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Marine-derived fungi have been shown in recent years to produce a plethora of new bioactive secondary metabolites, some
of them featuring new carbon frameworks hitherto unprecedented in nature. These compounds are of interest as new lead
structures for medicine as well as for plant protection. The aim of this protocol is to give a detailed description of methods
useful for the isolation and cultivation of fungi associated with various marine organisms (sponges, algae and mangrove
plants) for the extraction, characterization and structure elucidation of biologically active secondary metabolites produced
by these marine-derived endophytic fungi, and for the preliminary evaluation of their pharmacological properties based on
rapid in house screening systems. Some results exemplifying the positive outcomes of the protocol are given at the end.
From sampling in marine environment to completion of the structure elucidation and bioactivity screening, a period of at
least 3 months has to be scheduled.
INTRODUCTION
Terrestrial fungi have for long been known as a rich source of
biologically active secondary metabolites. Since the discovery
of penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, which resulted
in a breakthrough in the treatment of bacterial infections, fungi
have become an important source of drugs for the treatment of a
variety of diseases. Beside other well-known antimicrobial agents
of fungal origin like fusidic acid and griseofulvin1, new semi
synthetic antifungal drugs like anidulafungin (Eraxis), caspafungin (Cancidas) and retapamulin (Altabax) are likewise derived
from fungal metabolites2,3. With the discovery of cyclosporine
isolated from Tolypocladium inflatum in 1971 an important step in
immunopharmacology was taken and improvements in the field
of organ transplantation and treatment of autoimmune diseases
are still in progress, like the introduction of substances such as
the fungal-derived mycophenolic acid (Myfortic) to the market
in 2004 (ref. 2).
Further pharmacologically important fungal metabolites include
antilipidemic drugs collectively known as statins with their parent
compounds mevastatin and lovastatin isolated from Penicillium
citrinum and Aspergillus terreus, respectively. Statins reduce blood
cholesterol levels and are used for the treatment of coronary
diseases2,4.
Fungal metabolites are, however, not only indispensable for
medicine but are also important for plant protection, as demonstrated by the discovery of the strobilurines that were first isolated
from Strobilurus sp. and served as lead compounds for synthetic
fungicidals such as trifloxystrobin (Flint)5.
However, the rediscovery of high numbers of previously
described metabolites has to some extent precluded the study of
traditional terrestrial sources of fungi6 and recently, interest of
natural product chemists and pharmacologists alike has turned
to so far less investigated habitats and ecological niches such as
the oceans. The oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earths
surface and can be considered a soup of essentially all imaginable
types of microbes6,7. Ecological niches, e.g. deep-sea hydrothermal
vents, mangrove forests, algae and sponges provide distinct
habitats for the isolation of specific micro-organisms 8. Marine
protocol
Host organisms
15: 1 week
Small-scale fermentation
in liquid medium
+EtOAc
UltraTurrax
3 Weeks
Homogenization and
extraction
Several min
Cell suspension
6: Purification
on malt agar
6: 2 weeks
7: 2 d
Pure culture
Several min
Filter
7: Taxonomic identification
(by PCR and gene sequencing,
followed by BLAST search)
Filtrate
Several hours
Water phase
8: Each 3
4 weeks
8: Small-scale
fermentation on rice or
in liquid medium for
screening purpose
Based on chemical
screening/bioactivity results in largescale fermentation of promising strains
EtOAc
Evaporate
~1 h per 1 EtOAc
Residue
90% MeOH
+ n-Hexane
911: 13 d
~1 h
8: Large-scale
fermentation
90% MeOH
1214: Fractionation and
isolation of secondary products
n-Hexane
16: Bioassays
(cytotoxicity and antimicrobial activity)
1216: At least
24 weeks
15: Structure elucidation
protocol
Large-scale
fermentation
Mycelium
Several hours
3 Weeks
Fermentation
on rice medium
+EtOAc
Filter
Medium
EtOAc
Several hours
Evaporate
Residue
Several hours
Residue
90% MeOH
+ n-Hexane
90% MeOH
Evaporate
~1 h
per 1 EtOAc
Residue
90% MeOH
+ n-Hexane
n-Hexane
~1 h per 1 EtOAc
90% MeOH
small scale, ~ 1 h
large scale, several hours
90% MeOH
+ n-Hexane
Filter
MeOH extract
~1 h
per 1 MeOH
Overnight + 30 min
EtOAc extract
+MeOH
UltraTurrax
Cell suspension
~1 h
4 6 Weeks
Several hours
n-Hexane
90% MeOH
n-Hexane
Box
1 | IDENTIFICATION OF FUNGI
Q10
Taxonomic identification of the fungal strains is achieved by DNA amplification and sequencing of the fungal ITS region39.
For this purpose, a piece of fungal mycelium (0.5 cm2) is sampled from an agar plate, lyophilized in a freeze dryer and powdered in a
mixer mill after adding a tungsten carbide bead.
DNA isolation is carried out using the DNeasy Plant Mini Kit according to the manufacturers protocol. The procedure includes cell
lysis, digestion of RNA by RNAse A, removing of precipitates and cell debris, DNA shearing, DNA precipitation and purification.
This is followed by DNA amplification using Hot StarTaq Master Mix Kit and the primer pair ITS1 and ITS4 in an iCycler thermocycler.
The PCR product is loaded onto agarose gel (2% agarose in 100 ml TBE buffer, 10 l SybrSafe). After electrophoresis at 70 V for
60 min, the band corresponding to the desired PCR product (~size 550 bp) is removed from the gel slice using the PerfectPrep Gel
Cleanup Kit following the manufacturers protocol.
Pure PCR products are submitted for sequencing together with the primer ITS1 to a commercial service (e.g., SeqLab GmbH,
Goettingen and BMBF, Dsseldorf, Germany) and the base sequence is compared with publicly available databases (GenBank) with
the help of Blast-Algorithmus.
protocol
Box
MATERIALS
REAGENTS
Bacto agar (BD, cat. no. 214010)
Malt extract (Merck, cat. no. 105391)
Artificial sea salt (Sera, cat. no. 05420)
Chloramphenicol (Sigma, cat. no. C0378)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH, Sigma, cat. no. S5881)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl, Sigma, cat. no. 258148)
Yeast extract (Fluka, cat. no. 70161)
Peptone (Merck, cat. no. 111931)
Glucose (Caelo, cat. no. 5247)
Rice (parboiled, any supermarket brand)
Glycerin (Roth, cat. no. 4043)
Penicillin G (Sigma, cat. no. P3032)
Streptomycin (Sigma, cat. no. S6501)
Gentamycin (Serva, cat. no. 22185)
Nystatin (Sigma, cat. no. N4014)
Antimicrobial detergent Melsept SF (B. Braun, cat. no. 18907)
Tungsten carbide bead (Qiagen, cat. no. 69997)
Agarose (Sigma, cat. no. A9414)
TBE buffer (Merck, cat. no. 106177)
DNeasy Plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, cat. no. 69104)
Hot StarTaq Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, cat. no. 203443)
RNAse A (Invitrogen, cat. no. 12091-039)
Primers: ITS1 and ITS4 (Invitrogen; individual order)
SYBR Safe DNA gel stain (Invitrogen, cat. no. S33102)
DNA loading buffer (Eppendorf, cat. no. 0032 006.850)
PerfectPrep Gel Cleanup Kit (Eppendorf, cat. no. 0032 007.740)
Solvents:
Solvents for extraction and chromatographic separation (see REAGENT
SETUP)
Solvents for high performance liquid chromatography, HPLC, for
measuring optical rotation, for NMR spectroscopy are used as described
in a previous protocol41
Spray reagents are used as described in a previous protocol41
N-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-L-alaninamide (Marfeys reagent, Fluka,
cat. no. 42095)
Standard amino acids (ICN, Sigma)
EQUIPMENT
Sterile plastic petri dishes, diameter 9.4 cm (Greiner, cat. no. 633161)
Parafilm M (Marienfeld, cat. no. 74 038 10)
Sterile tubes, 15 ml, 120 mm 17 mm (Sarstedt, cat. no. 62553)
Susceptibility paper disks (5 mm diameter, Oxoid)
All micro-organisms are acquired from DSMZDeutsche Sammlung von
Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen GmbH
Artemia salina (Dohse Aquaristik, cat. no. 21350)
| VOL.4 NO.12 | 2009 | nature protocols
15 g
Malt extract
15 g
Chloramphenicol
0.2 g
pH
Dem. water
ad 1,000 g
Q2
Q3
protocol
The contents are combined in a flask big enough so that it is filled not
more than two-thirds, covered and autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min. After
cooling down to ~60 C, the medium is poured in sterile plastic petri dishes,
~25 ml medium per plate, under aseptic conditions. The prepared agar
plates can be kept under sterile conditions for upto 1 week before inoculation. ! CAUTION Flasks must not be closed tightly when being autoclaved.
The temperature of the autoclave has to be below 80 C before it can be
opened to prevent hot steam from emerging. Heat protective gloves and
safety glasses should be worn.
Medium B for purification and short term storage of fungal strains
Bacto agar
15 g
Malt extract
15 g
pH
Dem. water
ad 1,000 g
The contents are combined in a flask big enough so that it is filled not
more than two-thirds, covered and autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min. After
cooling down to ~60 C, the medium is poured in sterile plastic petri dishes,
~25 ml medium per plate, under aseptic conditions. The prepared agar plates
can be kept under sterile conditions for upto 1 week before inoculation.
! CAUTION Flasks must not be closed tightly when being autoclaved. The
temperature of the autoclave has to be below 80 C before it can be opened
to prevent hot steam from emerging. Heat protective gloves and safety glasses
have to be worn.
Liquid Wickerhams medium
Yeast extract
3g
Malt extract
3g
Peptone
5g
Glucose
10 g
pH
Dem. water
ad 1,000 g
All contents are mixed thoroughly. In all, 300 ml of the media is poured
in 1,000 ml Erlenmeyer flasks. The flasks are covered with a tissue lid and
autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min. ! CAUTION Tissue lids must be covered
with aluminum foil to prevent soaking during autoclaving. The temperature
of the autoclave has to be below 80 C before it can be opened to prevent hot
steam from emerging. Heat protective gloves and safety glasses have to be
worn. The medium can be stored for 12 d before inoculation.
Solid rice medium
Rice
100 g
Dem. water
110 g
The 1,000 ml Erlenmeyer flasks with the contents are covered with a tissue
lid and kept standing overnight to allow swelling of the rice kernels before
autoclaving at 121 C for 20 min. ! CAUTION Tissue lids must be covered with
aluminium foil to prevent soaking during autoclaving. The temperature of
the autoclave has to be below 80 C before it can be opened to prevent hot
steam from emerging. Heat protective gloves and safety glasses have to be
worn. The medium can be stored for 12 d before inoculation.
MexA medium for long-term storage
Malt extract
20 g
Yeast extract
0.1 g
Glycerin
50 g
Bacto Agar
13 g
Dem. water
ad 1,000 g
The contents are combined in a flask big enough so that it is filled not more
than two-thirds, covered and autoclaved at 121 C for 20 min. ! CAUTION
During autoclaving the flasks must not be tightly closed. The temperature of the
autoclave has to be below 80 C before it can be opened to prevent hot steam
from emerging. Heat protective gloves and safety glasses have to be worn.
After cooling down to ~60 C the medium is poured in sterile tubes, each
with ~6 ml under aseptic conditions. The prepared flasks can be kept under
sterile conditions for upto 1 week before inoculation. CRITICAL All the
autoclaved media have to be stored under aseptic conditions to prevent
contamination with ubiquitous microbes from the environment.
PROCEDURE
Isolation and cultivation of fungi from marine organisms TIMING 69 weeks
1| Cut the samples (pieces of sponge tissue, algal biomass or mangrove leaves or other organs) into small segments
of approximately 1 cm 1 cm and rinse three times with sterile sea water to eliminate adherent surface debris.
CRITICAL STEP It is crucial to maintain aseptic conditions by working under a laminar air-flow for the isolation,
purification, transfer and growth of the fungal cultures to prevent contamination by ubiquitous micro-organisms.
2| Immerse a piece of the sample in EtOH 70% (vol/vol) for 60120 s for surface sterilization.
CRITICAL STEP If the treatment with EtOH is too short, the sterilization of the outer part is not complete; if the
sterilization time is too long, EtOH kills fungi in the inner parts of the tissue.
3| Dry the piece of tissue with sterile cotton cloth (or rinse with sterile artificial sea water) to stop the sterilization
with EtOH.
4| Streak the piece carefully over the surface of a first petri dish containing isolation medium A with sterilized tweezers,
then put it back onto sterile cotton cloth and cut it into smaller segments with a sterile razor blade (negative control).
5| Place the small pieces on a second petri dish containing isolation medium A so that the freshly cut edges are in direct
contact with the agar surface. Seal the agar dish with parafilm, label and store it at 2025 C.
Cultures are kept between 20 C and 25 C under daylight. Fungal growth from the cut segments usually begins after
23 d until 14 d after the onset of experiment.
? TROUBLESHOOTING
nature protocols | VOL.4 NO.12 | 2009 |
protocol
6| Usually different fungal strains will develop from one sample. Isolate the individual strains by transferring hyphal tips
growing out of the cut tissue pieces with a sterile loop onto a fresh petri dish containing medium B.
CRITICAL STEP For purification of the fungal strains this step might be repeated several times until the colony is deemed
pure following macroscopic and microscopic analysis.
Depending on the culture condition and different fungal strains, growth can be observed after 23 d. Pure strains must
grow for ~12 weeks before further workup.
7| Submit pure fungal strains for taxonomic identification as described in Box 1.
8| For small-scale and large-scale fermentation, inoculate a pure fungal strain in a 1,000 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing
either 300 ml of liquid Wickerhams medium or 210 g of solid rice medium. For this purpose, cut a strain that covers the
surface of the inoculated petri dish into small pieces of ~1.5 cm 1.5 cm and transfer these pieces with a sterile loop into
an Erlenmeyer flask containing the sterilized medium.
Cultivation is carried out at room temperature under static conditions and daylight. Depending on the fungal growth,
cultures on liquid medium are incubated for 34 weeks, while on rice for 46 weeks.
9| Bring the fermentation to an end by adding 250 ml EtOAc to the culture flask and leave the flask closed for at least
24 h. EtOAc will increase the wettability of the spores and decrease the number of spores, which will get airborne once
the flask is opened.
! CAUTION To prevent the distribution of fungal fragments or spores, flasks should only be opened under a laminar air-flow.
10| For long-term storage, transfer the pure fungal strains to 10 ml BD Falcon tubes containing ~5 ml MexA medium.
When growth can be observed (after ~3 d, depending on the fungal strain), freeze the fungal strain stepwise: first place
it in a fridge at 4 C for 2 h, then in a freezer at 20 C for 2 h and finally place it in a deep freezer at 80 C.
PAUSE POINT Frozen pure fungal strains can be stored at 80 C.
For recovery from 80 C, thaw the frozen culture quickly in a water bath at 37 C and transfer a small piece with a sterile
loop to a petri dish containing medium B.
! CAUTION To prevent contamination of the environment with viable material, equipment that has been in contact with
fungal material must be autoclaved at 134 C for 15 min before reuse or disposal.
Q4
protocol
! CAUTION To prevent contamination of the environment with viable material, an antimicrobial detergent (Melsept SF) has to
be added to the medium and to the disrupted fungal cells and kept in it for at least 1 h before disposal. Autoclaving is not
possible at this stage because of the remaining traces of EtOAc that may cause explosion in the autoclave.
(C) Large-scale liquid medium (Fig. 3)
(i) Separate fungal mycelia from the culture media and cover the mycelia with ~5 liters of MeOH.
! CAUTION To prevent the distribution of fungal fragments or spores, flasks are only opened under a laminar air-flow.
The mycelia are left in MeOH overnight.
(ii) Disrupt and extract the cells for 10 min at 4000 min1 using an Ultraturrax.
(iii) Filter the mixture under vacuum using a Buchner funnel.
(iv) Repeat extraction in the same manner until exhaustion (23 times).
(v) Extract the culture media in the same manner as described for the extraction of small-scale cultures to obtain the
EtOAc extract.
! CAUTION To prevent contamination of the environment with viable material, antimicrobial detergent has to be added
to the extracted mycelia and growth medium and kept in it for at least 1 h before disposal. Autoclaving of the residues
is not possible because of the remaining solvent.
(D) Large-scale rice medium (Fig. 4)
(i) The extraction of the large-scale rice media is carried out in the same manner as described for the small-scale cultures
using ~10 liters of EtOAc.
? TROUBLESHOOTING
Workup of obtained crude extracts TIMING several daysweeks
12| Workup of the crude extracts following the steps in option (A) for smallscale extracts and option (B) for large-scale
extracts, respectively.
(A) Small-scale extracts
(i) Dry the EtOAc extract (either from rice or liquid culture) under vacuum (~200 mbar) using a rotary evaporator at
40 C to give a solid or oily residue.
Depending on the amount of EtOAc used and on the size of the round-bottom flask this step takes about 40 min liter1
of EtOAc.
PAUSE POINT The dried extract can be stored in the deep freezer until further workup.
(ii) Partition the residue between n-hexane and 90% (vol/vol) aqueous MeOH in a ratio of 1:1 (vol/vol) (~150 ml each).
CRITICAL STEP The solvent fractionation should be carried out with care under a fume hood until complete
separation of the two immiscible liquid phases is achieved.
(iii) Dry each fraction under vacuum (~200 mbar) using a rotary evaporator at 40 C to give an oily or solid residue.
(iv) Submit all fractions to TLC, analytical HPLC, LCMS and also to bioactivity assays (see Box 3, ref. 41).
(v) Further investigation depends on the results of the chemical and biological screening and on the taxonomic identity
of the fungus. If the fungus is non-pathogenic and if the extract displays promising activity in bioactivity screening,
cultivate the fungal strain on a large-scale basis either in 20 liters of liquid Wickerhams medium (67 Erlenmeyer flasks)
or on 4.2 kg solid rice medium (20 flasks). From these large-scale fermentations, usually an amount of crude extract
sufficient for the subsequent isolation and structural identification of pure secondary metabolites can be obtained.
(B) Large-scale extracts
(i) Dry the EtOAc or the MeOH extracts (either from rice or liquid culture) under vacuum (~200 mbar) using a rotary
evaporator at 40 C to give solid or oily residues.
Depending on the volume of EtOAc used and on the size of the round flask this step takes about 40 min liter1
of the solvent.
PAUSE POINT The dried extract can be stored in the deep freezer until further workup.
(ii) Partition each residue between n-hexane and 90% (vol/vol) MeOH in a ratio of 1:1 (vol/vol), using as little solvent
as possible.
CRITICAL STEP The solvent fractionations should be carried out with care under a fume hood. Complete separation
of the two immiscible liquid phases should be achieved before continuing.
(iii) Submit all fractions to TLC, analytical HPLC, LCMS and also bioactivity assays such as the agar-diffusion assay or
brine shrimp assay described in Box 2 or the MTT assay described in reference 41.
CRITICAL STEP Based on the obtained results, the success of the solvent fractionation can be monitored easily by
differences in both bioactivities and HPLC/TLC profiles of the different fractions.
13| In accordance with the diverse properties of the components of the fractions, two different procedures for purification
can be applied:
nature protocols | VOL.4 NO.12 | 2009 |
protocol
Box
3 | DERIVATIZATION METHODS
Q11
Q5
Q6
Determination of absolute stereochemistry by Mosher reaction has been described in detail in a protocol on isolation and
structural elucidation of metabolites from marine invertebrates38,41.
Determination of the absolute configuration of amino acids by Marfeys analysis
Marfeys reagent (FDAA=N-(2,4-dinitro-5-fluorophenyl)-L-alaninamide) is used as a reagent for derivatization of D- and L-amino acids
that are obtained after hydrolysis of cyclic or linear peptides to determine their absolute configuration. The obtained diastereoisomers
can be easily differentiated and identified by their retention times following HPLC analysis on RP columns and comparison with
commercially available D- and L-amino acids that have been treated in the same way47,49.
1. Mix 50 l of 50 mM of each commercially available standard amino acid (D- or L-form) that is of interest in H2O, 20 l 1 M NaHCO3
and 100 l of 1% Marfeys reagent in acetone and heat at 40 C for 1 h.
2. Stop the reaction by addition of 10 l of 2 M HCl.
3. Freeze the derivatized product to 80 C, dry it in a freeze dryer, redissolve it in MeOH and analyze it by HPLC or by LCMS.
4. Hydrolyze your isolated peptide (0.51 mg) in 12 ml 6 N-HCl at 110 C for 24 h under N2 atmosphere until complete hydrolysis and
liberation of the amino acids.
5. Cool the hydrolysate containing the mixture of free amino acids, dry it and redissolve it in water to achieve a final concentration of
~50 M. Proceed in the same way as applied to standard amino acids (see 13).
6. Compare the retention times (HPLC or LCMS) of the derivatized standard amino acids and of the derivatized amino acids obtained
following hydrolysis of the peptide to distinguish D- and L-amino acids.
For low- or medium-polar compounds refer to option (A), for polar compounds refer to option (B).
(A) Low- or medium-polarity fractions
(i) Fractions containing low- or medium-polar compounds are further fractionated and purified using MPLC methods like
VLC. Then, further purification proceeds by column chromatography (CC) using either normal or reversed stationary
phase and a suitable mobile phase to elute the components.
Refer to reference 41 for advice on the choice of stationary phase and how to setup the experiment.
(B) Polar fractions
(i) Highly polar fractions contain water-soluble organic compounds. In our experience, a good procedure is to use
reversed phase CC (e.g., RP-18) or ion-exchange resin beds such as HP-20 eluted gradually from water to MeOH, to
eliminate the remaining mineral salts and sugars present in these fractions. Refer to REAGENT SETUP for further advice.
Chromatographic methods are carried out as described in a previous protocol dealing with workup of extracts derived
from marine macro-organisms41.
? TROUBLESHOOTING
14| Continue the purification procedures until compounds of sufficient purity is obtained to allow structural elucidation.
Q7
15| Structure elucidation is carried out using various spectroscopic methods, mainly MS and NMR (1 d and 2 d). For the
elucidation of the absolute configuration of new chiral natural products, derivatization methods such as the preparation
of Mosher esters (see reference C) or by using Marfeys method (see Box 3) are sometimes necessary (alternatively, the
absolute configuration may be elucidated by X-ray crystallography or by CD spectroscopy followed by quantum chemical
calculations32).
16| Once the individual components are isolated in pure form and structurally identified, they should be subjected to
bioactivity testing.
17| Study the structureactivity relationships to identify optimized compounds which may serve as drug leads from natural
sources.
Q8
TIMING
Steps 15: 1530 min per isolate (growth ~12 weeks)
Step 6: 5 min per strain
Step 7: see Box 1
Step 8: ~5 min per strain (growth ~35 weeks)
Steps 9 and 10: each ~5 min
Step 11 A(iiii): 4560 min
Step 11 B/D(i): 5/30 min (plus 1 d for extraction)
protocol
Step 11 B/D(ii): ~10 min ( plus 1 d for extraction) (twice)
Step 11 B/D(iii): ~10 min
Step 11 C(i): ~5 min (plus extraction overnight)
Step 11 C(iiv): 2030 min (23 times)
Step 11 C(v): 23 h
Steps 1317: The timing of these steps is dependent on chosen columns, complexity of the extract and the kind of isolated
compounds.
See also Figures 14.
? TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting advice can be found in Table 1.
Table 1 | Troubleshooting table.
Step
Problem
Possible reason
Solution
Fungal growth on
negative controls
If you are not sure how delicate the surface of your source
organism is, then try different times for surface sterilization,
e.g. 30, 60 and 120 s. The plates with growth on the respective negative controls or those without any growth can be
discarded
No growth at all
11
Insufficient separation
of the two phases
13
No or insufficient
separation
Loss of substance
Q20
ANTICIPATED RESULTS
Examples taken from our group that illustrate the application of the described procedures for the isolation of spongeand mangrove-derived fungi and the subsequent isolation
and structure determination of bioactive compounds will be
described.
O
O
O
H
HO
OH
OH
OH
HO
O
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
HO
OH
OH
OH
O
HO
HO
OH
O
protocol
Fractions 3 and 4 from the obtained ten fractions were pooled and chromatographed over a Sephadex LH-20 column
with MeOH as eluent. From the obtained 17 fractions, fractions 6 and 7 contained the betaenone congeners, whereas the
anthraquinone derivatives were obtained from the yellow colored fractions 11, 12 and 13.
Purification of the betaenones was accomplished by chromatography on an RP-18 column. 10-Hydroxy-18-methoxybetaenone
(1) was obtained from fraction 7 with MeOH:H2O:TFA (95:5:0.1 vol/vol) as eluent and 10-hydroxy-18-N-2-naphthyl-N-phenyl
aminobetaenone (2) from fraction 6 with MeOH:H2O:TFA (90:10:0.1 vol/vol) as eluent.
The anthraquinone congeners were purified by semi-preparative HPLC on a C18 column using a gradient of H2O and
MeOH as follows: 0 min, 80% MeOH (vol/vol); 20 min, 90% MeOH (vol/vol); 25 min, 90% MeOH (vol/vol); and 30 min,
100% MeOH (vol/vol).
All compounds were readily identified by their spectroscopic data. Through-bond homonuclear and heteronuclear correlations were used to establish assignments and atom connectivities. The relative stereochemistry of 10-hydroxy-18-methoxy
betaenone (1) was determined from a ROESY experiment.
As similar metabolites had previously been described as inhibitors of protein kinases, which are of particular interest as
targets for the development of novel anticancer drugs, the isolated compounds were tested for inhibition of protein kinases
in vitro.
For a first assessment of the kinase inhibitory potential, an isoenzyme of the protein kinase family C, the cyclin-dependent
kinase 4 in complex with its activator cyclin D1 and the tyrosine kinase domain of the epidermal growth factor receptor
were selected.
Of the two obtained betaenone derivatives only 10-hydroxy-18-methoxybetaenone (1) inhibited all three kinases
(with ED50 values of 36.0, 11.5 and 10.5 M, respectively), whereas 10-hydroxy-18-N-2-naphthyl-N-phenylaminobetaenone
(2) showed no inhibitory effect, thus suggesting the enone side chain as a promising position for further optimization of
such compounds towards higher potency and better selectivity.
Alternaria metabolites (Fig. 6)
From the endophyte Alternaria sp. isolated from leaves of the Chinese mangrove plant Sonneratia alba, several natural
products, some of them structurally related to alternariol (611), perylene quinones and new compounds (1217) were
isolated40.
The crude EtOAc extract obtained after fermentation of the fungus on solid rice medium was partitioned between n-hexane
and 90% (vol/vol) aqueous MeOH. After VLC of the MeOH extract using silica gel as stationary phase and a step gradient
employing CH2Cl2 and MeOH as solvent
systems, fraction 3 (80% (vol/vol)
O
O
HO
OH
HOOC
OH
O
OH
O
CH2Cl2) was chromatographed over
HO
silica gel using CH2Cl2 and MeOH (90:10
HO
HO
vol/vol) as eluent mixture. Fractions 3
O
HO
O
HO
and 4 were combined and re-chromato
graphed by normal-phase VLC using a
O
step gradient of CH2Cl2 and MeOH as
O
O
O
OH
O
OH
eluent. Fraction 5 was further purified
HO
HO
using a RP-18 column and H2O:MeOH
HO
O
OH
(7:3 vol/vol) as eluent. Fraction 3
O
yielded altenusin (6), fraction 5 gave
O
OH
altenuene (7), 4-epialtenuene (8)
and 2,5-dimethyl-7-hydroxychromone
COOH
OH
OH
(9) after semi-preparative HPLC using
OH
HO
an RP-18 column with MeOH:H2O (25:75
O
vol/vol) as eluent. Alternariol (10) and
O
O
OH
altertoxin I (13) were obtained from
fraction 7 and final purification was
carried out by semi-preparative HPLC
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
COOH
using a RP-18 column with MeOH:H2O
COOH
O
O
OH
(35:65 vol/vol) as eluent.
OH
OH
OH
The new metabolite alternarienonic
H
H
OH
HO
acid (12) was obtained from the combined VLC fractions 5 and 6 following
OH
O
OH
O
O
OH
O
OH
purification by Sephadex LH-20 CC
|
Figure 6 Natural products from the mangrove-derived fungus Alternaria sp.
with MeOH as eluent.
10 | VOL.4 NO.12 | 2009 | nature protocols
protocol
Fraction 5 of the VLC separation yielded the new natural products xanalteric acid I (14) and II (15), which were purified
over silica gel using CH2Cl2 and MeOH as solvent system and subsequent semi-preparative HPLC with MeOH and H2O as eluent.
Upon fermentation for 3 weeks in liquid Wickerhams medium, compounds 68, 10, 13, 14 and 15 were likewise detected
as constituents of the crude extract using HPLC, whereas 9 and 12 were missing. In addition, the known compounds
alternariol-5-O-methylether (11) and the perylene derivatives stemphyperylenol (16) and alterperylenol (17) were also
obtained after fractionation of the extract by VLC using silica gel as stationary phase followed by semi-preparative HPLC,
thus confirming the OSMAC concept that a given microbial strain can yield different metabolites upon varying fermentation
conditions.
Both crude EtOAc extracts (obtained following fermentation on solid medium or in liquid medium) exhibited promising
antiproliferative activities as detected by the MTT assay. Alternariol (10) and altenusin (6) exhibited strong antiproliferative activities against the murine L5178Y cell line with EC50 values of 1.7 g ml1 and 6.8 g ml1, respectively, whereas the
new metabolites epialtenuene (8), alternarienonic acid (12), xanalteric acid I (14) and II (15), as well as altenuene (7),
altertoxin I (13) and 2,5-dimethyl-7-hydroxychromone (9) were inactive in this bioassay38.
Q9 AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Q12
Q21
Q22
Q13
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38. Aly, A.H. et al. Cytotoxic metabolites from the fungal endophyte Alternaria
sp. and their subsequent detection in its host plant Polygonum
senegalense. J. Nat. Prod. 71, 972980 (2008).
39. Wang, S. et al. Chaetopyranin, a benzaldehyde derivative, and other
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40. Kjer, J. Xanalteric acids I and II and related phenolic compounds from an
endophytic Alternaria
sp. isolated from the mangrove plant Sonneratia
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fungus Pestalotiopsis sp. isolated from the Chinese mangrove plant
Rhizophora mucronata. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 17, 73627367 (2009).
43. Jadulco, R. et al. New macrolides and furan carboxylic acid derivative
from the sponge-derived fungus Cladosporium herbarum. J. Nat. Prod. 64,
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Q19
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