UNIT 3 DC CIRCUITS

DC Circuits

Structure
3.1

Introduction
Objectives

3.2

Kirchhoffs Laws
3.2.1

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

3.2.2

Kirchhoffs Current Law

3.3

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

3.4

Network Theorems
3.4.1

Thevenins Theorem

3.4.2

Nortons Theorem

3.5

Source Transformation

3.6

Summary

3.7

Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoffs is best known for his statement of two more
important basic laws governing the performance of a circuit. In his honour these laws are
named as Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL). In this
unit, you will get understanding of fundamental details and understanding of these laws.
Analysis of circuits using Kirchhoffs voltage current laws no doubt gives a solution
directly, but in the circuits having more loops, it becomes difficult to apply these laws
due to large number of variables (voltages and currents) provides large type sets of
equations to solves. In such cases Nodal and Mesh analysis provides elegant way of
analysing the circuits by reducing the number of unknown variables.
In this unit, we shall also study some important fundamental theorems of circuit theory
with illustrative examples to explain the applicability of these theorems in dc circuits.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to

write the voltage and current equations using Kirchhoffs voltage and
current laws and solve circuit problems,

calculate the current, voltage, power in circuit using Nodal and Mesh
analysis,

apply Thevenins theorem and Nortons Theorem to reduce complex circuit,

analyse the current by determining the values of electrical quantities using

some important network theorems, and

describe some transformation techniques to convert a voltage source to a

current source and vice-versa.

3.2 KIRCHHOFFS LAWS

In 1845, Kirchhoff, at the age of 23, published his paper regarding two basic law for
solving the electrical circuits. These laws became basis for the development of the
network analysis or circuit theory.
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Electrical

3.2.1 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

This law is based on the law of conservation of energy. According to this, electrical
energy supplied to any circuit (closed loop) is equal to the energy consumed by its
passive elements.
Since this law relates the voltage in a closed circuit of an electrical network it is known
as Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) or Kirchhoffs Mesh Law.
Kirchhoffs voltage law states that in a closed electric circuit the algebraic sum of emfs
and voltage drops is zero.
By convention, the emfs or voltage rises are taken to be positive and voltage drops are
taken to be negative.
B

R1

R2

V1

V2

C
I1

E1
A

E2

D
Figure 3.1 : Closed Loop

In the closed circuit ABCDA, shown in Figure 3.1, applying Kirchhoffs voltage law, we
have
E1 V1 V2 E2 = 0
E1 IR1 IR2 E2 = 0
E1 E2 = IR1 + IR2

Sum of voltage rises = Sum of voltage drop

or

Energy supplied = Energy consumed.

3.2.2 Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoffs current law states that algebraic sum of all the current meeting at a point or
junction is zero. Since this law relates the current flowing through the circuit, it is known
as Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL).
In Figure 3.2, applying KCL to the junction, we have
I1 + I 3 + I 4 I 2 I 5 = 0

or,

I1 + I 3 + I 4 = I 2 + I 5
I4

I5
I1
O

I3

I2

Figure 3.2 : KCL at Junction

Current entering the junction = Current leaving the junction.

KCL also indicates the law of conservation of charges and can also be states as at any
node of a circuit, at every instant of time, the sum of incoming currents is equal to the
sum of outgoing currents.
Application of Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Kirchhoffs voltage law is used to determine the value of current in the multi loop
circuit. For this purpose, Maxwells loop method (Mesh Analysis) is used.
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DC Circuits

Application of Kirchhoffs Current Law

Kirchhoffs current law is used to determine the voltages at different nodes or
junctions of the circuit. For this purpose, Maxwells node method (Nodal
Analysis) is used.
These two methods are being explained in next section with the help of an
example.

3.3 NODAL AND MESH ANALYSIS

Kirchhoffs voltage law is used to determine the value of current in the multi loop circuit.
For this purpose, Maxwells loop method is used as explained by an example given
below.
Figure 3.3 shows the circuit having two loops and one voltage source in first loop.
R1

R3

R2

R4

I1

I2

Figure 3.3 : Maxwells Loop Method

Assume, two loop currents flowing in the directions shown in Figure 3.3. Now we can
write the KVL equations for each loop.
KVL Equation for First Loop

Voltage rise = Voltage drops

V = R1 I1 + R2 ( I1 I 2 )
= ( R1 + R2 ) I1 R2 I 2

. . . (i)

KVL Equation in Second Loop

0 = R2 ( I 2 I1 ) + R3 I 2 + R4 I 2
= R2 I1 + ( R2 + R3 + R4 ) I 2

...

(ii)
After solving equations, we can find two loop currents I1 and I2.
Voltage division rule is also one of the applications of KVL.
Application of Kirchhoffs Current Law
Kirchhoffs current law is used to determine the voltages at different nodes or
junctions of the circuit. For this purpose, Maxwells node method is used. This
method is being explained with the help of an example given below.
Again consider the same circuit of Figure 3.3.
For Applying Maxwells Node Method
Assume voltage V1 at node as shown in Figure 3.4 and one reference node with
zero voltage.
R1

V1
I1

R3

I2
R2

I3
R4

Reference Node
(Voltage = 0)

61

Figure 3.4 : Maxwells Node Method

Electrical

Assume three currents I1, I2 and I3 leaving the node V1, then apply KCL :
Algebraic of currents at any node is zero.
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0

V1 V V1
V1
+
+
=0
R1
R2 R3 + R4
1
1
1 V
+
V1 +
=
R1 R2 R3 + R4 R1
From this equation node, voltage V1 can be obtained and then current passing
through different elements can be determined.
For example, current through R1 is

I1 =

V1 V
R1

If value of I1 comes negative, this means actual direction of current I1 will be

opposite to the assumed direction as shown in Figure 3.4.
Current division rule is also one of the applications of KCL.
Example 3.1
Find currents I1 and I2 in the given circuits by applying KVL.

Figure 3.5

Solution
We apply KVL for first loop :
10 = 1 I1 + 1 ( I1 I 2 )
10 = 2 I1 I 2

. . . (i)

KVL for second loop :

1 ( I 2 I1 ) + 4 I 2 = 0
5 I 2 I1 = 0

I2 =

I1
= 0.2 I1
5

Put the value of I2 in Eq. (i)

10 = 2 I1 0.2 I1 = 1.8 I1

62

I1 = 5.55 Amp

. . . (ii)
. . . (iii)

From Eq. (iii), I 2 = 1.11 Amp .

DC Circuits

Example 3.2
Find the node voltage V and then current passing through each element by using
KCL.

Figure 3.6

Solution
Apply KCL at the node whose voltage is V.
Algebraic summation of all the current meeting at node is zero.

V 10 V V
+ + =0
1
1 4

V 1 + 1 +

1
= 10
4

2.25 V = 10
V = 4.44 volt.
Now we have to find current through each element.

Figure 3.7

I=

10 V
= 10 4.44 = 5.56 Amp
1

I1 =

V
= 4.44 Amp
1

I2 =

V
= 1.11 Amp .
4

SAQ 1
(a)

In the given DC circuit, determine the currents I1 and I2 by using KVL.

63

Figure for SAQ 1(a)

Electrical

(b)

In the following circuit, find the node voltage V and then determine the
current passing through each element (use KCL).

Figure for SAQ 1(b)

(c)

Find the current passing through 2 resistor by using Maxwell loop

method.
2

25V

10V

Figure for SAQ 1(c)

(d)

Find the current passing through 1 resistor by using KVL (by Maxwell
loop method)

Figure for SAQ 1(d)

(e)

Solve the above problem (SAQ 1(d)) by using KCL (apply node method).

3.4 NETWORK THEOREMS

We have already studied Kirchhoffs laws, Nodal and Mesh analysis in the previous
sections of this unit, these general methods of network analysis tend to become time
consuming and laborious in the case of large and complex networks. In such cases some
special techniques are used to solve complicated networks to reduce the quantum of
labour and time involved in solution of circuits. Such special techniques are called as
network theorems and these techniques are applicable to a useful and fairly wide class of
networks, and their conclusions are simple.

64

3.4.1 Thevenins Theorem

DC Circuits

This is the most extensively used theorem in circuit theory. Any of the circuit we have
been working with can be viewed as a two terminal network thevenins theorem provides
us with an easy way to develop an equivalent circuit of a two terminal network.
Applications
Sometimes it is required to study the variation of current or voltage in a particular
branch by varying the resistance of that branch while remaining network remains
the same, e.g. designing of electronic circuit. At such places thevenins theorem is
quite suitable.
Statement
This theorem states that any two terminal network containing energy sources and
resistors can be replaced by on equivalent network consisting of a single source of
emf and a series resistor, Rth. This emf Eth, is equal to potential difference between
the terminals of the network, when the resistor, R, is removed. The resistance of
the series resistor, Rth, is equal to the equivalent resistance of the network
measured between the terminals, with the resistor, R, removed and all energy
sources eliminated (but not their internal resistances) here, ideal independent
voltage sources is replaced by short circuit and ideal independent current sources
by open circuit.
Equivalent circuits developed by thevenins theorem are often called as thevenins
equivalent circuits.
We can explain thevenins theorem by applying it to a two-terminal network using
following steps :

Figure 3.8 : A Two Terminal Network

Here by applying thevenins theorem you will learn to determine the thevenins
equivalent circuit across the terminals where load RL is connected.
Step 1
Create open circuit between the terminals for this remove RL in which current is to
be determined.
Step 2
Determine the open circuit voltage (Vth) between the terminals.
So, voltage across R3 = i R3
(Voltage across R2 will be zero as no current is following through it due to open
circuit)

i=

E
r + R1 + R3

E
Vth = Voltage across R3 only =
R3
r + R1 + R3

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Electrical

Figure 3.9 : Network to Find Open Circuit Voltage

Step 3
Determine the internal resistance of the equivalent circuit (Rth) after replacing all
sources in the original circuit with resistances equal to their internal resistances.
When the original sources are viewed as ideal sources, voltage sources are
replaced by short circuit and current sources are replaced by open circuit. After
this total resistance between the terminals is calculate or measured.

Figure 3.10 : Network to Find Rth

Rth =

(r + R1 ) . R3
+ R2
r + R1 + R3

Step 4
Replace the entire network by the Vth and Rth across the terminals (in which Rth is
in series with Vth) or make thevenins equivalent circuit across the terminals.

Figure 3.11 : Thevenins Equivalent Network

Step 5
Connect load resistance RL back to its terminals from where it was removed.

Figure 3.12 : Thevenins Equivalent after Connecting RL

Step 6
Determine the current flowing through the load RL.

I=
Example 3.3
66

Vth
Rth + RL

Use thevenins theorem to find the following for the rework shown in figure below
(a)

the equivalent emf of the network when view from terminals a and b,

(b)

the equivalent resistance of the network when looked into from

terminal a and b, and

(c)

current in the load resistance RL of 30 .

DC Circuits

Figure 3.13

Solution
(a)

For finding Vth or open circuit voltage (Voc) across the terminals remove
RL = 30 .

Figure 3.14

Now, voltage across terminals ab = voltage across 24

Voc = Vth = 24 i
i = current through 24 =

(b)

Vth = 24 1.5 = 36 V

48
= 1.5 Amp.
24 + 8 + 2
(Ans.)

For equivalent resistance Rth

Figure 3.15

There are two parallel paths between terminal a and b

(c)

Rth =

24 (6 + 2)
= 6
24 + (6 + 2)

(Ans.)

For finding current in load resistance RL of 30 .

Thevenins equivalent circuit is
67

Electrical

I=

Vth
36
=
= 1 Amp
Rth + RL 6 + 30

(Ans.)

Figure 3.16

Example 3.4
Find current through the 5 resistor.

Figure 3.17

Solution
Remove 5 resistor through which current is to be determined (say terminal a and
b).

Figure 3.18

Open circuit voltage across ab is

Voc = Vth = 10

To obtain thevenins resistance across the open circuited terminal, the sources are
eliminated as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.19

It is evident from figure that Rth = 0.

Thus, current through the 5 resistor is given by
68

I=

DC Circuits

Vth
10
=
= 2 Amp
Rth + 5 5

(Ans.)

Figure 3.20

SAQ 2
Find current through the 0.2 resistor in the figure using thevenins theorem.

IL =

VTH
1.7
=
= 1.7 A
RTH + RL 0.9 + 0.1
A

0.5
5A

B
0.1
0.4

2A

Figure for SAQ 2

3.4.2 Nortons Theorem

Like Thevenins theorem, Nortons theorem is also frequently used in electronic circuits.
As discussed earlier Thevenins theorem is used to simplify a network into a constant
voltage source and a series resistance, Nortons theorem can be used to simplify a
network into a constant current source and a parallel resistance.
In circuit analysis interchange of voltage sources and current sources by use of
Thevenins and Nortons theorem is sometimes very useful. (This source transformation
will be discussed in next section of this unit).
Statement
This theorem states that any two terminal linear network containing energy sources
and resistors and can be replaced by an equivalent network consisting of a single
current source (Isc or IN) and a equivalent parallel resistor (RN).
Where IN or Isc is the short circuit current between the two terminals when these
terminals are short circuited and RN is the equivalent resistance as seen from the
terminals.
This parallel resistance is the same as the Thevenins equivalent resistance as
defined earlier and we can explain Nortons theorem by applying it to a two
terminal network using following steps :

69

Electrical
Figure 3.21 : A Two Terminal Network

Here by applying Nortons theorem, you will learn to determine the Nortons
equivalent circuit across the terminal where load RL is connected.
Step 1
Short circuit the terminals across which the load resistor is connected. Now
calculate the current which would flow between them. This current is called
short circuit current (Isc) or Nortons current (IN).

Figure 3.22 : Network to Find Isc or IN

Here,

I N = I sc =

E
R1

Step 2
Determine RN as seen from the terminal. For calculating RN you have to
redraw the network by replacing each voltage source by short circuit in
series with its internal resistance if any and each current source by open
circuit in parallel with its internal resistance

Method for
calculating RN in
same as for
calculating Rth is
Thevenins theorem.

So, after redrawing the network

RN =

R1 ( R2 + R3 )
R1 + R2 + R3

Figure 3.23 : Network to Find Equivalent Resistance

Step 3
Draw Nortons equivalent circuit across the load terminals by replacing the
entire network by IN or Isc and RN in parallel with it.

Figure 3.24 : Nortons Equivalent Circuit

Step 4
Connect the load back to its terminal and find current (IL) through it
70

IL = IN

RN
RN RL

DC Circuits

Figure 3.25 : Nortons Equivalent Circuit after Connecting RL

Example 3.5
Find the current through 15 resistance of the circuit shown in figure using
Nortons theorem.

Figure 3.26

Solution
Remove 15 resistance through which current is to be determined and short
circuit the terminals from where it has removed (say a, b)

I N = I sc =

30
= 3.75
8

Figure 3.27

Now to find RN, replace battery of 30 V by short circuit resistance. Now network
as seen from the terminals a and b is

RN =

8 (10 + 14)
=6
8 (10 + 14)

71

Figure 3.28

Electrical

Nortons equivalent circuit is shown in figure is

Figure 3.29

Now, current through 12 resistance using current division rule is

I = 3.75

6
= 1.0714 Amp
6 + 15

SAQ 3
Determine the voltage across 100 resistor in the circuit given below by Nortons
theorem.

Figure for SAQ 3

SAQ 4
Fill in the blanks :

72

(a)

The circuit where parameters change with voltage or current is called

_________________ circuit.

(b)

The circuit where parameters are constant is called a __________

circuit.

(c)

An ideal constant voltage source has _____________ internal

resistance whereas a constant current source has ______________
internal resistance.

(d)

Total resistance of a parallel circuit is _____________ the smallest

branch resistance.

(e)

Maxwells loop (or Mesh) current method is best suited when energy
sources are ________________ sources rather than ________
sources.

3.5 SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS

DC Circuits

The voltage and current sources are mutually transferrable. Any practical voltage source
(or simply, a voltage source) consists of an ideal voltage source in series with an internal
resistance (for ideal source, this impedance is being zero and the output becomes
independent of the load current).
Any practical current source is demonstrated by ideal current source in parallel with their
internal resistance. Let Figures 3.30(a) and (b) demonstrates their equivalence.

(a) A Practical Voltage Source

(b) A Practical Current Source

Figure 3.30 : Source Transformation

Assume some load resistance rL connected at terminal a-b of both voltage and current
source.

I La =

V
ra + rL

I Lb = I

rb
rb + rL

Two sources to become identical they should deliver same current to load

rb
V
=I
ra + rL
rb + rL
However, for the current source, the terminal voltage at a-b would be I rb, a-b being open
V = I rb

i.e.
Now, we finally get

ra + rL = rb + rL
ra = rb

i.e.

So, for any practical voltage source, if ideal voltage be V and internal resistance be ra, the
voltage source can be replaced by a current source I with the internal resistance in
parallel to the current source.
Example 3.6
Convert the following current source to equivalent voltage source.

Figure 3.31

73

Electrical

Solution
For equivalent voltage source V is given by

V =I r
= 10 A 10
= 100 V
Series resistance for voltage source will be same as parallel resistance in case of
current source (that is 10 as given).
So, equivalent voltage source is

Figure 3.32

Example 3.7

Convert voltage source shown in figure to a current source.

Figure 3.33

Solution

Short circuit the voltage source to find the constant current

I SC =

Voc 24 V
=
=4A
Rs
6

Figure 3.34

The Rs of the two sources will be the same. So, the constant current is 4 A and
current source is as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.35

74

DC Circuits

3.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied about methods of network analysis which are general in
nature such as KCL, KVL, Nodal and Mesh analysis. These general methods may be
used for any network and enables us to find current and voltages in all branches of the
network. However in some network problems it is required only restricted analysis such
as to find the current, voltage and power in a load resistance across given two terminals
of a network. For such restricted analysis the desired results may be obtained more
conveniently using certain network theorems. In this unit, you have treated with some of
the important network theorems like Thevenins and Nortons theorem.
Here you have also learnt source transformation techniques.
Solved examples along with SAQs related to each topic have been given for better
understanding.

3.7 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1

(a)

Figure for Answers to SAQ 1(a)

By Maxwell loop method

Apply KVL for loop 1 :
5 = I1 + 3 ( I1 I 2 )

or,

5 = 4 I1 3I 2

. . . (i)

KVL for loop 2 :

0 = 3 ( I 2 I1 ) + 2 I 2 + 4 I 2
0 = 3I1 + 9 I 2

. . . (ii)

I1 = 3I 2

. . . (iii)

Put Eq. (iii) in Eq. (i) to find value of I2

5 = 4 (3I 2 ) 3I 2
= 12 I 2 3I 2
= 9I 2

So,

I2 =

5
Amp = 0.555 Amp
9

From Eq. (iii)

5 5
I1 = 3 = Amp
9 3
or,

I1 = 1.667 Amp

75

Electrical

(b)

Figure for Answers to SAQ 1(b)

KCL at node :

V 5 V V
+ + =0
1
1 6

V 1 + 1 + = 5
6

V = 3.33 volt
(c)

Figure for Answers to SAQ 1(c)

For loop 1

25 = 5 I1 + 2 I1 + 5( I1 I 2 ) 25 = 12 I1 5 I 2

. . . (i)

For loop 2

10 = I 2 + 5( I 2 I1 ) 10 = 5 I1 + 6 I 2

. . . (ii)

Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii)

25 5
10 6
I2 =
= 2.128 Amp
12 5
5 6
(d)

Assume loop currents I1, I2, I3 as shown in figure.

Figure for Answers to SAQ 1(d)

Here current passing through 1 is I1

KVL equations :

76

Loop 1 : 15 = 6 ( I1 + I 2 ) + I1

. . . (i)

Loop 2 : 15 = 6( I1 + I 2 ) + 10 + 6( I 2 I 3 )

. . . (ii)

Loop 3 : 5 = 6 ( I 3 I 2 ) + 2 I 3

. . . (iii)

DC Circuits

After solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

I1 = 6.364 Amp (current passing through 1 resistor).
(e)

(a)

(b)
Figure for Answers to SAQ 1(e)

Apply source transformation

Now, network after assuming node voltages V1, V2, V3
Here we have to use super node analysis V2 and V3 from the super node.
Apply KCL at node 1 :

V1 V1 V2
+
=5
3
3

1
1 1
+ V1 V2 = 5 2V1 V2 = 15
3
3 3

. . . (i)

KCL at node 2 and 3 (super node)

V2 V1 V2 V3 V3 5
+
+
+
=0
3
1
6
2
0.333 V1 + 1.333 V2 + 0.666 V3 = 2.5

. . . (ii)

And the voltage source is equal to V2 V3

V2 V3 = 10 V
V3 = V2 10

. . . (iii)

After solving Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

V1 = 10.682 V
V2 = 6.3648 V
V3 = 3.635 V
Current through 1 , I =

V2
= 6.3648 Amp
1

SAQ 2
Step 1 : The Thevenins Equivalent Circuit is,

Figure for Answers to SAQ 2 (Step 1)

77

Electrical

Step 2 : From the Given Circuit, Disconnect RL = 0.1 and find VTH

Figure for Answers to SAQ 2 (Step 2)

Circuit to find VTH

V AB 0.4 2 + 0.5 5 = 0
VAB = 0.5 5 0.4 2 = 1.7 V

or

B is negative polarity and A is positive polarity.

Step 3 : To Calculate RTH

From the given circuit, open the current source.

The resultant circuit is,

Figure for Answers to SAQ 2 (Step 3)

RTH = R AB = 0.5 + 0.4 = 0.9

Step 4 : Now Thevenins Equivalent is

Figure for Answers to SAQ 2 (Step 4)

Step 5 : Connect Load Resistance of 0.1 Across AB

Figure for Answers to SAQ 2 (Step 5)

IL =
78

VTH
1.7
=
= 1.7 A
RTH + RL 0.9 + 0.1

DC Circuits

SAQ 3

To find Isc, short circuit the terminal A and B and find current through it
I SC = 0.2 + 1 = 1.2 A

To find RN (= RTH)
Disconnect RL = 100 between A and B.

Figure for Answers to SAQ 3

Draw Nortons equivalent circuit and connect the 100 across A-B terminal

Figure for Answers to SAQ 3

IL =
=

I SC RN
RN + RL

1.2 50
= 0.4 A
50 + 100

VL = I L RL

= 0.4 100 = 40 V
SAQ 4

(a)

Non-linear

(b)

Linear

(c)

Zero, infinite

(d)

Less than

(e)

Voltage, current

79