodies when we drink water, breath air or eat
foods which contain them. These naturally occurring radioisotopes such as
carbon-14, potassium-40, thorium-223, uranium-238, polonium-218, and
tritium(hydrogen-3) expose us to radiation from within our bodies.

cosmic. Terrestrial radioisotopes are found on the earth that came into
existence with the creation of the planet. Although some are long gone,
some radioisotopes take a long time to decay and become non-radioactive
(on the order of hundreds of millions of years) and are still around today.

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By far, the largest contributor to our daily exposure of radiation is the

natural world, and the major form of natural radiation is radon gas. Radon222 is a naturally occuring decay product of uranium-238 which is
commonly found in soils and rocks. Radon-222 is a gas which is odorless,
colorless, tasteless and chemically nonreactive. As it escapes from the
soils and rocks of which it is trapped, it enters the water we drink and the
air we breath.

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Natural Radiation
Cosmic

Another source of natural radiation comes from the

interaction of cosmic rays with the earth's upper
atmophere. Cosmic rays permeate all of space and are
composed of highly energized, positively charged
particles as well as high energy photons. Approaching
the earth at near the speed of light, most cosmic rays are
blocked by the earth's protective atmosphere and
magnetic field. As a byproduct of the interaction
between cosmic rays (i.e. particles) and the atmosphere,
many radioactive isotopes are formed such as carbon14.

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 Cosmic rays are also composed of high energy photons, and not
all are prevented from reaching the earth's surface. It makes sense
that the higher you are in altitude, the more you are exposed to
cosmic radiation. In fact, the average amount of exposure to
cosmic radiation that a person gets in the Unites States roughly
doubles for every 6,000 foot increase in elevation.

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The highest mountain in the continental United States is 14,495

feet. It is not likely that very many people will ever find their
way to its summit, but what mode of transportation often brings
us to elevations greater than this? The answer is flying. Flying
can indeed add a few extra units of exposure to one's daily
exposure. Of course, the amount of extra exposure you get
depends on how high the plane flies and how long you are in the
air.

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Nuclear Radiation from Human

Activities

Although radioisotopes occur naturally in the environment, activities of humans

have brought this radiation closer to us all. For examples, the bricks, stones,
cements and drywalls that we use for the building of our homes, schools, offices
frequently contain uranium ores and are thus sources of radon.

The human production of tobacco products introduces another way for us to get
exposure to radiation. Smokers recieve a dose of radiation from polonium-210
which is naturally present in tobacco. Smokers also recieve an additional dose of
radiation from the decay product of radon gas, polonium-218. Polonium-218 clings
to aerosols such as tobacco smoke, and eventually winds up in the lungs. Once in
the lungs, polonium decays by alpha particle emission and in the process may
damage cells.

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Although this does not contribute radiation on a daily basis, the medical field has
several ways of causing exposure to an individual. This exposure results from the
attempt to diagnose fractures or cavities using x-rays, or to diagnose or treat cancer
using injected radioisotopes. Patients are exposed to nuclear radiation in the
diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Additionally, radiologists routinely use
radioisotopes of technetium or thorium to diagnose heart disease.

Depending on one's occupation, the risk of exposure can be greater that that of the
average person. These higher risk occupations include underground miners,
radiologists, medical technologists, nuclear plant operators, research scientists and
pilots.

Is This Exposure Dangerous?

Any amount of radiation can be dangerous because of the
potential effect that it has on living cells. Radiation can
disrupt normal chemical processes of the cells, causing them
to grow abnormally or to die. Cells that are altered by the
radiation may go on to produce more abnormal cells - a
process that could eventually lead to cancer.

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At low doses, such as have been described here, cells are

able to repair any damage rapidly. Any cells that die due to
exposure can be replaced by the body. If one receives a very
high dose, unlike any exposure mentioned here, the cells
may not be able to be replaced fast enough and tissues or
organs may fail to function properly.

Modern Use Of Radio Isotopes

Smoke Detector and Americium 241

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Modern Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Smoke Detectors and Americium-241

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How many of us have smoke detectors in our house?

Chances are that a great number of homes have had
one or more of these devices installed as an early
warning system in case of fire. What most consumers
don't know is that many of these units contain a small
amount of americium-241. By utilizing the
radioactive properties of this material, smoke from a
fire can be detected at a very early stage. This early
warning capability has saved many lives. In fact,
studies have shown that 80% of fire injuries and 80%
of fire fatalities occur in homes without smoke
detectors.

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Radio Isotop In Agriculuture

Radioisotopes can be used to help understand chemical and
biological processes in plants. This is true for two reasons:

1. radioisotopes are chemically identical with other isotopes

of the same element and will be substituted in chemical
reactions.

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2. radioactive forms of the element can be easily detected

with a Geiger counter or other such device.
Example:
A solution of phosphate, containing radioactive phosphorus-32, is injected into
the root system of a plant. Since phosphorus-32 behaves indentically to that of
phosphorus-31, the more common and non-radioactive form of the element, it is
used by the plant in the same way. A Geiger counter is then used to detect the
movement of the radioactive phosphorus-32 throughout the plant. This
information helps scientists understand the detailed mechanism of how plants
utilized phosphorus to grow and reproduce.

Modern Uses of Radioactive Isotopes

Agricultural Applications - radioactive tracers

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 Radioisotopes can be used to help understand chemical and

biological processes in plants. This is true for two reasons:
1)radioisotopes are chemically identical with other isotopes of
the same element and will be substituted in chemical reactions
and 2)radioactive forms of the element can be easily detected
with a Geiger counter or other such device.

Example:
A solution of phosphate, containing radioactive phosphorus-32, is
injected into the root system of a plant. Since phosphorus-32
behaves indentically to that of phosphorus-31, the more common
and non-radioactive form of the element, it is used by the plant in
the same way. A Geiger counter is then used to detect the
movement of the radioactive phosphorus-32 throughout the plant.
This information helps scientists understand the detailed
mechanism of how plants utilized phosphorus to grow and
reproduce.

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Modern Uses of Radioactive

Isotopes Food Irradiation

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Food irradiated by exposing it to the gamma rays of a

radioisotope -- one that is widely used is cobalt-60. The energy
from the gamma ray passing through the food is enough to
destroy many disease-causing bacteria as well as those that cause
food to spoil, but is not strong enough to change the quality,
flavor or texture of the food. It is important to keep in mind that
the food never comes in contact with the radioisotope and is
never at risk of becoming radioactive.

Some meats are irradiated. Pork, for example, is irradiated to

control the trichina parasite that resides in the muscle tissue of
some pigs. Poultry is irradiated to eliminate the chance of
foodborne illness due to bacterial contamination

Irradiation of certain foods also have additional benefits. Since

the energy passing through the food can disrupt cellular processes
(this is the mechanism for destroying microorganisms) it also can
halt the cellular processes that lead to the sprouting or ripening of
foods. Potatoes and onions are irradiated to retard their sprouting.
Fruits and vegetables are irradiated to slow down the ripening
process. In this way, delicate fruits won't reach their peak ripeness
before they arrive at the supermarket.

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Modern Uses of Radioactive

Isotopes Archaeological Dating

Significant progress has been made in this field of study

since the discovery of radioactivity and its properties.
One application is carbon-14 dating. Recalling that all
biologic organisms contain a given concentration of
carbon-14, we can use this information to help solve
questions about when the organism died. It works like
this..when an organism dies it has a specific ratio by
mass of carbon-14 to carbon-12 incorporated in the
cells of it's body. (The same ratio as in the atmosphere.)
At the moment of death, no new carbon-14 containing
molecules are metabolized, therefore the ratio is at a
maximum. After death, the carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio
begins to decrease because carbon-14 is decaying away
at a constant and predictable rate. Remembering that
the half-life of carbon-14 is 5700 years, then after 5700
years half as much carbon-14 remains within the
organism.

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The Shroud of Turin

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The Shroud of Turin is a linen cloth over 4 m long. It bears a

faint, straw-colored image of an adult male of average build who
had apparently been crucified. Reliable records of the shroud
date to about 1350, but for these past 600 years it has been
alleged to be the burial shroud of Jesus Christ. Numerous
chemical and other tests have been done on tiny fragments of the
shroud in recent years. The general conclusion has been that the
image was not painted on the cloth by any traditional method,
but no one could say exactly how the image had been created.
Recent advances in radiochemical dating methods, however, led
to a new effort in 19871988 to estimate the age of the cloth.
Using radioactive 14C, the flax from which the linen was made
was shown to have been grown between 1260 and 1390 A.D.
There is no chance that the cloth was made at the time of Christ.

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Modern Uses of Radioactive

Isotopes Medical Uses

Bone imaging is an extremely important use of

radioactive properties. Supposed a runner is
experiencing severe pain in both shins. The doctor
decides to check to see if either tibia has a stress
fracture. The runner is given an injection containing
99Tcm. This radioisotope is a gamma ray producer
with a half-life of 6 hours.

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After a several hour wait, the patient undergoes

bone imaging. At this point, any area of the body
that is undergoing unusually high bone growth will
show up as a stronger image on the screen.
Therefore if the runner has a stress fracture, it will
show up on the bone imaging scan.

This technique is also good for arthritic patients,

bone abnormalities and various other diagnostics.

A whole-body scan.Phosphate with technetium-99m was injected into the blood and then absorbed by the bones and kidneys.
was taken three hours after injection. (SUNY Upstate Medi cal Center)

Nuclear Energy

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Pengendalian Reaktor Nukli

Bila jumlah netron dari

waktu ke waktu
bertambah maka reaktor
dalam keadaan super
kritis (Daya meningkat)
Bila jumlah netron dari
waktu ke waktu stabil
maka reaktor dalam
keadaan kritis
Bila jumlah netron dari
waktu ke waktu menurun
maka reaktor dalam
keadaan sub kritis (daya
menurun)

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Evolusi Reaktor Nuklir

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Reaktor Tipe Chernobyl dan perbandingannya

dengan PLTN standar negara-negara barat

PLTN Chernobyl dari tipe RBMK 1000 merupakan tipe

kanal dengan moderator grafit dan pendingin air
Memiliki koefisien balikan reaktivitas untuk air/pendingin
yang bernilai positif
Menghasilkan plutonium yang cocok untuk senjata nuklir
Sekitar 15 PLTN Rusian terdiri dari tipe ini
Tak memiliki pengungkung
Pada beberapa kasus khusus injeksi batang kendali ke
dalam reaktor justru menimbulkan feedback/umpan balik
positif pada reaktivitas sehingga memicu kenaikan daya
PLTN tersebut
Refueling dapat berjalan sambil reaktor beroperasi
Berukuran lebih besar PLTN standar barat, ada problem
osilasi dan instabilitas dalam pengendalian

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Tentang PLTN Tipe Chernobyl

The Soviet-designed RBMK (reaktor

bolshoy moshchnosty kanalny, highpower channel reactor) is a pressurised
water-cooled reactor with individual fuel
channels and using graphite as its
moderator. It is very different from most
other power reactor designs as it
derived from a design principally for
plutonium production and was
intended and used in Russia for both
plutonium and power production.

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Proses Kecelakaan Chernobyl

Saat it 26 April 1986 Para teknisi sedang

akan mengetes turbin generator unit IV.
Tujuannya mengetes apakah generator
dapat menghasilkan listrik untuk sistem
pendingin teras darurat saat ada black out
accident
Saat reaktor diturunkan dayanya reaktor
shutdown dan operator memaksakan untuk
mengoperasikan kembali reaktor dengan
menarik hampir semua batang kendali

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Selanjutnya lihat file referensi

Pembelajaran penting dari kecelakaan

TMI II dan Chernobyl

Margin keselamatan harus dibuat sedemikian

sehingga sekalipun ada kesalahan beruntun
(termasuk kemungkinan sabotase) tidak memicu
kecelakaan fatal yang mengancam integritas teras
reaktor
Semua komponen balikan reaktivitas (reactivity
feedback harus dirancang negatif)
Pengungkung standar barat mutlak diperlukan.
Pada kecelakaan TMI II pengungkung ini yang
menahan bahan radioaktif sehingga radiasi ke
lingkungan relatif kecil dan tak ada korban jiwa
Tidak boleh ada ekses reaktivitas yang terlalu
besar, harus diatasi dengan kontrol reaktivitas
pasif (burnable poison)

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Pembelajaran penting dari kecelakaan

TMI II dan Chernobyl (2)

Waktu pemeliharaan merupakan waktu kritis yang

perlu pengawasan lebih ketat dari badan regulasi
Perlu akses ke masyarakat yang relevan tentang
keadaan PLTN setiap saat
Masyarakat harus diberi tahu segala kemungkinan
resiko yang ada serta metoda mitigasinya
Aplikasi sistem keselamatan pasif/inheren sangat
relevan

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Perkembangan PLTN pasca kecelakaan chernobyl

sampai saat ini

Menuju eleminasi PLTN tipe Chernobyl, namun di tahap

awal ada perbaikan mendasar untuk dapat dioperasikan
sampai ada penggantinya
Penghapusan margin reaktivitas yang mengandalkan
batang kendali beralih ke sistem burnable poison
(gadolinium, boron, dll)
Aplikasi sistem keselamatan pasif/inheren
Munculnya reaktor generasi IV yang sekaligus
mengatasi berbagai kendala PLTN yang ada saat ini:
menuju inherent safety, limbah minimum dengan daur
ulang, penggunaan uranium alam secara efisien, nonproliferasi, ekonomis

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KECELAKAAN BESAR Sistem energi di Dunia

Place

year number killed comments

Machhu II, India

1979 2500

hydro-electric dam failure

Hirakud, India

1980 1000

hydro-electric dam failure

Ortuella, Spain

1980 70

gas explosion

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Donbass, Ukraine 1980 68

coal mine methane explosion

Israel

gas explosion

1982 89

Guavio, Colombia 1983 160

hydro-electric dam failure

Nile R, Egypt

1983 317

LPG explosion

Cubatao, Brazil

1984 508

oil fire

Mexico City

1984 498

LPG explosion

Tbilisi, Russia

1984 100

gas explosion

northern Taiwan

1984 314

3 coal mine accidents

List of MAJOR ACCIDENT IN ENERGY SYSTEM

Chernobyl, Ukraine

1986

31+

nuclear reactor accident

Piper Alpha, North Sea

1988

167

explosion of offshore oil platform

Asha-ufa, Siberia

1989

600

LPG pipeline leak and fire

Dobrnja, Yugoslavia

1990

178

coal mine

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Hongton, Shanxi, China

1991

147

coal mine

Belci, Romania

1991

116

hydro-electric dam failure

Kozlu, Turkey

1992

272

coal mine methane explosion

Cuenca, Equador

1993

200

coal mine

Durunkha, Egypt

1994

580

fuel depot hit by lightning

Seoul, S.Korea

1994

500

oil fire

Minanao, Philippines

1994

90

coal mine

Dhanbad, India

1995

70

coal mine

Taegu, S.Korea

1995

100

oil & gas explosion

List of MAJOR ACCIDENT IN ENERGY SYSTEM

Spitsbergen, Russia

1996

141

coal mine

Henan, China

1996

84

coal mine methane explosion

Datong, China

1996

114

coal mine methane explosion

Henan, China

1997

89

coal mine methane explosion

Fushun, China

1997

68

coal mine methane explosion

Kuzbass, Russia/Siberia

1997

67

coal mine methane explosion

Huainan, China

1997

89

coal mine methane explosion

Huainan, China

1997

45

coal mine methane explosion

Guizhou, China

1997

43

coal mine methane explosion

Donbass, Ukraine

1998

63

coal mine methane explosion

Liaoning, China

1998

71

coal mine methane explosion

Warri, Nigeria

1998

500+

oil pipeline leak and fire

Donbass, Ukraine

1999

50+

coal mine methane explosion

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List of MAJOR ACCIDENT IN ENERGY SYSTEM

Donbass, Ukraine

2000

80

coal mine methane explosion

Shanxi, China

2000

40

coal mine methane explosion

Muchonggou, Guizhou, China

2000

162 coal mine methane explosion

Jixi, China

2002

115 coal mine methane explosion

Gaoqiao, SW China

2003

234 gas well blowout with H2S

Kuzbass, Russia

2004

47

coal mine methane explosion

Donbass, Ukraine

2004

36

coal mine methane explosion

Henan, China

2004

148 coal mine methane explosion

Chenjiashan, Shaanxi, China

2004

166 coal mine methane explosion

Sunjiawan, Liaoning, China

2005

215 coal mine methane explosion

Fukang, Xinjiang, China

2005

83

Xingning, Guangdong, China

2005

102 coal mine flooding

Dongfeng, Heilongjiang, China

2005

164 coal mine methane explosion

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coal mine methane explosion

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Nuklida
Simbol
A
Z

XN

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A=N+Z
A = bilangan massa
N = bilangan neutron
Z = nomor atom
X = nuklida

Jenis jenis nuklida

berdasarkan nilai Z & N

Z sama ISOTOP
A sama, N&Z berbeda ISOBAR
N sama, Z&A berbeda ISOTON
Z sama, tingkat energi berbeda
ISOMER

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Jenis jenis nuklida

berdasarkan kestabilan Inti

(a. Inti stabil)

Inti stabil :
Stable nuclides are those which are permanent
(or eternally stable). Their proton and neutron
remain unchained for ever, no matter how the
electron in the outer sphere may change in
location even in their number (via chemical
reaction). The nucleus can only be change
under severe condition of bombardement by
external radiation of high energy (~1-10 Mev).

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Jenis jenis nuklida

Berdasarkan kestabilan Inti
(b. Inti tidak stabil/Radioaktif)

Inti Radioaktif :
Are intrinsically unstable and undergo
spontaneous change with time forming
new nuclides by one or the the other
way of rearranging or losing some of
their protons and neutrons.

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What are the factor

leading to nuclear
Personalstability
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?

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