A

HISTORY
OF

THE

ANCIENT
WORLD

"
h

-".
2

g"

I STORY
OF

THE

ANCIENT

WORLD

BY

WILLIS

GEORGE
OF

PROFESSOR

"THE

DEVELOPMENT

ROMAN
OF

OF

ASSEMBLIES,"
THE

ORIENT

"AN

THE

MAPS

OF

GREECE,"

AND

CONSTITUTION,"

HISTORY

"A

HISTORY,"

ANCIENT

"

THE

STORY

HISTORY

OF

(WITH

AND
OF

ROME

1911
rightsreserved

HISTORY

ROME,"

L.

S.

"

ILLUSTRATIONS

COMPANY

MACMILLAN

All

"

GREECE,"

NUMEROUS

AND

AUTHOR

UNIVERSITY;

ATHENIAN

THE
"

BOTSFORD)

WITH

COLUMBIA

IN

HISTORY

PH.D.

BOTSFORD,

OF

"THE

307*4
COPYRIGHT,
THE

BY

Set

up

and

September,

1911,

COMPANY.

MACMILLAN

electrotyped.

Published

July,

Reprinted

1911.

1911.

Nortoooto
J.

8.

Gushing

Co.

Norwood,

"

$ress
Berwick

Mass.,

"

U.S.A.

Smith

Co.

PREFACE

preparation

THE

History, but

as

of educators

in mind

has
for

state

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made

to

bring

the

the

labor

of

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have

of

parts
been

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department
Missouri.
aid.

such

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It

gives

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the

indebted

prepared
of New

choice

This

England.

New
The

York

relations
life.

field; and

clear

way
from

events
treatment

I have

of

the

study

of social
aimed

and

also

scholarship.

to

for

topics

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cially
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Schools,"

Secondary

Association

Teachers'

Syllabus of

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and

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activities.
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chapters
v

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up
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Orient,

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social

and

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work

pioneer

educators

that

hope

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on

culture

on

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history

the

proofs

high appreciation of
of

one

of ancient

In

ards.
stand-

Eugene Fair,
School, Kirksville,

my

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(1899)

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to

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express

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My

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present

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mainly

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made,

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me

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cient
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my
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requirements

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corrections

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to

up

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Massachusetts,

Chelsea,

book

has

Head

Holbrook,

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In

examinations.

preparation

School,

demands

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taken

work

have
It is to

Committee

been

revision

book.

schools.

and

Seven

as

alterations

country

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view

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account

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and

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college

Chelsea

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began

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to

expansion

throughout

Committee

of the

of

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history in secondary

ancient

has

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text-book

practical

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to

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persons

this
see

and

larger

for

the

point of

for

instance,

vi

Preface

the

as

taken

been

has

advantage

of

such

edition

new

of

and

recent

Breasted's

authoritative

"History

of

cations
publi-

Ancient

of

des
Altertums," Vol. I.
Meyer's "Geschichte
Other
examples of improvement in this direction may be found in
of the early Greek
and
Italic civilizations,
the treatment
in the
Empire, and in the period of
growth and decline of the Roman
and

Egypt"

transition

improvements,
of

are

and

have

For

the

taken

from

objects or
for that
of

use

reason

this

of

authorities

of

the

Instruction

of

Italy,and

The

value

great

British
to

the

the

each

ter
chap-

of instruction.
due

are

Ministry

colleague, Professor

my

have

maps

period treated,

means

the

an

transferred, with

thanks

to

with

pictures in
a

my

Museum,

All

with

as

material

volume

been

contemporary

persons

some

have

or

earlier works.

my

the

illustrations.

and

maps

furnish

to

especiallyfor this book

drawn

been

useful

of

abundance

Ages.

been

have

pains

Great

Middle

the

to

the

to

of

Public
N.

George

Olcott.
It

to

seems

text-books

been

has

be

to

me

due

compilation of

volume, for example, is

of

life

and

enable

to

me

instances,as
the value

all ancient

statements

shall be
or

offer

the

conquests,

do

understand, however,

historywithin

the

more

and

to

so

liable

few
becomes

Reader
the

who

GEORGE
MOUNT

VERNON,

June

NEW
i, 1911.

YORK,

the

present
century

But

sufficient

only

in

assemblies

Roman

depart
the

Greek

topics presented

with

The

few

a
or

on

inattention
me

to
to

densation,
con-

incomplete
details.

of such

defects

of the book.
WILLIS

the

ing
compress-

greater the

work

the

care

materiallyfrom

of
difficulty

will inform

improvement

of my

one

quarter

own.

pages.

arising from

errors

gratefulto the
suggestionsfor

of

sources

opinion of my
composition of the

no

of
interpretation

most

an

of Alexander's
view.

current

the

than

more

On

that

say

writings. The

study and

examined

express

on

the

sources.

this field I have

within
to

historical

to

to

modern

of

product

earnestlydevoted

Roman

myself now

to

BOTSFORD.

SUGGESTIONS
CHAPTERS
form

and

VI

the

to

excepting

chapter

" 70,

with

the

and
One

of

progress
advisable

class

touch

to

the

appreciate

individual

of the

for

intelligence.

In

value.

Generally
books

the

on

the

the

The

readings

Many

topical outlines

of

periods

text-book
all-sufficing

be

written.

avoid
book
the

the
and

book

routine

nothing
itself

"

the

on

the

are

in
very

work
more

will be

of
"

as

time

save

the

vii

to

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indi-

minor

pupils'
cational
edu-

from

intended

as

only

not

Abstracts

or

Fortunately
written,

historical study any

the

by

illustrations.

are

illustrations.

by

of its

high

profitablybe asked,

rewarded

of

moment

the

learning everythingin given

to study the subject in hand

amply

it

learn

selections

own

questions, too,

of

first

way

and

names

stronglyrecommended.
been
history has ever
nature

and

profitablybe

may

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energy

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at

as

make

of

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may

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fully
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to

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recitation

Similarly in

without

omitted

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for

topics

Many

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constitutional

explain

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every
is
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assignment

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expanded

location

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be

geography

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Rome

institutions.

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separate

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and

Sparta, Athens,

79,

through the book the

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up

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find it
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Many,
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" 354;

events;

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geography.

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TEACHERS

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XXVIII

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XXVIII

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CONTENTS

PART

THE

ORIENTAL

NATIONS

CHAPTER
PAGE

I.
II.
III.
IV.

Introduction

The

Scope

and

Course

of Ancient

History

Egypt
The

Tigris

Syria:

Euphrates

"

The

Valley

Phoenicians

and

21

the

Hebrews

37

V.

The

Median

and

Persian

Empires

PART

48

.....

II

HELLAS

VI.

The

Country

VII.

The

Cretan

VIII.

The

and
and

First

the

People

59
Civilizations

Mycenaean

Period

of

68
....

Colonization;

The

Epic

or

Homeric
81

Age
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.

Religion
The

Period
Rise

Athens:

of

Conquest

98

Development
Expansion

105

....

Peloponnesian League

the

Monarchy

Democracy

to

of Asiatic

with

XVII.

The

Delian

XVIII.

The

Age'

XIX.

The

Peloponnesian

Persia

.123
.144

Lydians

and

the

Persians

157
166

Carthage

Confederacy
of

the

by

Greece

and

the

and

Athenian

Empire

.'

.182

Pericles

Sicilian

112

Awakening

War

the

its

......

Sparta and

From

Intellectual

From

of Colonial

XVI.

XX,

86

Myth

City-State and

Second
The

and

'91
War

to

the

Expedition
ix

to

Sicilian
the

End

Expedition
of the

219
226

War

Contents

Contents

xi

CHAPTER

XLIV.

PAGE

The

Invasions

Germanic

524
German

XLV.

The

New

XLVI.

The

Growth

of

CHIEF

EVENTS

IN

ANCIENT

USEFUL

INDEX

States

539

BOOKS

the

Papal

HISTORY

Power

and

of

the

Frankish

Power

547

561

566

569

MAPS

AND

ILLUSTRATIONS

FULL-PAGE

AND

DOUBLE-PAGE

MAPS
PACK

Earliest

Civilizations,for Reference
and

Early Babylonian
Median,

for

Greece,
Cretan

Assyrian Empires

Babylonian,

New

before

and

Lydian

"25

....

Empires

"49

Reference

"

eg

.......

and

Civilizations

Mycenaean

"69

....

The

Hellenic

Greece

World

the

at

"105
of the

Time

with

War

Persia

161

"
...

Athenian
The

Empire

its

at

Height

"193

of Athens

Acropolis

"

Athens
in

Empire

the

Peloponnesian

of Alexander
formed

Kingdoms
Italy before

the

the

from
Punic

Great
Alexander's

"

Empire

Expansion

The

Expansion

of

"
.

Roman

The

Roman

Roman

the

Power

Roman

to

Gracchi

the

from

Power

of the

Time

the

Gracchi
the

to

"

Empire

and

Augustus

to

Death

Diocletian

"
.

411

453

Constantine

and

Diocletian

under

"

509

"555

Empire

Empire

IN

PLANS

AND

MAPS

Egyptian

371

before
from

Empire

Charlemagne's

313

Augustus

The

297

...

Wars

221

281

"

"353

of the

Palestine

before

Vicinity

of

War

of Rome

The

The

208

on

Greece

The

207

TEXT

THE

"

"

"

.10

38

Phoenicia
.

The

Peloponnesian

League

.121
.

"

"

"

Salamis
Athens

i?7
and

BayofPylos

Peiraeus, showing

Long

Walls
.

"

"

*93
222

xiv

Syracuse
The

Hellespont
of

Kingdom

Dionysius

Theban

The

230

Illustrations

and

Maps

Tactics

at the

Battle

248
261

of Leuctra

281

Tyre
The

236

of

Tribes

Italyand

316

Sicily

Early Rome
Colonies

335

and

MilitaryRoads

of

362

Italy

ImperialRome

457

The

457

Sacred

Way

Europe about 525

541

A.D

ILLUSTRATIONS

FULL-PAGE

Acropolisof
Egyptian Market
The

Halls
The

Athens

of

facing

Scenes
in the

in Columns
Vale

Frontispiece
Temple of Ammon,

Mycenaean Palace
Mycenaean Objects
Cups

from

Propylaeaand
Fall of the

Laconia

the Nike

213

on

........

facing

240

317

"375
of

of the Roman

Jupiter,Juno, and
Forum

of the Sacred

"

Julia

Way

Third

Pyramids of

Minerva

459

"

461
476

"
......

IN
Gizeh

Obelisk

Egyptian HieroglyphicWriting

THE

449

"

......

ILLUSTRATIONS

An

Ercte

and

79
88
107

"

Temple

Anio

CapitolineTemple

Second

on

"211

Interior of the Basilica

Part

78

........

of the Maidens

Summit

74

"

The

"

facing

Parthenon

Mount

61

"

Vaphio,

The

The

"

.......

Delphi
Acragas

Porch

16

Tempe

Gold

Thebes

14

"

TEXT
6
7
8

and

Maps

Illustrations

xv

PAGE

of Gizeh

Sphinx

The

II

of Rameses

Mummy

.12

at Thebes

Temple
The Euphrates River
of Hammurabi
Inscription
Assyriansin Battle
CylinderSeal of an Early King
Clay Model of a Liver
BabylonianTemple at Nippur
A BabylonianKing
Colossal Bull with Wings and Human

I7
21
22

26

..........

30

.......

31

"

32

........

33

...........

Head

34

.....

Phoenician

The

40

of Some

Ancestors

Tomb

of

Palace

of Darius

of the Letters

of

our

Alphabet

.41

Cyrus

52

Persepolis
a Monster
King killing
Darius
receivingConquered Enemies
Valleyof the Styx in Arcadia

53

Persian

in the Palace

Corridor

The
A

at

Throne

Cretan

Vase

Linear

Cretan

of

Entrance

Tomb

to the

found

The

7"

......

71
71

........

Writing on Clay Tablet

Royal Cemetery
Gravestone

63

at Cnossus

55

Cnossus

at

in Palace

Room

54

72

......

75

Mycenae

at

?6

of Atreus

Mycenae

"

"

77

"

89

Wrestlers
Head

cuttingoff Medusa's

Perseus

91
94

"Theseus"
A
A

Spartan Tombstone
Warrior

in

of

Helmet, Coat

"

"

Mail, and

Greaves

An

of

An

Plan

of

"

"

.116

!35

of Aristion

...."""""

I41

Temple of Poseidon, Poseidonia

Ionic Column

Corinthian

"

!33

Ostrakon

Corner

"

I24

Areopagus
Gathering Olives
An
Athenian
Lady
Gravestone

"

J !

Capital

Temple

at

"

..."""""*"

Priene

I4

and

Maps

xvi

Illustrations
PAGE

Plan

of Small

Temple

Statue of

Temple

...150

Greek

Harbor

of Peiraeus

Persian

Archer

Trireme

Vase

152

Pericles

Women

of the Walls

Remnant

Athenian

163
.

BayofSalamis

West

.201
202

"

Marriage Procession

Lapithand

Centaur

Pediment

of Parthenon

."".-.

.210

Group of Maidens
Copy of Athena

Parthenos

Sandal

214

Quarriesat Syracuse

231

235

Erechtheum

Victory

238
242

............

Socrates

243

Euryelus
Ithone

Mount

210

228

Alcibiades?

Fort

205

212

"Hermes"

The

203

213

Victoryadjustingher
Stone

202

211

"Theseum"

175

199

Discobolus

171

.191

Knights
playingKnucklebones
.

169

183
.

Ivory Stylus
A

of Athens

....

School

149

....

Woman

.148

Poseidon, Poseidonia

of

247

...........

and

City Wall

of Messene

264

Demosthenes

271

Battlefield of Chaeronea

274

Alexander
Theatre

279

Epidaurus

at

The

New

The

Hermes

Stadium

at

290
Athens

291

of Praxiteles

292

Satyrof Praxiteles
Doriphorus

of

Polycleitus
Apoxyomenos of Lysippus

293
'

293
294

xviii

Illustrations

and

Maps

PAGE

Soldiers

Roman

The

in

Colosseum

in

Street

Cave

471

Colosseum

472

Pompeii

477

Canem
.

470

Amphitheatre

Triumphal
Flavian

or

of the

Interior

Procession

Dining

...

Room

479

..........

Peristyle of

in

House

Pompeii

479

.......

Furniture

House

480

..........

The

of

Column
Wife

Plotina,

Trajan

of

485

.........

Trajan

486

Hadrian

487

Hadrian's

Wall

488

Pantheon,

Exterior

Pantheon,

Interior

The

489
.

490

of Hadrian

Tomb

Dacian

Town

495

.........

Alcantara,

at

of Herodes

Odeum

496
497

Building

of

Roman

Legionary

Septimius

Severus

Triumphal

Arch

WTall

Spain
Atticus

Process

498
500

..........

Septimius

of

.501

Severus

502

......

of Aurelian
.

Constantine
.

and

Mary
A

German

German
Church

Infant

the

Village

505

.510

Jesus

512
.

524

535

Apollinare Nuovo,

St.

Sophia, Constantinople

St.

Peter

Ravenna
.

540
544

548

Charlemagne
Cathedral

Soldier
of Sanf

491
492

...........

Burning
Bridge

Urn

Cinerary

The

478

of

as

Hero
.

Aix-la-Chapelle

-555

557

HISTORY
A

THE
OF

ANCIENT

WORLD

CIVILIZATION!

EARLIEST

FOR

^J

Persian

REFERENCE

Empire

at

its

greatest

Longitude

extent

60C

from

Greenwich

55C

HISTORY

OF

ANCIENT

WORLD

PART

ORIENTAL

THE

NATIONS

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

Condition

1.

to-day

find that

we

another

THE

SCOPE

of the

government,

moral

States, Great
and
those

of central

find

can

peoples

some

made
2.

the

history of
of

the

HISTORY

the world

over

widely

refined

and

highly
are

of other

homes,

the

the

countries

of

the

Between

The

of civilization.

veniences.
con-

United

Europe

extremes

is that

stationary,whereas

almost

the

Others,

two

reason

good

and

of

civilized of the world.

savage.

remained

other

one

power,

comforts

think

We

from

as
we

for ages

others

have

progress.

Savagery,
and

no

grade
have

differ

have

civilized.

are

most

Africa,

every

Some

look

we

peoples

hundreds

and

people
the

as

As

ANCIENT

religion,schools, libraries,steam

Britain, France,

America

OF

"

and

habits.

telegraph, the telephone,

Such

COURSE

To-day.

nations

and

AND

World

the

in character

THE

the world

settled

much

civilization.

life,when
homes

intermediate

have

found

the

invention

live

men
or

use

those

it convenient

pottery

of the terms

is made

is the

and

by hunting
only

between
to

and

Distinguished.

Civilization

Savagery

stage

of

and

Barbarism,

of the

and

lowest

tion
condieither

have

kind.

Barbarism

and

barbarism

ending with

barism,
bar-

savagery,

fishing and

crudest

savagery

define

rudest

the

civilization.
as

In

"

beginning

invention

is

Some
with

of the

al-

Introduction

The

Scope and Course of Ancient

civilization refers
phabet. In a general sense
improvement, however low or high,in a narrower
barbarism.

of life above

the
especially
the lives and

idea of

We

any

sense

in the arts and

advancement

word

for civilization.

to the

dition
con-

zation
civili-

strong enough to protect

a well-ordered
property of the citizens,

some

degree of

associate with the word

government

to

History

sciences.

and
society,

Culture is but another

concerned with progress.

It has
Historyis chiefly
with those nations only which have improved their
to do, therefore,
Based on written records,it could not begin tillwriting
condition.
of facts. So far as
invented and appliedto the preservation
was
the first civilized people.
our
knowledge goes, the Egyptians were
They invented a system of writingas earlyas the fifth millennium
B.C.1 We may
(5000-4000)
say, then, that the historyof the world
firstappeared on
begins at this time. We do not know when men
3.

History.

the earth, but

"

we

may
them
to
required bring

feel certain that thousands

to

up

the condition

of years were
in which we
find the

Egyptians at the dawn of history. In brief,the historical age,

thousand
extendingthrough the past seven
nificant
years, is but an insigfraction of the entire life of mankind.

periodbefore the dawn of history

is called prehistoric.
Our knowledge of it is not derived from written
but from entirely
different sources.
The chief materials
records,
to be studied for that age are
the works of men's hands, such as
tools,
personalornaments, ruins of walls,dwellings,
tombs,
weapons,
and temples. The science which has to do with such objectsis
archaeology. Many implements,ornaments, and other works of
have been found in caves
which once
served as
primitivemen
their dwellings,
in their tombs, beneath
the surface of fields they
have tilled,
in the gravel beds along the banks
of streams
where
they have hunted and fished,or in the buried sites of their villages.From
such material it is possible to trace the
of the
progress
human
race
through the prehistoric
period.
Great
Periods
of
the Historical Age.
5.
Historyis continuous
like the flow of a river. It moves
now
slowly,now rapidly; it often
but it never
changesdirection,
to a standstill. A periodof
comes
4.

The

Prehistoric

Age.

"

The

"

l"X2f.

Introduction:

The

and

Scope

of Ancient

Course

History

during ancient historyto have been from east to west.

the neighboringAsiatic countries
First Egypt, Babylonia, and
then Greece,then Italyand Carthage,then Spain,
became
civilized,
southern Gaul, and the oppositecoast of north Africa.
Northern
the world

Gaul

and

affected
8.

Britain,remote

by

The

ancient
Great

the Mediterranean

from

less

coasts, were

civilization.

Divisions,

Races, of

or

Mankind.

"

In

the

historyit is convenient to divide mankind into groups

the
according to their physicalqualities,
^,s color,hair,skull,or
From
the point of
like,and to call these grand divisions races.
be distinguished.
view of color three groups
The first is the
may
Black or Negro race
of central and southern Africa.
They are the
lowest in intelligence,
and have contributed practically
nothing to
The second is the Yellow
the progress of the world.
or
Mongolian
of Asia.
race
They include the Chinese and Japanese,who have
and the nomads, or wandering people,of central
long been civilized,
Asia. Some
of the Europeans,as the Turks, Hungarians, and Finns,
Indians are grouped with
The American
race.
belong to the same
them
scholars ; by others they are regarded as a distinct
by some
The
third and
most
race.
historically
important group is the
due practically
To the White
race.
are
race
White, or Caucasian
all the improvements of the past seven
thousand years.
study

9.

of

Subdivisions
is termed

race

of the

White

Caucasian

because

could
highestphysicalperfection
of

Caucasus.

or

It included

Caucasian

scholars

be found

three

main

Race.

The

believed

once

among

"

White
that

its

the mountaineers

branches, which

we

also

usually call races, Hamites, Semites, and Indo-Europeans (or

of Noah, inhabited
after Ham, a son
Aryans).1 The Hamites, named
northern Africa. They comprised the ancient Egyptians
and the Libyans. They were
the creators of the first civilization.
The Semites,
named
after Shem, another son of Noah, comprised
so
other
the Babylonians, Assyrians,Hebrews, Phoenicians, and
peoples of southwestern

Asia.

Their greatest contribution to the

a
phoneticalphabet,and religion.

world's progress was

commerce,
The Indo-Europeanshad two branches,Asiatic and
1

It is only in a loose,popular sense

that Aryan
the word appliesonly to the Hindoos and the
Strictly,

is

European.

To

equivalentto*Indo-European.

Iranians.

Races

belong the

the Asiatic division

Persians

and

Hindoos

pean
; to the Euro-

and

the Romans), Teutons, Slavs,

Greeks, Italians (including
of this great familyhave been,
Celts.
The European members
stillare, the most
people known to history. They
progressive

and

their colonies control the greater part of the world.

the

and

All

10.

Groupings

Race

and
superficial

is at best

races

that

two

men

Any classification of
The
chief fault is
unsatisfactory.
Arbitrary.

are

"

be alike in the characteristics which

may

form

the

grouping,but very unlike in other respects. Again,

of peoplesthat no pure stock
been so much
intermingling

basis of the
there has
race

or

nor
exists,

now

speak of

sure

we

and

in groups,

men

that any

such has existed within

sary
however, it is necesgeography and history,

In

the historical age.

to

are

above

those named

Within the White

for the purpose.
but
classification is not a physicalquality,

convenient

the

race

are

found

ground of

speech. The IndoEuropean peoples,for instance,have always spoken languages

but quitedistinct from any Semitic
related to one another,1
closely

our

Hamitic

or

resemble
skull

be

to

or

of

blood

one

blendingof

one

all the

supposes

complexionor

in

another

one

the

from

No

language.

or

stature

in the

shapeof

the

fact,they have sprung

In

stock.

or

Indo-Europeans to

peoples. What they have in common,

of knowledge and
is a treasure
their language,

many

up in
ideas of far greater value

however, stored

than blood.

Another

feature is

common

they have thus far shown over all other

superiority
not in blood,but in
people. Kindred
speech proves relationship,
history. Language is therefore a useful basis for the classification
the mental

of mankind.

Suggestive Questions
i.

is the

Which

mankind

direction?
the

2.

Why

have

3.

What

are

barbarian?
?

the

more

4.

5. In the

Spanish

useful, a narrative
not

of

wars

or

peoplesprogressedequallyand
the
pointsof difference between

all

some

knowledge of ancient
classification of mankind, where do
is

How

? the Arabs

of the

our

? the people of the United

progress of
in the same
savage

and

creasing
constantly inFrench belong ?

life
the

States ?

1"6i.
2

History has

derived

according to skull
that within

by

two

or

measurements.

three

the attempt to classify mankind

the fa
The failure of the attempt is due chieflyto
be completelychanged
the shape of the skull may

no
practically

generations

change of surroundings.

benefit from

SECOND

AND

THIRD

(View from the

PYRAMIDS
From

east.

OF

GIZEH

photograph)

II

CHAPTER

EGYPT
About

I. LAND

PEOPLE

AND

and

Physical Features

ii.

mankind

regionround

the

valleyof

River

of
progress
surroundings.And of all

their Influence.

the Mediterranean

the Nile

HISTORY

; POLITICAL

on
dependslargely
country

the

B.C.

5000-525

and

The

"

is so favored

none

in northeastern

by nature
Egypt,

Africa.

as

the

lower part of this valley,

extends from the First Cataract to the
of
It is seven
hundred
miles long,and averages throughmost
sea.
its

course

less than

miles in width.

ten

smallest countries in the world.

of

Maryland.

divides
Delta.

into

hundred

channels,and
Every summer, swollen by

in

it

earlyDecember

the land fertilizedwith

is composed of mud

is about

area

one

of the

that of the

state

the river reaches the sea, it

into the
the valleybroadens

miles before

several

the country in which

when

Its

It is therefore

the rains and

rises,the

Nile

the water

returns

rich

depositedin

overflows
to

of earth.

coat

this
6

melting snows

manner.

the

the
In

of

valley; and

channel,it leaves

fact,the entire soil

The

land therefore

Geography
is wonderfullyfertile.

With

and

Archaeology

littlelabor

man

can

three crops of
fold.
hundred

grain,grasses, flax,and vegetables.

The mountains
produce an abundance
various kinds of metal.
Commerce, too, is

and

stones

forms

Nile

natural

it is

commerce

climate

rainless

decay;

sky
and

sides

With

her

is

wonder

no

trade.

of

building

makes

and

borders

For

foreign

little clothing
necessary

the works
preserves
the mountain
chains

natural

peoplefrom
and

resources

that

became

Egypt

of

The

; the

from

men

and

ing
meet-

navigable seas.

two

on

The

easy.

great advantage that the country lies at the

protect the

both

for domestic

waterway

of three continents
warm

raise each year

Wheat
yieldsa

deserts

on

invadingarmies.
it
her situation,
the birthplace

of civilization.
of Ancient

Remains

12.

traveller in

The

number

is astonished

Egypt

ancient

size of the

and

statues, the ruins of

will be

have

described

the

nowhere
The

only to

built

their works

at the

great
In

monuments.

else
chapter. Nowhere
and
so
magnificently,
been so well preserved.
is due

character,but

their substantial

to

the

not

dry-

atmosphere.
of these monuments

many

other monuments

and

of the monuments

condition

of the

On

this

in

ancients

have

good

ness

"

temples,and, grandest

vast

all,the pyramids. These

of

Writing.

colossal
parts of the valleyhe finds obelisks,

various

of

Civilization ;

Till about

strange characters.

inscribed lines

are

hundred

years

OBELISK

AN

(From

could make
them out, and the history
ago, no one
and
life of the country remained, therefore,largelya
on
of an
inscription
The key was
discovered
by means

known

as

the Rosetta

1798, while
of

covered

the

with

of his

some

fort,they

came

an

soldiers found

Delta.

The

stone.
men

upon

In
were

this stone.

inscription.It
it

credit

"

for

Napoleon'sinvasion
digging to lay the
was

photograph)

mystery.

of

what

is

Egypt,

foundation

It is of black basalt and is

after the placewhere
named

the Rosetta

branch

of the Nile

in the

decipheringit

is due

chieflyto

Cham-

on

Egypt

French
a
pol'li-on,

scholar.

It

was

found

to contain

ment
publicdocuof
By means

Egyptian,with a Greek translation added.

enabled
the translation Champollion and other scholars were
with
of the inscripto decipherthe Egyptian. Most
great difficulty
tions
and
of
them
the
details
be read,
can
now
through
Egyptian
be studied.
life and historymay
In their earliest writingobjects
were
represented
by pictures. A
in

disk O

for the sun, and

stood

crescent

" for the

From

moon.

picturestheypassedto symbols ; the disk of the sun suggestedday,

and an axe 7 god. In course
of time they invented
letters jepresentFrom
them they might easily
have made
ing each a singlesound.
for
a phoneticalphabet like ours
too conservative
; but they were
their
so great an
to use
improvement. They continued,therefore,
and
pictures
symbols,minglingthem with the new phoneticletters.
As the priests
always used these early,
difficult characters for religious
purposes,
called
are
they
hieroglyphs
9 D
sacred inscriptions.
A
running style,
in literature
into use
however, came
"

r?

and

business.

mentioned

On

the Rosetta

stone,

in the
above, the inscription

Egyptian language is written first in

hieroglyphsand below in the common
running style.
13. The People : Origin and Earliest
States
(to about 3400 B.C.). The
ancient Egyptians,in common
with the
EGYPTIAN
HIEROGLYPHIC
WRITING
other inhabitants
of northern
Africa,
Hamites.1
were
Their language is related to the Semitic.
dently
Eviin prehistoric
times Semites
invaded
the Nile valleyand
mingled with the natives. The civilization was
not
imported,
however, but grew up in the country. Through archaeology2 we
trace its progress from the earlystone
may
that is,from the
age
time men
to
make
began
implements of stone.
Nothing strikes
us
as
remarkable
in this development tillwe
to the begincome
nings
of agriculture
and the foundingof states.
Men
could fish on
"

"

"

9.

"

4.

Originof the
the Nile and
of

hunt

The

another.

one

them,

if

resort

to

they were
farming.

nature

live

to

This

and

marshes

the

the marshes

among

State
of its

of the

valley,
independently
country, .however,compelled

there

in

step could

considerable
be

not

the
irrigating

taken

fields.

This

numbers,
without

For

so

to

ing
drain-

great

an

enterprisecooperationwas
brought the
necessary.
The
whole
of
Nile
the
state into being.
course
through Egypt
held by small
to be
came
states, each occupying the entire
width of the valley
and

miles

few

need

of

length. Each
ruled by a king,
was
whose first duty was

its

to control the waters

by
so

and

canals

make

to

as

dikes,
life

possible.The need
of
enforcing strict
cooperation among
the people in these
labors

rendered

absolute

and

his
a

duced
re-

to
subjects

condition
than

better

him

but little

slavery.

Gradually war

and

conquest united the

kingdoms,

petty

there

until
be but

came

THE

SPHINX

to
( From

OF

GIZEH

photograph)

one.

events
were
accompaniedby a great development
political
of culture.
We
safelysay that about 5000 B.C. the Egyptians
may
(3400)
Before the close of the period
had emerged from barbarism.

These

their civilization had

taken

on

the character

which

it maintained

thereafter with little change.

The

14.

Old

B.C.). Among
"

Kingdom;
the many

the

Pharaohs

titles of the

of

Memphis

(3460-2100

Egyptian king,the

one

by

Egypt

IO

which
"

he is still commonly

House," appliedto

Great

times

earliest known

From

him

he

The

is Pharaoh.

known
as

looked

signifies

his

compliment by

upon as
unification of the

was

term

subjects.
god. The

country was
completed the
were
Me'nes
great rulers,
(3400 B.C.). He and his successors
who gave their country prosperity.
It became
Memphis is said to have been founded by Menes.
B.C.
the capitalof the kingdom about 3000
Among the Pha-

Pharaoh

who

"

EGYPTIAN
EMPIRE
CIRCA
The

1000-1275

Empire

at

its height

Partiallydependent
are

states

underlined

Williams

raohs

who

resided here

were

the builders

Engraving Co..

N.Y.

of the three

Gizeh

pyramids

(Gee'zeh),in the cemetery of their capital.They will be

described below.1
Near this group is the famous
tic,
sphinx,a gigan-

at

human-headed

lion,carved

from
'"27.

hard, fine

rock.

Egypt

12

the

of

Egypt.

III.

His

south

Thothmes

extended

realm

Cataract

the Fourth

greatest of these warrior

The

on

the Nile.

from

the

kings was
Euphrates River to
Egypt had

to this time

Down

a
singlecountry
merely a kingdom
ruled by a monarch.
Through the acquisition
it became
an
of foreignterritory
empire.
were
the merchants
Meanwhile
tradingwith
world and importing the prodall the known
ucts
thrived.
of distant regions.1 Industry
to internal
Pharaohs attended carefully
The
Thebes
a
nificent
magimprovements. They made
city,adorned with obelisks,colossal
statues, and temples. No other city of the
with it in splendor.
time could compare
the mind of
of all this magnificence,
In spite
the Egyptians had
long ceased to invent.

been

"

about

From

1400

There

declined.

the

B.C.

to

were

civnizatior^japidly
of
brief periods"

be

of (therace
recovery;' but the vitality
and its greatness lived only in

country found

The

warlike

Hittites,a

They

wrested

Ra-me'ses

from

powerful

people
Egypt

II in sixteen

of

was

hausted
ex-

history.
in the

enemy

\\sia

Minor.

all northern
of

Syria.
tard fighting

years
He ther/dividedSyria

stayedtheir conquest.
has been
with them by treaty. The document
II
preserved,and is the oldesc existingtreaty MUMMY
RAMESES
OF
)
(From
photograph
between
nations
two
(i2y/B.C.).
Rameses
a
was
great Jt^uilder.
Throughout Egypt he repaired
old temples and erected new
The proud monarch
had his
ones.
make
of himself that all might
statues
enormous
sculptors
many
of covering
duly appreciatehis great majesty. Followingthe custom
a

walls and

pleasurein
Some

columns

writing,he

representinghis personalcombats

believe
2

with picturesand

then in

that he

was

the Pharaoh

who

with

especial

the Hittites.

oppressed the

Egypt.
"21.

took

"52-

brews
He-

Political Decline

Foreign

18.

and

Invasions

the

Pharaohs

Conquests

13

(945-525B.C.). During
"

had

and more
cenary
merdepended more
on
recruited
from
nations.
As the government
foreign
troops,
weak, a leader of some
Libyan mercenaries usurped
again became
the line of foreignrulers thus established
the throne (945 B.C.). Under
the people were
greatlyoppressed,and the condition of the
Meantime
Nubia
revolted, and
extremely wretched.
country was
her kings got control of a large part of Egypt. Weakened
by
fell under
the country nearly as far as Thebes
misrule and strife,
of Assyria.1
the power
Egypt remained a part of the Assyrianempire but a few years
freed
(670-663 B.C.). Psam-met'i-chus,assuming the crown,
his
the foreignyoke, and gave it peace under
his country from
Sa'is in the western
part of the Delta.
strong rule. His capitalwas
sank to decay. As the
whereas Thebes
It became
a splendidcity,
cenaries,
Pharaoh
and his successors
depended greatlyon Greek mernew
to trade in
they treated the Greeks liberally.Many came
of the
allowed to found a colonyat one
the country, and they were
their

wars

of the Nile.2

mouths

country and

to

take

rule of the Pharaohs

Other
home
of

Greeks
some

came

to see

the wonders

of its wisdom.

Sais,Egypt

was

prosperous

of the

During the long

at

home

and

spected
re-

foreignnations. Finallyit was conqueredby Camking of Persia,and annexed to his empire (525 B.C. ; " 64).
by'ses,
(i) In the fifthmillennium
of Political History.
19. Summary
ism,
(5000-4000)B.C. the Egyptians had alreadyemerged from barbarthe soil. (2)Before
and were
founding small states and tilling
among

"

(3400)the whole country was

phis
(3) The Pharaohs of Memunited under one
strong government.
the most
powerful of the Old Kingdom (3400-2160).
were
the

end

They

were

of the

fourth

millennium

the builders of the great pyramids. The

decay. Memphis declined. (4) Then

era

ness
closed in weak-

period
for the capital.
with Thebes
of the Middle
Kingdom (2160-1788),
internal improvements,
The age is noted for conquest, commerce,
the
It was
of a great system of irrigation.
and the establishment
time c
classic period of Egyptian history. (5)Again followed a
in which the Hyksos conquered the country.
decline (1788-1580),
and

came

the

Egypt

14

their century of rule the Egyptians came

into close contact
Asia, introduced the horse, and developed a militaryspirit.

During
with

periodof the New Kingdom which followed (1580-945),

the Pharaohs
conquered Nubia to the Fourth Cataract and all
merce
Syria,thus creatingan empire. This age, too, is famous for comand publicworks.
(7) Then followed a time of decay and
of foreigninvasion and conquest (945-525),
tury
interruptedby a cenand prosperity
and a half of freedom
under
the Pharaohs
of
after the Persian
Sais. (8) For a long time
conquest (525)the
in
of
of
that
other countries.
history Egypt merges
(6)In

the

The

20.

Dynasties.

"

third

Egyptian priest who

Man'e-tho, an

in the

of his country

lived

in the

Greek

history
language.
century B.C.,
made
of it,and some
Though the book disappeared,abstracts were
tions
quotadown
The
dates thus handed
are
taken, by later writers.
helpful,
Manetho
divided
the
though often proved inaccurate
by better sources.
into royal lines or dynasties. From
Menes
to the
history of the Pharaohs
Persian conquest are twenty-six. A list of the principaldynasties for reference
is given below, as they are used for dating in all works
on
Egypt.
I. Old Kingdom,
3400-2160, dynastiesI-X.
dynasty IV.
Pyramid builders,2900-2750,
II. Middle
Kingdom, 2160-1788, dynastiesXI, XII.
rulers of the period,2000-1788, dynasty XII.
famous
Most
VII.
III. Dissolution; the Hyksos, 1788-1580, dynasties XIII-X
IV.

wrote

1580-945, dynasties,XVIII-XXL
and rulers,1580-1350, dynasty XVIII.
great conquerors
and
dynasties XXII-XXVI.
Conquests, 945-525,
Foreign Invasions
of Sais,663-525, dynasty XXVI.
under
the Pharaohs
Restoration
Kingdom,

New
The

V.

II.
Classes

21.

Throughout
lived in mud
the mother

bread

their

beat

him

were

for the

miserable

along the

and

narrow,

in another

or

dressed in

ground

spun,
at his trade.

mistake
slightest

huts of
crooked

quarter.

the poor
lanes.

They

Middle

Classes.

of the

ashes,sewed,

in the field

The

historymost

carried water,

day

and

Occupations: the Poor

and

huts

in the

CIVILIZATION

people were
poor.
singlecotton garment.

between

meal
and
He

While

stones, baked

two

the father worked

toiled

under

were

The
were

They

wove,

inattention

or

to

master

all

who

duty.

closelytogether

crowded
houses

of

and
larger,

the
were

tradesmen
made

of

Social Classes
better furnished.

brick and

had

manufacturer

Each

There

were

15
as

trades

many

as

slaves

among
and he

working under him,

produce.
market-place
provisions
in
were
large baskets restingon the ground, and
kept for sale
peoplebrought various articles,
usuallyof their own make, to barter
for grain,vegetables,
Near
the provisionmarket
fish,and meat.
the bazaar,in which were
was
displayedfor sale all kinds of manufactured
native
and
both
imported from Nubia, Arabia,
wares,
Babylon, Syria,and the islands of the Aegean Sea. There were
embroideries,fine linens,jewelry,scented woods and gums, coral
and amber, glassware,
and beautiful pottery.
The poor as well as the rich had a lively
a
imagination,
ready
wit,and strong social qualities.Often the workmen
squandered
in a fortnight,
and
their month's
driven by starvawere
tion
wages
But
fresh supply of provisionsquieted them
to strike.
a
and sent them
back to their work.
They were a patient people
and obedient to their superiors.They had boundless reverence
for
us.

retailed his
generally

own

the god Pharaoh.1

Under

22.

than

absolute

The

Soldiers.

happy.

when

But

toil for him

in

In the

monarchy
When

"

of Nubia

the

that

few

of

Syria; for
those

who

class of

all the

men

who

made

land, granted each

live free from

rent.

The

or

of.

forth

best

men

to

temple,they felt it a grievous

peopleloved

went

dreamed

themselves,the people were

the enlistment

peasants had to enlist when

other government

no

chose the strongest and

buildinga pyramid
was

ever

was

left to

Pharaoh

affliction. Still harder

or

these circumstances

to

of soldiers for
and

peace,
war

and there
called,

ever
came

an

invasion

they knew

well

returned.

The

to be in addition

soldiers. Pharaoh, who owned

soldier about
eight acres on which to

livingas

holders of these lots

paid for

the

use

of

The king hired many

by service in the army when needed.
soldiers,
too, from Libya,Greece,and other foreignlands.
mained
Children usuallyreOfficials.
and
23. Education
; Scribes
through
in the class of their parents. But it was
possible
education to rise in the world.
If a boy showed remarkable talent
be sufficiently
and
ambition, his parents, however
poor, might
him to school and pay his tuition. From
to send
self-sacrificing
them

"

l"

14-

Egypt

years of age he studied

writing,and arithmetic. Then he was placedas

six

elementaryreading,
in the
an
apprentice

twelve

eightto

or

completionof this traininghe was sure of

and with
privateperson or official,
employment as a scribe by some
geniusand industryhe could rise to a placenext to Pharaoh.
recruited
to some
officialsformed
The
a
hereditarynobility,
All necessarily
described above.
from the lower classes,
as
extent
office of

had

the

others
justice,

administer

to

with

himself

surrounded

Pharaoh

education.

some

some
officials,

On

scribe.

supervise the

to

host of
erection

and
publicworks, or to make the biennial census
of property throughoutthe kingdom, or to collect and
assessment
Each
the revenue.
or
district,
province,of the kingdom
manage
ally
Generhad its local government and officials subjectto Pharaoh.
time priests.They could be
the officials were
at the same
found
not
only at the king's court and in the capitalsof the
of the realm.
not
When
but in every nook and corner
provinces,
often corrupt and oppressive,
controlled by a strong king,they were
of the

and

care

and

their misrule

We

Religion.

24.

"

of their country.

the downfall

hastened

cannot

the

understand

Egyptian without
controlled
which
religion,

making ourselves acquainted with his

of
his thoughtsand actions.
He
believed in a countless number
of which lived in a mountain
each one
or
rock,
good and evil spirits,
tree
the sun, or some
other object.
a
or
river,a star, the moon,
he looked upon
Only the greater and more
powerfulof these spirits
and women,
as
gods. His deities had the forms not only of men
but

also of

birds,fishes,
crocodiles,
cats, dogs, and

cattle.

to secure
Expense and care were
necessary
the favor of the gods. Each deityrequireda temple as a dwelling.
Patterned
after the house of the chief or king,it was
a
originally
singleroom
containingthe image of the deityand simplyfurnished.
But gradually,
the wealth and power
of the priests
as
grew, the

25. The

temple

sacred
were

leading to
was

most

"

enlarged. Rooms

was

and
Outside

Temple.

tools and

open
vast

the work

of

vessels

were

court-yardsand

gateways.
a

for the storage of the

succession

stupendous temple

the

The
of

added

to

corridors

temple

kings.

world

has

of

treasures,
furniture,

the

of

chapel.
original
columns
gigantic

Am'mon

When
known.

at

finished it

Thebes
was

Travellers

the
still

Religion
wonder

at the

and
were

beams
straight

able to

considerable
in the world

The

of their art.

masters

were

grand ruins.

architects who

They

used

planned such

columns

and

work

piersfor

port,
sup-

for the roof.

Through these means

they
combine strengthwith simplicity,
to which they added
and
finish. They were
in fact the best architects
beauty
tillthey were
The sculptors
surpassedby the Greeks.

TEMPLE

AT

THEBES

(Restored)

had

to

decorate

the walls

and

columns

with

chisel

and to
inscriptions,
not only a goodly

images of the god. The god demanded

but also food,fine clothing,
of gold and silver,
ornaments
dwelling,
ture
and tools for his worship. The manufacjewels,
vessels,
furniture,
of these thingsrequired
of industries and a great
a largenumber
varietyof skill. The desire to give the gods the best that human
tory
knowledge and trainingcould produce was throughoutancient histhe strongest force at work
To

each great

assigneda large tract

god was
wealth, includinga host
his cattle.
had

under

The
him

estate
as

of slaves who

was

assistants

of land and

tilled his fields and

managed by
a

of civilization.

for the advancement

the

largenumber

other
tended

who
god'schief priest,
of officials of various

themselves of many
ranks, the highest
priestswere
being Pharaoh.
They dressed in fine linen, bathed twice each
day, and twice in the night,and shaved their heads, faces,and
entire bodies,to keep themselves as clean as possible.They lived
in the sacred buildings,
drew their support from the templerevenues,

grades. The

and

were

free from

then,that .every

one

taxes

and

militaryservice. There

longed to

be

priesL

is

no

wonder,

Egypt

i8

26.

in the Future

Belief

Life and

its Effects.

Belief in

"

future

of the Egyptians. In
religion
it that it
their great care to preserve the dead body, they embalmed
might never
decay ; for if that happened, their spiritat the same
The embalmed
time suffered an agonizingdeath.
body is called a

life formed

prominent part

mummy.

Each

and
afford,

set aside

worshipof

built

man
a

strong and

as

great

tomb

part of his wealth

considerable

Private

his soul.

of the

citizens,
nobles,and

even

he could

as

to maintain

Pharaoh

the
were

in order that not

comparativelymodest dwellings,
everlastingmummies,
only the immortal gods,but also their own
each with its spirit,
might dwell in grand, indestructible homes.
Tombs
and temples,therefore,
their only great buildings.
were
kinds of tombs
Of the many
the largest
Pyramids.
27. The
and
most
enduring are the pyramids, erected by certain early
bodies.
The greatest covers
thirteen
kings to receive their own
about
four hundred
and eightyfeet high.
originally
acres, and was
content

to live in

"

Hidden
was

far within

difficult of

and

placedthe mummy
the immensity of

of the builder.

We

are

in which

astonished

only
weight

not

whole, and at the size and

of the limestone
blocks which compose
it,but also at the delicate
of its construction.
the motive
which led
Religion was
accuracy
nomical
to the work.
Religionencouraged, too, the growth of the astroand mathematical
ligion
knowledge needed for planningit. Recreated the skill in organizinglabor, in cutting,polishing,
and laying the stones, and all the practical
engineeringused in the
at

the work

is the chamber

access

as

building. It is doubtful whether with our

be able,if we
wished, to equal the work.
28. Moral

modern

science

we

should

Though their worship

to us
seems
couraged
repulsiveand degrading,their religionenjustice,
honesty,purity,and other virtues. At the judgment
seat of the god in the spirit
world,each soul before admission
to eternal happinesswas
dered,
requiredto declare that he had not murstolen,coveted the property of others,blasphemed the gods,
given false testimony,or ill-treated his parents. Here are six
Features

of their

Religion.

"

of animals

of

our

29.

Before

Ten

Commandments.

Science
4000

and
B.C.

Literature.

their

"

Their

knowledge

of

sciences

astronomy

were

all

enabled

practical.
them

to

Science and
devise

calendar

months.

of

365 days

to

Literature
the year,

19

divided

into twelve

The

of measuring the lands and drawing boundnecessity

ary
lines between
them
estates
taught
arithmetic,
geometry, and
control
of
The
the
waters
ous
surveying.
requiredhydraulics.Variother applied sciences,such as architecture and navigation,
have
above.
incidentallybeen mentioned
They had, too, some
medicine
of
and
Their
knowledge
they made of
surgery.
paper
which grew abundantly along the Nile.
a reed
pa-py'rus,
Though
different
we
use
a
material,we have kept the name
papyrus, merely
givingit an Englishform, our word paper.
The
and wrote
on
Egyptians inscribed on monuments
papyrus
the chief events
of each year, works
on
medicine,religious
texts,
and
moral
proverbs and precepts. Kings, nobles, and wealthy
according to their means, took pleasurein having their
commoners,
achievements
and
virtues recorded
on
temple columns, obelisks,
the walls of tombs.
also simple songs of the shepThere were
or
herds,
the threshers,
and other classes of laborers,and religious
and hymns.
ing
In time they began to write stories for teachpoems
ment,
useful or moral
some
lesson,tales of adventure for entertain-

There were
great numbers
songs and stories of love.
of business letters and documents.
of this written material
Most
and

perished; much remains to be discovered ; but enough has

been found to giveus a clear knowledge of the lifeand achievements
of these people through a periodof more
than four thousand years.
a
The
to
Civilization.
Egyptians were
30. Contributions
secluded,home-keeping people. Cut off by deserts and seas from
other nations,they worked
their destiny almost unaided by
out
reason
foreigners.For the same
they influenced few other peoples.
The Syrians imitated some
of their industries and adopted some
of their ideas,but got far more
the Babylonians.1 Only in
from
direction did the stream
of Egyptian influence flow with a
one
This was
toward
Crete and the Aegean islands.2
strong current.
continuallyto
From
the fourth millennium
on, ships pliedalmost
Aegean
and fro,exchanging the products of these regions. The
has

"

folk

profitedgreatly through intercourse

They

received
i

" 48.

from

it and

handed

down

with

in

the

older

country.

improved patterns
"

" 83.

Egypt

20

the

of

columns,

still

Briefly, the
the

were

their

improvements
the

continue

to

so

of

the

earliest
the

to

what

From

people
high civilization

and

men

the

the
location

the

and

the

Life

II.

in

Thebes.

Useful

Arts.

Egyptian

could

was

the

borrowed

and

of

future

history
that
the

lonia.2
Baby-

happiness,

heritage

and
were

carried

of

Egypt?

in

of

the

Gizeh,

that

is

they

they passed

most

on

competent

Life

Erman,

Archaeology,

ch.

v;

4.

the

the

from

portant
im-

most

of

proof

age,
of coin-

dress

facing

scenes

and

the

invention

Describe

Describe

5.

Thebes,

called

pyramids

before

on

market

p.

of

scribe
De-

14.

the

the

the

maps

Sais.

Topics

Life in

Maspero,

the

are

head.

the

be

Egyptians
How

2.

trade

markets

shape

"

"

in

in

as

Questions

Note-book

I.

the

knowledge,

the

race,

Egyptians

history?

Memphis,

Egypt,

human

who

well

as

when

B.C.,
of

comfort,

civilization

respectively

women

eye

of

view

How

3.

in

instance

for

of

ancient

to

people

century

work.

good

point
of

the

which

all unconscious

are

Egypt

became

Suggestive
i.

in

the

of

we

furniture,
things

in search

Orient

science

Greeks,

place
of the

creators

other

many

seventh

essential

the

by

the

household

of

and

visit the

advancement

vastly improved
ages.

In

of

things,

mental

the

to

elements

these

All
and

began

the

forms

daily life,though

our

origin."

Greeks

learned

they

in

part

the

seals,

weapons,

Egyptian

of the

some

"

later

came

statues,

their

play

their

of

who

Greeks

to

in

Ancient

Ancient

Breasted,

Egypt

and

Egypt,

chs.

History

of

Assyria,

ch.

xviii, xix;
the

Ancient

i.

pero,
Mas-

tians,
Egyp-

88-102.

III.

iii,"

The

Pyramids.

"

Breasted,

ch.

vi;

Maspero,

Egyptian

Archaeology,

2.

Quoted

from

Dr.

Adolf

Erman,

noted

Egyptologist.

" 183.

THE

EUPHRATES

RIVER

CHAPTER
TIGRIS-EUPHRATES

THE

x\bout

31.

The
"

of Arabia.
and

Gulf

Country
Across

and

of the

on

VALLEY

3500-538

Semites;

the Arabian

It is bounded

mountains.

III

Gulf

the

B.C.

the

two

Rivers

and

their

fluence.
In-

from

Egypt is the sandy desert

northwest by Syria,a land of hills

Along the northeastern

border

extend

the Persian

rivers.
In the
valleyof the Tigrisand Eu-phra'tes
south this valleyis separated from Syriaby the desert.
Toward
the north the two regionsapproach each other.
The great Arabian
desert and the hill and valleyregionsbordering it togetherformed
the country of the Semites.
As their historybeginsin the valley,
must
we
study this region first.
north of
The Tigrisand Euphrates rivers rise in the mountains
and
the Semite
country. They flow in a southeasterlydirection,
jointogether before emptying into the Persian Gulf. Along the
the east side,
middle course
of the Tigris,
an
was
As-syr'i-a,
on
chiefly
undulatingplain. Farther down on both sides of the Euphrates
Here
the valleyis uniformlyflat. This region was
Bab-y-lo'ni-a.
the valleywas
In its natural state it was
like that of the Nile.
the

The

22

Valley
Tigris-Euphrates
inundated

by the
early summer.

and

government
and

Hence

was

necessary
of
repair dikes and

entire overflow
canals

in the

rivers

and

used

strong

for the building

canals.

drawn

was

spring

The

off in these

economicallyfor irrigation.

In this respect the system differed

the

from

the waters
Egyptian. When
were
properly regulated,the soil was as
productive as that of the Nile valley.
In

respects the country

some

was

less

favored than

Egypt. As it had no stone

suitable timber, the people were
pelled
comor
brick
almost exclusively
for
to use
ral
building. Then, too, there were no natuIt was
defences along the borders.
therefore exposedto invasion on all sides,
from the Arabian
desert. The
especially
fact, however, that the country
very
accessible tended
to
so
was
bring the
inhabitants more
readilyinto relations
of
with surrounding peoples. Because
shall
such similarities and differences,
we
of Babylonian
outline
find the broad
historyand character like the Egyptian,
though unlike it in detail. Particularly
the influence of Babyloniaon other countries
more
was
widely extended.
32.

the

ruins

over

INSCRIPTION

Recording

OF

(Limestone tablet

of years, much
We find it seamed
canals

of ancient

with

had

and

little
of it

with
dotted

gists
In 1842 archaeolo-

mounds.

HAMMURABI

buildingof
temple.
the

desolate.

now

has

country

for hundreds

care

is

the

As

"

Writing.
Civilization;

of the

Remains

began

to

excavate

these

heaps,and

ruins

of ancient

British Museum)

found
cities.

them
The

to

be

work

the

still

continues, and

Valley
Tigris-Euphrates

The

24

vaded

the

valleywe
they were

3000) B.C.
about

as

Arabia

livingthere

far advanced

thousand

poured

into

the

When

valley,these

late-comers

for the

Meanwhile

advanced

Sumerians

in the north
Period

34.

of

of the

Egyptians had

the

overflow

cultivation.

more

as

that time

At

new

the country under

mastery.

in cities.

in civilization

earlier.1

years

(4000they were

certain that in the fourth millennium

are

The

two

the Semites
and

of Semites
found

from
of

much

began a longstruggle
adopted the culture of the

races

cities of their

founded

been

own

ally
gener-

"

Babylonia.
(about3500-1917

City-Kingdoms

B.C.).

For

"

of
long time the country, like Egypt, was divided into a number
the important cities
states,each centringin a singlecity. Among
a

Sumerian

were

from

the

Semitic Ac'cad

and

Ur

beginning endless

powerfulsubdued

the

wars

weaker, and

and

Babylon.

There

the

The

states.
among
built up greater kingdoms.

known
of many
of these early rulers are
through the records they have left. But the first whose name
and

names

deeds

here be mentioned
First he united

all

Sar'gon,king of Accad
Babylonia under his crown.
was

about

more

The
to

us

need

2500

B.C.2

Then, continuing
into Elam, northward

far
his conquests, he extended
his realm eastward
of the Tigris,
and westward
to the upper waters

over

northern

Probably he crossed to Cyprus.

From
His confind the influence of Babylon there.
his time we
quests
brought Syriaand Babyloniainto close relations. Each got
the productsand ideas of the other.
The greater share of benefit
to Syria,
came
however,which was behind Babyloniain civilization.
At home
the conqueror
built temples to the gods and a great palace
for himself.
In appreciation
of his own
as ruler of nearlyall
power
the known
world, he began to call himself a god. The empire
he created was
the first known
far earlier than the Egypto history,
tian.3
fell to pieces.
Having no organization,however, it soon
The placeof Accad was
The empire built
taken in part by Ur.
than a century.
and lasted but littlemore
smaller,
up by its kingswas
Syria

The

to

The

Accad.

Mediterranean.

fact that the Egyptian civilizationbegan about

the Sumerian
2

the

were

thousand

years

a doubt
by the monuments.
usually called Agade, and the country in which it
date formerlygiven, 3800 B.C., is now
found to be incorrect.

approximate;

earlier than

is proved beyond

city is
The

he

now

might

have

lived

century

or

two

earlier.

situated

was

2500
3

"

is
17.

only

Political
The

period,though short,was

After

its downfall

more

less

or

progress

in the arts.

with
supremacy,
coming to the front.

Babylon was
city (1958-1916B.C.),brought

Ham-mu-ra'bi, king
Babylonia under his sway.
It is worthy of notice that
this

25

for the

Meanwhile

success.

all

the

strife within and

of continual

of unusual

one

other cities contended

of

one

History

of

period just reviewed,though

invasions from without,brought

Babylonian civilization to its highestpoint. Thereafter was some

advance, but cultural stagnationand decline.
political
of Babylon (1917 to about
35. The First Supremacy
1250 B.C.).
date
-We
the beginningof the Old Babylonianempire1from
may
the year in which Hammurabi
completed the unification of Babylonia
(1917). His realm included also western
Elam, Assyria,
and Syria. Hammurabi
is especially
famous
for his code (written
of laws.
There were
written laws before him, and one
collection)
but his is the earliest that has survived.
A
or
more
collections,
stone
which it was
on
copiedwas found by explorersin 1901-1902.
For

hundreds

two

rivers.

her

of years it continued
in force in the country of the
After about three centuries Babyloniadeclined and lost
became

foreignpossessions.Assyria

state

and

then

rival.

About

1250

B.C.

an

independent
Assyrianking conquered
first

an

Babylon. Though the latter cityrecovered freedom for a time,

she remained
by the
during the next six centuries overshadowed
superiorpower on her northern border.
(about 1250-606 B.C.). The
36. The
Assyrian Supremacy
behind the BabySemites.
At this time they were
lonians
Assyrianswere
their
in civilization,
but were
adoptingtheir habits of life,
beliefs. Composed largelyof free
inventions,and their religious
strong in war, as such nations always
peasants, the nation was
already created and
As a rival of Babylon, Assyria had
are.
lost an
empire. After 1250 B.C. she continued her strugglefor
"

Her greatest successes

with varyingfortune.
power
At that
in the eighthand seventh centuries B.C.
became

the greatest the world

historians have
''Till recently,
but

it is

now

well known

Babylonia tillabout

1000

that
B.C.

been

had

known.

accustomed

the Chaldeans,

to

were

time her

It reached

call the old

achieved

empire

from

the

empire "Chaldean";

fresher Semitic tribe,did not

invade

The

26

Persian

Gulf

Tigris-EuphratesValley

to the Black

Sea, and

above

from

nearlyto the Caspian Sea.

All the empiresthus far formed were
under
native kings. These rulers were
opportunity. So loose a system gave

Memphis

on

the

Nile

The

first state

to

make

business

ASSYRIANS

(From Hommel,

IN

made

no

up of

tributarystates

ready to revolt at every

promise of lastinglong.

of war,

conquest, and

govern-

BATTLE

Geschichte Babyloniens und

Assyriens)

largescale was Assyria. Her great improvement was the

each
division of the subjectcountry into provinces(sa'tra-pies),
ruled by a governor
appointed by the Assyrian king. The governor's
of
his
administer
the army
district,
duty was to command
tribute.
Under
and oversee
the collection of the annual
justice,
who enjoyedfar less power and independhim were
the native kings,
ence
than had
those |rf earlier empires. Another
policyof the
from
of the subjects
to transplant
government was
great numbers
it aimed
to
one
By this means
part of the empire to another.
and to make
the people more
dependent.
uproot local patriotism
of merAs the peasant class died out, the king composed his army
cenaries,
who
could be supported only by plunder and excessive
and he failed
His rule was
taxation.
utterlyselfish and oppressive,
from foreigninvasion.
to protect his subjects
end.
The
The
to a sudden
Babyloniansrevolted,
empire came
and with the Medes, a powerfulpeople east of Assyria,they laid
ment

on

Assyria; Babylon

27

siegeto Nin'e-veh,the populous and wealthy capitalof the empire.

After two years they captured and sacked it.- When
ished
they had fintheir

the

the

time

same

860-783.
745-727.
722-705.

705-680.

splendid temples and palaceswere

ruins.

At

empire fell (606B.C.).

and

Persons

1125.

its

work,

Events

in

Assyrian History for Reference

Tig'lath-Pi-le'ser
I, first notable Assyrian conqueror.
First great age of Assyria.
Tiglath-PileserII, a great organizer as well as conqueror.
Sar'gon, a great organizer and statesman; Assyria at the height
of her glory.
Sen-nach'e-rib

with

war

wages

and

Egypt

Israel,and

destroys

Babylon.
680-668.

E'sar-had'don

668-626.

the
As'shur-ban'i-pal,
and

Egypt
The
606.

The

1000

from

B.C.

Media

Babylon and conquers

last magnificent king.

become

Scyth'i-ansinvade

destruction

Second

37. The

rebuilds

of

Supremacy

into

independent.
the

empire.

of Nineveh.

fresh horde

Arabia

of Semites

southern

Babylon (606-538B.C.). About

"

"

the Chaldeans

Babylonia.

While

fall of Nineveh

to
chiefly

From

these

them

throne.

people,who

it got the

The

the

and

Mediterranean.

improvement
empire, which

Chal-de'a.

name

reignof forty-four
years
The

he

was

conquering

the

dominion

along

brick wall

to its defence

his northern

hundred

feet

the
upon
able
In an

kings sat

Neb-u-chad-nez'zar.

enlargedhis

of his country and

this frontier with

Their

greater part of his energy

extended

had poured

Assyrianyoke.
due
of Babylon were
second supremacy
of the country.
held full possession
now

brilliant

most

"

it the

country, they had struggledto shake off from

The

Egypt.

westward
he devoted

againstthe
border.

high,and

He

to the
to

the

Median
fortified

surrounded

about
a square
Babylon was now
citywith massive defences.
fortymiles in circuit. Within the vast walls the space was divided
into rectangular
by streets,as in the most improved modern cities,
and
blocks occupiedby houses three or four stories high. Here
ings
there rose giganticpalacesand temples. One of the greatestbuildof this king was
the
hanging garden." It towered to a great
his

"

The

28

suppliedby engineswith water from the

built to please his Median
artificial mountain
was

heightin terraces,and
river.

Tigris-EuphratesValley

This

was

him and
up in a hill country. Under
queen, who had grown
the greatest, richest,and
long time afterward Babylon was
attractive

cityin

and

years

some

the world.

His

after his death

successors,

the

however,

cityfell into

for

most

weak,

were

the hands

of the

Persians.1

(i) In the earliest known

small city-kingdomsendlessly
times there were
at war
with
many
another
one
(3500-1917 B.C.). (2) One of them, Accad, under
rabi
Sargon created a short-lived empire (2500). (3) FinallyHammu(1917)united them all under Babylon. He is noted,too, for his
law code.
The
Elam,
empire he established comprised western
time
and
In
lost
these
Babylon
Syria. (4)
foreignposAssyria,
sessions,
but did not whollyyieldits supremacy
tillit was
conquered
by Assyria(1250). The empire of the latter reached its heightin
It was
the eighthand seventh centuries.
greater in extent and far
better organized than any before it. (5) In 606 its capital,
Nineveh,
torious
was
destroyed,and the empire was divided between the vicMedes
and
Babylonians. The new
Babylonian empire,
brilliant,
though short-lived,was
especiallyunder the rule of
Nebuchadnezzar.
(6) Soon after his death it was conquered by
the Persians (538).
Social Classes.
The
law recognizedthree
39. Civilization :
and the slaves.
great classes: the rich,the poor (freelaborers),
The rich comprisedthe few landed proprietors,
the king'sofficials,
the merchants
and bankers, and the priests.Most
and
merchants
class.
Some
of the
bankers,however,were included in the priestly
38. Summary

of Political

History.

"

"

free laborers

were

artisans

in the

but the great

cities,

the land.

share

mass

were

of the

They paid a
produce to the
owner.
Though legally
free,theyenjoyed,in fact,but littleliberty.
The slaves formed a largeclass,
employed mostly in the industries.
There
chief proprietorsof the soil, the palace (king)
two
were
tenants

on

"

and

"

"

the god." The palace revenues

went
to the support of the
king and his officialsand army, those of the god, to the priests
as
in

Egypt.
'"63.

Valley
Tigris-Euphrates

The

30

but
other Oriental peoples,
among
rich.
In a family of several wives
as

property.

In

limited to the

was
practice

one

chief and

was

business and

could transact

Women

subordinate.

in

fact,their condition

seems

the others

inherit and
to

have

been

queath
beas

Egypt. The civilization picturedby these laws was

It had
far older than ours.
highlydeveloped. It was very old
passed its prime and was declining.
had the
The Babylonian religion
42. Religion and Literature.
began with
same
originas the Egyptian.1 In fact,all pagan religions
But
the people of the Tigristhe worship of objectsof nature.
favorable

as

in

"

"

CYLINDER-SEAL
The

king is led by

or

priestinto

AN

EARLY

the presence

KING
of the Moon-God.

St-W

(BritishMuseum)

Euphrates valleywere
as
gods the sun, moon,

inclined than

the

Egyptians to revere
and stars.
Heaven, Earth, and Sea were
likewise great deities. As the peoplegrew in knowledge,they were
inclined to regardas deities the spirits
of those objectsrather
more
than the thingsthemselves.
and every association
Every locality
of men
had its gods. More
important was the chief deityof the
city-kingdom,and greatest of all was the god of an imperialcapital,
as Nineveh
or
Babylon. Religionhad to do mainly with life on
earth.
To the future world the Babylonianspaid little heed, and
more

'"24.

Religion
of death

their view

gloomy.

was

Some

31

features of their religion

written by the
moral, others the opposite. The literature,
and stored in libraries,
was
It prescribed
mostly religious.
priests
were

in great detail the

ceremonies

evil spirits,
the
repelling
and

for

they could

"

of

find

worship,the forms of magic for

for soothingthe anger of the gods

prayers

winning their favor.

divination

of

The

priestsinvented many
ways
will
of
t
he
the
gods. The best means
discovering
the examination

was

MODEL

CLAY

of the liver of

OF

animal

offered

LIVER

Inscribed with magical formulae

an

of

used in divination.

(BritishMuseum)

in sacrifice. This kind of divination

system.

Another

means

of

they made

the
foretelling

into

future

was

complicated
the

study

of

known

and five
of the sun, moon,
heavenly bodies,especially
planets. In this way they created astrology. All this priestly
the

lore

was

Many
Sumerian.

reduced
of the

to

writing.

texts
religious

Grammars

and

were

composed

dictionarieswere

in both

necessary

Semitic and
in the

study

The
"

of the

Tigris-Euphrates
Valley

dead

matics,
language." Their scientific works included matheogy:
astronomy, and geography,zoology,botany, and mineralrecord
of each king'sachievements,
Their historywas
a
More
written by his scribe with extravagant flattery.
attractive are
the hymns and religious
myths. They created the epic a poem
of considerable lengthwhich celebrates in narrative form the deeds
"

,;:"

TEMPLE

BABYLONIAN

Hilprecht,Explorationsin Bible Lands.

(From

and

Holman

of

real

of

account

which

one

gives

an

gods.
same

mythical

or

the

human

These

events.

tales

of
are

Co.)

One

of

flood

and

the

familyalone
the

was

creation

somewhat

permission of the publishers,A. J.

the

heroes.

great

account

NIPPUR

AT

With

these

poems

building of

saved.
of the

Another
world

by

includes

an

the

ship in
religious
epic
one

of

their

like the Biblical stories of the

Science and

43.

and

Astronomy

been mentioned

the

Calendar.

in connection

greatest advance

was

in

Art

33

Most

"

of the sciences have

with industries and literature. Their

astronomy.

From

priestsin their loftytemples watched

the

immemorial

sky

and

time the

recorded

daily
They soon learned to foretelleclipses,
almost
and
determined
preciselythe length of the solar year.
They divided it into twelve months of thirtydays each. As this
reckoningleft the year short by about five days,they made the
correction by insertingan
additional month
whenever
necessary.
divided
into
four
The month
weeks
of seven
they
approximately
of the sun,
days each. The days of the week bore the names
and five known
planets. The day contained twelve hours,
moon,
The hours they measdouble
which were
the lengthof our
own.
ured
and
the sun-dial.
by the water-clock
which they had invented.
Though the decimal system was known,
the notation
based
on
chieflyused was
6o (hencecalled sexagesiox6ori2X5
imal).
The
standard
the
weight was
into
The
talent, divided
sixty minas.
mina, weighingnearly i^ pounds,contained
of length
sixtyshek'els. Their measures
based originally
the finger,
were
on
hand,
of the stars.

the movements

foot,and
44.

arm.

Architecture

of the arts
connection
to

speak of

above

have

and
been

Most

Sculpture.

"

above

considered

with the industries.

architecture and

stated,all their great

in

It remains

sculpture. As
works

"

ples,
tem-

were
palaces,and walls of defence
KING
A BABYLONIAN
for
of brick.
As a foundation
necessarily
a
temple or palace the king erected a huge rectangularterrace,
to raise
to have been
feet high. The objectseems
fortyor more
it
the buildingabove
the dampness of the earth,and to make
more
imposing. On this foundation, often covering several acres,
the king built his oblong palace or temple. The flat roof rested
cedar beams.
on
High above all the rest of the buildingrose a
"

Tigris-Euphrates
Valley

The

34

terraced
It was
solid,and was
pyramidal tower.
the sides,
shown
in the illustration.
The summit
as
of the god. The palaces of the Assyriankingswere
covered
in Nineveh
one
twenty-fiveacres,

about

hundred

two

These

rooms.1

great works

all the way

up

the home

was

vast.

and

tain
cer-

contained
constructed

were

principlesnow

on

the world.

lost to
In

of

some

earliest the
arch

the

round

used,

was

long

before

known

to

it

was

other

nations.

The

interior
of

walls

Babylonian
were
buildings
covered with glazed
tiles. Those

Assyrian

of the

palace

decorated

were

with

reliefs

graved
en-

stone.

on

The

doorways were
guarded by colossal
human-headed
COLOSSAL

Held

by

BULL
a

WITH

mythical

WINGS
person.

HUMAN

AND

From

palaceof Sargon, 722-705

doorway

beasts

HEAD

material.

of the

the

B.C.

(BritishMuseum)

city-kingdomswas
conventional.

The

truer

of

to nature

of the

the

; in later time it grew

same

In general

sculpture
period of
stiff and

artist did not

the human
form,
study carefully
for he looked upon
the body as base.
He preferredto represent
of battle.
men
arrayed in gorgeous clothing,armies, and scenes
more
Having plentyof stone in their country, the Assyrianswere
accustomed
Lackthan the Babyloniansto use it for decoration.
1

That

of

King Sargon (722-705).

earlier Sargon of Accad.

This

ruler

should

be

distinguishedfrom

the

The

World's

Debt to

Babylon

ing originality,
however, they made their buildingsalmost wholly
of brick,in imitation
of the Babylonian,and
preferredartificial
mounds
to hills as sites for temples and palaces.
45.

Contributions
the

European

to

Babylonians,unlike

Culture.

Through

"

their

merce
com-

the

Egyptians,spread their science,

a great part of the ancient
art, and beliefs over
world.
As early
the third millennium
as
(3000-2000)
under
B.C., Syria came
their
influence. The inhabitants adopted nearly all their ideas and
arts,
includingthe cuneiform script. Babylonian became the language
of diplomacy,
all Syria,
not onlyover
but even of the Egyptiancourt.1
From
Syria the culture of the Babylonians was carried to Asia
Minor and to Europe. The Etruscans 2 learned from them the use
of the arch, and of divination through the liver,
and passed this
The Greeks borrowed their system
knowledge on to the Romans.
of weights,their calendar, and
of their astronomy.
some
Not
merely the grouping of the days in weeks, but many
elements
of
Hebrews
the
received
from
the
religion,
Babylonians,and passed
division
The
of the circle into 360 degreesand the twelve
to us.
on
look at our
watch we
signsof the zodiac are theirs. Whenever
we
have another reminder of the Babylonians,for the division of the
face into twelve

hours

is their contrivance.

of civilization the

the greater number

derived

Europeans
from

came

All the essential elements

from

the

Orient,and

.Babylon.

Suggestive Questions
i.

In

Beyond
2.
Why

what
the

respects did

Egyptians,

and

the
in

the discoveries and

Babylonians
what

and

the

Assyrians advance

they remain
Egyptians and

respects did

inferior?
the

of the
lonians
Babyyears?
during the past hundred
motives
the Egyptians?
to
had
the Babylonians and
3. What
progress
Are they the same
the picture of the Euphrates, p. 21,
ours?
as
4. From
what
do you infer as to the character
of the country through which it flows?
the illustration on
learn of Assyrian warfare?
we
can
5. From
p. 26, what
are

important

more

6. From

the

Ur, Accad,
1

This

map,

and

is true

opp.

than

p.

inventions

those

i, describe

made

location

the

of

Babylonia, Babylon,

/Nineveh.

of the fourteenth

century B.C.,

as

proved by

correspondence of that time recentlydiscovered

" 358.

at

matic
great quantityof diploSgypt.

Tell el Amarna,

The

36

Tigris-

Euphrates

Note-book

Social

I.

II.

Library.

Assyrians,
III.

Winckler,
Ancient

Sayce,

Topics

Assyria.

in

Life

Social

Life

Maspero,

"

among

the

in

Ancient

Assyrians

and

Egypt
lonians,
Baby-

i-iv.

chs.

and

Life

xii;

ch.

Assyria,

and

Private

and

Valley

Maspero,

"

315

Science,

Commerce,
History
Empires

ch.

xvi

Goodspeed,

History

of

the

Babylonians

f.

of

of

the

Babylonia
East,

and

Architecture
and

157-178;

Assyria,
Goodspeed,

of

the

Babylonians.
Sayce,

131-164;
92-99.

chs.

"

v-vii;

Syria
little states.

of

country

other great fact must

The people of
be noticed.

One

Syria,bounded on two sides

by powerfulkingdoms, had
to

be

alert to

ever

as

save

dependen
of their inpossible
Though they

much

as

often

bowed

the neck

to

remained
master, their spirit
of
The
free.
peculiarity
situation

their

help

may

ness.
explaintheir native shrewdriers'
Furthermore, as carthe two

between

early

them

of

some

tries
coun-

engaged in commerce.
Then, too, their cramped
position drove the coast
people to a seafaringlife.
I.

PHOENICIANS

THE

48.

Cities

The

Industries.

earliest

The

"

their

and

inhabitants

known

lived

who

Those

Arabia.

from

Semites

were

the

on

of the Lebanon

coast

west

range

called themselves

do'ni-ans and

city

Sidon.

named

them

Si-

their oldest
The

Greeks

Phoenicians,

PHOENICIA
"

AND

PALESTINE
IN
Red

BfoSTuiAN

OF

Solomon

and

David

ving/Jo-./N.Y.
Longitude East

TIME

THE

of

the

purplefolk,"because

the

they

purple dye

extracted

from

which
a

riety
va-

"

from

30

Greenwich

of shell-fish caught in

Phoenicians
the Mediterranean.
celebrated

the citiesafterward

Among
Both

Tyre.

was

39

placed on

were

founded,the most
rocky islands

barren

the coast.

near

All the

Phoenician

In defence

each

of their

however
cities,

small,were
sovereignstates.
country they often acted together. Otherwise

pursued independentlyits

the

advantage

cut

cedars

of few

for their

Egypt

and

Their

writing was

natural

and

The
On

resources.

houses

own

aims.

own

had

the mountains

ships,and

they

for

exportationto
coast plainyielded

The

Babylon.

Phoenicians

slopesand patches of
little pasturage and stillless grain. Hence
they were forced to the
for
The
obtained
from
sea
their purple fisheries
support.
dyes
were
eagerlybought by kings and nobles throughoutthe civilized
world.
As earlyas the third millennium
nicians,
(3000-2000)B.C., the Phoethan the other Syrians,
even
more
ing
were
importingand learnthe products of Babylonian skill. Their culture
to imitate
became
thoroughly Babylonian, slightlyinfluenced by Egypt.
for

long

time

productsof Phoenician

cuneiform.

Among

bronze

the

early

and

armor
industrywere
weapons,
vessels of silver and gold,tables and chairs inlaid with
war
chariots,
preciousstones, statues
ivory and ebony, or with gold and silver,
of the gods ornamented
with gems and with silver and gold,glassware,
and brilliantly
colored pottery.
and Colonies.
Cyprus attracted the Phoenicians
49. Commerce
in
settlements
They planted many
by its rich mines of copper.
About
the island.
Thence
1500 B.C.
they continued westward.
they reached Crete.1 In the Aegean Sea they colonized Rhodes,
and traded with the natives.
worked
the mines
in various places,
This was
before the beginningof Greek colonization.
"

the

As

and
1

From

Commerce
than
2

their settlements

extended

the islands and

over

from
Aegean,2they expelledthe Phoenicians entirely
ward,
region. Thereupon the latter continued their voyages westand Sardinia,
plantingcolonies on the African coast, in Sicily
in Spain. They were
drawn
to Spain by its wealth of metals,

coasts

that

Greeks

two

of the

about

thousand

"" 92 ff.,98.

Asiatic

this time

between

influence

this island and

years

"

from

Egypt

can

had

be found
been

early in the fourth

in the civilizationof Crete.

carried

on

continuously for

millennium.

more

Syria
only copper and tin,but silver and gold. Their colonies were
vored,
facircumstances
but where
planted merely as trading-stations;
terranean
they grew into cities. Of all their settlements in the Medias
so favored by nature
was
none
Carthage. This colony
not

founded

was

northern

about

800

B.C.

the

on

of Africa

oppositeSicily.
It had a largeharbor,and the neighboring
fertile.
remarkably
country was
ated
situBesides these advantages,it wras
nicia
midway between Spain and Phoereach Sicily
and
and could easily
tions
Italyby ship. These favorable condicoast

it in time the

made

mercial
greatest com-

the Mediterranean

cityof

basin.

In the Orient
Routes.
50. Trade
the lines of traffic followed by the
"

connected

Phoenicians

Babylon.

Their

'with

stretched

and

neighboringcoasts
do they seem
Nowhere

brought

PHOENICIAN

them

overland
northern
Adriatic

mouth
one

Sea;

the

over

Amber

by

the

Alps

How

earlythese

from

Britain

the
were

along two
passed from

One

routes.

pushed

traders

the head

to

other, crossingGaul, reached

of the Rhone.

can

51.

southward

Germany

to have

and tin from

Baltic coasts

along

of the Atlantic.

the

far into the interior.

of

covered

routes

sea

the Mediterranean

those

routes

the

came

of the

sea

at

the

into

use

no

say.
Carriers

of the Arts

and

of the

they carried the productsof

gladlybought these wares, and soon
went

similar work

of their

In the

own.

Alphabet.

Eastern

way

Wherever

they

industry. The

nations

imitation

attempt

began in
same

"

the

to

tion,
Babylonian nota-

the system of weights and measures,

and useful knowledge
other thingswere
of many
brought to the western
peoples. In

brief,the Phoenicians
Their

most

valuable

were

the missionaries

giftto Europe

was

of civilization.
the

phoneticalphabet.

The

find them

Alphabet

in

of it as earlyas
possession
900 B.C.
earlier system,
some
was
produced by simplifying
writing; but we do

We

PHOENICIAN

how

know

not

is due

invention

what

own

they

sources

its

ments.1
ele-

/I.

It consisted
of

ters,
let-

twenty-two
each

ing
represent-

the Phoenicians

pronounced
their vowels

but

_zr

lightly,
they felt
THE

of indicating

need

no

As

consonant.

from

or

derived

GREEK

much

their

to

systems, of

or

LATER

GREEK

ARCHAIC

Evidentlyit

ANCESTORS

SOME

OF

OF

LETTERS

THE

OF

OUR

ALPHABET

them

by

letters.

learned

Having
cuneiform

invented

or

system.

The

learned

Romans
In

changes.

the

has made

alphabet,they

the Phoenicians

From

alphabet,changing it

new

this

somewhat

it from
form

Roman

the

to

the Greeks
suit their

Greeks

it has

and
down

come

far easier than

education

discarded

it

was

own

adopted the
language.

introduced
to

the

other

plicity
Its sim-

us.

the banks

on

of

the Nile and

help
Euphrates. It has therefore been an enormous
of the middle
and poorer
in increasing
the intelligence,
especially
in the scale of
classes of all countries,and
in elevatingthem
civilization.
II. THE
52.

Early Wanderings.

has been

Their

own

his home
him

above.

writers

tell us

in Ur

and

moved

described

to wander

his descendants.

about

in this

It has recentlybeen

cf.
script,

" 85.

HEBREWS

the country of the Hebrews,

Palestine,
Semites.
Like the Phoenicians,theywere
that Abraham, their remote
ancestor, left
"

in

Canaan,

During

land

the

Jenovah had promised

remainder

of his life he

country with his family,his many

suggested that they got

some

of these elements

slaves,and
the Cretan

Trom
2

"

34

Syria

42

his flocks.
of which

The

peoplewith

Abraham

him

chief.

formed, so

speak,a

to

littlestate,

simplegovernment of this kind,

exercised over
children and servants, is called patriarchal,
ing
signifyrule of the father."
Wandering peoplesare generallygoverned
in this way.
and
The wealth
authorityof Abraham
passed
to his son
Isaac,and then to his grandson Jacob,or Is'ra-el. These
too, were
patriarchs.When oppressed by famine, Israel took
men,
refugein Egypt. This was probably during the Hyksos invasion.
There his peoplewere
held in slaveryfour hundred years.
Finally
favored
hero
Moses, a
by Jehovah, freed his people,and led them
was

"

Si'nai. On the top of this mountain

into the desert of Mount

received

the Ten

were

moral

and

in the

for his

peoplefrom Jehovah. Among

Commandments.

Moses

teachers in
religious

neighborhood of

Hebrews,
the

of laws

body

was

one

inhabitants.

The

of the

them

greatest

history. After

time
dwellingsome
people,the Israelites or

Mount

Sinai,his
Canaan, seized the land, and

invaded

Moses

killed

conquest began early in the

or

enslaved

fourteenth

century B.C.1
53. The

Judges

(about

the earlier invaders

for centuries.

on

twelve

of

sons

The

"

of

twelve

Israel,occupied each

beneath
From

the

the

between

"

them

yoke

Under

of the

lowed
fol-

distinct

only government
leaders,the
judges,"who

part of the nation.

hordes

the conquest of the country went

who claimed descent from the
tribes,

usuallyprevailed. The
in the hands

Fresh

; and

connection
little political

was

B.C.).

1400-1000

territory.There
tribes,and anarchy

the

generallyruled

these circumstances

who
Phi-lis'tines,

the country got the

country had
the

each

Hebrews

lived in the coast

was
a

fell

region.

Palestine.

name

(about 1000-985 B.C.).

restive under the yoke. Samuel, the prophet,
were
a
urged them to rebel ; and when they demanded
militarychief,
he chose as their first king,Saul,a strong impetuousleader of armies.
Saul displayed
under
his rule
great energy in unitingthe Hebrews
and in freeingthem
from their oppressors.
But in the end these
54. The

The

An

Founding

of the

Kingship

Saul

Hebrews

Egyptian inscription
tribes of Israel
recently discovered proves that there were
The beginningsof their invasion should
written,1 273 B.C.

in Palestine at the time it was

be dated at about

century earlier.

Historyof Palestine
overthrew

terrible enemies
killed his three

43

his army,
severelywounded
In despairthe warrior king fell on

sons.

him, and
his sword

the fallen hero: "Ye

perished. Wildly the peoplelamented
over
Saul,who clothed you in scarlet and
daughtersof Israel,
weep
who put ornaments
of gold upon your apparel.
with other delights,
How
the mighty fallen in the midst of battle !
are
David
of
was
(about 985-955 B.C.).1 His successor
55. David
the tribe of Judah. Beginning life as a shepherdlad and poet, he
had come
to the front through personal bravery and
abilityto
Israel a single
command.
In time he made
state, wholly independent
of the Philistines. By conquering various
small tribes of
to the Euphrates and
Syria he extended his kingdom northward
southward
nearly to Egypt. Jerusalem,which to his time had
the capital
remained
in the hands of the Canaanites,he made
and
and

"

"

centre
religious

of his realm.

portableshrine

of

Jehovah

he established the Ark

Here

the Hebrews

which

of Israel

had

the

"

carried

with

worshippers
of many
gods. But the followers of Jehovah, though few, were
largelythrough the
exceedinglyzealous and aggressive.It was
to power.
that David
came
Jerusalembecame a
help of his priests
for Jehovah, and a halo of
temporarilywon
holy city,Israel was
religionconsecrated David and his descendants to the kingshipfor
lent him by the friendly
all time.
With the help of workmen
king
in their nomadic

them

Tyre, with

of

David

the

built and

with his hand

of

cedars

adorned

in

The

life.

revolt
to
were

soon

an
now
was
city.
in a
of the world,livingmagnificently
the politics
and heavy
His extensive wars
wives and slaves.

After

followed
But

his death

the
his

his favorite
and
fell,

son

only his

forgotten. Remembering

Jehovah,his people to this day have ever

their ideal king and their national hero.
B.C.); the
56. Solomon
(about 955-925
death, Solomon, another
Some

The

son,

succeeded

dates of the reigns of Saul, David, and

put them

25-40

years

earlier.

son

Ab'sa-lom

the father

and
caprices,
oppression,

and

arts,

Oriental king,

He

his

against the king.

rule.

were

the Phoenician

and

Lebanon

palacefilled with
taxes
oppressedthe people,who
in

masses

to

Solomon

lence
vio-

service to Israel

him

looked back

to

Decline.

After

"

the throne.
are

tinued
con-

as

his

Devoting

only approximatelyknown.

Syria

44

himself

to

peace, he built in Jerusalem a magnificenttemple to

for
He fortified the citywith stronger walls,and made

Jehovah.
himself splendid
palaces. He surrounded himself with all the luxury
ranean
of an
Oriental despot. His shipsin the Mediterand brilliancy
and Red
seas
brought him the products of distant lands.
numbered
the kings of Tyre and Egypt.
Among his allies were
affairs
In administration and diplomacy,as well as in the practical
Even
of life,
he displayed
to-dayhe is popularly,
great shrewdness.
in history.
though with little reason, considered the wisest man
All this glorywas
to the people. He taxed them heavily,
a burden
his great buildings.
to labor unrewarded
and compelled them
on
were
kept busy cuttingstone and hewing
Thirty thousand men
the
wood.
yoke. When,
Naturally the people chafed under
continue
his
and
heir
his son
Judah,
policy,
attempted to
therefore,
faithful.
remained
with
a
part of the tribe of Benjamin, alone
The

Henceforth

other tribes revolted.

weak

states,

strifeand

Ju-de'a(Judah) and

nearlyalways at

with

war

we

have to do with two

internal

Israel,afflicted with
one

small

another.

(722-536 B.C.). In the

eighthcentury B.C., while the Assyrianking was pushinghis frontier
upon
westward, he made both states tributary. Israel revolted,wherehe destroyed its capital,
Sa-ma'ri-a,and transplantedthe
populationto the country beyond the Euphrates (722B.C.). They
lost among
the natives of that region. The lands of the
soon
were
rebels were
assignedto colonists from the banks of the Tigrisand
incorporatedin a province of the empire.1
Euphrates,and were
for Judea merely
The fall of Assyriaand the rise of Babylon meant
2
Nebuchadnezzar
To punish it for rebellion,
a change of masters.
besiegedand capturedJerusalem. He had alreadydeportedmany
57. The

Captivity and

of the inhabitants

on

the

Restoration

former

occasion

"

of disobedience.

Now

he

destroyedthe holy cityand carried into captivitythe rest of the

people,exceptingthe very poorest.
in captivity,
remained
Fifty years (586-536 B.C.)the Hebrews
settled in various parts of the Babylonian empire. When
Cyrus,3
king of Persia,conquered Babylon, probably with their help,he
restored them
to their native land and
permittedthem to rebuild
1

Cf.

" 36.

"

37-

" 63.

Syria.

46

and explains
his teachings. The Old
earlyfollowers,
make
It has been read by more
and New
Testaments
up the Bible.
than
other book.
born
Jo-se'phus,
37 A.D., wrote
persons
any
of his peoplefrom the creation of the
Jewish Antiquities,
a history
of the
world, and The Jewish War, includinga detailed account
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans.
Lastly,Jewish rabbis
laws and traditions
composed the Tal'mud, a collection of Hebrew
and explanations.
with comments
Before the captivity
Influence.
59. Life,Character, and World
the Hebrews
lived chiefly
the soil ; but their long stay in
by tilling
Babylon, the centre of Oriental trade,made of,them a commercial
of them
the world
travelled over
people. From that time many
lands in order to carry on business.
Wherever
and settled in foreign
in these houses of
it was
they went they built synagogues
; and
first proclaimed.
was
worship that Christianity
Among them the tie of blood has always been as strong as that of
Honor
the family bond.
thy father
religion.Still closer was
of their commandments.
and
one
Though
thy mother," was
it had
no
polygamy was
permissible,
footingwith the masses.
and
about
Women
went
were
highly respected,
freelyin public.
Morals
were
excellent,
family life was pure, and the nation seems
It would
be hard to overestimate
to have been full of happy homes.
the influence of this little nation on the historyof the world.
of
of Judaism, has become
the offspring
the religion
Christianity,
the Europeans and of their colonies throughout the world; and
missionaries
are
carryingit to all other peoples. The wisest men
of the present day can
code than the Ten
better moral
find no

Christ and his

"

"

Commandments.

In

elements

brief,religionand
our
were
civilization,

of

moral

law,

the

portant
im-

most

chieflyby

contributed

the Hebrews.

Suggestive Questions
i.
Why
studying?

people?
like

2.

Would

Egypt?

high
and

were

mountain

the

states

What
such
3. What
range

of

Syria

effect had
a

smaller

than

the

Syrian hills on
country produce a higher type
was

and

the

the dress of the Phoenicians

result of the situation

sea?

4.

(p.40).

Describe
5.

What

we

have

character

of character
of Phoenicia

the
was

others
the

the

been
of

than

the
one

between

physicalpeculiarities
the great contribution

World

of

the

Hebrews

to

Phoenicia,

civilization?

Influence

Describe

6.

Palestine,

Sidon,

Tyre,

the

location

Jerusalem,

and

Note-book

I.
/.

The

The

/.
"

ch.

Chronicles,
II.

Saul.

of

Reign

47

of

Lebanon

tains,
Moun-

Carthage.

Topics

viii-xxxi;

chs.

Samuel,

II.

ch.

Samuel,

i;

x.

Babylonian

Captivity.

Kent,

"

History

of

the

Jewish

People,

34-44III.
IV.

203-209.

The
Phoenician

Glory

and
Science

the

Fall
and

of

Tyre.

"

Trade.
"

Ezekiel,
Sayce,

chs.

Ancient

xxxvi,
Empires

xxxvii.

of

the

East,

CHAPTER

I.

THE

INDO-EUROPEANS

60.

The

find

history

the

Nile

Semites

is added

to

Aegean

region.

history.

of the

the

the

great

In

the

Gulf,
with
the

salt steppe

abundance

of

luxuriant

In

the

India,

The

the

herbs

name

group.

is

cerned
con-

the

of

the

and

Orient

has

continue

we

our

third

the

Indo-Europeans

are

48

is barren.

part
to

"

Indo
denote

those

known

of the

prevails ;

it

produces

Therein

with

and

beasts

plentiful."

are

of Iran

inhabitants
of the
"

are

well-stocked

of horses

branch
"

Persian

acquainted

climate

lakes

Iranians

the

well

olive.

animals

part

country

mild

the

easterly

most

central

America.

was

breeding

great

field is

of North

pastures

and

The

contrived
the

the

except

water

The

the

was

and

of

Here

full of wild
"

historical

south, bordering

"

of clear

Indo-European
the

Crete

The

Basin

writer, who

all fruits

; forests

the

Gulf.

well- watered

and
of

Indo-Europeans,
and

of

area

country

the

as

we

Tigris-Euphrates valley,

Great

the

In

follows

as

Rivers

people (Europeans)
of

it

the

larger part

Indo-Europeans.

word

the

history

the

while

Persian

the

ancient

and

prospers

well

in mind

of

east

irrigatethe country.

of burden

were

wine

parks.

water-fowl

"

in

and

time

within

the

and

the

An

describes

is rich

land

lies

Media.

was

Persia.

Persia,

same

come

resembling

water

northwest
was

61.

of

the

fact

to

It

Sea

Caspian

lack

Through

this

country

I-ran'.

of

at

as

centuries,

B.C.

fourth

EMPIRE

empires.

Asiatic

plateau

between
is

civilized

the

Europe

keep

to

Oriental

next

and

area,

Henceforth

It is well

the

through

In

valley only.
the

MEDIAN

THE

the fifth millennium

In

widening.

ever

with

The

descend

we

peoples constantly becoming

new

study

As

"

EMPIRES

IRANIANS;

THE

Country.

PERSIAN

AND

MEDIAN

THE

has
the

White

race.

reference
most

to

westerly

people (Hindoos)
White

race,

what-

Origin of the Race

their descent, who

ever

languages

of the

speak
have

group

an

49

Indo-European tongue.

descended

from

All

parent

common

speech.1 This parent speech must have belongedto a people who

lived togetheras a group
of closelyconnected
once
tribes in a
definite region. Scholars disagreeas to whether this earlyhome
in Europe or in Asia or partlyin
of the language and people was
quite clear,however, that as early as 3000 B.C., the
tribes were
moving apart and the dialect of each was growing into
Even
in their old home
a separate language.
they were probably
but
all
of
of
divers stocks internot
mingled.
were
one
blood,
composed
It is

both.

while

And

takingup

each

into itself all

tribe

was

of

manner

people whom

reachingthe home where

absorbed
the tribe generally
history,
On

way.

continued

long

migratingit

after to welcome

we

continually

was

it met

with

find it at the dawn

the natives

on

the

of its

of the

strangers, whatever

place,and
their origin.

the

Indo-European peoples,as we know them in

were
as
imagine them.
thoroughlymixed as we can possibly
history,
Meantime
altered somewhat
the language of a givenpeoplewas
by
these foreignelements,and more
by natural growth along with the
But in spiteof all changesit retained its essential
progress of culture.
these ways

In

Indo-European
62. The
B.C.

2000

Iranians
some

character.
; the

of the

eastern

the

take

"

possessionof

call the invaders

in the face of the Elamites

westward

(606-550B.C.).

Empire

Indo-European tribes began

Iran,and to
Iranians,as we may

and

Median

and

to invade

these countries.

of

Iran, worked

About
India

Slowly

their way

other earlier inhabitants.

desolated the
and
tribes,the Scythians,overran
Assyrianempire ; others settled down quietlyand paid tribute to
the king at Nineveh.
the Babyloniansrevolted and made
When
war
on
Nineveh,2 they called upon a powerfulIranian king to help
them.
His people were
ian
Medes.
In the division of the fallen Assyrempire they received the northern part, leaving the southern
Some

JOur

Iranian

word

pitdr,in ancient
and
from

"father," for instance, is in Sanskrit (the classicallanguage of -India)

vater,
Persian pitor,in Greek
(pater), in Latin pater,in German
"T*IP

similarly
through
word in
a single

connected

'"36.

we

These words for father have descended

tongues.
the parent speech. All these nations whose languages are so nearly
the other kindred

call Aryan

or

Indo-European.

The

50

part

to

Babylon.

Median
Not

Persian

and

content

Empires

with their

share,the

restless Medes

This stream
Halys River.
formed
the eastern
boundary of the Lydian empire,1which checked
in that direction.
Meanwhile
their progress
they were
subduing
their
But
south.
Persia
the
their nearer
on
neighbors,including
than half a
end in 550 B.C., only a little more
to an
empire came
all Asia

overran

Minor

far west

as

as

the

century after its founding.

II. THE

63. Cyrus the

was

vassal

Great

PERSIAN

EMPIRE

(550-529 B.C.). Cyrus, king

"

of the Median

king.

But

in 550

B.C.

of

he led

Persia,
a

cessful
suc-

empire
Thereupon the Median
Able and ambitious,Cyrus pushed his conquests
became
Persian.
the
was
in.everydirection. One of his most importantacquisitions
Asia Minor.
The kings
Lydian empire,which included all western
of Lydia had created
this realm
by conquering their neighbors,
In the time of Cyrus
includingthe Greek colonies in Asia Minor.
wealth amassed
Croe'sus was
by his
king. The heir of enormous
ites
favorCroesus
lived in luxury,and lavished money
on
predecessors,
and on friendly
states.
Against the risingpower of Persia he
included the kings of Egypt and
formed
which
a grand alliance,
than he had calculated.
Cyrus
Babylon. But the blow fell sooner
marched
rapidlyagainsthim, defeated his army, and took Sar'dis,
his capital. Croesus was
made
prisoner. As Babylon had joined
Lydia in the war, Cyrus besiegedthe cityand took it by surprise,
in the palace.
while the great lords were
feasting
64. Cambyses
(529-522 B.C.). Cam-by'ses,son and successor
of Cyrus, conquered Egypt. There taking the place of Pharaoh,
he worshipped the gods of the country. It is said,however, that
in intoxication or violent anger he killed the steer-godApis. Puffed
the world ; but he met
up with pride,he thought he could conquer
with enormous
losses in a vain attempt to subdue
Libya. News
of an
Before
recalled him.
insurrection at home
settingout for
killed his younger
brother Smer'dis.
Egypt he had secretly
During
his absence a certain priestwho
the dead brother perresembled
revolt

against his

master.

"

'"63.

develop the

to

and

useful and

fine arts

felt that

nobles

Persian

and

Median

The

52

they must
subjects. All

Empires

lines.
along original

have

at

once

all the

The

king
good things

therefore
higher culture was
elements
from Babylonia,though some
of it came
Most
borrowed.
Greek.
Naturally they imported every
were
Egyptian and even
and
kind of movable
they engaged Babylonian artisans and
finery;

enjoyed by

architects
The

to

their

work

for them.

chief feature
was

the

their

of their

architecture,like that

With

terrace.

TOMB

their country,

an

OF

abundance

of the

lonian,
Baby-

of fine limestone

in

CYRUS

however, they were

originalenough to use it to a
their independence
great extent in their buildings. They showed
of the Babylonians,too, in employing the column
as a second
great
feature
of their architecture.
In contrast
with the Egyptian,1
their columns
tall and graceful,doubtless
were
owing to Greek
influence.
ples,
They were placed farther apart than in Egyptian temthus givingthe Persian buildinga lighterand more
airyeffect.
An
early example of their architecture is the tomb of the great
the seat of his tribe.
Cyrus. The building is at Pa-sar'ga-dae,
It is a simplechamber,
but open and empty, on its
well preserved,
"

Architecture
base

of

ing
retreat-

seven

stages, all of solid

blocks

of white

ble,
mar-

surrounded

by

of

what

fragments
was
evidentlya
1

Persians
of their
with

nade."
colon-

Here,

the

laid the

body

king,covered
for

wax,

thought

it

they

sin

to

defile the

holy air or
earth by crematingor
by burying the dead.
the foundation

For
of

his

palace

at

2
Darius
Per-sep'o-lis

erected

of

terrace

mounted

by
beautifully
sculptured
stairways. On one
stone,

the

of

part
stood

his

dwelling,a

large

hall

porch

in

rooms

sides.
Hall

Near

Hundred

of the

the

other

for

state

same

platform

buildings

of

Ragozin,Story of Media,

p. 300
2

is the

festive occasions.

On

and

rear

by

and

front

Columns,
and

with

the

on

terrace

The

f.
Persian

several

king had

capitals, including
Susa, above mentioned, and

Persepolis.

53

The

54

Median

and

Persian

Empires

later kings repeat the plans of the two justmentioned.

of the palaceshave disappeared. Among the reliefsare
and

lions,
bulls,

Assyria,1
though better proportionedand
CertainlyGreek artists must have had a hand in

natural.

the work.

walls

like those of

monsters

more

The

Whereas

earlier Persian

shows

art

the

king fighting

with

later reliefs replions,

resent
courtly pleasures
and
religiousformalities.
Through these changes we
the decay of
trace
may
Persia under the corrupting
influence of Oriental power.
In

science

arts, with

and

the

architecture
the

in

all the

exceptionof

and

sculpture,

Persians

accomplished
nothingworthy of mention.
They were not workers,but
warriors and

rulers.

67. Religion and

"

the

In the earliest times

Persians

few powers

PERSIAN

KING

KILLING

worshipped a

of nature.

from

(A reliefin Persepolis)

the

name

class, testifies
their functions

The

ma'gi, attended to
priests,
the offerings
and ceremonies.
Our word
rived
magic,de-

MONSTER

ture.
Litera-

to

of this
of

one

evil spirits
winning the gods and expelling
Before the religion
had come
to include many
by charms.
gods,it
lived in
reformed and purified
was
a prophet who
by Zor-o-as'ter,
the latter half of the seventh century B.C.3 He taught the existence
of

one

supreme

"

that of

God,

pleasantthingsfor

creator

He

man.

of heaven
was

and

wise and

earth and

holy;

1"44-"
3

This

subject;

is the view of Professor

see

his Zoroaster,141

A. V. W.

ff
.

Jackson,the greatest

man,

and

he alone had

all

maj-

2Cf. "42.
livingauthority on the

Religionand Literature
esty and

He

power.

of darkness,the
spirit
one

dared

and

he

of

contend

had

fell into

the reward
the

pit of

againstGod,

always worsted.
demons, worshipped and
and

eternal

an

leader of

was

the evil and impure

enemy,
host of demons.
Though the evil

he had neither wisdom

strength,
Those who, in oppositionto the prince
obeyed the good God, gained immortality

their character
the demons.

DARIUS

55

RECEIVING

whereas
deserved,

The

true

CONQUERED

In the sky is the only God, by whose

(Scene from

nor

the Behistan

the wicked

followers of the great

ENEMIES
grace

he conquers.

Rock)

prophet had neither images nor temples,but worshippedGod on the

.used
hilltopswith fire,prayers, and drink-offerings.But some
failed
symbols representing
God, and even
images ; and the masses
to content
themselves with one
deity.
Their holy book A-ves'ta,
revealed by God to Zoroaster,contains
A considerable fragment
religious
laws, rituals,
prayers, and hymns.
of the work

they had some

of the kingsof

is stillextant.

historical
Media

and

In addition

writing,includinga
Persia."
1

Esther,x.

to
"

This work
2.

literature
religious
book

of chronicles

has been

lost,but

The

56
stillhave

Median

Persian

and

Empires

carved by the kings,

which give
inscriptions,
valuable
information.
The most
us
important by far is that of
face of a loftyrock 1 near
the
Darius engraved on the smoothed
border of his country. In it the king recorded
the deeds
western
he had done by the grace of God.
The moral nature
well as the religion
of the
68. Morals.
as
admirable.
Oriental
was
joyment
race
nations,the enEspeciallyamong
of power
and
wealth
in easy, luxurious
livingweakens
both body and mind, and corrupts the character.
At first brave
and hardy, a conqueringrace
soon
degeneratesand falls a prey to
warlike neighbors. This principle
explainingthe
goes far toward
rise and
fall of Asiatic empires. The
Persians,for instance,
strong,brave mountaineers,with simplehabits and sound character,
the decayed Babylonians and Assyrians. For
easilyovercame
retained their earlyvirtues.
the conquerors
a long time
tinued
They conin three thingsonly,
to educate
in riding,
their children
2
in shooting,
and in speakingthe truth."
however, they so
Finally,
declined that they were
in turn
vaders
subdued
by a small army of infrom Europe (333-330B.C.).3
we

numerous

"

"

"

"

"

69. Contributions

Civilization.

to

"

Their

greatest achievement

improve upon the government of Assyria. In all earlier

counted
the subjects
empiresthe conqueringnation was everything,
of income.
In Cyrus and Darius
this national
merely as a source
idea gave way to the imperial. In other words, they were
the first
and kindness, to
to treat
their whole empire with consideration
to

was

look

it as an
organic unit,and to exert
upon
defence and improvement. In the vast extent

compared with
the idea

those

of earlier

of universal

brotherhood

of their

times,lay another
could

not

for its

themselves

realm, as
;

for

world

of

advance

arise in

basis had to be laid on

political
which it could be built up.
The
far toward
Persian empire went
servingthis purpose.
Lastly,by bringingAsia and Europe into
closer touch,it aided the interchange
of ideas and inventions,
tributing
con-

petty warring states.

thus
1

The

name

of the word
2

to

broad

the progress

of the cliff,
hence

adopted by
Herodotus, i. 136.

of the world.

also of the

Professor

This

is Behistan.
inscription,

is the

Jackson.
"

"" 316 ff.

spelling

Oriental Civilization

III.
General

1.

with
his

Features.

that

of

did

think

not

Civilization

civilization of the

The

never

was

of Oriental

The

"

Europe.

reasoning power
He

Summary

57

Easterner

strong

so

or

consistentlyor

so

had

Orient
vivid

well-trained

follow

contrasted

his

ingly
strik-

imagination, but
that

as

of

but

reason,

pean.
Euro-

rally
natu-

was

obedient, ready to yield to authority. As a result of this character

all his actions; and
religion exercised great influence over
he held the
In every
priestsin especial reverence.
population were
sharp economic
toiled to produce the good things of life,
The
contrasts.
while the
masses
rulers and priestsenjoyed the fruits of this drudgery.
In political
matters
had no
the Easterner
of
but
the
thought
independence,
obeyed
king as a
child obeys his parent.
Government
in the Orient,therefore,was
always
absolute
of their subjects. This
masters
monarchical; the kings were
enabled
them
to build
find throughout
Hence
on
a large scale.
we
power
ruins of palaces, temples, statues, and other works.
the Orient
vast
The
lesser arts
and
sciences
all grew
the creatures
of religion. They
as
up
shackled
rules that they reso
mained
developed rapidly,but were
by religious
immature.
dwarfed
and
nations
Though in the main all Eastern
minor
differences and contrasts
of character
were
some
alike,they showed
and

customs.

Contrasts

2.

between

between
cultures

these

contrasts

be

may

rarely suffered

the
are

Nile

included

noticed.

and

Euphrates Cultures.
paragraph above.

Similarities

"

The

in the

following

the greater part of her history Egypt

fluenced
opposite being true of Babylonia. Egypt in-

Through

invasion, the

The
Egyptians built in
peoples, Babylonia many.
of the
extensive
made
in
brick.
The
former
use
stone,
Babylonians
In religionthe Egyptians took much
column, the latter practicallynone.
chieflyabsorbed in this.
thought of the next world, the Babylonians were
few

other

the

The

one

nation

addicted

was

nearly all celestial.

people,whereas

Mingling of
history. From

between

the two

customs

and

Morally
Egyptians
Babylonians took the
the

the

Cultures.
time

regions.

ideas

"

of the
The

of their

The
Old

Hyksos

own,

but

two

the

gods

lead in

was

in their invasion of

science.

little till late

commerce

some

Egypt introduced

Babylonia. To
representeda blend

from

the

were

oped
devel-

more

and

mingled

there

Kingdom

the

commerce

cultures

nothing

of the other

perhaps

were

the

the

3.

in

worship,

animal

to

some

of the

Syrians, Hebrews, and Phoenicians

of their civilization from Egypt,
elements
some
; they derived
but far more
from Babylonia.
rather in their capacityas merchants
It was
that the Phoenicians
helped make each better acquainted with the products
of the other.
Assyria brought the two regionstogether by conquest, but in
a
purely mechanical
way.
extent

cultures

two

4.

and
seeds

Transmission
her

arts

to

of Oriental

of the

Crete

and

Culture
the

civilization

to the

West.

"

Aegean region, and

over

the islands

and

Egypt

gave

Phoenicia
coasts

her

products

scattered

of the

the

Mediterra-

The

58

arts,

western

discover

painted

the

Greeks

brought
them

this

cultural

and

and

of

Blending
of

Asia

What

i.

kings

Her

chose

in

front

of

the

3.

palace
the

with

chronological
made
these

by

of

I.

be
that

III.

took

also

can

imported

perhaps

much

as

best

Persia

"

decoration

completion

long

of

in

their

of
a

made

industries

and

arts

only

not

but

empire,

one

the

capitals.

period

of

ical
polit-

the

more

of

the

in

(pp.

of

the

Zoroaster.

their

and

relative

Persian

For

Jackson,

the

meaning

with

the

What

7.

From

Zoroaster,

of the

Herodotus,
"

Herodotus,

especially

word

capital,

ch.

the

see

iii,89-117.
iv,
xxi.

"

173.

cially
espe-

of

the
in

empires
if

Topics

"

ful?
grace-

Egyptian.

size.

Darius.

those

be

religion

Oriental

advances,

government?

to

the

the

history

more

seem

Compare

Name

of
with

the

seem

animals

character
5.

Empire.
of

of

peoples
Thebes

at

Which

Persian

6.

other

temple

pair

Persian.

the

Expedition
"

the

53).

17,

Hebrews.
to

of the

Scythian

from

of

developed?

organization

calculate

Questions

consisting

Compare

down

Organization
The

in

the

to

Note-book

II.

Cultures.

the

columns

Darius

capital1

order

each

empires

the

Indo-Europeans

the

4.

to

seems

Persians

the

Compare

appropriate?
Which

We

history.

2.

Does

Lydia

for

brought

empire

distinguishes

i)?

ch.

colonists

Egyptians

the

and

together

Suggestive

(cf.

Oriental

Greek

Europe.

to

Notably

Lydia.

the

to

country

thence

Crete;

harmoniously

Persian

the

way

especially

them.

nations

blended

be

to

on

gave

unit.

organic

an

empire,

this

Asia.

from

the

civilized

the

Europe

she

as

Minor,

Empires

Minor,

through

Asia

pottery

Consolidation

5.

In

of

Persian

Asia

was

passed

of

coast

reaction

delicately
from

ideas

and

customs,

the

on

and

intermediary

Another

nean.

Median

1-144.

any,
maps

were

of

c\"fN^V,K"is-bC^^^V

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i,,,".

te^^;^*_
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L-A P^'e'a%%^"
-V,^%!

E\L^-p^of'r'p^E^IL
L^s.

ED

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'

TERRA

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/-/..'v""

XE

GREECE
FOR

REFERENCE
SCALE

1Q

20

OF

40

MILES
60

PART

II

HELLAS

CHAPTER

THE

Hellas

70.
it has

been

these

people,
but

descent

There
"

is

the

by

"

hand,

from
71.

the

Mountains.

small

the

Mediterranean
a

of

map

of the other
1

Should

rians, it
'

Greece

is Mount

peninsula.

we

would
in the

The

great gods.
use

be

the

that

stretches

chain

highest point
the

notice

it,we

"Greece"
necessary

O-lym'pus,
Greeks
Near

will

with

to

59

it will

thus

on

tain
re-

guished
distin-

be

Hellenes, is

Greece

Europe

into

in

ing
look-

or

The

is mountainous.

in the
"Hellas,"

loftiest

abode

of Zeus

range
as

between

Its

border.
the

sea,

it the

distinguish

larger sense."

Greeks,"

Greece,"

the

of

the

near

Olympus,

"

northern

the

imagined

synonymously
constantly

country

along

cluding
in-

"

travelling through

In

sea.

and

southeastern

from

extends

was

colonies.
"

confusion

home

oldest

Greece, the

be

peninsula occupied

and

volume,

their

Hel'las

might

terms.

the

"x Hellas."

term

"

word

of

myth

numerous

avoid

To

Greece.

it

Hellenes

to

the

them

the

also

refers

present

the

To

equivalent

as

peninsula which

Cam-bu'ni-an

on

the

broader
"

the

at

in

meaning

"

of

state

"

using

generally

now

but

homeland,

knew

Romans

what

wherever

themselves

Greek

know

ancestor.

relations

They, however,

use.

not

Orientals

their

the

by inventing

it

common

old

"

and

modern

this

the

do

the

to

which

commonly

We

of

study

reference

by

we

difficultyabout

no

other

as

possessed by
only

Hellenic

the

Hel'len

country
not

one

PEOPLE

our

name

explain

to

In

frequent

Hel-le'nes.
tried

THE

"

is the

it is the

they

from

make

This

and

AND

Hellenes.
to

Greeks.

themselves

means,

the

the

necessary

the

called

COUNTRY

and

with

VI

"Greece

and

extends

which

is often

peak

done

by^histo-

proper"

and

Hellas

60

along the

from

the

Thessaly,is

is the

chain

of this coast
south

of

coast

east

part of Greece into

mountains,

Far

and

divides

the west

to

Pin'dus.

of Mount

range

Cambunian

Os'sa.

Mount

It extends

the northern

ward
nearlyequaldistricts. As we proceedsouththe country grows
more
rugged. The central section is a
of mountain
mass
valleysand little
ranges separatedby narrow
near
plains. The loftiestpeak of this regionis Mount
Par-nas'sus,
the centre of the peninsula.
the most
Pel-o-pon-nese'
(orPel-o-pon-ne'sus),
southerlysection
of Greece,is only a little less rugged. In the northern central part
is the highland of Arcadia.
From
this highland mountain
chains
two

radiate in all directions.

dividingsouthern

the south

To

the

runs

Peloponnese into two

Ta-yg'e-tus
range,

districts.

This

is

range

celebrated for its iron mines.

72. Rivers
streams

and

Lakes.

In

"

small

so

country

as

Greece

of
small and short.
The volume
necessarily
diminished
by the dryness of the climate.

are

still further

called rivers of Greece

therefore little more

are

than brooks.

the
is

water

The

so-

Some

mer.
winter,but entirely
dry in sumAll the streams
which
a great quantity of soil,
carry down
The littleplainsat their mouths
they depositin their lower course.
alluvial
are
composed of soil thus deposited. In this respect
they resemble the valleysof the Nile and Euphrates. The greatest
plain of the kind is in Thessaly,northern Greece. The river
the largest
in Greece.
which has formed it is the Pe-ne'us,
stream
Sometimes
the brooks of a region,instead of unitingin a river,
flow into a land-locked basin.
In this way a lake is formed, generally
with an underground outlet.
of gulfsand bays
Another feature of Greece is the great number

in the

torrents

are

of

rainyseason

"

which
in

indent the coasts.

proportionto

its

73. Climate

and

peninsulais

about

breadth

hundred

is

of Maine.

from

And

temperate
The

whole

so

great

coast-line

area.

Products.
two

'"

"

and

The
and

hundred

yet within
to

other country has

No

eighty;
these

greatest length of the Greek

fiftymiles,and

it is about

narrow

was

once

the size of the state

limits the

climate,ranging
a
ucts.
great varietyof prodof
well-wooded,though most

fosters
semi-tropical,

country

its greatest

62

Hellas

to battle.

and

In time

industry;

laggedbehind
75.

up in the

plain; but
preferredcountry life; they had

Thessalians

skilled

cities grew

in education

and

the commercial
Greece

of

Ae-to'li-a and

of eastern

Lo'cris

long remained
and

southern

Greece

or

the other

ni-a,a

defenceless.

Greeks, and

land

ate

of lakes and

colonists who

taught the

Some

came

about

Parnassus.

Mount

region
northern

along the immense stretch

rugged lands,whose
especially

are

After

had

reached

Locrians

the

cities

height of

still carried

murdered

or

the commercial

weapons

in

all whom

spoke

they found
language strange to

of Aetolia

West

early time
Hence

their

is A-car-na'-

from

the

eastern

The
coast

this country made

greater

Pho'cis,which
sections,lies partlyin the rugged district
Below
the mountain
the south, in
on
the celebrated oracle of Apollo.

in civilization than
into two

than

South

"

harbors,but with high,steep shores.

natives useful arts.

they

harbors

meat.

hither in

progress
divides Locris

mountainous

more

of them

raw

or

of Greece.

barbarous.

and
the Aetolians
civilization,
their daily life; they robbed
weak

of life

Thessaly and
It is
extendingeast and west.
Greece,and is well suppliedwith

inhabitants

little trade

in the refinements

states

E-pei'rots

(i) the Less Civilized Countries.

Epeirus is central Greece, a long,narrow

Central

of coast.

both

did Aetolia

or

Locris.

cityof Del'phi,was
civilized than the Aetolians
The
more
or
Phocians,too, were
In the valleys
and plainswere
lords and busy
the Locrians.
thrifty
sides the shepherdpasturedhis flocks.
peasants ; on the mountain
East
Civilized Countries.
76. Central Greece : (2) the More
of Phocis is Boe-o'ti-a. A great part of this country is a basin,
whose waters
collect into Lake
Co-pals. The land about the lake
is flat and very productive; its moisture
fills the air with fog.
Some
that the dull sky
wittyneighborsof the Boeotians remarked
and
excessive beef-eating
made
these people stupid; but in fact
and in enterprise
the states
they were second in intelligence
among
the

"

of central
Mount

which
of

Greece.

Ci-thae'ron
forms

separates Boeotia

the eastern

end

of central

from

a
At'ti-ca,
peninsula

Greece.

In

the northeast

the plainof Ma'ra-thon,is Mount

Attica,overlooking

full of brilliant white

marble

; and

south

of Pentelicus

Pentelicus,
is the range

Political Divisions

Hy-met'tus,still
regionis a plainabout
of

which
Ilissus,
the

round

the

most

unite

renowned
small

two

before

cityof E-leu'sis
part

for

its

63

honey-bees. The central

"the
Cephissusand the

streams

reachingthe1sea.
the northwest

on

third plain lies

coast.

Attica is for

rugged country with a thin, stony soil. It

which invites to commerce.
a long coast-line,

is

favored,however, with
In

and
intelligence

in artistic taste

VALLEY

OF

Greeks.

Athens,

the world
The

the

STYX

THE

(From

the inhabitants excelled all other

IN

ARCADIA

photograph)

became
capital,

in time

the foremost

cityof

in civilization.

journeysby land from Athens to Peloponnese

lies in the broader
a little country which
through Meg'a-ris,
traveller who

passes
part of the Isthmus

of Corinth.

As the soil is even

more

barren

than

Attica,the people supportedthemselves by rearingsheep

woollens and heavy pottery for exportation.
and by making coarse
they were well equipped
With a harbor on each side of the Isthmus
for a time
for commerce
Megara, became
; and their leading city,
that

of

great

centre

of trade.

Hellas

64

(i) the Less Civilized Countries.

Peloponis a massive peninsula
Isle of Pe'lops,"
a mythicalhero
The
great gulf on the east coast and two on the south.
regionis Ar-ca'di-a,the Switzerland of Greece," a plateau

Peloponnese

77.

"

"

nese

"

"

with

"

central
above

which

loftymountain

tower

ranges.
each of which
valleys,

fruitful

are

tribe

plainsand
city. The Arcadians

the mountains

Among
was

the domain

of

lived in the

simple,homely styleof
and slaves ate their pork and
mountaineers.
Master
barleycake
bowl.
like,
together,and mixed their wine in a common
Hardy and warArcadian
freemen
for
homes
the
were
equallyready to fight their
and to serve
foreignstates for pay.
The northern slopeof the plateau,
with a narrow
border of coast
twelve
plain,is A-chae'a. Divided
independent cities,
among
till
in history. E'lis
late
this country remained
unimportant
comprisedthe western slopeand the broad rich plainalong the coast.
Its most
notable citywas
where the Greeks celebrated
O-lym'pi-a,
or

and athletes
festivals,

the greatest of their national

in the games.

contended

site is

The

now

strewn

from

all Hellas

with the ruins of

temples.
78. Peloponnese
near

the Isthmus,

Hellas.

Her

of her three

(2)the

was

harbors,two

on

Civilized

of the

one

loftycitadel

More

Countries.

Corinth,

"

greatest commercial
the

commanded

Isthmus,

the Sa-ron'ic Gulf and

cities of

and

one

by

means

the Corinthian,

on

she could trade

equallywell with the East and with the West.

Though she had a largenavy, her narrow
territory
prevented her
from becoming a great power.
the mountainous
was
Ar'go-lis
chiefly
cities were
peninsulaon the east of Peloponnese. The principal
along the valleywhich reaches northward from the head of the Arin earlytime the seat of a powerful
Gulf.
One was
gol'ic
My-ce'nae,
kingdom. It declined,however, and Argos took its place as the
head of Argolis. For ages it has been in ruins.
The
great rival of Argos was
Sparta,chief city of La-co'ni-a.
In the beginning this country occupied the fertile basin of the
Eu-ro'tas
the
time

River.

The

best-equippedand
of

people

the

country had

best-disciplined
army

all
danger, therefore,
"

of

the Hellenes

Sparta, low-lyingamong

in

looked

the caverned

for

the
to

centuries

world.

them

was
hills,"

In

for protection.

but

The

Islands

65

Greek cities,
it was
group of villages. Unlike most
whollywithout
fortifications ; the ranks of brave warriors were
its walls.
of Laconia

West

its centre

Near

The

79.

is Mount

site for

excellent

is 'the

Islands

over

has been

mentioned

latter is
The

the

The

famed

is but
Cyc'la-des
celebrated

most

and
and

marbles.

for

which

and

the

on

mentioned

will be

important
which

for

and

is

as

well

Phoenicians

and

to

Aegean.

peninsula
Minor, and

Asia

in groups.
Thasos
for its copper.
The
of central

Greece.

of Euboea

and

colonized.1

Crete,south
and

harbors

the

as

islands

history. It
of Asia

coast

in small

It abounds

Cyclades

Other

Egypt.

the

at

Greatest

of the

of Greek

study

glance

supplied with

are

had

Greece

further

our

purpose

the

them

all the islands is

in

our

borders

an

De'los,the cal
mythifor its
Pa'ros,already mentioned
of Asia Minor
coast
are
Les'bos,
and Sa'mos, seats of earlyindustry,

between

route

sea

Chi'os

the

important of

most

furnished

of the

continuation

among

the

Near

lyricpoetry,

Rhodes,

Greece

gold and Euboea

nearlyparallelto the coast

birthplaceof Apollo, and

beautiful

East

"

for its

of the

group

Attica.

Region.

islands,standingsinglyor

long island

Aegean

It lies between

with

is dotted

of Mes-se'ni-a.

fortress.

Ae-ge'an Sea.

is the

hillybut fruitful country

I-tho'me,whose summit

but

is

Minor

fertile plains,

opposite shore

of

Greece.
The
and

Aegean

the islands

other.

Mariners

Sea
are

does

separate,it unites

not

so
stepping-stones,

two

speak, from

to

coasts;
the

to

one

could pass without danger,

the entire breadth of the sea.

barks

in -the smallest

without

losingsightof land, across

Indeed,

from

the mountains

the

Euboea

of southern

the

Greeks

could

the gentle winds

With
to the hills of Chios.
quite across
easier to travel by
that blew steadily
in the summer
season, it was
than by land.
sea
Naturally,then, the peopleof the Aegean region
interchanged products and
the islands and
coasts
the two

look

"

ideas,and

thus advanced

study of this region is that it

and
that it,rather
civilization,
heart of Hellas.

culture.

equallyin
was

the

than

The

great fact jn

earliest home

the

of

peninsula,was

our

European
the

very

66

Hellas
80. The

Effect of the

character

Country

Greece

Euphrates. It is
A majorityof
by ranges.
mountains

man

somewhat

make

can

with

contrasts

the

and

the

upon

"

In

its

the

like

the Greeks

People.

valleysof
Syria,but more

the Nile

splitup

mountaineers.

were

tainous
moun-

In the

livingfor himself and his familyby

without
the
a small patch of soil,
tilling
a

hunting,keepingstock,and
aid or cooperation
of neighbors or

with little need

of government.

is therefore free ; and the kind of life he lives makes

him strong
and brave.
for their freedom,are almost
Such men, when fighting
He

This

unconquerable.

the character

was

which

the Greeks

oped
devel-

in their mountains.

The

of

the

country, too, had

effect. The
political
people of each valleyor narrow
plain,surrounded
by high ranges
and seeinglittle of their neighbors,
live alone in
to
content
were
the enjoyment of complete independence. In other words, the
mountains
preventedthe growth of largestates.
feature of the country was
Another
its openness
to
controlling
the sea through the excellent gulfsand harbors.
From
almost any
the Greek, even
with his slow way of travelling,
pointin the peninsula,
could reach an arm
of the sea in a singleday. This circumstance
naturallyattracted him to a seafaringlife. The stony
soil could not support a dense population; and the vast mountains
the north kept the Greeks from pushing out into central Europe.
on
nature

All these

features of their situation

commercial

and

in the

folk.
colonizing

Aegean, and

in the direction of Africa

Aegean

area

to

and

combined
have

We

how

In

Egypt.

the first regionof the West

to

the

civilization.

on

the mind.

economical

habits

The
of

people the

world

has known.

rendered

them

of

season

thinking. The

their action.
The

make
easy

them

by

Eastern

moderation

They

became

mild

climate

gation
navi-

was

far out
of the

nearness

in that direction

made

ships
"

it

hence

ings
physicalsurround-

compelled the

that

life,so

well

as

be visited

soil

how

brief,the

the effect of these

poor

thought as

seen

to

of islands reached

chain

the Orient and its openness

of European
birthplace
Most
important of all was

Greeks

to

controlled

form

their

the best-balanced
and

gentlechanges

happy. The bracing air stimulated

awakened
bare,sharplypointed mountains

clear
in the

Superior

its

other

of

men

beauty
the

Finally

with

combined
for

intellectual

peoples.

other

all

of

love

that

soul

in

coast

of

Greece

of

this

effect

literature,

is

Why

in
Greece
and

type

parts

of

to

Greece

with

7.

the

state

in

I.

Excursions

in

Attica.
"

chs.

vi,
II.
III.
IV.

vii

Thermopylae.
Thessaly.
The

"

Coasts.
"

Mahaffy,

with

the

all

the

parts
in

Compare

5.

in

why

reasons

adapted
given

portant
im-

more

Egypt,

of

to

nearness

civilized.
those

the

was

another

to

Greece

Which

What

best

What

contrast

to

this

were

most

lonia,
Babying
producchapter,
able
favor-

soil,

climate,

and

live.

you

for

Reading

Rambles

Mahaffy,
Days

in

79-89.
90-103.

ch.

famous

2.

her

by

account

attractive?

Richardson,

Richardson,

"

become

seems

From

Vacation

Richardson,

4.

countries

Topics

products

statesmanship.

harbors?

Mention

Greece

and

which

and

history?

country

to

of

6.

Compare

and

influenced

one

Europe

these

most

seem

progress?

products

of

character?

above

nation

her

on

with

now?

features

Which
of

of
is

of

Greeks

soil,

create

art,

Greece

Greece

was

it

country

climate,
to

supplied

nearness

than

physical

Syria.

and

high

first

the

contrast

what

times

the

was

the

was

ancient

of

How

3.

the

Questions

abundantly

most

of

science,

mountains

the

condition?

Orient?

the

had

effect

What

lifts

influences

Suggestive

i.

67

which

diversity

favoring

genius

Race

i.

Greece,

and
m-ii8.

Studies

in

Greece,

VII

CHAPTER

THE

AND

CRETAN

About

I.

81.

their

of

account

preciselywith

half

have

they

all this has

pioneer
his

the

of the

deeds

them

real

found

of

work
learned

heroes

mighty

the

his

1870 he began

digging

life.

concluded

Minor,

and

the

settlement,

After

the

on

far

nine

of

different

to

rude

the

the

from

Hellenic
war

area.

The

and

of

from

Homer's

his

about

business,

above

western
north-

3500

than

more

work

the

another

one

that

in

tion,
descrip-

in

successor

be

the

hill is in
result

The

thinking

became

in

This

In

might

Troy

fortune

is calculated

inhabited

But

poet Homer
2

settlements, built
It

and

dates.

this task

sea.

and

first century
bare

city

stood.

have

some

(Shlee'mahn).

Trojan

begun

B.C.,

the Aegean

hilltopwhere,

ages.

village,was

few

achieve

To

this spot he

On

the

the

by

amassing

must

not

ruins

belonging

than

ancient

the

earth.

Troy

justifiedhis hopes.
unearthed

for

Schliemann

during

believed

beneath

Asia

more

have

eighth century

and

stories told

the

inspiration of
he

Heinrich

was

history, he

buried

changed by explorations in

he

boyhood

the

776

year

given hardly

been

in

the

historians

recently

with

affairs

POPULATION

THE

Till

"

Greek

B.C.

3500-1000

REMAINS;

Discoveries.

Recent

of them
a

THE

CIVILIZATIONS

MYCENAEAN

lowest

the

B.C.,

and

that

in

Argolis, Greece.

highly developed civilization,flourished

excavated
Schliemann
Tiryns and Mycenae
with
the sixth city
They were
contemporary

at

Troy.

showed

the

sixth, which

Afterward

1500-1000.

he

he

Mycenae
it to

believed

flourished
called

shows

at

the

that

have
time

been
the

on

civilization
1

"

105,

such

signs

the

centre

shores

of

wealth
of

the

of Greece

and

Mycenaean.
n.

i.

68

"

113.

and

culture

civilization
in

Troy.

that

which
Hence

Beginningsof Civilization
After

these discoveries it

69

begin the historyof

But even
this date has more
Greece as earlyas 1500 B.C.
recently
late.
Since
been
found
altogethertoo
1899 Arthur Evans, an
has unearthed
a
Englisharchaeologist,
great palace at Cnossus,
similar though smaller discoveries
Crete, and other scholars have made
in other parts of the island.
These explorations
prove
civilization
far
earlier
to
have
the Cretan
than the Mycebegun
naean;
to be, in fact,as old as that of Babylonia. In brief,
they
it necessary for us to beginour study of European civilization
make
at about

necessary

to

B.C.

3500

dates

These

was

do not

we

the records

get from

of the

Cretans,for
based on Egyptian

writinghas not yet been deciphered.They are

certain back to 3500.
There was
which is fairly
chronology,
between
an
interchangeof wares
Egypt and the Aegean area ; and
the dates
reconstruct
can
we
by a comparativestudy of these objects
of Aegean culture.1
Greek myths preservedthe names
82. Earliest Inhabitants.
extinct.
of some
pre-Hellenictribes long after they had become
who were
the Pelasgians,
merelyone of
As an example we may
name
inhabitants had no
the many
primitivetribes. The pre-Hellenic
or
races
race
to what
they
and we do not know
common
name,

their

"

belonged. We
of
by means

only

can

their works

II.

83. Beginnings.
settlements

the

which

progress

of

in round

huts, made

decorated

rude

stillsurvive.

CIVILIZATION

CRETAN

village
early as 3500 B.C. there were
entire Aegean region. The inhabitants lived
tools

and

arms

'It
about

at

help of a wheel.
with Egypt. Among
settlements at Troy and

without

pottery by the hand

this

should
700

B.C.

centuries too

be borne

in mind, however,

that

merely approximate. Some

early or too late.
are

and

formed

of stone, and
the

earlytime,there was commerce

the oldest
of the periodwere
the villages
the Stone Age.
This was
at Cnossus, Crete.
the civilizationof
to trace
It would be possible
Even

their civilization

As

"

the

over

THE

trace

the

regionfrom

all the dates in Greek

of those

given may

be

even

history before
two

The

70

Cretan

Mycenaean Civilizations

and

point through successive stages

the gradual improvement
could see
this

of copper

and

then of bronze

of progress and decline.

We
of pottery, the introduction
of
gold and silver,

of

wares,

and of many
the growth of architecture,
writing,
with
of life. Crete, in close
commerce
Without
movement.
followingit in detail,we

A
The

CORRIDOR

IN

1500

life at the

The

Palace

and

the

great works

of

and
courts, longcorridors,
one

led

shall take

this
brief

of

provisions.

photograph)

heightof

the

lived with his courtiers in

In

Egypt,

its

development
"

-about

2200-

B.C.

84.
with

ments
embellish-

CNOSSUS

AT

evidentlyfor the storage

largejarswere

(From

view of Cretan

PALACE

THE

other

the art of

of the

with benches

rooms

was

Court

People.

"

The

king of

Cnossus

palacewhich for vastness would compare

Egypt. It comprised large rectangular
a

multitude

found

of chambers

the throne

on

against the walls for his noble

which

and
the

store-rooms.

king once

councillors.

sat,

Another

Cretan Civilization

THE
A

THRONE

chair for the

stone

ROOM

king ;

both

on

(From

room,

The

fitted up with
frescos

PALACE

CNOSSUS
benches

for the guests.

photograph)

to have

picturethe
"

AT

sides stone

benches,seems

the walls

on

IN

been

brilliant court

Sometimes

used

as

life of the

school.

period.

the

dependents of the
princemarch into the palacein stately
times
procession,
bringingtheir gifts;someis filled with gaylythe court
adorned
and curled gentlemen,
dames
ously,
vigorgesticulating
standing,sitting,
flirting.We

and

see

the ladies,

tryingto preserve
the fresh whiteness of their complexion.
Again the people of the court are

like Oriental women,

watching

CRETAN

Decorated
(From Annual
at

VASE
with lilies.

]
troop of bull trainers,"

composed of youthsand maidens. The

were
nobles
picturedin these scenes
accustomed to fine clothing,
jewellery,
of
vases
furniture. They had
and
beautiful form

cut
aiid finish,
delicately

of the British School

Athens,

x.

p.

7.)

From

report by Dr. Arthur

Evans.

The

Cretan

and

Mycenaean

Civilizations

as
seals,and dagger blades inlaid with the
gems
In artistic taste and skill they far surpassed the
preciousmetals.

and

engraved

forms of

The

Orientals.
and
graceful

animals

in their art

especially

are

to nature.

true

85. Writing.

and

men

had

They

"

hieroglyphic
; the
clay tablets have
covered with this

later

been

found

LINEAR

in

of

one

Doubtless

WRITING

CLAY

ON

be

the

at

of little

of the

rooms

they are

of the British School

(From Annual

earlier

simplelinear script. Thousands

writing.

CRETAN

systems of writing,the

two

of

accounts

palace,

receipts

TABLETS

Athens, ix. p. 52.)

of events.

larger
to a deity.
to be a list of offerings
tablet,found elsewhere,seems
used for religious,
In a word, their script
business,and possibly
was
in decipheringthis
scholars succeed
When
historical purposes.
shall
the language of the Cretans, and
writing,we shall know

and

dues;

of them

some

Society

and

divided into the many

was

absolute

record

their civilization.

better understand
86.

may

master.

Government.

"

toilers and
There

It

is clear

that

the few nobles,and

is strong evidence

societywas
that the king

of peace

throughout
He

island,of the union of all under one chief king.

in the navy.
walls of defence,for he placed his confidence

the

could

not

send

over

sea

an

army

strong enough

to

built

conquer

no

Egypt
him.

Originof the
he

Rather

preferredto buy

while he himself extended

THE

III.

Hellenes

73

the favor of Pharaoh

his sway

over

MIGRATIONS

OF

Aegean

many

study
peoplewho
our

have

Aegean region we
Greeks

rich

gifts

islands.

HELLENES

THE

87. Beginnings (about 2500 B.C.); Formation

of the

with

had

of the Race.
to do

"

In

thus far with

Indo-Europeans. We noticed
the Indo-European tribes,in the
that about
above
B.C.
3000
of the race, began to move
homeland
apart and to develop into
in their wandering halted long in the
separate peoples. Some
have discovered remains
valleyof the Danube, where archaeologists
From
various
tribes
of their civilization.
there, about
2500,
into Greece.
There
had
been
trade
southward
began to move
and the Aegean area;
hence
between
the valleyof the Danube
not

were

even

or

the

As

own.

with

the

modified

88.

mode

of life^not much

different from

their

elsewhere,the immigrants of European speech mingled

though
natives,and the language of the invaders prevailed,
of
aliens.
The
the
intrusion
somewhat
blending
by
many

of the two

to

found

new-comers

The

attempt

Hellenic

peoplesproduced the
Turmoil
a

and

detailed

race.

Strife of Settlement.

account

of the

"

It would

as
migration,

be useless

the Greeks

selves
them-

that their ancestors

it,and could not remember
Doubtless
land.
had ever
from a foreign
they entered
come
waves," pushed on from behind
graduallyby tribes,perhaps in
also were
and
Indo-European.
Thracians, who
by Il-lyr'i-ans
the invaders and
between
There
have been continual fighting
must
the natives,and among
the immigrant tribes as well,for the possession
of the best lands.
For centuries,
therefore,Greece was full
of uproar
and violence.
The confusion reached its heightin the
the Aegean
and
Greece
thirteenth and
twelfth centuries,when
declares the
restless,"
all astir.
The islands were
region were

had

no

record

of

"

"

Egyptian record
A

from

of the time.

The

northwest

of

the

have

been

ward
the south-

peoples.
of Greeks
shiftingof masses
peninsula from Epeirus,Aetolia,

and
pressure of the Illyrian
was
part of this movement
the

must

cause

other
the

"

"61.

The

74

1
vicinity

and

into east

"

afterward

came

Mycenaean Civilizations

Cretan and

and

to be known

south

These

Peloponnese.

the

Dorians, and their movement

the Dorian
migration. It was the last
as

Peloponneseis termed
and the only one
great migrationwithin the peninsula,
to have taken
by the Greeks of later time. It seems

into

thirteenth and

twelfth centuries

THE

IV.

people

placein

the

B.C.

CIVILIZATION

MYCENAEAN
About

remembered

B.C.

1500-1000

While

the Greeks

taking possession
of their historical home, the Cretans
were
making great
their products,
progress in the art of living.Through commerce
with some
were
coming to all parts
knowledge of their industries,
of the Aegean area
and to countries far beyond. But for a longtime
the Greeks, distracted by the turmoil of migrationand conquest,
took little interest in these improvements. Toward
the middle
of the second millennium
(2000-1000)B.C., however, as lifebecame
89. Beginnings

for

season

more

Tiryns.

secure,

those of the

peninsulafell rapidlyunder
when

the Cretans

had

become

"

Cretan

east

and

influence.

had lost their inventive

stagnant, just as

did

were

south
This

coasts
was

at

of the
a

time

tion
power, and their civilizathe Egyptian in the same

period.2
Under

this

foreigninfluence the Greek chieftains along the east

little kingdoms, generallyin the alluvial plainsat
coast founded
the mouths of rivers. Each kingdom centred in a strongly
fortified
city. One of these settlements was Tiryns,on a low flat hilla little
than a mile from the ArgolicGulf, the oldest city,
far as
more
so
of huge,
we
know, on the continent of Europe. Its walls were
us
rudely dressed stones, built,the myths would make
believe,
work
stone
by a race of giantscalled Cy-clo'pes.For this reason
of this rough kind is described as Cy-clo-pe'an.The
highestpart
of the citadel,
enclosed by these defences,
was
occupiedby a great
palace. Like that at Cnossus, it contained a multitude of apart1

The

fact that the dialect of the Dorians

Greece

"17.

proves

them

to

have

come

is
from

nearlythe

same

that quarter.

as

that

spoken

in northwestern

Mycenaean Civilization
ments,

includingseparate

bath-room

courts

and

halls for

75
and

men

women

sleeping-rooms,
corridor
and porticoes. The
smaller and simplerthan that of
palace was
but
for
Cnossus,
a king who
ruled over
very great
only a few square
miles of territory.The
walls and palace tell a vivid tale of
the
wealth and luxury of the king,and of his
unlimited authority
over
the lives and labor of his subjects.
a

with

conduit

ROYAL

and

drains ;

CEMETERY
On

(From

MYCENAE

or

the citadel
a

photograph)

Mycenae was built on a steep hill at the extreme

north of the plainof Argolis. Around
finer
it ran
a wall of much
the cityoutgrew this
workmanship than that of Tiryns. When
over
a low adjoining
space, it extended
ridge. The older and betterfortified part is distinguished
the citadel; the later addition
as
is termed
than
the lower city. Mycenae was
Tiryns,
younger
90.

but

Mycenae.

because

"

of the

favorable

ruler of all Argolis. Here

but

Schliemann

privatehouses, the homes

the royal tombs
were

enclosure

on

the hill.

Here

situation

were

its

king

unearthed

of lords

and

grouped in

in time

not

only a palace,
More

servants.

and

became

about

markable
re-

circular

buried the earlier kings with their

The

76
families.

The

Mycenaean Civilizations

Cretan and

for themselves

later rulers made

One

dome-shaped tombs.
A'treus,is about fiftyfeet

immense

of

them,

in the

the

lower

city

so-called Tomb

in diameter.
heightand the same
and was
of the kind was
built underground in the hillside,
A tomb
All those at Mycenae
approached by a long,horizontal passage.
found
doubtless they had been
pillaged. From
were
empty;
in the
of the tombs
from
the contents
these remains, especially

of

ENTRANCE

in

TO

THE

(From

The

court

make
and

lady

out

how

OF

ATREUS

city,Mycenae

Lower

can
we
citadel,
what they wore

TOMB

photograph)

the

peopleof Mycenae lived,and

even

ate.

in

dressed

bodice

and

skirt.

full flounced
"

The
sea-purplestain.
her brow, goldenfilletsand pinsof exquisite
diadem of gold was
on
techniqueshiningout of her dark hair; golden bands about her
lets
throat and golden necklaces falling
; golden braceupon her bosom
upon her arms, gold ringschased with inimitable art upon her

The

cloth

was

fine linen

or

soft wool

of

Mycenaean Life

77

l
The men
very robes agleam with gold."
simplecloth around the waist,either hangingloose or drawn

and finally
her
fingers,
wore

togetherin

such

way

as

to form

GRAVESTONE

short trousers.

FOUND

AT

On

the shoulders

MYCENAE

ahead.
; his squirewalking
Excavations)
Schliemann's
(From Schuchhardt,

Warrior in chariot

Like the women,

they loaded them'sely
they pinned a mantle.
in gazing
with jewellery.They enjoyedperfumes,and took delight
admiringlyat themselves in their bronze mirrors.
1

Tsountas

and

Manatt,

The

Mycenaean Age, 180 f.

Cretan and Mycenaean

The

78
In

the

war

huge

shield which

leathern

or

king or

noble

equipped himself

reached

from

His

greaves.

Civilizations

neck

helmet,with

ankles,and

to

of

weapons

with

defence

sword

Unable to carry his

spear.
in a chariot drawn
by a team

heavy equipment far,he

The

defensive
wore
no
lightly,
and sling. They counted

dressed

men

common

of

wealth of utensils and

91.

Relations

richest and

with

in

Greece, as in
Aegean Sea, the

Laconia
"

similar.

was

the

brilliant and

most

In

battle

to

for combat.

and

armor,

for little in

have
They must
and enjoyedall the
shipped
body.1 They wor-

life.
used

with the

Decline.

Mycenae

"

the

powerful of
other

many

seats

Sparta,and
city at Troy was

cities in

the
brief,

Greece

is called
culture

Across

contemporary, and

culture

same

the age
of the same

Athens.

at

"

the

was

the civilization of

near

sixth

and

other gods representedby littleidols.

Crete;

during this period. Hence

Mycenaean. But there were

there

buried

ornaments

only the dead, but

not

rode

horses,but dismounted

with the bow

fought chiefly
and politics.
war
The
Mycenaeans believed in a future
imagined that the soul,livingin the tomb,

woollen

with

were

life

the

over
prevailed

now

the

Everywhere is seen the influence of Crete. The

engraved gems, the fine gold work, the inlaid daggers,and much of
the other movable
undoubtedly
goods found at Mycenae, were
built
the
and
island.
Cretan
from
architects
the
imported
palaces,
like those they
Cretan
artists frescoed the interior walls with scenes
had paintedin their own
country. Many immigrants must have

Aegean

area.

from

come

Crete

The

people.
striking. It
then
in

was

inventive and

was

their fortunes

to seek

decadent.

difference

was

In

those

simplerand

included
must

not

have

been

among

the

the

Crete

two

new

and

cultures

prising
enter-

was

not

temperament

more

was

artistic ;

The cities of Greece were

political.
Crete.
The palaceat Tiryns or Mycenae

more

of

more

features

these

chieflyone of periods. The earlier civilization

for a time stationary,
aggressive
; the later was

Tiryns and Mycenae

walled,but

among
the
between

regularin

afterward

strenuous

kings,and

form

inherited
in Greece.
doubtless
1

"

100.

than

by

the

There
fiercer

that of Cnossus, and

Greek
were

wars

temple.

Life

for supremacy

strugglesto maintain

The

8o

Mycenaean Civilizations

Cretan and

tribes who
roamed
through
againstthe barbarian
interior of the peninsula,
Hence
pressingdown from the north.
the mighty walls which surrounded
Mycenae and other cities,
of travellers.
As Crete declined,
which stillexcite the wonder
of the Greek kings crossed over
to the island and made
quests
con-

their freedom
the
arose

and
some

there.
Life in the

than that of the

though of a highertype
Aegean cities,
in spirit
and in broad features the same.

Orient,was

this condition

last forever.

did not

The

few

Fortunately
enjoyed wealth
body and mind

who

and

luxurybecame fewer. They so deteriorated in

that they could no longerprotect their cities from the less civilized
about
them.1
This was
the time when
people who surrounded
under foreignrule and when
the wild Chaldeans
Egypt came
swept
world
internal
the
ancient
was
over
Babylonia. Through
decay
far
down
toward
barbarism.
sinking
Suggestive Questions
what
and
way
increased
since
history

1870?

Greece?

Oriental

In

i.

With

3.

what

what

to

has

extent
2.

did

Why

knowledge

our

Crete

of

early Greek

civilized

become

before

closelyconnected?
with that of Egypt
of Mycenae
situation, Tiryns or Mycenae?

country

was

Crete

most

of Cnossus
or
Compare the government
had
the better
or
Babylon.
5. Which
Which
became
the greater city?
the illustration opp. p. 78 describe
6. From
of
the shield of a Mycenaean
warrior.
in detail the columns
7. Compare
the Mycenaean
with
those
of
16,
an
74).
Egyptian temple (pp.
palace
civilization.
from the map
the area
of the Mycenaean
8. Describe
4.

Note-book
Schliemann.

I. Heinrich

"

Topics

Hawes, Crete,the Forerunner

of Greece, 1-8.
and
II. Cretan
Religion.
Hawes,
Art, Letters,
"

III.
The

The
a

Dress

Great
same

Age,

and

stress

palaces may

be
to

Domestic

Life.

"

110-150.

Tsountas

Personal

Adornment.

"

Tsountas

and

Manatt,

placed on the Dorian migration as the cause

equallyin Attica,which the Dorians did
destroy less than jealousneighbors. The burning

must

not

due

to

accident.

and

Manatt,

ch. iv.

be

civilization declined

rule, conquerors
even

and

Houses

Mycenaean

IV.
1

Private

Excavations,ch. i ;

Schuchhardt, Schliemann's

wars

The

the civilization of the whole

ch. vii.

of the decline.
not

of

touch.

As

Mycenaean
with neighboring cities,to internal revolutions, sometimes
the internal decay, which was
affecting
was
great cause

world.

CHAPTER

FIRST

THE

PERIOD

OF

VIII

COLONIZATION;

HOMERIC

I.

THE

PERIOD

FIRST

HELLENIC

THE

The

92.

the

reached

This

Aeolians.

shall

from

island

with

the

in

mingled

with

greater

other

93.

The

the

Greek

possession

islands.
ended

and

began

the
in

Mycenaean

age.
order

geographical

emigrants,

of

been

Blood

races

"

the

the

was

the

the

colonized

emigrants

Meanwhile

Two

Cyclades.
Near
8l

in

mixed

of
Paros

those
is

other

the

same

Aegean
from

of all

that

their

reaching

and

homeland,

which

mentioned.

on

of

along

parts

of

home,

new

colonies

thing

to

is true

area.
were

ing
tak-

Delos

and

Attica

islands,

Nax'os,

guage,
lan-

speaking

mind

from

the

in most

Lesbos,

In
in

people

Greek

inhabitants

the

bear

must

went

in

Aeolians.

name

of

south

the

the

of

Aeolis,

group

we

cities.

Ae'o-lis, and

dialect
in

other

to

was

same

the

to

sea

they occupied

Minor,

distance

some

we

the

natives.

Asia

of

the

of the

expanse

Myt-i-le'ne and

Hence

Thessaly

in

wide

spoken

was

from

than

lonians.

Paros, have

migrations

neighboring

of

mainland

however,

race,

that

the

The

under

together

extent

the

their

Aegean

settlements

the

on

Boeotia.

colonists
and

of

and

as.

Greece,

close

extending

coast

Ae-o'li-ans.

countries
Aeolians

and

mainland

slight variations,

Thessaly,

these

the

territory

were

with

the

of

Their

inhabitants

the

founded

they

to

over

strip

Lesbos.

in

the

to

within

crossed

There

passing

narrow

Hellenes

cross

opening

colonists

of Lesbos.

Thence

the

to

principal

B.C.);

1500-1000

south.

to

Thessaly

From

of

their

(ABOUT
RACES

as

began

the

with

review

north

soon

of colonization

early period

We

they

sea,

approximately

As

"

OR

AGE

COLONIZATION

OF

EPIC

THE

which

in time

of Colonization

First Period

The

82

the
politically
important. Beyond the Cyclades, near
the adjaand Chios, and lastly
Asiatic coast, they occupiedSamos
cent
whom
Of all men
we
know,"
stripof coast known as Ionia.
the
had
lonians
good fortune
says an ancient Greek historian,1 the
favorable
to build their cities in the most
positionfor climate and
seasons."
The
soil,too, is remarkably productive. The greatest
and
of industry,commerce,
of their cities was
centre
a
Mi-le'tus,
(
intellectual life. In fact,for centuries after its founding Miletus
became

"

"

took

the

lead

and

Ionian

their

kinsmen

only

the

to

most

people of
The

in Attica.

and

the islands

on

and

its widest

In

appliesnot

occupiedthe
accordingly

race

central section of

islands

Aegean

south of the Aeolians.

coasts

The

94.

civilization.

Hellenic

the word

popular sense
Ionia,but to
Ionic

in

Dorians.

While

"

the lonians

and

the Aeolians

thus

were

Peloponnese
settled Me'los and The'ra in the southern
Cyclades,and conquered
The populationof this island was
a part of Crete.
now
a medley of

expanding

and

races

land

the

across

tongues,

called Crete

ninety cities.
confusion

of

all have

tongues

therein

; there dwell

sea,

of

Dorian

Aegean

race

and

coasts

the Dorians

history.
The period closed with
(about 1000
B.C.).3
Herodotus, i. 142.

Odyssey, xix.

The

170

Arcadians

Cyprian.

For

the

occupy

islands.

the three

were

to

came

The
most

races

and

same

high of heart, and Cy-do'ni-ansthere

waving plumes, and goodly Pelasgians." Farther
settled Rhodes
and
of Asia
the adjacent coast
the

is

fair land and

innumerable

men

Cretans

way

There

speech,but there is a
Achaeans, and there,too, native

the

not

are

"

it :

describes

of the wine-dark

water, and

And

from

Dorians

the poet Homer

as

in the midst

rich,begirt with

Sea,

Aegean

Dorians

and

.of

the Dorians

on,

Minor.

southernmost

In

this

section

Aeolians, the lonians, and

prominent in

the colonization

of

earlier Greek

Cyprus by

Arcadians

ff.

and

the sake

their colonists together formed

of completeness

fifth and

sixth

fourth
race

may

race

"

the Arcadian-

be mentioned

here:

(5) the so-called northwest

Greeks, occupying Epeirus, Aetolia, and the other countries
of that region, with Achaea
in northern
Peloponnese, (6) the Eleians in northwestern

Peloponnese.

This

classificationis based

on

the dialects.

Homer

II. THE

EPIC
About

95. The

Homer.

Source:

OR

g^
HOMERIC

AGE

B.C.

1000-700

An

epic is a long narrative poem

which
celebrates the deeds of real or mythical heroes.1 We
still
read with pleasurethe two great Hellenic epics,the Il'i-ad and the
in that
Od'ys-sey.They are simple,graceful,and interesting;
Tradition
declares the
department of poetry they are unrivalled.
author to have been Homer, a blind old poet, who wandered
about
from city to citychanting his beautiful verses
to eager listeners.
his
that
So great was
cities boasted of being his
seven
reputation
birthplace.The Iliad tells a story connected with the Greek war
the wanderings of the hero
againstTroy. The Odyssey narrates
from the Trojan war.
his return
on
These stories will
O-dys'seus
be found among
the myths in the following
chapter.
Value
of Homer's
Poems.
The
of
96. Historical
descriptions
palaces,of their furniture and decorations,and of the fine gold
work, given in these poems, so accord with the actual remains of
believe that Homer
the Mycenaean age that we
must
was
a guest
in some
of the palaceswhile they were
stilloccupiedand in all their
have
glory. Then, too, many
Mycenaean objectsof art must
survived
in great families long after the age had
heirlooms
as
life prove it to have
But other features of Homeric
passed away.
been in advance
is well
of the Mycenaean.
For instance,Homer
acquaintedwith the use of iron,whereas the Mycenaean period
layin the Bronze Age, which precededthat of iron. The country,
lived in Ionia and composed in an old
Homer
too, is different.
tion.
Ionic dialect. His period,therefore,followed the Ionic colonizaAlthough his stories are myths, probably containinga few
"

"

real traditions

he describes

customs

lifein this
new

blood
97.

of great achievements

Life

of Homer's
1

The

those

of his

own

past, the

time and

manners

country.

and
Ionic

Mycenaean, freshened by
of new
surroundings.
the
of the lonians
(1000-700 B.C.). Among
time,family and kin were sacred,and under the

periodwas a growth
and by the stimulus

Social

lonians

are

of the

Babylonians

from

the

--

had

preceded the Greeks

in

composing epics("42).

The

84
"

of

and

child,brothers

blood

had

"

household

care

Epic Age

Zeus, whose

and

altar

the hearth.

was

cousins,united

Parent

the twofold

by

bond

of

and
not

"

was:

stood by one
another in danger, for the state
religion,
manded
yet begun to protect the lives of the citizens. Zeus combe
kind
A
form
to
of welcome
to
men
common
wayfarers.
and
Hail,stranger, with us thou shalt be kindlyentertained,

thereafter,when
whereof

thou

of women,

of

hast

and

the

For

war.

hast

need."

tasted

features

then

of home

of

men

98. Property

Labor.

shalt

of

and

tell

that

us

kindred,freedom
of social life were

darker side appears in

age whose
sacked
and burned
killed the
cities,

theycaptured,and
respectable
; the weak
and

thou

an

warriors whom

Piracywas

meat,

love
Hospitality,

gentle manners

admirable

the most
time

thou

enslaved
and

In time

"

the

homeless
of peace

and

women

had

no

children.

protection.

the lords of the land

yards,
kept their servants busy in the country plantingorchards and vineraisingbarley,or tending the herds,from which they drew
of their living. As there were
most
few skilled workmen, they had
to make
at home
nearlyeverythingthey needed in their dailylife.
Kings and queens worked along with their slaves. Having as yet
values in
no
they bartered their produce, and reckoned
money,
cattle or in pounds of bronze, iron, or
other metal.
Although
traders suppliedthe rich with costlywares
from
Phoenician
the
themselves
East, the lonians were
building shipsand beginninga
trade

which

was

to

soon

drive

the vessels of Phoenicia

from

Greek

waters.

working in
people were
the fields or were
buildingwalls,houses, and ships,the nobles lived
in the cityin the enjoyment of wealth and authority. The greater
lords met
in a council to advise and assist the king in all public
business,and to providefor the interests of their class. The king,
who was
and
merely the first among the nobles,was general,priest,
judge. He led the army, prayed to the gods for the city's
safety,
and settled cases
of privatelaw.
He did not try, however, to keep
99.

Government.

the peace
to
no

fightone
means

or

While

"

the

prevent murder, but

another

as

absolute,for

much

as

only

not
1

common

allowed

the families of his

they pleased.
did

Odyssey, i. 123

he
f.

His

power

was

state

by

respect the wishes of the

Society

he

but

council,
freemen.

of

assent

influence

the

on

Government

important

did

assembly

showed

or

his

all

brought

This

and

not

disapproval

by

than

his

king

did

from

Draw

2.

did

Why

it the

live

should

Why

did

noble

citizens?

5.

(p.
of

Greek

the

Dorians.
In

older?

the

What

of
and
had

changes
Age

Mycenaean

I.

Life.

Family

Fling,

"

exercised

far

and

the

less

the

would

Epic

Age

equipments

of

place

in

tion
civilizawhich

undertake

the

men

the

"

the

of

the

warrior

during

matters

we

duty?

lives

the
in

on

zation
civili-

newer

under

protect

these

place

Ionian

the

was

west?

and

the

was

government

who

than

islands,

respects

If

rather

How

3.

taken

the

Note-book

from

shouted

merely

east

go
coasts

lives,

dress

gathering

advisers.1

what
4.

government

Describe

78).

Aegean

the

our

the

people

They

colonists

protect

to

the

and

the

on

cease

not

map

the

silence.

the

Mycenaean

improvement

an

decline

the

to

of

before

Questions

Greek

lonians,

the

related

"

memory

Aeolians,

vase

earliest

the

plans

vote

Suggestive

i.

85

Source

Topics

of

Book

History,

Greek

(extracts

1-13

Homer).
II.

Government.

Fling,

"

III.

Games.
"

Religion,

chapter.

including

Iliad,

that

13-16.

xxii.

of

257-897.

the

Homeric

age,

will

be

considered

in

the

following

IX

CHAPTER

RELIGION

about

think

to

Life.

Future

100.

While

shadowy

they

resting in

slumber

of

form

in the

When

"

themselves,
was

man

AND

the

body,

living

luxuries

the

enjoyed

kinsmen
those

punished
all his

to

who

grave,

which

had

supply

him

him

brought
Greeks

the

continued

this

at

food

duty,

sacrifice to

the

dead

self,a
or

them

To

the

second

the

tools

or

his

expected
he

drink,

severely

and

protected
with

and

he

As

and
but

but

used

his in life.

death.

duties

life.

decayed

offerings.

customary
to

in dream

times

proper

and

its routine

to

began

his second

ate, drank, and

with

Greeks

explain sleep

to

body

been

neglected

the

times

they supposed

The

in the

who

relatives

tried

adventures

sleep.

soul, abiding

self,or

of

eternal

an

was

earliest

attending

was

perhaps experiencing strange

death

MYTH

blessed

fitting ceremonies
these

For

even

until

to

imagine

the

reasons

the introduction

Christianity.1
In

realm

of

the

after

went

eternity.
Styx

the

the

Cha'ron,

the

to

the

depart.

Still later

of

the

souls

below

to

the

deeds

done

101.

thinking
they
they
1

Gods.

not

lived.
came

to

the

at

the

in the
"

In

judgment

and

the

"

all

whither

the

souls

across

Cer'be-rus,

where

gate, allowed

of

place

souls

joyless, dreamlike

ferried

rewards

all to

enter

arose

three-

but

three

punishments

the

none

judges

according

body.
of their

childhood

but

themselves,

worshipped
that

their view

earth,
pass

dead,

the

idea

the

about

believe

to

boatman,

distributed

They

Fundamentally

different

only

divine
of

the

there

body,

watch

to

began

beneath

"

home

dog, keeping

The

Greeks

Ha'des

god

leaving

River

headed

time

of

course

was

the

all these
like

that

development.
86

about
of

powers
deities
of

the

were

the

race

the

Greeks

world

nature.

like

Egyptians

men,

(" 24),

were

in which

Gradually
that

but

they

it had

Religionand

88

The

men.

The

oracle.

by

means

the revelation

denoted

word

same

celebrated

most

which

in Hellas

oracle

Myth

the

made

was

of the

utterance

of

that

was

called

was

god.

an

The

Apollo at Delphi.

Parnassus, in
up in a ravine at the southern base of Mount
the midst of magnificentscenery, stood his temple.1 Within was
a

High

fissure in the earth

through which volcanic

or
Pyth'i-a,
prophetessof Apollo, who

the

ecstasy from

In

the

vapor,

vapor
sat

she muttered

over

issued,inspiring
it

on

tripod.
reply to

something in

questions; a prieststandingnear wrote out her utterance, and gave

it to the questioner
the word of Zeus delivered to man
as
throughhis
son
borhood,
Apollo. The oracle extended its influence beyond the neighbe
to
and became
national.
Apollo then came
recognized
and moral law for all Hellas ; he often
as the expounder of religious
dar,
the calenover
measures
; he watched
gave his sanction to political
His advice was
and was
the guide and patron of colonists.
sought by individuals and by states on both privateand public
Those
who
matters.
sought his favor sent him presents till his
who
treasuries were
full of wealth.
The Delphicpriests,
the
were
real authors
of the oracles,kept themselves
rent
acquaintedwith curthat they might give intelligent
events
but
when
advice;
credit
of
to
the
Apollo,they offered doublenecessary
preserve
In moral
meaning propheciesso as to be right in any event.2
questionstheir influence was
usuallywholesome, as they preferred
moderate
to advise just and
conduct.
But
sometimes
the oracle
it lent its aid to the schemes
of politicians,
was
bribed,sometimes
and in the war
of independence which
the Greeks fought against
Persia it lost favor by beingunpatriotic.
104.

The

Delphic Amphictyony.
in the

Apollowere
the members
and

as

kind
At

were

central

admit

called

was

fixed times

celebrate

the

"

but

"

"

75-

in time

of the

some

cities farther away.

am-phic'ty-on-y

an

"

members

on

For

tribes

"union
the

of

example

Originally
Thessaly

in

so

were

larged
en-

the

neighbors."

shrine of the god to

from

the

the interests of the god and

an

property of

religious
leagueof

gathered
Deputies
at

festival in his honor.

together to deliberate
1

shrine and

keepingof a league of twelve tribes.

all in the neighborhoodof Delphi,

Greece,

to

The

"

of the ambiguous

response,

tribes met
his
see

worship.
"

143.

-2

National
This

body

of

was
representatives

Games

amphictyoniccouncil. Though
to fightamong
themselves,
and would
not help one
another when attacked by foreigners,
they
recognizedcertain laws of war ; for instance,
not
stroy
to dethey were
any allied cityor cut it off from runningwater
in a siege,
and
who wronged the god or injuredhis
any one
property they were to
punish with foot and
the members

hand

and

with

every

of the

voice,

an

league continued

and
in

means

their power.
This they
did
by declaring a
"

"

sacred

the

against

war

offendingstate.

Other,

less

brated,
cele-

amphictyonies
need

not

be mentioned

here.
The

105.

Great

Games.

religious

"

tional
Na-

Other

institutions

the great national

There
were
games.
were

four

of

them, held

Olympia, Ne'me-a,
the Isthmus

at
THE

on

of

Corinth,
and at Delphi, each in
honor of the chief god of
the most
splendid. Once

WRESTLERS
From

Florence.
(Uffizi,

the

place.1 The

in four years
all the shores of the Mediterranean

photograph)

Olympian

games were
of Greeks
number

vast

gatheredon the banks of

in which
the Alpheus in Elis to see the competitions.The month
the games
held was
were
proclaimeda holy season, during which all
Hellas ought to be at peace with itself. The multitude encamped
about
the sacred enclosure
of Zeus, the great god of Olympia.
Merchants
set up their booths, and money-changerstheir tables,
from

"

all classes of artists tried to collect audiences

attended
1

the

exercises

Apollo at Delphi, Poseidon

of the
on

and

athletes who

the Isthmus, and

Zeus

admirers, crowds

were
at

Nemea

in
and

training,or
at

Olympia.

Religionand

90
admired
for

the

the

the horses and

practiceof
Heralds

races.

recited

recentlyformed between
more
widely known." 1
The competitors
in the
and religious
standingand
of the games
end bestowed

examined

Greek

Myth
chariots which

were

entered

treaties,militaryor commercial,
in order that they might be
cities,

had to be Greeks of good character

games
of sufficient athletic training.The judges

the

the wreath

of candidates,and
qualifications

the

at

of

victory. There were contests in running,

leaping,
discus-throwing,
spear-hurling,
wrestling,
boxing,and
of
horses
and
chariots.
Such contests
racing
promoted art; the
Greek sculptorfound his best models
the athletes.
These
among
great national games also fostered commerce,
peace, and unity.2
1

06. Historical

Early History.
nature, but

Myths:
The

"

also the

How

Greeks

Greeks

invented

originand

of these stories doubtless

the

contain

reconstructed

myths to explainnot
earlyhistoryof their race.
a

kernel

their

only
Some

of historical truth handed

down

by tradition. But their chief value is to show how the Greeks

history. The Cretan scripthad fallen
attempted to reconstruct
learned
into disuse.
Most
probably the Greeks themselves never
time
it ; and they did not adopt the Phoenician
alphabettillsome
after 900
B.C.
Having no written records,therefore,they used
freelytheir brilliant imaginationsin changing and amplifyingtheir
imperfecttraditions of the distant past. The stories they thus
of the Greek
invented
worth knowing, not only as an expression
are
mind, but also because they filla largeplace in literature and are
in art.
often represented
of Hes'i-od,
Many of the earlier myths are found in the The-og'o-ny
word
The
lived about
a
Theogony means
poet who
700 B.C.
genealogyof the gods. In this work he attempted to give a systematic
of
and
their earlyrelations
of the birth of the gods
account
and of the HelIt included
the originof man
with one
another.
1

P. Gardner, New

Chapters in Greek History, 275 f.

In time there grew

startingpoint the year
2

two

from

festivals

was

776 down.

776

termed
The

up

system of chronologybased
B.C.

of

our

these festivals. It took

as

The

Olympiad, and
is purely arbitrary,
and an
acquaintance with the
read the later Greek
historians and the more
those only who
an

initial date

for
system is necessary
erudite modern
works
on

on

four years
intervening between
in their order
the Olympiads were
numbered

reckoning.

ancient Greece.

Mythical Heroes
lenic

and

race

from

Hesiod, and other

Homer,

and

Hellen

107.

its subdivisions.

his

Hellen.

was

and

Achaeus,
the

of

the inhabitants
the

The

Dorian

where

that

location

of the other

the

we

The

has

races

explainedabove.2

08. The

-The

Heroes

Greeks

of
as

Argolis.

vented
easilyinexplain the

myths to
originand earlygrowth of their
cities. They imagined that,
in time long past, heroes, the
sons

or

descendants

near

the gods, lived

the heroes
and

all the
notice

earth.

became

few

the

however,
2
see

myths
to

only of

those

know

related here
the value

are

"

n.

Selinus,about

600

HEAD

B.C.

; from

in

tribes

nations.

their

hero.

heads

whose

for reading, not

to

or

of national

strong, brave

and

braver

men,

bers,
rob-

founded

Though

heroes, we

shall

importance.
In his day lived

were

covered

with

study. It is important,
thorough study of religion.

for minute

make

is imperfect,as

than

savage
of them
Some

war.

of

and

beasts and

from

that became

of the myths

classificationin the myth

3.

deeds

women

The
94,

Taller,stronger,

and villages
had
tribes,cities,

Gor'gons,monstrous
The

from

MEDUSA'S

OFF

photograph)

ancestors

Per'seus of Argolis was

CUTTING

(A Metope

protected their communities

races,
a

on

PERSEUS

of

performed great

cities,or

the

Ae-o'li-ans,
Dorians,

them

Achaea.

country

races

Peloponnese,

find the

been

Hellenic

were

historical times

in

of the Hellenes

ancestor

common

The

crowded

northern

into

given below.1

are

doubtless in the earliest form of

"

of four

believed

invaders

The

Peloponnese
migration.

Dorian

Greeks

sources,

"

kings

here mentioned

Achaeans

before

became
"

principalhistorical myths,

three sons, Ae'o-lus,

Do'rus,and Xu'thus.
born A-chae'us and Ton.
Aeolus,Dorus,

lonians.

and

Achaeans,

were

Ion

fathers

myth

had

He

the last-named

To

Sons.

The

it does not

include all the Hellenes ;

Myth

Religionand

92

Any one who dared look a Gorgon

to kill
Commanded
in the face was
instantlychanged to stone.
of these monsters, Perseus
found her
Me-du'sa,the most frightful
and cut off her head.
after great toil and careful searching,
Though
and
other dangers,his strength
with many
he met
came
overcourage
them

of hair.

instead

writhingsnakes

all.

Alc-me'ne,a granddaughterof Perseus, while she was in exile at

who
named
became
the
bore to Zeus
Thebes
a
son
Her'a-cles,
Though Zeus had planned that this beloved
greatest of heroes.
all his neighbors,jealousHera l compelled
should rule over
son
life in fighting
monsters
at the biddingof
him to pass a toilsome
his cowardly cousin who ruled Mycenae. Twelve
great labors this
him to perform,all of them full of danger
weak
commanded
master
for the strengthof a giant. In his search for the monand calling
sters
to be slain he had to wander
over
nearlythe whole world of
of the dead to bring
the ancients ; he even
descended
to the home
he had ended
But when
his career
forth the watch-dog Cerberus.
of glorious
toil,Zeus called him up to Olympus to dwell forever
in joy among
the deathless gods. In this way virtue received its
reward.
109.

The

the Her-a-clei'dae

deprived of
it

came

about

mountainous

of the

Return
"

Heracleidae.

descendants

their inherited
that the
little

For

"

of Heracles

Dorians, who

throne

the

rightto

at that

country in central

"

time

three

generations

remained
of

in

Argos.

dwelt

Greece, chose

in

exile,
Then

Doris,a

the

hero's

and Ar-is-to-de'mus,
to
Tem'e-nus,Cres-phon'tes,
great-grandsons,
lead them in an -invasion of Peloponnese. In a singlebattle they
conquered the whole peninsula. Elis they gave to their Aetolian
received Argos as his kingdom ; Cresphonteswas
guide ; Temenus
givenfertile Messenia ; and as Aristodemus had died on the way, his
became
twin sons, Eu-rys'the-nes
and Pro'cles,
the first kings of
from
Laconia.
For this reason
Laconia always had two kings,one
Thus
the family of Eurysthenes,the other from that of Procles.2
founded in Peloponnesethree great Dorian
were
states, each ruled
by Heracleid kings.
1

For

"

Zeus

139-

and

Hera,

see

"

102.

Religionand Myth

94
hero.

He

In his

valor.

athlete second

an

was

youth he

fame

won

only to Heracles in strengthand

robbers and monsters.
by killing
been paying a tribute of human

Up to his time the Athenians had

beings to King Mi'nos of Crete,who

Every
as

nine years

sacrificeto

him

they sent

Minotaur, a

seven

monstrous

wielded

great naval power.

maidens
youths and seven
bull kept in the Lab'y-rinth.

Theseus, however,
of these

one

nied
accompa-

gloomy
; and

to Cnossus

bassies
em-

after

killingthe monster, escaped

from the intricate windingsof
the Labyrinth by following
a
thread
given him by A-riad'ne, daughter of Minos.
When, after his
Athens, he became
the

of Attica

to

king

united

city,he

towns

return

in

all

of

the

great

one

state.

The

112.

"THESEUS"

gOnautS.

(East pedimentof the Parthenon; British Museum)

from

of the Ar-

Voyage

herOCS

Sometimes

"

several

cities

joinedin

the voyage of
was
undertakings.Such an expedition
Ar'go-nautsin search of the golden fleece. Ja'son,heir to
throne of I-ol'cos in Thessaly,grew
up in exile in a cave
national

demand

The
but

But

had

with the

carried

return

call heroes

from

Colchis.

the water

with

if Jason
promised everything,

Col'chis the golden fleece of

children of

off two

ram

would

which

years
the royal household; for

of the fleece the

then raging among

pestilence

to

on

at

deceitful ruler

bring from

before

the

the age of twenty he returned to lolcos to

his rightsof the reigningking,Pe'li-as,
his father's stepbrother.

Pelion.

Mount

the

gods, he thought,would allaya

the people. In answer
to Jason's

all Greece

gathered to man
sailors
FiftyArgonauts
"

their oars,

"

and

in their

of

Argo for
the Argo

rapid hands

speduntiringly." Many troubles they had

coasts
along which they steered their way.
1

the

Pindar,Pythian Ode, iv.

"

the

age
voystruck

rowing

with the natives of the

The

War

Trojan

95

reached

the heroes

Colchis,the king of the country promised

them the golden fleece if Jason should plough a piece of land
it with
with
fire-breathingbulls and sow
dragons' teeth. The
king's daughter Me-de'a, a sorceress, showed the hero how to do
harm to himself ; and, as the king failed to keep
these deeds without
the cave
his word, she helped the stranger steal the fleece from
his wife.
where it hung, and followed him aboard the shipto become
far and wide over
the Argonauts wandered
the
On their way
home
When

subjectsfor

with

the

was

of the

Most
Menelaus

when

the

was

his right to her.

Now

the Greeks

dramas.1
famous

most

Helen, the

fairest and

Grecian
the

won

furnished

mythical voyage
The

"

Trojan War.

Lacedaemon,
Hellas.

and

songs

Trojan War.

The

113.

This

earth.

of the

waters

Men-e-la'us,
king of
in
accomplishedwoman

had

sued

prize,they bound

it chanced

ings
undertak-

wife of

most

kings

of heroic

that

for her

themselves

hand;
to

but

uphold

of

Priam, king
Paris,son
taking advantage of his

Troy, paid a visit to Menelaus; and

and go
host's confidence,
he persuadedHelen to desert her husband
refused to give her up, the kings of
with him to Troy. As Priam
in an attempt to recover
Hellas,true to their oaths,joinedMenelaus
of

by force. In the harbor of Au'lis,on the Boeotian coast,

Ag-agathered their ships nearly twelve hundred in number.
mem'non, kingof Argos or Mycenae and brother of Menelaus, was
her

"

leader.

Troy, and nine years they besiegedthe cityand

valiant
the most
harried the country and villages. Then A-chil'les,
with
quarrelled
dreaded by the enemy,
and most
hero in the army,
landed

They

near

her
The Greeks had assigned
captivemaiden.
a
captured town, but
in his share of the spoilfrom
to Achilles
Withdrawing in
had unjustlytaken her from him.
Agamemnon
refused to engage further in
anger to his tent, the impetuous youth

Agamemnon

the

Greeks
done

which

Thereupon Zeus,

war.

gave

over

as

favor

to

the

mother

of

Achilles,

upon
besiegedand sent countless woes
he
tillAgamemnon
was
ready to acknowledge the wrong

victoryto
and

make

induced
1

For

the

ample amends
Achilles to

resume

instance,Pindar's Fourth

for it.
his

It

was

part in the

no

war,

the
had

gift,however,
but the death

Pythian Ode and Euripides'Medea.

Religion and

g6

Myth

companion Pa'tro-clus at the hands of Hector, the greatest

of Trojan heroes.
Eagerly Achilles put on the armor
forged
for him by Hephaestus,1and mounted
his chariot drawn
by fierce
steeds.
His teeth gnashed in rage at the Trojans,his eyes blazed
and the gleam of his shield reached the sky. He drove the
like fire,
host of Troy before him like sheep,and many
renowned
hero he
a
At last he killed the hero of Troy without
slew with his own
hand.
mutilated
the body, and
the Greeks
pitilessAchilles
mercy;
dragged it at his chariot wheels.
time
Achilles
himself
Some
afterward
slain ; but
was
crafty
of
of
contrived
a
Ith/a-ca,
O-dys'seus,
king
plan
taking Troy by
horse, in
stratagem. He had the Greeks build a large wooden
hundred
brave
which
heroes.
Then
a
Sinon,
they concealed
desertingto the Trojans,persuaded them to bring the horse into
the city,
pretendingthat,if offered to Athena, it would give them
dominion
In the night,after the horse had been
the Greeks.
over
dragged within the walls,the heroes left their hiding and opened
the city gates to their friends outside.
The
Greeks then burned
the city; they killed the men
arid took captive the
and sacked
of his dear

The

114.

end

children.

and

women

the

from

Return

of the Greeks.

woes

hardships,some

many
wide.

Troy.

Driven

even

hither and

On

The

"

destruction

their homeward

of

Troy did not

they met with

with death.

way
Odysseus wandered

thither

the

far and

by angry Poseidon,
he saw
interestingcountries and peoples,he underwent
many
and met
with strange adventures.
severe
toils,
Reaching home at
of nobles,who, while suing for the hand
last,he slew the company
of his faithful wife Pe-nel'o-pe,
had long been livingat his house
and wasting his property.
115.

myth

Character

and

Influence

over

of

Myth

in their earliest form had

religion
and gods of terror, such as we
monsters
and

But

refined and

in time

the

ideas

of the

Greeks

sea

and
to

Religion.
do

with

"

Greek
rible
hor-

many

find among
the Orientals.
these subjectswere
on

all slain or
were
purified. The monsters
the background of the imagination,and
the gods were
shorn of their terrors.
The supernaturalbeings became

thrust

into

gradually
as

rule

Purification

gift

to

fact

gods
far

toward

working

to

of

was

the

problems

but

gods,
The

for

fit

regarded,

meal

basis

of

but

in

the

not

which

the

relationship

fellowship.

fearlessness

society,

subjects

"

was

as

fear,

the

of

spirit

Sacrifice

longer

no

97

kindly

art.

accounting
the

Myths

worshippers.

men

out

with

anger

his

with
and

goes

in

the

part

between

endowed

inspiration

an

appease

took

deity

and

and

worship

for

as

form

in

beautiful

the

of

of

This

the

government,

Greeks

art,

and

science.

Suggestive

what

In

i.

that

of

respects

Egypt

what

In

ways

the
the

were

find

we

What

the

Greeks

benefits

were

respect

general.

in

of

What

2.

what

mythology

Greek

In

5.

4.

evil-doers

In

3.

Delphi?

at

religion

Babylonia?

or

religion?

their

the

was

Questions

the

heroes

was

the

Note

-book

Greeks

the

Greeks

in

engaged
of

this

the

to

killing

Oracle
Greeks?
and

monsters

myth

on

process

from

the

by

beneficial

than

derive

influenced

games

effect

beautiful

more

did

and

religion?

ch.

and

Apollo

I.

Artemis.

Demeter,

III.

Games

and

Persephone,
and

Festivals.
"

;
;

Mythology

Fairbanks,

"

of

Greece

and

Rome,

iv.
II.

53

Topics

Holm,
Mahaffy,

History
Rambles

of Greece,
and

Dionysus.
Fling,
xix;

i. ch.

Studies

in

"

Source

Bury,

Greece,

xi.

ch.

Fairbanks,
Book

History

of

Greek

of Greece,

vi.

History,
ch.

Hi.

47-

""

5,

CHAPTER

Oriental,

"

he

that

family

In

Attica,

connection

this

the

consisted

of

it

only

not

was

under

was

is

Apollo

the

was

need

we

notice

to

When

state.

families, as
which

had

with

into

themselves

and

property,
whom

from

the
of

spoken

as

of all

ancestor

common

held

The

united

Many

descent,

Phratry

the association.

large family.

reunions
of Zeus
1

of the
and

Ch.

It

fixed

the
"

had

members
the

festival
social
in

were

gentes

Tribe.

the gens,

some

social

intercourse

98

keep

up

them.

to

(not gentes)

the

word
in

related

property,

phratric deities.

iii.

laid

nobles

families

strangers

time

to

to

itself
blood.

admitted

were

therefore, the phratry resembled

officers,common
for

such

At

limited

As

gods

more

The

themselves

though

organized

position

"brotherhood."

families

relations.

up

or

reunion.

Several

"

one

better

new

officers,common

days.

mostly

were

considered

kinsmen,
Like

Athena,

XVIII.

and

members

in fact

were

the

and

phratry

indicates, the

on

the

ancestor

also

the

to

all connection

lost

they kept

had

gens

religiousand

Hence

form

to

on

relationships.
117.

Each

made

often

gens,2with

present

founded

world,

common

called

association

an

modern

however,
of

for the

and

married

the

its relation

and

ancestor

common

treasury.

stress

greatest

in

as

descendants

offeringswere
members

and

chapter

character

they

up,

Sometimes,

the

case

general

grew

us

another.

that

In

sons

among
sprung

one

its

only

the

in another

described

life will be

Family

household

The

unlike

family,

Athenians.

the

to

belief

the

Greek

complete

slaves.

In

Apollo.

ancestral," in

the

and

The

"

religiousinstitution.

and

of Zeus

care

Gens.
The

children,

also

but

the

monogamic.

was

father, mother,
social

and

Family

The

6.

1 1

DEVELOPMENT

ITS

AND

CITY-STATE

THE

Greek

and

Unlike
form

the

periodical

and
for

the

gens,

worship
however,

gen'os, plural gen'e.

Phratry
the

phratry was
both

as
political

and

men

well

99
All
religious.

belongto these

it
citizens,

new

Tribe
social and

as

had to

women,

admitted

the state

and

zens,
citi-

societies. When

assignedthem

to

various

phra-

which
tries,

thereuponaccepted them by an act somewhat like that

of adoption. The chief political
duty of the phratrywas to watch
the citizenship,
to keep it untainted
over
by alien blood and religious
It
admitted
b
oth
impurity.
children,
girlsand boys,after
strict
the
of
to
a
inquiryas
legality their birth ; for any irregularity,
in the marriage of the parents, corrupted the citizen
especially
blood.
On membership in the phratrydepended all the civil and
political
rightsof the citizens. In the study of this exclusive
association we
begin to appreciatethe vast difference between the
Greek

and

The

the modern

tribe

was

beginningsof

the

created

phratries.Doubtless
tribes

many

but
phratries,

the state.

by

of

group

race

of kindred

union

into

state.

The

formed

were

in the far-off

naturallyby the

in the

historical age they were

usuallydivided the country

government

assigned to each the phratriesof

artificial it might be, the members, accusthe district. However
tomed
but that of blood and
other bond
to no
came
religion,
the
and
tribe
to regard one
another as kinsmen,
an
as
soon
enlarged
districts called

family.
tribal
and

lonians

The
scale.

earlyIonic

tribe furnished

8. The

evident

states

systems of

their

in

four

usuallyhad

tribes,

earlyDoric three.1
tribe was
organizedlike the phratry,though on a larger
social and religious,
It was
too, but in the main political.
regiment

proportionalshare of the
1 1

differed

Dorians

and

organization.The

the

Each

The

and
tribes,

City-State.
"

taxes

From

for the

army,

and

other

what

has

and

each bore

publicburdens.
thus

members

comprised several tribes,which

phratriesand families. The ties which

of the
and

and

blood.

the

Greeks

several

groups

togetherwere

neighborhood, except in
The

same

without

their state and

1

No

ours.

not, as

were

bound

cannot

clear

conceptionof

the

difference

state is a
found

the

understand

We

far been

divided
sub-

degree,but religion
slightest

of the state.

thus

is

ritory
with us, ter-

is true

A modern

tribes have

the

said,it

far been

that the state

into

its

country whose
in the Aeolian

between

inhabitants,

states.

few

exceptinga
The

its

City-State and

The

ioo

state,

the other hand,

on

who

societyof kinsmen

under

fellow-citizens

transients,are

Greek

Development
one

ment.
governexclusive religious

an

was

definite

territory.We
family,in another to a

possesseda

it in one
should rather compare
respect to a
church.
By residence through any number

of centuries

an

alien

acquirea rightto the citizenship.

The state was
not only a largefamily and
religioussociety;
it was
also essentially
a
city. To the eye it seemed (i) a group
like a modern
of dwellings,
ally
city,though usushops,and offices,
protectedby a wall,and (2)a little surroundingcountry dotted
with farm buildingsand villages.But the essential fact in
over

familycould

the

case

not

is that

there

country and

another

government,

which
this

For

state.

it from
distinguish
we
was

may

Athens

was

of
were

for the

reason

as

the country

Attica

Attica

the

who

well

states

and

us,

over

included

merely a city

was

the

whole

state

of the

area

to
city-state

times.

of modern

Athens

for the

government

Greek

Athens.

cityof

which

state

with

call the

we

take

as

city; rather,there

extended

country in which

not,

was

As

an

tration
illus-

GeographicallyAttica
cally
Politi-

situated.

was

All the inhabitant

all Attica.

enjoyed political
rightsin

the

country

Athenians.
Influence

119.

of the

City-State on

History.

"

All the citizens

of some
thought to be kinsmen, the descendants
god. For
all children of Apollo. The people
example, the Athenians were
of each
city considered it impious to admit strangers to their
and their state, as the god
brotherhoods,their religious
festivals,
loved only his citizens and looked upon all others as intruders.
sides
Bewere

lesser deities and

the divine ancestor, each

state

had

some

Largely because of
these religious
stowing
were
ideas,the city-states
extremelyilliberal in bethe citizenship,
in greater
and were
unwillingto combine
Greek
units. Hence
political
historyhas to do, not with empires
like the Oriental,but with a multitude
of little city-states.
Some

great patron god, who

covered

but

than

thousand.

the motives

and

an

few

square
This

of blood

energy of

too

and

disliked strangers.

miles ; Athens, one

very

of the

no
largest,

smallness,however, combined

to produce a
religion
thought and action which we

devotion

to

find nowhere

more

with

country
else in

The

IO2

City-Stateand

against the

the

commons,
wealthy families

its

Development

aristocrats sometimes

admitted

tain
cer-

share in the

wealth
privileges.When
substituted for birth as the qualification
for political
was
rights,
became
the government
rule of the few," of
an
oligarchy
number
less
than the whole
citizen bodyJ
Sometimes
it
any
was
agreed that political
rights should be graded according
of property determined
to amount
In that case
by a census.
the government
called a ti-moc'ra-cy.2
was
Either a timocracy
of oligarchy might develop from
or
some
simpler form
an
aristocracy.
These changes did littleto improve the condition of the masses
in fact grew
to quiet their discontent,which
or
more
continually
bitter.
it often happened that a noble,
Under these circumstances
beaten
in some
conflict with his fellows,appealed to the
political
or
change
promising economic
improvements in expolitical
commons,
for their support.
their help he would
With
then usurp
the government
and
An
unconstitutional
rule by force.
rule of
the kind was
called by the Greeks
a
tyranny. The word did not
or
a harsh
originally
oppressiverule,in fact,many were the
signify
that meaning as the character
to have
very opposite
; but it came
of the tyrants deteriorated.
under all
common
Usurpationswere
which
the forms of government
followed the kingship.3
Generallythe tyrant improved the condition of the commons
the peoplemore
of the nobles ; he reduced
and lessened the power
nearlyto an equality. As a rule the usurper was himself a wise and
his grandson, who
herited
inable statesman.
His son, and still more
became
the power,
in nearly every
a
case
tyrant in the
modern
When
this condition
came
sense.
about, the people put
to

"

"

tocracy
oligarchy is concerned, it might include the arisabove, and it is a convenient
to use.
Necessarilyit included the timocracy.
About
changed to a timocracy; " 150.
650 B.C. the aristocracyat Athens was
It is true that in the
Some
writers on Greek historyspeak of an "Age of Tyrants."
So far
;

one
2
3

seventh

the

as

but

and

of the word

meaning

the Greeks

the distinction mentioned

drew

sixth centuries

B.C.

there

were

many,

and

that in the fifth century, when

But
from the
fewer.
great part of Hellas, they were
fourth century to the end of Greek independence they flourished in all parts of Hellas
in greater numbers
leading.
before.
The expressionAge of Tyrants is,therefore, misthan ever

Sparta and

Athens

controlled

Tyrannies worthy of study

163), and Syracuse ("" 207, 276-279).

were

those

at

Corinth

(" 144), Athens

(""

161-

From

tyrant and

the

down

Kingship
established

Democracy

to

either

103

democracy or

liberal

oligarchy.1
These
Some

generallines along which the city-states

developed.
the
entire
through
cyclefrom kingshipto democracy ;

are

went

advanced

others

The

the end.
;

part way

; still others

monarchical

to

of government
diversity

they were

as

the Greeks is wonderful

among
in this field as in science and art.

inventive

of the

Diagram

liberal

(At Sparta)
(At Corinth)

Kingship-"

Political

aristocracy.

j^grtQ^racv-^tyranny-"libera
oligarchy.
aristocracy

of

Combinations

Neighboringcommunities,
in religious
leagues,

City-States.
"

tribes,sometimes

well

Cycle

jaristocracy-"timocracy-^tyranny

(At Athens)

122.

remained

united

as
as
city-states
Some
of these unions
the amphictyonies described above.2
mained
rewell.
others tended to become
Boeas
religious,
political
otia is an
instance
of this political
development. In time arose
like that headed
by Sparta
leagues which were
purely political,
federal
the
in Peloponnese.3 Toward
the end of Greek
history
into great promiunions
form of the political
came
nence.4
a
league
"

"

Suggestive Questions
i.

What

are

some

of the differences

between

the Greek

city-stateand the

How
state?
2.
city-state and the modern
national
from creating a
did their love of the city-stateprevent the Greeks
the city-state?
derive
from
Greeks
did
state?
What
the
advantages
3.
reached
have
high a point,if
as
the civilization of the Greeks
4. Would
modern

city?

they had

the

between

all been

united

brought about
5. What
did the tyrants in many

the

in

state?

one

Give

reasons

for your

aristocracy to tyranny?
for democracy ?
the way

change from

cases

prepare

opinion.
6.

How

;
good example of the change from tyranny to democracy ("" 164 ff.)
Corinth, of the change to a liberal oligarchy (" 144). It should not be thought that
The text merely states the rule,
in these ways.
every
tyranny affected the government
1

to

Athens

which
2

"

104.

offers

there

were

exceptions.
3

"

"

I4S.

"" 338-342.

City

The

104

and

-State

I.

from

Change

The
ch.

iii;

Kingship
History

Bury,

Development

Topics

Note-book

Athens

its

Republic.

to

of Greece,

ch.

i.

"

"

Aristotle,

Constitution

of

9.

II.
III.
Greeks

Cleisthenes,
The
and

General

Romans,

of

Tyrant
Subject
chs.

i-iii

Sicyon.
of

the

"

Herodotus,
Chapter.

v.

"

67-69

Fowler,

vi.

City-State

128-131.

of

the

THE

WORLD

HELLENIC

Willmm,

The

Hellenic

World

Engrav.ng
15

Longitude

East

The

io6

ful motive

the

was

of

Organization

and

of adventure

the

longingto see
with the fortune-huntingspirit.
When
a
a
Colony.
cityplanned to

love

world, often combined

124.

of Colonial Expansion

Period

Second

"

the

send

colony,it was customary first to ask the advice and consent

it appointedsome
of Apolloat Delphi. Having obtained his approval,
to distribute
noble as
founder," who was to lead the enterprise,
out

"

the mother
communities

to

the

place in
like those
religion

of

centre

and

to

carry

with

citywith

mother

them

which

to

kindle

the

uninterruptedin

and

to

found

homes

deprivedof
125.

in

divine

Relation

of

the new,

the

was

the

the

divine

religious
founder
for colonists

hearth

of

the

public hearth of the new

the old community might
that

those who

strange country might not for

hearth

sacred

and

is well
it"

customary

was

fire from

of

continue

hall

hearth

sacred

life
settlement,that the religious

government

which

on

his sacrifices. It

received

assignedeach

In this connection

This

alwayskept fire burning.

altar
the community, an

ancestor

founder

in its town

it

which

on

city.

cityhad

Greek

erally
Genthe government.
wished from neighboring

established

state,and

new

of the mother

that every

to notice

to arrange

citypermittedany who
join the expedition.The

his

man

and
settlers,

the

the lands among

went

forth

moment

be

mother

city

protection.
Colony

to

the

Mother

City.
"

control of her colonies.

to keep political
possible,
But conditions generally
prevented. Colonists,like other Greeks,
and would
not
rest
loved complete independence for their cities,
satisfied with any other condition.
Usually,too, the colonies were
with
the mother
distant,communication
slow, and all
city was
these circumstances
combined
to render control impossible. Hence
a rule the colony was
as
politically
independent. But it remained
in close religious
and social union with the mother-land.
The two
states
ing
usuallytraded with each other. They often joinedin plantother colonies,
ance.
assistand in time of danger they gave mutual

when
preferred,

bond

This moral
126.

Minor

Colonies
from

in

was

Italy and

the Greek

rarelybroken.
Sicily.

and
peninsula,

"

Italy is
the Ionian

farther than

Asia

Sea is not, like the

filled with islands ; yet the Greeks from the Epeirotcoast

could look in clear weather across
the narrowest
part of the sea to the

Aegean,

Italy and
shore of
had

will be

Lower
next

in their

known

here

to

There

Italy.

they found

geographicalrather
be

Italymay
the instepis an

homes..

own

cityof Ta-ren'tum.

Sicily

Because

fertilesoil than

more

Our

than

compared
excellent

far

107

review

of the

they

settlements

chronological.

in form

to

boot.

harbor,on which

of the favorable

In the heel

up the great
situation it became
grew

for commerce,
It was
wealth,and refinement.
especially
in
Greek
civilization
the
to
natives
of the
influential,
giving
too,

renowned

peninsula. Following the coast-line round the instep,we come

noted for her wealth and luxury. The word Sybarite
to Syb'a-ris,
luxurious person.
is stillused to designatean excessively
Farther
south was
Cro'ton,the home of famous athletes and physicians.
After they had shown the utmost
Achaean.
Both cities were
good
toward
another for many
one
feeling
years, they engaged in deadly
strife in which
Sybaris was blotted out of existence (510 B.C.).
Locri,farther

southwest,received

the

to

its

name

from

Locris,the

citywas renowned for her excellent government.

tion
She was
the firstof all Indo-Europeansto have a written collecto
of laws.1
come
we
Passinground the toe of the peninsula,
the Bay of Naples.
Rhe'gi-um, then far north, to Cu'mae near
The importanceof Cumae
lies in this fact,that from her the Romans
Afterward
of culture.
derived the alphabet and other rudiments
Cumae, Naples,
name.
Naples grew up on the bay of the same
Chalcidic
other colonies on the west coast were
Rhegium, and some
founded by Chalcis,Euboea.
In Sicilythe same
posite
city founded Mes-se'ne2 on the strait opnorth
and
Rhegium, and several other settlements on the east
coasts.
The most
important city in Sicilywas Syracuse on the
mother

country.

This

"

eastern
"

In

coast.

Great

Harbor

"

time

wealth

founders

their

adorned

did
2

built
it with

Next

Its
in

The
Ac'ra-gas(Latin Ag-ri-gen'tum).

was

and

city on a hill two miles from the sea,

while
temples,colonnades,and beautiful dwellings,

The

Babylonians had

not

have

one

largestcity in Greece.

shelter the navies of the world.

could

population and

the

it became

tillabout

code
two

more

than

twelve centuries earlier(" 35)- The

centuries later
renamed

called Zan'cle,it was

Originally
later,
by a colony from Messenia (" 142).

Romans

(" 386).

Messene

after being reenforced,many

years

On
they planted vineyards and olive orchards.
and
of its brilliancy
beauty, Pindar, the poet, calls it
Syracuse, and Acragas were
eye of Sicily."Tarentum,
it

all about
account
"

Second Period of Colonial Expansion

The

io8

the

colonies.

Dorian

of

Results

127.

wealth.

"

calls them

the circuit of colonies

of

in

Greeks

(" Great

hundred

two

related

the

to

Greeks

from

source

the

128.

the

who

that

timber

a
so

is

to

now

the

respects the

two

civilization:

for

busy

(i)

planting

were

ments
extendingtheir settle-

the northwest

On

of the

coast

reachingfar
peninsulawith three arms
rugged and has so long a coast-line that the
to

live found

work

shipbuilding
; and
became

their

In the interior

near

and gold mines,

silver,

most

of them

Chal-cid' i-ce.
the

they had
'"49-

were

made

from

came

a
Pot-i-dae'a,

city of
Macedonians,

chief commercial

Chalcidice lived the

dialect,and

of their situation

as

Men

homelike.

it very

the copper,

colony,however,
Greek

the Greeks

While

"

home

In

historyof

the

new

region.
spoke

America

was

to science and

area.

region to

Chalcis,they named
Corinthian

includes

Hellas

Sicily.Western
as

"

Hellas

broad

there

went

to

to cut

account

west

of their culture.

Aegean

It is

sea.

swarmed

who

reason

occupiedthe

Western

intellectual contact.

Chalcidice.

Aegean, they found

the

for this

the arts, (2)they were

the Romans,
the natives of the West, including

which

in

"

term

they were
Italyand Sicily,

within

into the

Latin

important in

largerpart

colonies in

and

country in

but always kept in

distinct,
politically

and
are

Colonies

The

Italy and

great contributions

they made

Greeks

and

its

tinued
earlyas 750 B.C., and conterritory
occupiedby the
name
Mag'na Grae'ci-a

as

country somewhat

mother

closest commercial
western

the

in both

It remained

Europe.

began

years.
by the

Italyis called
Hellas ") ; while

their settlements

drew

mother

of

Sicily.
about

the

Because

"

by Phoenicians,1who

colonization of the West

The

West.

of citadels,"
which nearly
crown
gorgeous
The Greeks were
prevented from completing

the island.

surrounded

end

the

excelled the
fertility,
Sicilysoon
Its cities were
mostly on the coast,

wonderful

Pindar

in

Colonization

in fact

Greeks.

little progress

But

on

in civil-

The

Hellespontand

the Black

Sea

109

them
that they
chieflyfrom the colonies near
slowly adopted the improvements in life and the advanced ideas
cultured
Hellenes.
of the more
colonists in this region,
The
did for them
what
the Greeks in the West
did for
accordingly,

ization.

It

was

the Romans.
Colonies

129.

Sea.

While

"

the

on

Hellespont,the Propontis, and

of the Greeks

some

the Black

working the mines

were

of Chal-

into the Hel'les-pont

others were
to fish and to found
cidice,
sailing
settlements
pont,
along its shores. Others,passingthrough the Hellesexploredthe coasts of the Pro-pon'tis.
Propontisis the water
the Pontus, that is,of the Black
in front of
Sea.
Of all the
in
settlements
this regionthe most
important was By-zan'ti-um,
founded by the little cityof Megara.
This colonywas
the Propontis,
on
"

"

at

the entrance

magnificent harbor,

the strait of

to

it

Bos'po-rus.Situated

extensivelyin

on

trade.

engaged
Nearly a
the name
of
years after its founding,it became, under
the capitalof the Roman
Constantinople,
empire.
The
Greeks pushed on
through the Bosporus to exploreand
settle the coasts
of the Black
ply
Sea.
This water
they called simPontus
the Sea
"'the
or
more
commonly Euxine
Hospitable." In time a chain of colonies stretched almost
alone
is said to have
Miletus
continuouslyaround the sea.
founded
than eighty in this region. The great attraction
more
Colchis yielded
layin the rich natural resources.
gold; the southern
coast, cattle,
coast, silver,
copper, iron,and timber ; the northern
the natives slaves
fish. From
hides,and grain; the sea itself,
obtained
were
by purchase and kidnapping. The country about
this sea accordingly
suppliedthe populous districts of Greece with
materials for manufacturing.
laborers,
food, the preciousmetals, and raw
It had little part in the intellectual life of Hellas,and
its civilizing
influence did not reach far from the shores.
thousand

"

"

"

130.

The

More

extended
as
were

made

("" 96-99).

Distant

from

the

:Till the fourth

Greeks

"

"

Colonies.

Greece

century

the remotest
B.C.

The

colonies thus far

in different directions almost

interveningwaters
on

"

would
shores

their condition remained

allow.
of

the

like that

as

Other

tioned
men-

tinuously
con-

ments
settle-

Mediterranean.
of the

"Homeric"

The

no

Period

Second

of Colonial Expansion

study of Egyptian historyl we saw how the later Pharaohs

of the Nile.
permittedthe Greeks to settle at one of the mouths
This colony was
cities
Nau'cra-tis. In it all the great commercial
of Greece had their warehouses,chartered by the Egyptian government.
The kingsof the land sent youths to Naucratis to learn the
Hellenic tongue, and began to form alliances with the Greek
states.
Many Greeks who were
eager for knowledge,and had the leisure
and
the means
visited Egypt as well as Babylonia
of travelling,
from
its priests.
to see
the strange old country and learn wisdom
few valuable
facts about
a
They brought home
surveying,the
of the stars, and the recordingof events, and with
movements
of truths their own
the help of this little treasure
inventive minds
In

our

worked

the first real science.

out

the

of Ionia

oppositedirection,the Phocaeans
fifty-oared
galleysto the southern coast
In

Mas-sa'li-a2

founded

they

centre

as

as

along the

on

established

coast

by

their trafficover

the whole

Baltic

Spain

Sea.

owing to
who

In

its distance

as

of these
of Gaul

the

well

and

Greeks

settlements
as

this

far

founded

as

they
Britain

their

they
colony
as

well

extended
and

the

settlements,
of the Phoenicians,
the opposition

to

as

From

in the interior

tradingstations

means

Gaul, where

harbor.

excellent

an

of

rowed

fewer

of this peninsula.3
alreadytakingpossession
of Hellas.
During this periodof colonization
131. The Extent
the Greeks spread their settlements over
a largepart of the known
ancient world, as the western
Europeans have made their home in
were

"

part of the modern

every

world.

The

Greeks

were

then

all that

and teachers of the

Europeans now
representatives
are,
highestexisting
civilization,
carryingtheir culture everywhere,and
western

"

of their
others by means
everywhere gainingthe advantage over
all their
and intelligence.
Hellas included
own
superiorvitality
settlements
the shores of the Mediterranean
and its tributaries,
on
from Egypt to the
Pillars of Heracles," Strait of Gi-bral'tar,
and
from
not
south Russia
the African
to
desert. They were
united under
in
in blood, one
a
one
singlegovernment, but were
in religion.
one
speech and manners,
"

"

"

8.

2
3

"49-

xhe

present Marseilles.

XII

CHAPTER

THE

OF

RISE

AND

SPARTA

About

has

the Arcadian

It

the

on

range

whole

of the

one

was

occupations

and
walls

were

and

only

on

made

there

sole

is necessary

to

simply
The

mon.

the

had

serfdom.
amounts

reduced

of
and

" 78.

mere

north

by

River.

the

mountain

the

iron

principal

wares.

right bank

city,placed
of

on

the
top
hill-

villages without

for

reason

of

this

peculiarity

reduced

to
once

helots

city-states in Laconia;

the

others

the

the
state

of the

free
tilled

by

The

Taygetus
112

it

Sparta

state.

Lac-e-dae'-

was

"

comprised

or

few
serfs.

state

conquest

oppression

of the

but

were

helots,

Spartan

whom

fields

some

state

had

Sparta alone,

There

"

were

the

grain, wine, oil, and

and

the

and

but

population.

laborers

peasants,
the

and

the

Helots.

this condition

of

Lacedaemonians

"

the

case

city
of

name

submission

to

the

In

dependent

Classes
Most

of

in

the

on

group

The

city.

the

the

light-armed troops,

as

the

Eurotas

of

Greek

several

city, whereas

Social

The

was

distinguish between

members

were

usual

on

Naturally

situated

the

independent

in Laconia.

doubtless

the

manufacture

was

been

had

Spartans

were

fixed

the

The

133.

Some

the

Peloponnese,

below.3

clear

the

become

of

mines.

slightelevation.

Sparta by conquest

slaves

and

with

contrast

Originally

both

iron

strongly fortified,it

will be

was

rich

farming

basin

in

by lofty parallel

west

parts of Greece, and

fertile

city of Laconia,

In

Eurotas.

west

and

east

the

is

country

It is bounded

the

on

country

most

were

the

Sparta,

and

highland,

The

ranges.

Laconia,

"

LEAGUE

B.C.

750-500

brieflydescribed.1

been

already

Laconia.

and

Sparta

132.

PELOPONNESIAN

THE

; others

forced

into

Spartans, paying them

fruit.

were

given

range;

"

71.

They
their

served

in

freedom
3

war

for
" 138.

Social Classes

113

bravery and faithfulness. They lived with their families on the

farms
they worked, or grouped together in villages.Their lords
had no rightto free them or to sell them beyond the borders of the
country; and under favorable conditions they could even
acquire
of
Still
their
their
condition
own.
for
was
the
property
hard,
more
the
the
dreaded
more
and
intelligent
they were,
Spartans
oppressed
The rulers organized a secret policeforce of youths, which
them.
the helots,and put out of the way
to watch
was
over
any one
who might be regarded as dangerous to the community.
Perioeci.
The
between
were
the helots
per-i-oe'ci
134. The
and Spartans in rank.
They inhabited the towns of Laconia and
Messenia, and at first enjoyed independencein all local matters;
but as time went on Sparta encroached
their libertiesby sending
on
officers to rule over
out
them.
taxes and
They paid war
served
as
heavy-armed troops in the Lacedaemonian
army.
As the land left them
the
the poorest in the
was
by
conquerors
of them
made
their livingby skilled industryand
country, many
trade.
While the Spartans themselves
could use
onlyiron money,
the perioeci
thus hampered in their business.
the
On
not
were
whole, they could not have been badly treated,for they remained
and helots were
loyalto Sparta for centuries.
Spartans,perioeci,
alike Dorians, so far as we
know; no difference of race has been
of
and we are not certain why the Spartans treated some
discovered,
the conquered as serfs and left others free ; but perhapsthe perioeci
the inhabitants of communities
which were
were
strong enough to
make
good terms with their conquerors.
The Spartans
135. The
Spartans ; the Training of their Boys.
too proud
the inhabitants of the city of Sparta. They were
were
with the conquered
and
too exclusive
to share their citizenship
"

"

they were themselves never more

than eightor nine thousand
of militaryage, while their subjects
times as numerous,
were
they could maintain their rule only
many
stant
by making of themselves a standing army and by keepingup a conmilitarytraining. Every Spartan must have a sound body
in Laconia

to

and

begin with.

Messenia

The

; and

father

as

brought

his

boy

soon

after birth to the

they
elders of his tribe ; and if they found him puny and ill-shaped,
ordered him to be exposedto death in a chasm of the mountains near

The

ii4

Rise

by

; but

if

him

to

live.

they judged

placedhim

in

he had

twelve

Eurotas, and

the

his seventh

To

the

mother; then

of his

company

to

and

of Sparta

PeloponnesianLeague

boy strong and healthy,they allowed

in the care
year the Spartan boy was

state

took

charge of

of lads under

gatherreeds
learn

the

for his

own

his

trainer.

bed from

education,and
From

the age of
the banks of the

live without

underclothingand to go
barefoot winter and
summer.
Every year the boys had to givea
test of their endurance
by submittingto a whipping before the
the hero who could endure
altar of the goddessArtemis, and he was
the flogginglongest. Boys, youths,and young
men
were
organized
in troops and companies,and exercised in marching,sham-fighting,
and gymnastics. They were
taught to hunt and to be nimble and
in music
and poetry.
cunning,but their only mental culture was
to make
The whole
brave, strong,
objectof their education was
soldiers.
The girls
and well-disciplined
passed through a training
of
less
like that
the youths,though
severe.
They, too, practised
running,leaping,and throwing the spear and discus. The state
the gymnastic
as it considered
encouraged them to such exercise,
education
of women
of the race.
perfection
necessary to the physical
At the age of twenty the Spartan youth
136. Young Men.
liable to military
became
service
and as he was
now
a young
man,
in the field,
he joineda
of about
fifteen
mess," or brotherhood
The memcomrades
bers
each, who ate togetherin war and in peace.
voted
admission
of the mess
his
with
he applied
to which
on
bread crumbs,
throwing them into a basin carried by the waiter
around
the table ; those who liked the young
man
dropped their
and if any one
liked
disball into the basin without changing its figure,
his fingersand thus
flat between
him, he pressedthe crumb
of these flattened
but one
And if there was
gave his negativevote.
desirous were
so
piecesin the basin, the candidate was rejected,
of the company
should be agreeableto
they that all the members
had to furnish his monthly share of
each other."1
Each member
and dainties ;
for meat
barleymeal, wine, cheese,figs,and money
black
also a part of whatever
he got by hunting. The
game
broth
the national Spartan dish,relished by the elderly
was
men,
Thus
their fare was
meat.
simple
though the young men
preferred
must

to

"

"

"

"

"

Plutarch, Lycurgus.

The

but

efficient ; and

Women.

Men

and

man,

and

could

from

cease

could

Mature

mature

one

say that they were

spoiledfor war
of
these
Membership
associations continued

no

by being overfed.
through life.
137.

Spartans

attend

now

militaryservice

At

"

thirtythe Spartan became

the assembly,but he did not

and

trainingtill his sixtieth year.

Though compelled by law to
marry, he could have no home,
and

could

not

claim

even

his

All the
family as his own.
older Spartans regarded the
their children,
as
and
younger
the young were
taught to obey
and

respect any of the citizens

much

as

their

as

But

while

the

barracks

soldiers

the

fathers.

own

Spartan ate

in

his fellow-

with

and

passed his time

his wife
militaryexercises,

in

lived in

comfort

Aristotle

and

luxury.

says that Lycurgus,

to
subjectingthe men

after

tried to make
the
discipline,
but failed,
and
women
orderly,
therefore to
permitted them
live as they pleased. As they
could inherit and acquireproperty
in Laconia, and as men
were
it resulted

into the hands

138. The

in time

of the

Army.

SPARTAN
(From

TOMBSTONE

photograph)

ness,
engage in busithat two-fifths of the land in the state came
not

permittedto

women.

In

"

the

Mycenaean

and

Homeric

ages

the

The
and good weapons.
heavy armor
were
miserably equipped
masses, grouped in tribes and phratries,
noble was
and altogetherwithout training. On the battlefield one
worth a hundred
This is the chief reason
why the
commoners.
nobles

alone

Greek

could

afford

philosopherwho

wrote

much

on

the government

of

Greek

cities;" 328.

The

n6

Rise

of Sparta

nobles

despisedthe
rights.
the

common

age,
in an
of fighters

masses

in this direction

the

were

PeloponnesianLeague
and

men

in the Homeric

Even

the

and

find

however, we
line.

even

Spartans.

causes

with

the

be

traced

than

land-owners

more

were

may

of

(i) in the broad

country itself:

political
keep

to

the great innovators

But

Two

few

attempt

some

here mentioned

were

them

gave

ment
improveto

fertile

the

plain

elsewhere

who

wealthy enough to equip themselves

the full armor;
(2)the mines of Laco-

nia furnished

abundant

iron for swords

and

points, the defensive armor

being
bronze.
lose
must
not
We
sightof
mostly
the fact,however, that the principalcause
of these
the intelligence
which made
use
was
The army
resources.
organizedon this new
a
pha'lanx a line of warriors
plan was
and
equipped with strong defensive armor
unit to the
which moved
as
a
long spears,1
spear

"

of music.

sound

deep.

The

line

system made

This

WARRIOR
COAT

the form

HELMET,
AND
MAIL,

had
of

IN
OF

139.

GREAVES

been

(Bronze statuette, sixth century

B.C.
; British Museum)

an

Sparta

It

sary,
unneces-

importanteffect on

government.

The

Government.

that

stated

managed

besides

the

the world.

in

the fortification of

and

ranks

Lacedaemon

strongest militarypower
rendered

several

was

the

"

It has

towns

of the

their local affairs with

already
perioeci

more

or

less

Sparta. In this respect

like our
they were
though less independent. The
municipalities,
the other hand, conducted
of the cityof Sparta, on
government
by the Spartans exclusively,
supervisedthese town governments
and attended
to all the affairs of the state as a whole.
Originally
interference from

the

The

consisted of

armor

entire body,

buckler

and

they carried

a
a

coat

largeshield,somewhat

helmet, and

of mail in

sword.

greaves.

In

time

like the Mycenaean,

they substituted

placeof the heavy man-covering shield.

which

covered

smaller

Besides

round

the spear

Army
the government
there

Government

like that described

was

kings

two

were

and

in

place of

between
quarrelling

117

by Homer, exceptingthat

one.

the two

kingsweakened the office.

Thereupon the government fell into the hands,not of the council,
Greek
in most
The
as
states, but of the assembly of freemen.
is to be found in the adoptionof the phalanx. Everywhere
reason
made
who
the effective militaryforce
the men
in Hellas
up
of LaceThe government
the controlling
were
political
power.
the Spartan
became
daemon
as
accordinglya militaryaristocracy,
all nobles, rulingover
freemen
a
were
subjectpopulation. The
ever,
howassembly did not exercise the powers of government directly,
of five ephors,or overseers,
to a board
but intrusted them
at the
elected annually. In time the ephors placed themselves
than
to be hardlymore
head of the state, whereas the kings came
some
especially
priestsand generals. Among the Spartans were
in the council by twenty-eight
noble families,
who were
represented
elders and the two
kings. The council lost influence along with
the kings.
Continual

I.

2.

ephors, elected annually,the chief executives.

the two
from
royal families;
Two
kings, hereditary and life-long,
priestsand generals; judges in a few minor cases.
Five

Council
1.

twenty-eightelders sixty years of

kings, representingthe noble families.
of

Composed
the

two

fa.
2.

Functions

Ib.
III.

Constitution

Magistrates
1.

II.

Aristocratic

of the

Outline

Deliberation

on

to

measures

age

or

above, and

presentedto

be

the

assembly.
Trial of criminal

cases.

Assembly
i.

of

Composed

Spartans in good standing.

ja. Election of magistrates and

[b. Voting
140.

The

of

Myth

in the usual Greek

Lycurgus.

way2

"

"

The

Spartans of

for the

109.

the council..

later time tried

of their institutions
origin
he was
Lycurgus. In their belief
man,
the state
king, his nephew. Finding

to account

by ascribingthem all to one

regent in place of a young

presentedby

measures

on

councillors.

"

*"8-

n8

The

full of

he
violence,'

whole

body

Rise

of Sparta
went

the

the citizens to

obey

people in the

world.

PeloponnesianLeague
brought home

Crete,and

to

of customs

the

and

for his

and

laws

new

laws,he made

This

story

was

to

Delphi

and

got his laws

the story, the Lacedaemonians

they worshipped him with the utmost

It is true

the most

current

through

that the Spartans had

By compelling
orderly
at Sparta. Other
say that Lycurgus

them

to

god

After

the oracle.
built him

death,continues
where

country.

used
Greeks,wishingto giveApollothe credit,
went

there

from

his

temple,

reverence.

named

Lycurgus; but,

deifytheir great men, this god could not

The
between
the
human
have been once
a
similarity
legislator.
Spartan and Cretan laws pointsto a borrowing in one direction or
But
the great objectionto the story is that earlier
the other.
affairs utterly
writers who touch on Lacedaemonian
ignoreLycurgus
In fact,
and ascribe the constitution
to this or that other person.
due largely
to their surroundings,
the system of the Spartanswas
as
of the
indeed have lived a man
There may
has been pointedout.
the god Lycurgus, and he may
have perfectedand
name
as
same
the

as

did not

earlyGreeks

enforced

the system ; but

have

of his achievements

or

of his existence

even

positive
knowledge.
First Messenian
War
(about 725 B.C.). After the
141. The
all Laconia, a desire
to plough and
plant
Spartanshad subdued
we

no

"

"

fertile Messenia

they needed

more

of their warrior

"

led them
land

and

citizens.

conquest of that country.

helots to
After

from

In fact

number
support the increasing

they
twenty years of hard righting,

Ithome, and
strongholdof Mount
fled
annexed
the eastern
Many Messenians
part of the country.
Those
who
remained
became
the borders.
across
helots,and had
been their own.
had once
to till for the Spartans the fields which
"Like
with heavy burdens they brought to their lords,
asses
worn
under hard necessity,
the half of all the earth produced."l
Messenian
War
Second
or
(about 650 B.C.). Two
142. The
in rebellion.
With the
three generationslater the Messenians
rose
help of allies from Argos, Arcadia, and elsewhere,they utterly
routed the Lacedaemonian
In despairthe Spartans talked
army.
drove

the Messenians

to the

the

"

From
Tyrtaeus ; see
but the facts given above

next
are

paragraph.
about

all we

There
know.

is much

legend regarding the

war

to

Rise

The

i2o

of Sparta

Sparta,for they were

are,

and

made

the

and

strong, brave

excellent

PeloponnesianLeague
men,

warriors,second

mountaineers

as

only

the

to

usually
Spartans

themselves.
the
(655-582 B.C.). Corinth was
most
important state of Peloponnesewhich entered into permanent
alliance with Lacedaemon, and for that reason
its previoushistory
The
is given here.
king had been succeeded
by a small body of
in time grew
illiberal and insolent.
who
aristocrats,
Thereupon
of
down
and made
the
them
a
common
Cyp'se-lus,man
people,put
himself tyrant. Though usurpers
generallyfound it necessary
144.

Tyranny

at

Corinth

themselves

to surround

with

"

band

beloved

of soldiers enlisted from

majorityof
guard. His

other

his

subjectsthat
he ruled for thirtyyears without a
son
Per-i-an'der,
who succeeded
him, was compelled to use harsh measures
against
the nobles who opposed him, and laid heavy taxes on the wealthy.
But he used the revenues
in beautifying
his cityand in increasing
its power and influence throughoutGreece.
These tyrants founded
colonies.
island off the west coast of Greece,
an
Cor-cy'ra,
many
pendence.
had been settled from Corinth long before,but had gainedits indeence,
the island temporarilyto obediThe tyrants reduced
of colonies,
and planted in the neighborhood a group
which
liberal
rulers were
remained faithful to the mother city. The same
of the peasants ; and their
the religion
especially
patrons of religion,
1
of
the wonders
giftsto the gods at Olympia were reckoned among
the world.
of the family,
On the downfall
Corinth became
a wellregulatedoligarchy.2
states, Cypselus was

145.

The

so

Peloponnesian

by

League.

"

It

was

under

this form

of

(about580
allyof Lacedaemon
and Sicyon (Sish'i-on)
B.C.). Elishad alreadyjoinedthe alliance,
"followed some
brought into the
years later. All these states were
the assurance
that they should have
on
leagueby their wealthy men
control
of their several governments.
And
in general Sparta
3
desired that her allies should be governed by oligarchies
; because
she knew that oligarchs
would be more
loyalto her than either tyrants
that Corinth

government

or

became

an

democrats.
The

PeloponnesianLeague,
1

" IOS.

which
2

"

121.

Sparta was

forming,had

thus
3

"

121.

Constitution

no

federal

common

each

but

to

serve

had

its own

in

under

war

121

that of the United

treaty with

Lacedaemon.

States,
ties
Depu-

met

and

war

as

League

in congress at Sparta or Corinth to

peace ; and the states furnished troops

the allied states

settle questionsof

the

such
constitution,

community

from

of

the

Lacedaemonian

kings. They

did not

divided among
themselves the expenses
pay tribute to Sparta,but
of the league, which
were
always light. Thus the states en-

THE

PELOPONNESMK

\$||ps

LEAGUE
CH3 States dependent

Sparta

upon

in alliance

wit,

joyed independence,and

at

the

same

time

the

advantages of

union.

By the middle of the sixth century

to include
of Sparta had come
the league under the leadership
B.C.
and Argolis. About
550 B.C. the
Achaea
all Peloponneseexcepting
sion
between
in a struggle
crisis came
Sparta and Argos for the possesthe
of Cy-nu'ri-a,
a
stripof land held by the latter state along
Three hundred champions for each
Parnon.
coast east of Mount
only
state
to decide the contest ; but after a day's fighting,
were
as
two
Argives and one Spartan remained alive. Then a dispute
in which
the victoryended in a bloodybattle,
to which side had won
CyThis success
gave them
masters.
the Lacedaemonians
were
146. Sparta and

nuria
power

and

Argos.

the island

among

the

of

states

"

and
Cy-the'ra,
of Greece.

made

them

the foremos

The

122

Rise

of

Write
the

3.

early

Laconianart?

5.
it

Would

words,

be

do
the

Ithome,

Mount

of

say

you

in

location

of

Arcadia,

the

Laconian.

Lacedaemonian

History

Society.
of Greece,

ch.

"

iii.

of

to

perioecus?
the

three

advantages

of

Laconia,

of

make

Distinguish
What

116).

p.

character

training

or

boys?
Messenia,

Sparta,

Topic

Fling,
"

7.

the

scribe
De-

2.

Corinth.

Note-book

Bury,

28.

p.

Sparta

that

method

River,
and

to

8.

Spartan

Eurotas

Sicyon,

did

any,

to

as

preferable
"

on

(illustration,

B.C.

if

helots
and

see

that

infer

you

Spartan

Spartan

Lacedaemonian,

Spartan,

Describe

to

do

contributions,

life
"

right

century

what

What

4.

like

chapter,

sixth

115,

p.

the

Was

this

the

illustration,

disadvantages
9.

in

used

civilization?
6.

of

summary

armor

the

From

brief

League

Questions

Suggestive

i.

Peloponnesian

the

and

Sparta

Source

Holm,

Book

History

of

Greek

of Greece,

History,
i.

ch.

58-77;
xv.

CHAPTER

FROM

ATHENS:
From

MONARCHY

the

Attica

Greece

that

noticed

we

plains,

these

features

midst

Acropolis
In

the
was

before

the

("

within

Greek

period.

We

Soon

are

led

This
to

behind

Miletus

afterward

she

city
Hellenic

148.

of

the

the
and

with

in

myths

gave

remains

to

(to

Kingship
an

speak

of the

closing

royal family, the Me-don'ti-dae,

1

" 76.

"

n.

other

of the

than
with

the

which

early

the

chapter

state

Athens

cities in civilization.
the

became
and

regal period.

descent

claimed

123

had

in

most
foreart.

the
chapter on
legendary kings.4 It

"

and

2.

but

The

B.C.).

750

years

"

Athens.

in,

Athens

study

this

by

country

intelligence, in literature,

about

B.C.

its progress

rest, and

all the

the

as

iij Attica

fame

Greek

other

some

Athens.

we

the

covered

period

known

whole

trace

why

reason

one

the

coast, rises

early history of

therefore

can

of Theseus

account

cities

city-stateof

the

All

In

1500-700

the

century

history centres, therefore, in

The

about

"

of the

and

Athens.

independent

outstripped

world

ages

the

height,

subject, too, by

this

city of

unusually

mountains

the country.

from

miles
central

seventh

is

During

won.

the

state, and

certainty.

four

an

unproductive.1

history of

the

limits

the

and

of

geography

with
of

up

stony

the

several

the

made

was

epic

acquainted

greater

lagged

of

B.C

the

of

peninsula

was

on

and
of

opening

other

afterward

soil

"), stood

one

50x3

study

was

about

and

citadel

better

are

of any

the

about

to

our

country

bearing

On

but

brought

We

Attica

Mycenaean

Athens

been

In

largest plain, about

hills.

of

group

had

the

of

that

and

Age

DEMOCRACY

KINGSHIP

"

the

long coast-line, that

little

THE

Athens.

and

TO

Mycenaean

I.

147.

XIII

""

93,

120

from

The

last

King Co'drus
4"m.

("The

Glorious

invaded
the army

Attica.

From

").

There

Word
leader

whose

victorious in the
and

Athens

124

going into

war.

Monarchy
is

myth

to

came

should

him

the Dorian

Democracy

that in his

reign the Dorians

from

killed

be

Thereupon

to

Apollo at Delphi that

be
would
by the enemy

he dressed

himself like

peasant,

intentionally
provoked a quarrel
slain without
and was
being known, thus bringingeternal glory
The Athenians,from gratito himself and victoryto his country.
tude
decreed that his son
Me'don
for his heroic self-sacrifice,
should
reignin his stead ; and after Medon, his descendants,the Medoncamp,

AREOPAGUS

South side
(From

near

east

end

photograph)

were
tidae,
kingsof Athens for many generations.Although Codrus
is mythical,no one
doubts
the existence of the family.
carried on by the king,assisted
In this periodthe government
was
and limited by a council of nobles and by an assembly of freemen.
of its duties,1
In later historythe council,
in the exercise of some
hill justwest
of the Acropolis. From
the A-re-op'a-gus,
sat on
a
the placeof meeting it came
the Council of the Areopato be named
gus.
This council,like those of other Hellenic states, desired to
increase its own
of the king. About
at the expense
750 B.C.
power
1

"

154-

From

it
accordingly,
his rule had
time

cut

been

kingshipin

II.

THE

down

Monarchy

his office to

The

another

was

period of

ten

lifelong.While the government

this change made
it in fact
name,
ARISTOCRACY
About

149.

Aristocracy

to

AND

THE

750-594

years, whereas
remained for a
an

B.C.

"

from

the

aristocracy.1

TIMOCRACY

Aristocracy (about 750-650 B.C.). One

taken

125

king and

bestowed

upon

after

power

officers

new

nine principal
(about 650 B.C.)there were
magistratescalled
archons.
(i) the Archon, who was the chief executive
They were
the army,
magistrate,2(2) the pol'em-arch,who commanded
a
mere
(3) the king, now
priestand judge,and (4) the six thesmoth'e-tae
(" legislators
") who recorded the laws, had charge of
For a
publicdocuments, and acted as judgesin certain civil cases.
time these officers were
selected from the nobles by the Council of
the Areopagus.
The
Council of the Areopagus, like the council in other cities,3
made
The members
held their
was
originally
up of great nobles.
placesfor life. All the nobles called themselves Eu'pa-trids
(Greek
of noble
fathers "). They alone had the
Eu-pat'ri-dae, sons
of equippingthemselves with heavy armor.
means
They no longer
used chariots,4
but rode to war
horseback.
on
Looking down with
these lordlyknightsallowed
contempt on the ill-armed commoners,
them
share in the government.
The
no
assembly of freemen fell
into disuse.
The nobles in council cared only for the interests of the
richer class,supervised the magistrates,
and punished immoral
as
well as lawless citizens. During this periodthey were
the supreme
until

"

power

in the state.

(about 650-594 B.C.): the Phalanx.

Naturallythe common
people chafed under this oppressiverule,
and strove
for a share in the government.
especially
They were
favored by the circumstance
that Athens
was
at. war
continually
with her neighbors. To
their country from
save
conquest the
The

150.

Timocracy

For

In this book, when

the word
archon
it will be capitalized.

an

explanationof aristocracy
see

"" 103, 126.

appliesto the
s

"

121.

head

of "nine

of the board
4

"

90.

chons,"
ar-

Athens

126

nobles

From

Monarchy

to

Democracy

forced to

adopt the phalanx,which the other Hellenic

states were
borrowingfrom Sparta.1 As the nobles were few, it was
to enlist in the phalanx all the commoners
could
who
necessary
afford a completeequipment.2 It chanced that the industries were
wellfamilies were
now
cheapeningarmor, and that many common
to-do.
A census
taken to determine
who were
was
wealthy enough
had the wealthier comto provide equipments. But
no
sooner
moners
been admitted
in
to the phalanx than they began to meet
As political
assembly and to take part in the government.
leges
privithe possession
of property, the govhad come
to be based
on
ernment
was
now
a
timocracy. This change took place about
650 B.C.
were

151.

Attica

Constitution
was

divided

of the

into four tribes.3

now

subdivided

into twelve

The

objectwas

to

country and

to make

Timocracy.

secure

"

Like

Each

other

Ionic states,

of these districts

was

in
townships,4making forty-eight

better government

for all

all.

parts of the

bear his share of the

publicburdens.
A Council
and One, newly formed, was
filled
by lot in such a way as to represent the four tribes and forty-eight
to the assembly,
townships. It prepared decrees for presentation
and assisted the magistrates
in their duties. Henceforth
the Council
of the Areopagus was
made
Though
up of retired archons.
still the
limited by the other council and by the assembly,it was
head

every man
of Four
Hundred

of the state.

The

of all who could equip themselves

assembly,now
consisting
with full armor, began to meet
regularly.It elected magistrates,
and acceptedor rejected
decrees prepared for it by the Council of
Four
and
Hundred
At the same
One.
time,the wealthy, even
to the offices.
though they might not be noble,became eligible
With a view to taxation and militaryservice,
the citizens were
divided into four classes according to the amount
of produce
which each citizen derived from his land.
These
census
classes,
however, did not become
important till the followingperiod.
1

Compare the effect of the phalanx on the Lacedaemonian

government ; " 138
the Spartan ; " 138 and n. i.
as
equipment was about the same
3 The
Geleontes,Aegicoreis, Argadeis, and Hopletes. They are called the
Ionic states:
as
cf. " 117.
tribes,
they are found in many
2

f
.

The

Called naucraries.

Ionic

Athens

128

Monarchy

From

While

"

taking place,the country

were

Democracy

to

Conspiracy of Cylon (628 B.C.).

The

153.

these

full of confusion

was

changes

and

strife.

ened
for the most
part in slaveryto the rich,threatpoor, who were
to rebel againsttheir lords ; the shepherdsand peasants of the
of the Plain about
Hills in north Attica hated the wealthier men
The

Athens, justas
other ; both

the

Plain

highlandand
and

of the Shore ; and

Hills

were

lowland
hostile

Scots
to

to

hate each
men
fisher-

the traders and

between

the contention

used

these local factions

In addition to
breakingout into civil war.
continually
with each
actuallyfighting
troubles,the great families were
inherited the
and as the son
for the possession
of the offices,
The
could hope for an end of the turmoil.
of his father,
no
one
in fact drifting
into anarchy.
was
was

There

was

at

this time in Attica

ambitious

an

young

man

these
other
feuds
state

named

powerfulfamilies
himself by winning
of the state, and who had greatlydistinguished
ness
a
Taking advantage of the weakvictoryin the Olympic games.
With the
of his country, he planned to usurp the government.
mercenaries
and of a band of friends from the nobility,
help of some
the country peoplein great numbers
he seized the Acropolis. But
their
and besiegedhim in the citadel. When
put on their armor
exhausted, Cylon and his brother stole through
provisionswere
forced to surrender,
the besieginglines; their starvingfollowers,
upon
about Athena's altar on the Acropolis. Hereflocked for protection
l
their
the chiefs of the townships promised these suppliants
submit
lives if they would
to trial..They agreed ; yet, not having
full confidence in the promise,they tied a thread to Athena's image,
But when
and, holdingone end of it,went down to the tribunal.
dess
theycame near the shrine of the Furies,2the thread by which the godbroke ; and then the Archon Meg'agave them her protection
cles and his followers stoned and butchered
them, permittingonly
a few to escape.
Probably a feud between the familyof Cylon and
The Alc-me-on'ithat of Megacles led to this impious massacre.
Cylon,who belonged to

one

of the noblest

and

most

'"151.
2

The

cave

work

of the Furies,or angry

goddesses, was

of parents and suppliants,and other such

the south side of the Areopagus.
on

to

punish perjury,murder,

offences.

At that time

ment
mistreat-

their shrine

was

Draco

dae,

whom

to

Megacles belonged,were

The

Attica.

the

but

state

of

curse

centuries

of
suppression

such

need

was

of laws

decided

"

in favor

cases

the

could

who

pay
and
injustice
;

interest ; the magistrates

of those of their own
rank or of those

highestfee.

Men

and

in 621

by

which

to write out
a
power
His laws of homicide

code
are

unchanged for

them

often at strifewith

were

oppressingthe lower

one

class.

and demanded
to
oppression
judged. The nobles yielded,
"2
with full
Draco
legislator
"

for the

state.

of chief interest because

Before

centuries.

many

the Athenians
Draco's

tained
re-

time

other good reason,

or for any
self-defence,
wilful murderer, to flee from the country or

who

man

they were

the citizens elected

B.C.

growing rich through

resisted this

commons

the laws

know

own

were

though the great lords

another, they agreed in insultingand

Naturallythe

for the

courts

feuds.

the nobles had ruled thus far in their

secret

and

"Lawgiver (461 B.C.). By keeping the laws

the

Draco,

154.

There

more.1

or

the

mightiestfamilyin
to have been powerlessto bringthem
appears
murder
for the mistreatment
of suppliants,
or
impiety rested upon the whole familyfor two

trial either for

to

129

killed another in

compelled,like the
of money
the kinsmen
of the slain by paying them a sum
;
satisfy
otherwise they would
kill him in revenge.
According to Draco's
code wilful murder
to be tried by the council of nobles sitting
was
and the penaltyin case
the Areopagus,3
on
a hillsacred to the Furies,
was

of

conviction

Other

property.
were

not

was

sent

death, with the confiscation

was

so

of homicide

cases

were

of the murderer's

tried in lesser courts,and

killed another
punished. One who accidentally
severely
temporarilyinto exile,whereas killingin self-defence

unpunished.
Theft of vegetableswas

went

given Draco
was
stealing
1

too

severe,

suppliantwas

who

one

with death ; and this fact has

punishable
reputationfor cruelty. But though the penaltyfor

He

From

mistreated
was

one

this

Areopagus.
K

one
a

who

of homicide

the laws

took refuge at

suppliantbrought

of the six thesmothetae

placeof meeting

altar

or

in

great improve-

temple of

himself and his family the

upon
;

an

were

"

some
curse

god. Any
impiety.

of

149.

the council of nobles received its name,

Council of the

Athens

130
"

ment.

did

Whoever

features

so

to

Democracy

whether
originally,

unfortunate,but

heroes

or

gods,

alleviated

humanely their
l
It is even
they could with right."
probablethat
laws of homicide he made
littlechange in existing
be held whollyresponsible
he cannot
for the harsh

oppress
miseries so far as

customs,

Monarchy
them

made
the

not

apart from

From

his
that

of his code.
Lords

and

Tenants.

His

laws

did

nothing,however, to
of their misery requiresexThe cause
help the wretched poor.
planation.
The nobles were
not
content
with the enjoyment of
all the political
also to acquireall the wealth in
but aimed
power,
the state and to gain an absolute mastery over
the citizens. They
forced the free peasants into dependence on themselves; when
a
lord laid claim to a field,
whether
he
justlyor unjustly, placedon it
a
"boundary" stone, as a sign that the land and the persons on
it were
his. It was
stood on nearlyall
not long before these stones
the farms in Attica,holding Black Earth enslaved,"in the words
155.

"

"

of

Solon, a great

his rent, or otherwise

could

be

sold

into

If any

of the time.

statesman

fell into debt

to

his lord,he and

nothing but

slavery. With

failed

one

to pay

his children

sharpened sticks

found
the poor tenants
it so difficultto
diggingthe stony soil,
and pay their dues, that many
make a living
were
actuallysold into
There was
no
legalway of obtaining
slaveryto foreignmasters.
cordingl
Acfor their lords were
the judges in the courts.
satisfaction,
themselves
to rebel.
they agreed among
for

III.

156.
of

His

"

and
experience,
confidence
year
and

594

REFORMS

Archonship (594 B.C.). Solon

of the noblest

one

SOLON'S

in

families in

Attica,but

friend of the poor.

him, they

B.C., that he

elected

might

him

restore

to

their lords.

To

secure
1

not

also

As all
Archon

the freedom

only a

merchant

member
of wide

had
therefore,
classes,
and

harmony

givethem a better govenment.

On the day he entered office he ordered
boundary stones, so as to release the tenants
dues

was

lawgiverfor

among

the removal

the

the citizens

of all the

the payment of
of citizens for the present

Demosthenes, xxiii. 70.

from

Social and

Constitutional

Reforms

131

future,Solon reenforced his order by the followingpersonal

laws :
liberty
(1) All who are in slaveryfor debt shall be free.
into slavery.
(2) No one shall sell his children and kinswomen
of the person.
(3) No one shall lend money on the security
than a certain amount
of land fixed
more
(4) No one shall own
by law.
and

"

His

157.

the

in

Improvements
henceforth

peoplemight

the

Constitution.

In

"

protect their freedom

and

to

to

the

composed of all citizens thirtyyears

old and above who offered to serve
as
jurors; all who were eighteen
and above
might take part in the assembly. Yet as these duties
but the well-to-do could find leisure
long remained
unpaid, none
In the assembly the people elected
regularlyto attend to them.
their magistratesand voted on importantpublicquestions
brought
Hundred
of
Four
before them
Council
formerlyFour
by the
Hundred
and One.2
The popularcourt, on the other hand, received
appealsfrom the judgments of the archons,and tried the magistrates
accused them of having
of their terms, if any one
at the expiration
abused
their authority. These
were
by far his most important
He
did not rest, however, tillhe had improved the
measures.
assembly.

The

that

their erty,
propwell as
the

the poorest class (the the'tes)1

as
and
popular supreme court which he established,

he admitted
others

order

court

was

"

entire

government.
158.

I.

The

Territorial
The

The
i.

Four

They

("

admitted

up

Classes
"

class

"

500

or

more

of

measures

men"

grain,oil,and
tary
highest mili-

service,to the

to cavalry
They were
eligible
archonships.
'to treasuryships,and
offices,

those
the

yielded

estates

explained above

the lowest

152,

"

admitted
made

remained
or townships,
forty-eightnau'cra-ries,
I).

pen-ta-co-si-o-me-dim'ni five-hundred-bushel

The

wine.

As

of Attica

Divisions

Census

whose

Constitution

four tribes and

before

as

II.

of the Reformed

Outline

("" 150,
only who

three

152,

could

higher,

the thetes

"

or

were

by Solon; cf. " 158, II.

V), the assembly under

afford to

the

wealthier,census

with heavy armor.

of
classes (" 152, II). Members

excluded under

the

timocracy, but
pre-Solonian
2

4.

ment
governpre-Solonian

equip themselves

""

IS*. I52, IV.

Athens

132
The

Monarchy

From

to

Democracy

whose
estates
knights
yielded from 300 to 500
and dry.
wet
eligibleto cavalry service,
measures
They were
various
offices of moderate
and
the
to
to
probably
archonships,

2.

hip'peis
"

"

importance.
zeu-gi'tae " yoked-men,"
3. The
battle array
whose
estates
"

and

wet

dry.

in

men

yielded from 200 to 300

heavy infantry,and

measures

in the

served

They

is, heavy-armed

that

"

gible
eli-

were

inferior offices.

to

whose
inferior
estates
were
laborers,the poor
who
without
land.
were
zeugitae, or
entirely
They served as light-armed troops, and though eligibleto no
offices,
they could attend the assembly and the popular court.
The
first three classes paid war
were
rarely levied ;
taxes, which

4. The

thetes

but

of

The

"

the

the thetes

II), but
III.

the

"

those

to

Solon

were

exempt.

gave

them

classes existed

The

before

duties

in the

preceding period ("

II.
At the close of their terms
see
qualifications,
now
they were
responsibleto the popular court.
The
Councils
and
Qualifications
The
of
the
Council
1.
(Bonle)
gus
Areopaappointment of
had

the

same

as

for their

and
The

2.

Council

(Boule) of

the

The

as

Assembly

method
the

of

cillors
coun-

of the
tially
substan-

were

(" 1 5 2, IV).

before

Ec-cle'si-a

"

of all the

Composed

1.

152, III) ;
of office

powers

councils

Four

Hundred
V.

152,

Magistrates

They

IV.

("

this definite form.

citizens

who

the desire to

the leisure and

had

attend.
It elected

2.

the
The

VI.

magistrates

Council

of Four

of

it

by

at

the

the

who

had

sure
the lei-

judgments

of

archons,

and

tried the

of their terms.

end

with

the

outline

important changes,
in

of age

attend.

Government

comparison

introduced

to

appeals from

magistrates

continued

before

Hundred.

desire

the

It received

Form

questionsbrought

on

"

and

VII.

voted

Court
Hel-i-ae'a
Popular Supreme
Composed of all citizens above thirty years

1.

2.

and

force.

The

given
the

in

greater

government

that, though Solon

proves
part of the earlier constitution
still a timocracy, as political

"

was

152

But in Solon's arrangements

privilegeswere
graded on
the popular court
and
the attendance
of the thetes at the assembly were
democratic.
These
elements
of
the constitution
popular
graduallygrew so
the whole
democratic.1
strong that in time they made
government
the basis of wealth.

The

which

constitution of

preceded.

The

Studied in this way,

period should

be

studied

only

changes should be noted, and the

the

historyof government

becomes

in

reasons

comparison with

the

one

for the changes sought.

and
profitable

even

interesting.

SpecialLaws
159.

Special Laws
but

was

The

"

improvement of

part of Solon's work.

subjects. The
(i) Draco's

of Solon.

most

laws

he believed them

to

important
be

just;

laws
:

on

but

in the

sixth
painting,

case

various

"

he accepted without

GATHERING

(Atticvase

made

given below

are

of homicide

He

the constitution

change,for

of other

offences he

OLIVES
century

B.C.

British Museum)

Henceforth
the
lightenedsuch penaltiesas he found too severe.
with death.
theft of a cabbage or an applewas
not punishable
of all productsof the soil except
(2) He forbade the exportation
olive oil. His objectwas
to prevent famine
by keepingat home
the food produced in the country.
passed
a trade,and
to teach his son
(3) He compelledevery man
other laws
was

to

unfit for

skilled industry. For he

encourage

and believed
agriculture,

for the country to be in

Athens

manufacturing and

developedalong these

(4) Before his

time

the coins of Aegina.

the

Athens

saw

only hope

that the soil

of

prosperity
Thereafter

commerce.

lines.
had

no

currency

This island-state

was

now

of her own,
a

but

rival of Athens.

At/tens

134

From

Monarchy

to

Democracy

Her

neighbor,Chalcis,however, had issued a lighter

friendly
coin,which Solon adopted as a standard for his city.1 This
helped trade with Euboea, with the Chalcidic colonies,

more

silver
measure

which

with all other countries

and

introduced

Solon

Athens

scarcelyknown before.
(5) He limited,too, the
to go out at night except
The

in

of

came

to be

influence

confined

more

and

world

more

to

she had

torch-bearer
freedom

much

from

women

the

which

Thus

permittingthem

not

carriagewith
Athenian

standard.

same

of women,

enjoyed as

Sparta had more,2 but

those

the

commercial

freedom

time

in Homer's

women

to

used

house, and

ahead.

the

as

men

Solon's time
their social

years that followed.

mentioned
his sedition law.

through the

waned

Knowing that
the people
still be civil strife in Attica, he ordered
there would
side they deemed
of violent party conflict to joinwhichever
in case
most
just. Any one who held aloof from the contention should
His objectwas
be dishonored and deprived of the citizenship.
to
active part in publiclife ; and he
to take an
compel the commons
believed that they could by united effort bringany sedition quickly
to a close,
as
they had done in the case of Cylon'sconspiracy.
his
160. Drifting into Anarchy (594-560 B.C.). Solon made
laws binding for a hundred
years, and requiredall the citizens to
he had completed his work,
When
he found
to obey them.
swear
himself beset by peoplecoming to him and harassinghim concerning
here and questioning
his laws,criticising
there,tillas he wished
neither to alter wrhat he had decided on nor
yet to be an objectof
ill-willto every one
by remainingin Athens, he set off on a journey
for ten years with the combined
to Egypt
objectsof trade
(6) Lastly may

be

"

"

travel."

and

After

visiting
many

foreignlands,he

country in great confusion.

the nobles
and
1

the poor
His

money,

would
2
3

had

No

was

home

satisfied with

to find his

his reforms

he would

all their old power,

restore
to them
hoped
had expected a complete redistribution of property.

silver drachma
but

one

returned

was
nearlyequal in weight to twenty cents (ten-pence) of our
much
drachma
was
purchasing power
greater. In Solon's time one
medimnus
ox.
an
(i% bu.) of wheat, and five drachmas

the

buy a
"" 97, 137Aristotle,Athenian

Constitution,n.

Athens

136
The

exile.
"

From

Monarchy

to

Democracy

allies soon

quarrelled; then the leader of the Shore

with Pisistratus,
opened negotiations
proposing that the latter

should
back

two

he brought him
his daughter; and on these terms
marry
to Athens
by a very primitiveand simple-minded device.

first

that Athena
was
spread abroad a rumor
bringingback
and then having found
of great stature
and
a woman
Pisistratus,
he dressed
her in a garb resembling that of the
beauty,
The
goddess and brought her into the city with Pisistratus.
in on
chariot with the woman
latter drove
beside him, and
a
the inhabitants
of the city,struck with awe,
received him with
l
adoration."
A disagreementwith his father-in-law forced the
ing
tyrant a second time into exile. After devoting ten years to gatherhe
returned.
The
welcomed
commons
again
him,
resources,
nobles in terror fled from
but many
the country. Regaining his
authorityin this way, Pisistratus established himself firmlyby
He

...

of troops hired from

means

162.

His

has been

"

Government.

said

other

"

before,and

more

states.

His

administration

like constitutional

was

temperate,

government

as

than

and mild and

only was he in every respect humane
ready to forgivethose who offended,but in addition he advanced
that they
so
to the poorer peopleto helpthem in their labors,
money
might make their livingby agriculture.In this he had two objects:
but might be
first that they might not spend their time in the city,
scattered over
all the face of the country ; and secondlythat,being
moderatelywell off and occupiedwith their own business,theymight
have neither the wish nor
the leisure to attend to public affairs.
increased
At the same
time his revenues
were
by the thorough
cultivation of the country, since he imposed a tax of one-tenth on
all the produce."2
He built an
aqueduct to supply Athens with fresh water; he
ture
and encouraged literaerected temples,founded
festivals,
religious
tion,
and art.
His reignmarks
a great advance, not
only in educain
but
in wealth, and
in agriculture,
in the industries,
quiet,orderlygovernment.

tyranny.

Not

163. Hippias

(527
1

his
B.C.)T,

Athenian
Aristotle,

and
sons

Hipparchus.

Hip'pi-asand

Constitution,14.

When

"

he

died

in

old

Hip-par'chussucceeded
2

Aristotle,Athenian

age
him.

Constitution,16.

and

Hippias

Hipparchus

137

they imitated the wise government of their father. But

Hipparchus,the younger, in an affair of love,insulted
unfortunately
Har-mo'di-us
and Ar-is-to-gei'ton,
noble youths,who in return
two
plottedthe overthrow of the tyrants. Taking advantageof a festival
of Athena, they concealed
in honor
their
swords in myrtle wreaths, and killed Hipparchus
while he was
arrangingthe procession.
the head of
Hippias,who as the elder was
the government,
they could not surprise.
For

time

Failing therefore

they

themselves

were

death.

taken

the

after

But

Aristogeitonin song
decreed
public honors
by the descendants of
consequence
treated the nobles

that he became
Meanwhile
to

bring

about

to

to

regained

Harmodius

the two
the

with

put

and

and
tyrant-slayers,
be enjoyed forever

as

of

In

and

Athenians

freedom, they celebrated

their

the tyranny,

overthrow

to

heroes.
murder

Hippias

great harshness, so

very unpopular.
the exiled nobles were

their

trying
Cleis'the-nes,

return.

the favor of the

exiles,won
Delphic oracle by building for Apollo a
splendidtemple with a marble front; on this
of

leader

work

the

he spent far

more

demanded.

In

than the

money

tract
con-

the ous
generaid in
to
ready

gratitudefor

deed, the prophetesswas

ingly
Accordrestoringthe exiles to their homes.
the
the Lacedaemonians, now
whenever
leadingpeopleof Peloponnese,sent to consult
the oracle
on
subject whatever, the
any
answer

In

king

was

always,"Athens

obedience
of

to

Sparta, led

through the

an

oracle
army
the

."
be set free

Cle-om'e-nes,

into Attica

and
The

GRAVESTONE
An

Athenian

OF

ARISTION

warrior

in

the time of the tyranny

(NationalMuseum,

Athens)

Acropolis.
his friends attempted to send their children secretly
into
besieginglines to a placeof safety,but they fell

besieged Hippias
tyrant and

the

must

in

Athens

138
the

hands

associates

of

the

agreed

the tyranny

way

From

enemy.
to leave
to

came

V.

Monarchy
To

the country within

an

end, 510

THE

five

days.

In

his
this

B.C.

DEMOCRACY
B.C.

(510-508B.C.). After the overthrow

instead
of
of the tyranny the nobles,
devoting themselves
for power, as had been
good of the country, began a struggle

164. Isagoras and

the

Democracy

them, Hippias with

recover

Beginning 508

to the

to

before

custom

Cleisthenes

and

"

after Solon's time.1

The

chief rivals

were

Cleisthenes ; and the prize

a friend of the tyrants, and
I-sag'o-ras,
they contended for was the archonship. With the help of political
clubs, rather than by popular votes, Isagorasgained the office.
In his disappointmentCleisthenes then appealed to the people to
promisingto give them in
help him oust Isagorasfrom the office,
the rightto vote, of which they had been unconstitutionally
return
of
deprived. Thereupon Isagorascalled on his friend Cleomenes
with a small army.
Cleisthenes
Spartafor help,and the latter came
and

his friends fled into exile.

It

clear that

Isagoraswas
people,however, rose

seems

now

tryingto make himself tyrant. The

up in
their might,and besiegedhim and his friends in the Acropolis. On
and reto depart,
the third day they allowed the Lacedaemonians
called
from exile. After gainingthe
Cleisthenes with his partisans
hand, the people gave their champion complete power over
upper
in order that he might fulfil his promise. He was
the government
probablyappointed legislatorwith absolute power.
of Cleisthenes
Reforms
(508 B.C.). True to his
165. The
promise,Cleisthenes thoroughlyreformed the government, with the
object(i) of minglingall classes of people on the publicregisters
of citizens that the humble
and high-bornmight enjoy an
equal
the
end
the
feuds
and
of
to
to
(2)
right vote,
puttingan
among
Plain,Shore, and Hill. To accomplishthese ends he first divided
Attica into more
than a hundred
demes, or townships.2 These
"

"

"

""

The

153,

160.

demes, created

which
(naucraries)

had

by Cleisthenes, took
come

the

place of

the

forty-eighttownships

into existence before the time of Solon (" 152, I).

Constitutional Reforms
localitieshe

small

in ten

grouped

139

tribes in such

new

way that the

of them were

not all together,

but some
.townshipsof a tribe were
in the Hills,others in the Plain,and stillothers in the Shore.
In
tribe
other words, the
not
continuous district,
was
one
but was
made
widely separated from one another.
up of parts which were
the Plain,Shore, and Hills were
In this way
distributed in small

the

parcelsamong
give trouble.
four

had

nobles

objectin

The

old ones,

tribes.

ten

do

to

was

with

away
the old

controlled

level
political

Losing their unity,they ceased

tribes,in placeof
creatingnew

with them

distinctions

tribes,but the

in the

thereafter
plans ; the peoplewere
had been before,and sectional warfare

his

substituted

He

tribe

in

"

placeof

should be ten

66.

had

he

After

I.

made

Territorial

The

III.

The

Hundred

1.

2.

The

successful in

was

nearlyequal than they

ceased.
entirely
Hundred
fiftyfrom each
; and he providedthat there
"

reformed

as

by Cleisthenes

others
:

of less

importance,the

"

into
same

Census

than

more
as

Classes

are
as

hundred

one

the

demes;

townships of a modern
(" 152, II)

the

demes

state.

before

nine

archons

importance
ten

the

as

(" 152, III); they graduallydeclined

popular offices developed.

before

as

generals, one

more

each

from

tribe.

the

archons, till they became

the

under

council
war
a
regiments,and formed
in
The
authority
generalsgradually grew
chief

led the

They

of

i.

on

Magistrates
The

The

were

for each tribe.

the

divided

nearly the
Four

in

IV.

for the

more

changes, and some

followingform

these
had

the

Divisions

tribes

were

II.

Five

of the Constitution

of Athens

Ten

the Four

generals,one

Outline

constitution

of

Council

rank;

commons

Cleisthenes

new.

of

to

at

ten

tribal

polemarch.

the expense

of the

magistrates.

Councils
Of

the

Areopagus
Composition and
measures

of

as

before

Cleisthenes

drove

duties

(" 152, IV)

it into

the

popular
background. It

; but

the

after
with
Persia, and thereagain to the front in the war
(480-462 B.C.) gradually declined as the democratic
institutions (the assembly, popular courts, and the Council of
Five Hundred) grew.
came

Athens

140
Of

2.

the

From

Five

Monarchy

Hundred

(in place of the Four

by lot from

fiftydrawn

the candidates

These

(a) Organization.
"

ten

business

the

managing

Democracy

to

groups
of the

" 152, IV),

Hundred;
presented by each tribe.

of councillors

took

in

turns

council, each for a prytany,

men
on
fifty
duty for a given time
year.
called
were
was
"). Their chairman
pryt'a-nes(" foremen
the entire council for
changed daily. He presidedalso over
each day, and over
the assembly.
the short time it met
for presentation to the asIt prepared decrees
sembly,
(6) Functions.
or

tenth

of

The

"

and

gradually took

Areopagus

(regularlymeeting

Assembly

in

once

as

Court

Popular Supreme

The

few

Council

of the

administrative

each

times

and

Composition

prytany)

VI.

place of the
supervisory and

in the state.

power

The

V.

chief

the

as

the

(meeting but

year)

before

V, VI)

take

far

tions
func-

("

152,

they began

to

active

more

part in the government.

Form

VII.

1.

of Government
elements

Aristocratic

filled by wealthy
(because it was
for
life).
places
of the archons.
(b} High property qualifications
(c) Fillingthe archonships by election (rather than by lot).
of pay for most
(d) Absence
public duties.

(a) Council

of the

2.

Areopagus

held

who

men

their

elements

Democratic

(a) Assembly and popular

all the citizens).
of Five Hundred
Council
(b)

court

(because they

(as it

equal chance of appointment with

A comparison of this outline
Summary.
"

(i) before
that

Solon

modified

167. Ostracism.
termed

"

and

Cleisthenes

existingforms
"

ostracism."

of pottery, which

Solon

by lot,the poor
the rich).

was

The

the form

year, if the assembly saw

whom
any of their number

word

with

those

of the

of

had

ernment
gov-

(2) after Solon's reforms

proves
did not make
but
new
constitutions,

and

of government

Cleisthenes

composed

filled

was

an

3.

were

in

introduced

democratic

direction.

peculiarinstitution
from os'tra-kon,
piece
a

is derived

of ballot used

in the process.
fit,the citizens met and voted

Once

against

deemed

they
dangerous to the state.
If the archons found, on counting the votes, that there were
fewer
than six thousand in all,the vote had no effect. If,however, they
found
that at least six thousand
persons had voted, they sent the
man

who

had received

the greatest number

into exile for ten

years.

Athens

and

Sparta

14!

It did not
a

requiresix thousand votes cast againsta person, but only

of that number, to expel him.
As the Athenian
plurality
noble

lacked
in

respect for the government,

his

for

candidacy

submit

to

he would

not, when

defeated

office,

the will of the

jority,
ma-

but

preferredrather in
of law to destroyhis

defiance
more

fortunate

rival.1 Ostracism

removed

the

from

man

left at

the

the

dangerous
community, and

the head
whom

one

Of

the

the

State

Cast

people be-

OSTRAKQN

againstThemistocles
(BritishMuseum)

lieved to be the best and ablest.

168.

Sparta

tries

overthrow

to

the

Democracy.

"

After

the

Spartans had formed the PeloponnesianLeague,2they advanced

in strength. Toward
the end of the sixth century Megara
steadily
joined their alliance. They aimed to extend their influence,
pecially
esby helpingthe nobles of various Greek states againstthe
undertaken
tyrants. AccordinglyCleomenes, their king,had willingly
of expelling
the work
Hippias,3doubtless in the hope that
the Lacedaemonians
been

be able to control Athens

would

after she had

liberated.

When, however, he
the forces of
into

saw

Peloponnese,and

Attica,while the

in concert

he gathered
democracy established,
led them
without
statinghis object,

the

with

Thebans

him.

and

Though

the country
the Athenians

Chalcidians invaded

inferior in

number,

the Peloponnesiansat Eleusis.

bravely forth to meet
Fortunatelyfor Athens, the Corinthians,on learningthe purpose of
the expedition,
refused to take part in it on the ground that it was
unjust,and the other allies followed their example. As Cleomenes
could then do nothingbut retreat homeward, the Athenians turned
on
and the Chalcidians separately
about and defeated the Thebans
the same
day. They punished Chalcis for the invasion by taking
from her a largetract of land,on which they settled four thousand
but an addition to Attica ; and
colonists. An Athenian colony was
marched

Cf
.

" 145.

the conduct

of Cleisthenes ; " 164.

3

" l63-

Athens

142

though

it had

Monarchy

From

local government,

to

Democracy

its members

remained

citizens

of Athens.
Some

their
But

to Asia

land.1

the Lacedaemonians

afterward

city,called
the deputy

the

as

time

congress of
from
Corinth

invited

and proposed to
allies,

Hippias

to

him.

restore

interposedin favor of Athens, and

off disappointed
other allies agreed with him, Hippias went
Minor, where he plottedwith the Persians againsthis native
the

afterward

Soon

Athenians

secured

with
their peace
Their place in it

Sparta by entering the PeloponnesianLeague.

was
favorable,as it allowed them complete indepenexceptionally
dence.
169. Summary

History (753-508B.C.). We

of Athenian

have

"

historyof Athens through a periodof two hundred

and
(i) The kingship gave way to an aristocracy
fiftyyears,
(753 B.C.),in which the nobles greatlyoppressedthe lower class.
of wealth
(2) Some time before Solon men
gained equalpolitical
with those of noble birth.
(3)Draco (621 B.C.)gave the
privileges
citizens the advantage of written laws.
(4) Solon (594 B.C.)freed
from
of
the masses
serfdom,and provided them with the means
(5)Pisistratus and his sons (560-510B.C.)
protectingthemselves.
crushed the nobles and introduced
an
(6)
orderlygovernment.
The great reforms of Cleisthenes in favor of libertyand equality
and encouraged them
filled the citizens with patriotism,
to defend
their country and freedom, not only against unfriendly
neighbors,
but also againstthe enormous
to
armies of Persia which were
soon
now

followed

invade

the

Greece.

Political Condition
170. The
the close of the periodwhich we

of Greece

have

now

(about 500 B.C.). At

reviewed (about750-500
"

of the Greek peninsulawest

and north of Boeotia was
most
B.C.),
still occupiedby barbarous
half-civilized tribes ; as yet Thebes
or
had
accomplishednothing remarkable, and Argos had declined.
The
Greek cities of Italy and Sicily,
mostly under tyrants, were
disunited and weak ; those of Asia Minor, as a later chapter (XV)
will

tell,acknowledged the

and

Sparta had

Greece

than

any

achieved
other

Persian

king

for the

more

cities. Attica
1

"

197-

as

their

master.

Athens

development
political
was
firmly.united under

of
a

CHAPTER

XIV

AWAKENING

INTELLECTUAL
About

General

171.

Greeks

Character

Mediterranean

the

it.

from

the

time

organizations

and

government.

Progress

the

of

art

and

whatever.

activity, in science,
world.

the

In

lines of this

and

the

the

Among
found

its

imagine

the

seventh

cities.

and

orders

of

period.

their

distinguished by

trade

military

the

of

art

by

period

the

knowledge

of

the

industry,

in art, in industrial

rapidly

in

nation

foremost

main

the

trace

B.C.,

these

shall

we

in
limit

the

making

the

metals,

study

our

sculpture, the

to

in the

temple.

needed

they

in fact of all ages,

and

building temples

were

"

made

were

till they became

temple,

more

of

models

it is necessary

Doric, Ionic,

column

first the

At

dwelling-houses, but

buildings

of the

the

But

work

fine

as

to

branch

it.

gods

architecture,

and

of art, and

of this age,

graceful

structure

of

in

of art, such

branches

form

to

century

Gradually
the

the

noblest

Greeks

that

out

little skilled

the

shall

we

branch

their

useful

were

power

painting,

vases,

highest expression

not

less

they

mental

Various

"

closely related

most

end

of

development.

during

architecture, the

the

of

beginning

Babylonians,

chapter

present

of

cultivated

were

in

remarkable

decoration

the

parts

accompanied

was

had

they

At

and

Architecture.

172.

and

lines

the

In

crude

was

Egyptians

science

no

awakening.

Greeks

the

life than

these

along

strides

enormous

the

network

improving

were

making

were

with

period

remotest

which

seas

waters

they

the

to

smaller

those

same

great intellectual

the

this

During

"

settlements

of

covered

They
At

routes.

their

and

Period.

the

of

extending

were

B.C.

750-500

the

"

144

and

chief

and

architecture

early

as

in
more

To

first to

notice

feature

of

as

all their

beauty.

Corinthian.

did

Greeks

metrical
symstand
underthree

They
the

are

Greek

Orders

Originally
trunk, the

temple.
but

tree

column

in time

came

be made

to

of Architecture

of stone.

173. The
The
"

Doric

der.
Or-

Doric

umn
col-

on
directly
tion.1
temple foundaUsually it is
single
stone, but

rests

the

not

"

of

is made

drums."

diameter

The

top is less than

at

The

bottom.

the

at

the

ing,
taper-

however, is not
in a straight
line,but
in a gentle outward
curve, or swelling.It
fact
is an
interesting
that the swellingis
greater in the

much
earlier
later

found

than

it

temples;
that by
the

the

in

was

ishing
dimina

curve

greater degreeof gracefulness

could

be

the

After
had

column
in

tained.
at-

been

set

its

place, it was
carefullychannelled,
from top to
or
fluted,

bottom.
1

The
on

"

row

Doric

The

tion
part of the foundawhich

the colonnade

of columns

"

rests

is

called the sty'lo-bate.

L

CORNER

OF

TEMPLE

OF

POSEIDON,

POSEIDONIA

Intellectual Awakening

146

order

has

usuallytwenty flutings.The
and channelling
combine
to give
swelling
the pillargrace and an
of
appearance
The
head of the column
is
elasticity.
the capital.Though of one
piece,it is
made
up of two elements : (i) the ab'ablock, restingon (2) the
cus, a square
e-chi'nus, cushion,"a round piececonsiderably
"

greater in diameter
column

itself.

than

the

In the earlier

temples the
echinus was
bowl-shaped,"but in time
the outward
curve
diminished,till in the
best period1it became
very slight.This
The
change,too, meant increasing
grace.
Doric column
developedfrom the Mycenaean.
earliest examples of the
The
order show Egyptian influence. Its home
the Greek peninsula.
was
"

174. The Ionic and

The Ionic column

Minor.

It

having a

differs

base.

is ornamented

shaft
and

Corinthian

originatedin
from

This
in

the

various

base

and

is greater

"

in the

number

more

or

is

always
general,

styleis

and

beautiful
chaste ; the Ionic is more
graceful.The Corinthian is but a

COLUMN

Doric

In

the Doric

beauty

growth from
IONIC

of flutings

the

and

AN

the

ally
period usucapitalhas the

ornamented.

The

of

the

is

shaft

best

twenty-four. The
form of a spiral
roll. Whereas
is very simple,the Ionic
capital
less

and

slender

apart from

capital.The

in

The

ways.

bulges less,and is more

graceful. By the word

Asia

Doric

part is round

the entire column

meant

Orders.

the Ionic.

severe

It is distinguished

"best period" is the Age of

"" 236 ff.

Pericles;

Elements

by
was
use

its

capitalof

acanthus

of

the

Temple

I47

leaves,and by

its greater elegance. It

in the fifth century, but did not
into extensive
come
tillthe Greek genius began to decline.
invented

Architrave,Triglyphs,Metopes, Cornice,Frieze,and

175-

Above

"

the

columns

ments.
Pedi-

is the arch'i-trave. It consists of

long rectangular blocks,

which

reach

from

one

to another

the upper
building. It

umn
col-

and

support
part of the
is

always
left plain. Resting on
the
architrave,and
so
around
extendingentirely
the temple,is a succession
of triglyphsand
met'owith one
pes, alternating
another.
Triglyphs are
tablets crossed
by three
deep vertical channels,
hence

the

grooved."
two

sides

of

the

"three-

name

Those

on

the

the ends

cover

CORINTHIAN

stretch

beams

"

CAPITAL

(From Epidaurus)

the building

across

for the

which

support of the ceilingand

"

face between

"is

the

roof.

The

metope

"

it is

placedbetween two
triglyphs.It is likewise a stone tablet,left entirely
plain,or simply
or more
painted,
ure
commonly ornamented with reliefs. A reliefis a figsurface
in such a way as to stand out from the general
sculptured
of the stone as a background. Low
relief stands out but slightly,
The triglyphs
and metopes togethermake
high relief much more.
the

up

Doric

Ionic frieze is

building. In
1

The

the word

frieze.
a

so

named

Ionic

this frieze

Above

continuous

because

band

temples it

runs

the

cornice.1

The

extending around the

and
place of the triglyphs

of reliefs

takes the

When
Doric frieze,
the cornice,
and the architrave constitute the en-tab'la-ture.
it appliesrather to the Ionic
frieze is used without a descriptive
adjective,

frieze explainedin the

text

below.

Intellectual

148

PLAN

TEMPLE

OF

Double

stand

Plan.

the cella

"

to

form

two

or

square

on/a.

"

"

The

colonnade,

more

column

Such

SMALL

surface.

TEMPLE

simplestplan is

singledoor.

in front

ends

either

A, cetta;B, vestibule

of the

The
door.1

projectingwall

temple is described therefore

is repeated in the rear, the buildingbecomes

as

double

side walls
Between

in the
columns, as shown
the image of the deity. The
which

the columns.

of
(From Unedited Antiquities
Attica,Chap. VII, PI. I)

et le

OF

Rhamnus.

earliest and

with

vestibule

cella contained
The

PLAN

PRIENE

Temple in antis surrounded

by Peristyle

176. The
room

AT

Rayet and Thomas, Milet

GolfeLatinique,PI. IX)

(From

temple walls behind

ornamented
The pediment is the gable. It is usually
detached from the
entirely
high reliefsor with figures

with

name

by

the

Ionic frieze is placedon

however, the

as

surrounded
the buildingis entirely

When

metopes.

Awakening

their ends

illustration.

temple

of the kind

temple
temple in

rectangular
projectso

was

The
not

is called by the Latin

in antis.
antis.-

If the vestibule

The

Temple

as

primarilya place of worship,but

Whole

149

the

dwellingof the god. For

utensils used in the sacrifices and for the safe-keeping
of the
rooms
storegiftshe received,it often happened that one or more

the
many

had

periodwhich

added

be

to

are

we

the

to

In

rear.

the latter part of the

studying,a temple was

now

TEMPLE

POSEIDON,

OF

(From

sometimes

beau-

POSEIDONIA

photograph)

around it.
extendingentirely
is called a perl-style.
colonnade
Afterward limestone was
wood.
The earliest templeswere

tified by

In

this

then

of columns

row

the stone

case

painted.

Greeks

began

periodis that

Italy.
Doric
177.

the

In

to

use

covered

was

latter

marble.

with

white

best

used.

stucco, which

part of the sixth century

The

Such

B.C.

preservedtemple of

was

the
this

ern
colony in southa Greek
Poseidon,in Po-si-do'ni-a,
is an impressivebuilding,with simplebut massive

of

It

columns.

Sculpture.

"

There

reliefs,
explainedabove,

are

and

kinds of sculpture,"
principal
As an example of an early
statues.
two

Awakening

Intellectual
relief we
about

take

may

600

Behind

head.1

off Medusa's

temple built

of these metopes

One

B.C.

from

metope

him

and

arms,

work

his

is very

much

legsare

distorted ; the eyes

are

Selinus,
Sicily,
cutting
protectinggoddess
crude.
The heads,

represents Perseus

stands

The

Athena.

in

large; the bodies

too

stare ; the

faces lack

example is the graveexpression. Another

his wife,shown in the
relief of a Spartan and
works, though
chapter on Sparta.2 These
creditable for the period,fall far short of the
attained.
Equally rude
perfectionafterward
carved

the statues

are

the

at

time.

An

ample
ex-

found at Delos.
figureof a woman
of marble," with the
It is
a long,flat block
attached to
rounded, the arms
edges slightly
the sides,and the head and hair but roughly
worked
out.
During the period, however,
is the

"

considerable

progress

with

of

improvement we may compare

of
early figuresthe grave-relief
and

Aristion

maiden

Acropolis.3 Both

the

on

of the

one

Athens

human

under

the

shows

form,

the

these

warrior

found

statues

chiselled

were

The

tyranny.

evidence

As

made.

was

latter

at
pecially
es-

knowledge of the
greater skill in working out

far better

and

body and the drapery. These two

reveal the Greek
genius.
piecesdistinctly

both

STATUE

(Found

OF
at

WOMAN

Delos

178. Deepening Religion ; Oracles

seventh

National

the

The

"

one

great motive

and

which

nation.
Divi-

led the

improvements in art
was
religion.The belief that the gods were
factors
of perfectphysicalform, the beneand women
magnified men
tect
of all who properlyworshipped them, inspiredboth archiand
sculptor. The age which saw these earlyimprovements
The
of religious
Greek mind
was
reachingout
was
one
progress.
into the unknown, tryingto discover the nature of God and of his
century

Museum,

B.C.

Greeks

to make

all these

Athens)

!P.

QI.

2P.

115-

3PP-

I3S,

137-

Intellectual

was

sad, and

therefore
about

whole

in search

earth became

cold and

barren.

to
daughter,till she came
Eleusis,where she was received into the familyof the king. There
her daughter was
restored,but with the understanding that she
his wife and queen
to live with Hades
as
was
during four months

She

wandered

the

Awakening

of her

of the

year
months.

the winter

"

It

was

originally a nature
myth, to explain the
alternation
and

of

summer

winter; but

in this

periodthe story was so

to signify
as
interpreted
death

the

and

tion.
resurrec-

Dionysus,
some

features

with

of

the

Orphic mysteries,was
introduced

worship.

GREEK

VASE

each

great

festival

Eleusinian
held

this

into

in

was

September
All

year.
the

of

the

magistrates
and
priestsin
their official robes, the citizens in their holiday attire,took part
in a grand processionalong the Sacred
to
Way from Athens
Eleusis.
There
with
public ceremonies
they worshipped Demeand
and
author
of their civilization;
ter, goddess of agriculture
the initiated attended
in secret
to the mystic rites of her service.
a
Among the mysteries was
passion play which exhibited the
when
her daughterwas
taken from her by Hades,
griefof Demeter
and the joy of receiving
her back.
Such, her worshippersthought,
the sorrows
of death and
the joys of reunion in the world
were
men,
slaves and freeAll Greeks, men
and women,
beyond the grave.
had equalrightsto initiation.
The priests
1 80.
Increasing Knowledge ; the Use of Writing.
of Orpheus spread their faith with such zeal that in the sixth cen(Demeter, Persephone, and

king of Eleusis)

Athenians,

"

Literature

tury
the

it came

B.C.

work

gaininga complete mastery

near

Such

Greeks.

science,which

would

event

an

clearlythe

out

problems

they were

have

the minds

over

rendered

them

53
of

unfit to

of government,

society,art, and
alreadyattemptingto solve. Fortunately
of mystery was
a
offset by increasing
religion
made
storingup of facts was
possibleby

growing love for

knowledge. The
writing.
Early in the Epic Age the Greeks had adopted the Phoenician
time some
improvements in it,as
alphabet,making at the same
ing
explainedabove.1 About 700 B.C. they began to use it for recordand soon
afterward
lists of annual
for writinglaws
magistrates,
their

and

other

Greece

beginsat

181.

Hesiod;

writer

say
was

of

that

the

written

in the sixth.

mentioningexisted

worth

prose

we

There

this time.

century, and stillmore

seventh
no

Hence

documents.

in this

Apart

the

age

from

documents

period.
Poetry.

Beginnings of Personal

the

historical age of
poetry, too, in the

The

"

liest
ear-

epic poet of Boeotia

Theogony,which tellsin homely

Hesiod,

was

an

(about700 B.C.). He composed the

of the gods and the creation of the world.2
styleof the genealogies
mation
His Works
and Days, another
epic,givesthe peasant useful inforabounds
in
and
about
thrift,
agriculture.It encourages
he
moral
maxims.
idealizes everythingof which
Homer
Whereas
brates
celesings,the aim of Hesiod is to tell the simple truth. Homer
heroes

of the remote

past ; Hesiod

has

to

do

with

men

in

everyday life.
The earlyepicshave
came

little to tell of their authors ; but in time it

ings.
that poets expressedfreelytheir own
thoughts and feel-

about
Thus

extends

Persia
The

from

second

the time

arose.

of Hesiod

age in which it flourished

with
to the end of the great war
The

(700-479B.C.).
elegy is

Ionia,and
poets

personalpoetry

was

the

earliest form

of

One of
martial.
originally
Tyrtaeus of Sparta, mentioned

was

Messenian

War.3

used

Solon

It

personalpoetry.

the

views before the public. Besides

bringinghis political
Tyrtaeus and Solon composed various kinds of verse.
MSI-

"

106.

with

in connection
as

in

martial

the best known

elegy

arose

means

the

3"i42-

the
of

elegy,

Intellectual

154
182.
"

the

song
the music

home

as

of the ballad

"

well

of this

chief forms

The

highestform of personalpoetry
accompanied by the lyre. The lyricpoet

Lyric Poetry.

lyric,

Awakening
is the
posed
com-

the words

as

poetry

of his songs.
There were
ballad and
the choral ode.

the

Lesbos,1 and

two

The

its great

were
representatives
the Lesbic poets, Al-cae'us and Sappho, who
belonged to the early
Alcaeus
Aeolian noble,"
was
a fiery
part of the sixth century B.C.
who composed songs of war, adventure, and party strife,
love-songs,
a
nd
He
brilliant
was
a
versatile,
drinking-songs,
hymns.
poet.
her
friend
Violet-crowned, pure, softly smiling Sappho," as
was

"

"

calls

Alcaeus
"

his peer

her, was

in

the ancients

To

genius.

she

was

"

"

the poet
was
poetess,"as Homer
they
; and sometimes
her
the
tenth
muse."
styled
Ballads were
simple songs sung by individuals ; but the choral
ode was
publicand was sung by a trained chorus, who accompanied
eminent
choral poet
the music with dancing. The most
perhaps
the greatest purelylyricpoet of the world
Pindar of Boeotia
was
(522-448B.C.). As he belonged to a priestly
family,he began even
with myths and
lore.
in childhood
His
to fill his mind
religious

the

"

"

"

poems

up of this material.
of the victors
in honor

Those

made

are
are

in

which

the

have

been

great national

served
pre-

games.

the

myth
historyof
the victor's familyor city; it glorifies
noble birth,well-used wealth,
and all manner
of virtue.
justice,
Though difficult to read even in
will repay
the most
these poems
careful study. The
translations,
like jewels; he is
styleis bold, rapid,and vital ; his words glitter
always sublime.
The

ode

usuallynarrates

Besides
in

the
all

perished;

poets mentioned, there

of Alcaeus.

fragments.

Pindar

this age, for his best

183. The
were

of

The

parts of Greece.

of others

we

have

We

work

Beginnings

mere

have

has

two

the

had
has
of

thinkers,who tried each

which were
life,
becoming

with

connected

some

were

works

of

shreds.

have

some

There

remain

ished
flour-

utterly
but

ments
frag-

of Sappho, in addition to
poems
best fortune
of all the poets of
down

come

Science

in his
every

others who

many

;
own

day

to

us.

Philosophy.
way
more

to

The

"

solve the

complex

as

poets

problems

civilization

Science

155

of things,however,they always
seekingthe causes
back to the supernatural. For instance,they explainedthe
went
rotation of the seasons
and Persephone.1
by the story of Demeter
the time of Solon a few of the more
But about
Greeks
intelligent
as
an
began to seek for natural causes
explanationof things. Such
In

advanced.

scientists.
were
persons
The founder of Greek science

Tha'les.

Naturallyhe was a
citizen of Miletus,in this periodthe centre of Hellenic industry,
commerce,
and intellectual life. It is said that he visited Egypt and
scientific knowledge. He was
a
brought back from there some
of
mathematician, and knew enough astronomy to foretell an eclipse
he fell into a well is told
The story that while star-gazing
the sun.
how unpractical
to the
a
to prove
philosopheris. When
referring
Greeks,we use the word philosophyto include their sciences as well as
and
abstract thinkingon such great subjects
their more
as the nature
Thales had a theorythat water
of the universe.
was
cause
original
had
been
made.
of
which
the original
substance,out
everything
to be sure,

This was,

first to seek
makes

him

After him
of mention

natural

the

founder

came
was

many

was

mistake.

But

the very

fact that he

was

the

of things
supernaturalcause
of Greek philosophy.
other philosophers.One especially
worthy

rather

than

who
Py-thag'o-ras,

laid great stress

on

matics.
mathe-

They
followers,the Py-thag-o-re'ans.
many
and adopted the ascetic
organizedthemselves in secret fraternities,
He

had

Orphists. The idea of Pythagoras

to have been to allow his sect the happinessof the mysteries
seems
provided they were
kept under proper control. In general,the
the growth of mysticism,
scientific awakening of Hellas checked
of interest
and prepared the way
for clear thinking on all subjects

lifeand

to

some

of the beliefs of the

mankind.

period,the Greeks first

brought
became
conscious of their unity as a people. The fact was
the
and travel,through
sion
posseshome
to them
through commerce
and of the national oracle at
of one
language and religion,
and
in the great national games,
Delphi, through participation
through the growth of a national literature. The feelingof unity
184. The

Unity

of

Hellas.

In

"

"

179-

this

Intellectual

156
intensified

was
"

This

barbarians."

language

their

by

conflicts
word

with

foreigners, whom

originally signified
but

unintelligible;

was

Awakening

the

as

superiority to others, they began

own

the

accordingly,
and
that

it

which

meaning

has

now

Greeks

our

What

in

this

145-147.

5.

of

woman

does

with

latter

show?

(p. 149) ?
indicate
what

an

In

this

age,

in

pathy,
sym-

in

spiritand

by

one

one

common

name

Give

9.

later

Orphic

examples

of

p.

sixth

impression

and

and

mysteries
Did

epic, elegiac,

Methods.

the

benefit

they

differ
to

of

the

and

the

of

progress

temple

of

don
Posei-

mysteries
if

and

Greeks,

lyric poetry

in

epic poetry?

from

why?
of

statue

What

Eleusinian

the

on

in

and

think

you

(p. 135).

the

ory.
mem-

architecture

seventh-century

century

personal poetry

Materials

Building

91.

of

do

detail

illustrated

beautiful,

most

What

the

philosophers aiming

Greek

the

in

capitals
orders

pare
Com-

of it from

drawing

three

you

is your

What

religion?

does

How

10.

the

Compare

of the

the

in

to

Describe

2.
a

Corinthian

of

on

architecture?

to

Make

and

Note-book

I.

language.

Greeks

145.

seems

6.

7.

Do

8.

early

the

the

Egyptians.

p.

pictured

one

advance

way?

literature.
were

Which

time?

that

the
on

the

examples

metope

(p. 150)
the

with

Mention

the

sculpture

word

Questions

of

Doric, Ionic,

the

4.

Describe

motive

illustrated

locality.

own

your

chief

respect

temple

Compare

3.

pp.

the

was

of the

parts

the

Hellenes.

of

them

their

to

call themselves

to

Suggestive
i.

own

becoming

were

beginning

were

in

discovered

attach

to

whose

people

Greeks

called

they

in

so

modern
What

u.

discover?

Topics
"

Fowler

and

Wheeler,

Greek

92-94;

Fowler,

Ancient

Archaeology, 96-108.
Sappho.

II.
Greek

Ancient

Greek

Literature,

Literature, 96-100.

III.
116

Murray,

"

IV.
Greece

Pindar.

"

Fowler,

ch.

Myths

of

and

Rome,

Greek

Jebb,

Literature

(Primer),

64-69;

Murray,

109-

xi.
Death
ch.

and

viii
.

the

Future

World.

"

Fairbanks,

Mythology

of

CHAPTER

CONQUEST

OF

ASIATIC

XV

GREECE

BY

THE

LYDIANS

AND

THE

PERSIANS

560-493

185. Character

of
and

government
Lacedaemonians
in the

and
the

lead

Greeks

in

Egypt

But

though

lonians
acted

together, and

They

loved

the
a

ruin.

military
It is

Asia,

based

controlling
186.

remained
a

country
as

strong
in

of

service.

were

civilization.

qualities, the

people,

of

diversion
of

the

submission

long-

political

their
to

state.

enjoyed

fond

not

was

inferior

unthinking

and

the

as

rarely

strong

one

towns,

neighbors

they proved

1000-

communities

character

Their

on

The

the
Sea

(about

Hellenic

their

commercial

that

their

on

of

Mediterranean

joining in

for

first

empires
to

one

of

all-

will.

great

Greeks

were

these

as

Croesus,

no

war

wonder

no

think

not

independence

they

yet

continued

was

could

the

excellent

many

torians,
histook

people

years
of

homes

geographers,

were

the

Minor

the

were

the

as

Asia

same

hundred

politicalability.

privilege of making

summer

their

for

in

complete

five

standard-bearers

admirable

lacking

were

The

ships plied

For

the

earliest

lonians

of

Ionia

oping
devel-

well

as

Greeks

and

The

the

their

were

the

lonians.

were

Massalia.

to

to

in

successful

Athenians

Aeolis

Greece.

inventions

money;

B.C.) they

494

far inferior

of

poets

the

war,

of civilization.

useful
coin

Although

"

of

art

philosophers

to

from

the

were

first great

lonians.

thus

finer elements

the

of

the

B.C.

560

of

King

foreign

power

free.

But

B.C.,1admired
but

As

long

neighborhood,

these

"

their

in

gradually Lydia,
who

Croesus,

state.

willing subjects;

(560-546 B.C.).

Lydia

the

the

ascended

Greeks

and

wished

they resisted, he

when
1

" 63.

Asiatic

came
interior, be-

the

in

there

as

throne
to

waged

of

this

have

them

war

upon

Conqwst by

58

the

Lydians and

the Persians

and

them

He
ruled
conquered them with no great difficulty.
them
well,however, as he sought to gain their favor and support
againstthe risingpower of Persia. He stole his way into their
affections by making costlypresents to their gods, especially
to
Apollo at Delphi.1 Under him, Lydia reached its heightin wealth
and power.
His treasury was
full of gold dust from the sands of
the Lydian rivers and of tributes from the cities he had conquered;
and as he was
the wealthiest he supposed himself to be the happiest
His empire had
all Asia Minor
earth.
to include
on
come
man
of the Halys River ; but it was
destined soon
to become
west
a
was
part of the far vaster Persian empire,and the happy monarch
his life in captivity.
doomed
to end

187. The

Relations

between

Cyrus, King

of

Persia, and

the

(546-529 B.C.). In an earlier chapter we have seen how

Cyrus, king of Persia, conquered the Median
empire and then
defeated
Croesus
and took him captive.2 The lonians,who
were
favored
subjectsof Croesus and had supported him in the war,
of submission
terms
now
begged Cyrus to grant them the same
which Croesus
had given; but Cyrus angrilyrefused,tellingthe
from them
the fable of the piperand
who came
to him
messengers
the fishes.
certain piper," he said,
There
who
was
was
a
fish ; so he
walking one day by the seaside,when he espiedsome
out to
began to pipe to them, imagining that they would come
him upon
the land.
But as he found at last that his hope was
drew
vain, he took a net, and enclosinga. great draught of fishes,
them
The
ashore.
fish then began to leap and dance; but the
piper said, Cease your dancing now, as you did not choose to
that
and dance when
As the lonians saw
I piped to you.'
come
Cyrus would not give them good terms, they began to wall their
of defence.
measures
They
towns, and met in council to concert
their deputies reached
first asked help of Lacedaemon.
When
Sparta,the one who was to speak dressed himself in a purplerobe
to attract
as
so
as
largean audience as possible;and, in a long
to the aid of his
to come
speech,he besought the Lacedaemonians
But it was
all in vain ; for the Spartans liked neither
countrymen.
long speeches nor purple robes, and they were
just then at war
Greeks

"

"

"

'

'

"

103.

Ch.

v.

The

historyof Persia,"" 63-69,

should

now

be reviewed.

Conquestby the Lydians and

160

in the

about

country north

gallingto the

was

Greeks

the Persians

of the Danube
to

perform

and

such

the Black

Sea.

It

compulsory service,as

they felt it a shame to be slaves of the Persians while their kinsmen

in Europe were
free.
of the tyrants,voicingthe spirit
Even
of
some
their subjects,
proposed to cut off the return of Darius by breaking
nian,
Athean
up the bridgehe had left in their keeping. Mil-ti'a-des,
who
then tyrant of Cher-so-nese',
was
a colony of Athens,
favored
the plan; but His-ti-ae'us,
despot of Miletus,persuaded
the tyrants that the peoplewould
depose them if they should lose
the support of the Persian king,and in this manner
he led them to
vote
againstthe proposal. An important result of the expedition
of Darius

the annexation

was

empire,which
The

189.

therefore

The

in-law,for he
the

promised
from

them

was

on

felt that

he

the border

of

sian
Per-

Thessaly.

the

"

than

better

no

was

to his native

land,he

sent

of

tyrant

exile.

secret

siring
De-

message

Miletus, urging

his fatherlittle pressure

alreadythinkingof taking this step. He had
to

assurance

should

to

from

latter needed

Persians
this

to the

The
(499-494 B.C.)
Beginning.
for his loyaltyby inviting
him to Susa,1
his life as a courtier in the palace. To the

to return

revolt.

Macedon

then
son-in-law,Ar-is-tag'o-ras,

to

and

therefore

the life at court

Greek

ambitious

him

of

the remainder

to pass

to

Revolt

Histiaeus

king rewarded

his

extended

now

Ionic

of Thrace

be

Naxos,

conquer
; but

punished

had

and

in his
failing

received

attempt,

keeping his

for not

he

help
now

word.

He

decided

accordinglyto take the lead in a revolt which he knew

was
threatening.His first step was to resignhis tyranny and give
Miletus
democratic
He
then helped depose the
a
government.
all Ionia followed
and in a few weeks
tyrants of the neighboringcities;
him in a rebellion against Darius.
Athens
at
(winter of 499Sparta and
190. Aristagoras at
498 B.C.). Aristagoras
spent the next winter in lookingabout for
allies. First he went
addressed
to Sparta,and
as
King Cleomenes
"

follows
free is

"

:
a

all others

That

the

sons

of the lonians

reproachand griefmost
most

to

I
Now, therefore,

you,
entreat

of all indeed

inasmuch

by

you
1

should

" 66,

as

ye

the
n.

2.

are

gods

be slaves instead

of

but
ourselves,

of

for
the

leaders

of Hellas

to

of Hellas.

rescue

from

Ionic

slaverythe lonians, who

this,for

easily achieve
whereas
their

and

caps

have

ye

and

attained

161
kinsmen:

own

your

the

foreigners
the highestpoint
not

are

to

fightingis of this

fashion,namely, with

and

valiant

ye
in

of valor

in

bows

and

may

fight,
war:

arrows

short spear, and

their heads.
on

they go into battle wearingtrousers and with

Thus they may
easilybe conquered. Then
that continent
have good thingsin such
occupy

who

again, they
as
quantities

all the other

not

gold, then

silver and

of burden

and

bronze

nations

and

in the world

first
possess;
garments and beasts

embroidered

slaves ; all which

ye

might

have

for

yourselvesif

desired."1

so

ye

are

Revolt

then proceededto indicate the location of the various

Aris*tagoras
Asiatic nations on a map
traced on a plate of bronze, the first the
He tried to show how easily
the Lacedaemonians
Spartans had ever seen.
could conquer
the whole Persian empire.
How
long a
"

journeyis it from
"

asked.

enes

the Ionian

coast

three-months'

to the Persian

"

capital?

Cleom-

journey,"Aristagorasanswered

"

from
Miletus," the Spartan king
incautiously. Guest-Friend
interrupted, get thee away from Sparta before the sun has set;
of the
for thou speakesta word
which
sounds
not well in the ears
Lacedaemonians, desiringto take them on a journeyof three months
"

from

bribe,but

smooth

The

the sea."

frustrated

was

tried to win

then

Ionian

him

the king's daughter,Gorgo,

by

with

child

"

nine years of age, who exclaimed, Father,the stranger

"
will harm
thee,if thou do not leave him and go !
Aristagorasthen went to Athens, where he found his task easier.
of

eightor

The

Athenians

near

were

relations with

had

ordered

them.

the Athenians

to

consequence
Persia.
They therefore sent

their neighbor,Eretria,sent
The

Suppression

captured and
1

Herodotus,

particular,
"

recentlythe

take

back

to

v.

burned
49.

This

the Persians

twenty

and

in close

mercial
com-

of Sardis
governor
Hippias as their tyrant,if

And

escape destruction.
that a state of war
now

they wished

191.

of the lonians

kinsmen

They

had

felt in

refused,and

existed between

them

and

shipsto help the lonians,and

five.

of the

Sardis,the

Revolt
most

"The
(498-494B.C.).

important cityunder

speech gives a truthful summary

not
cowardly ; " 68.
were

allies
Persian

of the facts,
except in

one

Conquestby the Lydians and tJiePersians

62

control

in Asia

Ionia, the
This

Persians

repulseso
home

returned

Minor.

Then,

attacked

as

they

and

were

defeated

thoroughlydiscouragedthe
and

would

The

their way

on

them

back

to

Ephesus.
they

near

Athenians

that

give no more
help.
encouraged the rest of

the Asiatic Greeks

burning of Sardis
but at the same
time stirred Darius to greater
to joinin the revolt,
exertions for puttingit down, and angered him especially
against
The decisive battle of the war
Athens
and Eretria.
was
fought at
La'de,off Miletus (497 B.C.). The Greeks had three hundred and
ships; the Phoenicians in the service of Persia had six
fifty-three
Yet the Greeks would
the day, if
hundred.
certainlyhave won
disunited,and
they had shown the rightspirit
; but they were
themselves
allowed
to be influenced
by secret agents from the
At the very opening of the battle,many
ously
shipstreacherenemy.
sailed away, and though a few remained
and foughtbravely,
lost. United resistance was
the battle was
at an
now
end, and the
subdued
one
by one or surrendered to avoid
separate states were
attack.
The Persians brought the war
to a close by the capture of
Miletus (494B.C.),
after a siegeof four years.
They plunderedand
the city,
burned
togetherwith its temples,and carried the people
into captivity.Thus they blotted out of existence the fairest city
of Hellas,the citywhich up to this time had done most
in building
again inhabited by
European civilization. Though it was
up
Greeks, it never
regained its former splendor.
of Darius
into Europe x had resulted in the conThe expedition
quest
of Thrace,which however
rebelled in imitation of the lonians.
After suppressingthe Ionic revolt,the Persians immediatelyproceeded
As the Phoenician
fleet approached Chersonese,
againstThrace.
fled in his triremes 2 loaded with wealth.
Miltiades,the ruler,
safe to
Though the Phoenicians hotly pursued him, he came
Athens.
192.

Effect of the War

on

Athens.

"

Miltiades

his native

found

citygreatlydisturbed by the recent events in Ionia. A strong party

led by Hipparchus, a near
kinsman
of Hippias,wished to secure
the exiled tyrant, and if need be,
by recalling
peace with Darius
by sendingthe king earth and water," the tokens of submission.
"

"

88.

For

descriptionof

the trireme

see

"

200,

n.

i.

Themistodes

Opposed
the

the

to

of

form

tyrant'sparty

163

the republicans,
who

were

established

upheld

by
were
Persia.
As
Archon
for
against
ready
elected
their
of
Them-is'to-cles, leader,a man
derful
won493 B.C. they
and
Heretofore
the Athenians
had
intelligence.
energy
their shipsin the open bay of Phal-e'rum,
but Themistocles
moored
harbor of Pei-rae'us
occupiedhis term of officein making the triple
to

government

fightfor their country

(From

ready for

He
navy.
avoided, and intended
a

and
Cleisthenes,

powerfulfleet;for

HARBOR

PEIRAEUS

OF

photograph taken by

believed that
that

be

war

A. S. Cooley)

with Persia could not be

should

Athens

it would

Dr.

necessary

have
to

on
land, but also the combined
army
the sea.
and the Asiatic Greeks on

Persian

193.

Hellas

Was

to

was

be

Persia,because
In

ready

Hellas

most

at

her

for War

with Persia?

meet

navy-yard and
not
only the

cians
fleets of the Phoeni-

(about493 B.C.).
-

great disadvantage in the coming

states

of them

could
were

not

bring themselves

strong factions which

with

war

to

act

favored

gether.
to-

the

of them
immediately yielded through fear.
Many
and
Commercial
jealousyof Athens prompted Aegina to send earth
favored the
to the king ; through dislike of Sparta, Argos
water

Persians.

the

Cdnquestby

164
Persian

addition

unity. In
league now
to be

the

Within

cause.

to

included

joinedby

Athens, and

And

the Persians

Peloponnesian League alone

of the Peloponnesian states,

most

several minor

islands.1

Lydians and

within the

this

few

next

years it was
and the neighboring

in central Greece

states

was

in number
yet in territory,

of

fighting
men,
widely extended, was
empire. Darius supposed

when
most
wealth,the league,even
in comparison with the Persian
insignificant
that he had only to send a great army into Greece to crush all
resistance in a single
Greeks.
campaign ; and so it seemed to many
But the contest did not prove so unequal as many
imagined. The
Persians were
far from their base of
at a disadvantagein fighting
and militaryorganizationwere
supplies;and the Hellenic arms
It is a fact,too, that the system of
vastlysuperiorto the Persian.
when at its best,is the strongest possible
for resistance.
city-states,
be overthrown
An empire may
in a singlebattle ; but a union of
when
little city-states,
for independencein a country like
fighting
Greece,is well-nighunconquerable.
and

in

Summary
lonians

(i) The
which
under

world

of

Asia

had

Minor

created

the

brilliant civilization

most

lacking politicalunity, they fell

yet
well.
the rule of Croesus, king of Lydia, who
treated them
(3) Soon
the

(2)

seen.

But

Cyrus, king of Persia,conquered Croesus

refused
his empire. (4) As the lonians
to submit,
Persia
of
favored
The
them.
kings
(5)
tyranniesin

and

afterward

militaryservice
Europe by
the

Darius

added

regular taxes

Thrace

and

and

of Sardis

were

to

(7)

The

(6)

his

Lydia

Persians

the Ionic

them.

on

Macedon

already seething in Ionia.

discontent

againsthim,

and

the

annexed

conquered

and
cities,

The

invasion

empire,but

Asiatic

to

Greeks

posed
imof

increased
revolted

ing
and Eretrians.
(8) The burnby the Athenians
Darius
of
home
the
to
necessity punishing
brought
who
were
encouraging rebellion in his empire.

aided

the Greeks

by
European Greeks
in the naval battle off Lade.
(10)
(9) The insurgent Greeks were overthrown
taken by siege and destroyed,and (n) Athens
Miletus was
began preparations
Persian
invasion.
for meeting the inevitable
(12) As yet, however,
the European Greeks
had thought of no general plan of defence.
those

Suggestive Questions
i.

Why

Hellenes

were

the

lonians

in civilization ?

2.

of Asia

Compare
1

"

Minor

the

the lonians
202.

most

with

advanced
the

of all the

Spartans

; with

CHAPTER

PERSIA

WITH

WAR

XVI

B.C.

492-479

I.

found

It

the

Hellenes

strove

wreak

these
motives

from

subjects.

as

country

of his
The

army

he

his
to

troops
conquer

would

He

lonians

had

Eretria,
that

them

of

Sardis,

(5)

of the

build

to

of

he

as

act.

doing, and

been

Ere-

kinsmen

burning

appreciation

expect

and

sidered
con-

To

all

value

of

and

man

he could

draw

the

sculptors for

ment
adorn-

capital cities.2
First

fleet
Athos

the

which
the

Greek

of Darius.

Thrace.

ships were
the

him

166

along

but

and

only
"

188

of

he

the

at

Mardonius

natives.

" 36.

expedition
head

the

provisions

wrecked,

peninsula,

first

At

For

accompanied

slaughtered by
whole

The

"

son-in-law

through

Mount
were

(492 B.C.).

Expedition

marched

chiefly upon
rounding

and

architects, painters, and

by Mar-do'ni-Us,

led

his keen

added

rest

peninsula.

Athens

the

chieflyresponsible for

him, just as the

their

195.

be

must

of

meddlesome

at

Athens

the

lasting submission

their

incensed

of

Greek

from

the

secure

on

the

on

subjects.

subjugation

conquering

aid

conquering

the

captured

the

on

briefly

Assyrian,1
of

plunder

of

received
not

vengeance
cities

two

could

earlier

after

and

islands

(4) Highly

Aegean.

to

fleets for

he

without

subjects

the

Greeks

that

be

may

imposed

think

to

and

revolted

that

saw

his Asiatic

these

tribute

begin

neighboring

Ionia

tria, Darius

he

the

on

when

beyond

should

Persians

the

from

only

war

the

like

kings,

annual

the

of the

causes

perfectly natural, then,

the

(3) But

Persian

from

more

was

Ionia,

The

"

profitable not

conquest

cities,but

(2)

The

(i)

summarized,

EXPEDITIONS

SECOND

AND

War.

the

of

Causes

194.

FIRST

CARTHAGE

AND

retook
cf. 66.

great

depended
shore.

the

was

same

In
time

expected
Thrace

and

Beginning of the War

the submission

received

into

brought him
Darius
heralds
demand

ready

those

among
"

disgraceat the

made

now

of Macedon.

earth and

Greek

The

Persian

another

failure of his enterprise

court.

expedition,meanwhile

communities

water."

There

167

which

was

sending

still free,to

were

need, Darius

no

thought,

submit.
The Athenians,
attacking those who would willingly
however, threw the king's herald into a pit,and the Spartans
of

dropped
earth and

the

who

one

water

thence
which

law

to

came

to

made

them

into

their lord.
the

well,biddingthem

These

persons

acts

take

violated the international

of heralds

sacred.

Those

and

of conduct
must
Spartans who advised this course
have felt that the Persian king would
never
forgivesuch an outrage,
and that its perpetration
would
commit
their own
states to a lifeand-death
struggle.
196. Beginning of the Second
Expedition (490 B.C.). After

Athenians

"

the failure of Mardonius, the conquest

questionof

honor.

But

of Greece

became

rius
with Da-

his unfortunate

experiencetaught
him that the land route was
too
long and difficult. It required
this journey, whereas
months
fleet could sail directly
to make
a
the Aegean in a few days. This was
which he
the route
across
of
chose accordinglyfor the second
expedition. In the summer
ships,which had long been preparing,
490 B.C. the fleet of six hundred
a

moved
islanders

kinsman
Athens
whatever

westward
on

of
and

the

across

way.

Darius, were
Eretria

for

the sea, receivingthe submission

Da'tis,a
in command.

helpingthe

Mede,

a
Ar-ta-pher'nes,
objectwas to punish

and

Their
Ionian

of the

revolt,and

to conquer

territory
they could for their lord.
of
defence
After a brave
First the Persians
besieged Eretria.
six days, it was
betrayed by two citizens. Eretrian fugitiveswho
of
found the cityfull of the spirit
to Athens
brought the sad news
of
well trained in the use
resistance.
Her
heavy infantrywas
her
that among
arms.1
It was
a
happy omen,
too, for Athens
generalsfor the year was
Miltiades,who had proved his abilityas
ruler of Chersonese, and was
well acquaintedwith Persian warfare.
were
that the enemy
As soon
he and the other generalsheard
as
deand
moving againstAttica, they gathered their entire force,

68

War

with Persia

Carthage

and

a swift,
spatchedPhi-dip'pi-des,
long-distancerunner, to Sparta to
and fifty
miles distant,
ask help. He reached Sparta, a hundred
the day after starting.
of Lacedaemon," he said to the
Men
beseech you to hasten
to their aid,
authorities,the Athenians
"

"

and

be

that state which

allow

not

is the most

in all Greece

ancient

Eretria,look you, is already

by the barbarians.
carried away
captive,and Greece weakened
by the loss of no mean
l
city." The Lacedaemonians, though they wished to help the
Athenians, had to wait several days before settingout, as a law
to

enslaved

forbade

them

to

go

to

war

month

in any

before

the

full

moon.

(490 B.C.). After sackingEretria,

the Persians,under the guidance of the aged Hippias,2landed
at
the
led by the polemarch and
Marathon.
The Athenian
army,
It encamped above the plain,
ten generals,
went
them.
on
to meet
road
Athens.
The
to
nian
Athea
height which covered the principal
phalanxnow consisted of ten thousand men, and was reenforced
The
by a few soldiers from Plataea, a friendlycity of Boeotia.
Persians were
superiorin number, but we do not know how many
in
that even
they were.3 Their great advantage, however, was
with the Greeks they had never
their contests
lost a battle.
When
the Athenians
themselves outnumbered, and failed to receive
saw
the expectedhelp from
Sparta, they thought of returning home
without
behind the walls of the city.
a contest, to make
a defence
In the council of war
five generalsvoted
for retreat
and five for
battle.
It remained
for the polemarch to cast the decidingvote.
the
Thereupon Miltiades urged him to decide for battle,explaining
of a long
advantagesof an immediate contest and the hopelessness
resistance within the city. The polemarch was
convinced.
It was
agreed that Miltiades,the most experiencedgeneral,should have
197.

The

Battle of Marathon

"

the command.
He

waited

forcingtheir
1

Herodotus, vi.
Certain
to

600,000.

to about

of their

15,000.

began their advance

Athens.

knew

He

well

that

106.

writers who

rough calculation

knowledge

to

way

200,000
a

till the Persians

with

their

view

to

strength

"" 163, 168.

estimates, from
for
only basis even
2

lived centuries after the

None
is the

of these
number

figuresare
of

capacity. Estimates

event

give

various

trustworthy. The
the fleet,and
we

ships in
of

modern

writers

run

have
from

no

certain

60,000

down

Battle

of Marathon

169

lay in long-distance
fightingwith the bow, whereas that of the
phalanx was in a hand-to-hand
the
struggle.When, accordingly,
armies
within
bow-shot
of
each other,Miltiades oropposing
got
dered
the Athenians
to charge at
a
double-quick march, so as to
avoid

the

shower

of

bring their

own

fled to their

ships,and

and

arrows

strength to bear
as
speedilyas possible upon the
The
had
Persians, who
enemy.
defence againstthe spear-thrust,
no
The

won.

was

Miltiades.

victory
ciple
prindiscovery

great tactic

employed
of

the

the

was

The

Greeks

never

forgotit.
This

perhaps the most

battle yet fought in

historyof
Orient,it
the world
were

be

of the
powers
little difference to

made

gained the victory,

acter
nearly alike in char-

so

civilization.

said of the

But

The

same

ways
petty strife althe

among

Greek

Marathon, Europe
Asia, represented by Greece

states.

and

wars

great

going on
and

In the

the

which

and
may

the world.

the

among

they

portant
im-

was

at

Persia

into
came
respectively,
conflict ; and the questionat issue
whether
was
Europe should be
brought under the control of Asiatic

government
whether
It

was

and

Europe

Asiatic
was

to

ideas.1
have

well for the future

triumphed at

Marathon.

but their freedom

gave

In

Greek

of the

ARCHER

questionwas
Asiatic despotism.

other words, the

freedom

or

world, therefore,that the Greeks,

no
They were
and
them spirit,

*P.

PERSIAN

57, in.

i.

braver
their

than

the Persians

provided
intelligence

with Persia

War

170

and

Carthage

with

and training.The victory

superiorarms, organization,
in the greater conflict with
encouraged Greece to hope for success
and inspired
the Athenians
to come,
soon
Persia,which was
ever
afterward to brave danger in the forefront of Hellas.

them

II.

198. The
summit

Disgrace

of fame.

He

thought

who

had

sided

againstParos, and
promising to make them
intended

to

contribution

do.
of

He
a

rich,but

sailed with his

anything,he besiegedthem

wealth

king.

the

talents.

without

stood

now

present moment

and

with the

hundred

Miltiades

"

the

power

asked

PREPARATION

OF

of Miltiades.

the Athenian

buildingup
islanders

INTERVAL

AN

at

at

the

favorable

for

the expense

of the

So he

planned an expedition
for ships and men,
Athenians
not
them just what he
telling
fleet to Paros,and demanded
a
As

the Parians

refused

effect for

to pay

nearlya month, and

then returned wounded
to Athens, to disappointthe hopes of all.
found
in his failure an
His enemies
opportunity to assail him.
leader of the republicanparty,1prosecutedhim for
Xan-thip'pus,
having deceived the people. The penaltywould have been death :
of Miltiades' great services to the state, it was
but because
ened
lightHe died of his wound, and the fine
talents.
to a fine of fifty
was
paid by his son Cimon.
The repubDemocratic.
becomes
Government
more
licans
199. The
and even
gathered strengthfrom the victoryat Marathon
the
from the overthrow
of Miltiades.
successively
By ostracizing
the
most
prominent friends of Hippias,2they utterlydisorganized
they dealt the nobles a heavy blow
tyrant'sfaction. Meanwhile
by changing the mode of appointment to the nine archonships.
Before 487 B.C. the archons had been elected ; henceforth they were
cratic
The
to be appointed by lot.
change degraded these old aristoof inferior ability.From
offices by opening them
to men
of
nominal command
this time the polemarch ceased to have even
the army,
and the ten generalstook the placeof the nine archons
divided
the chief magistrates.On this issue the citizens were
as
into conservatives,
who were
opposed to changingthe government,
"

"

192.

"" 163, 168,

197.

The
the

and

democrats,who

Aristeides

200.

and

the state

Meanwhile
the

wished

the Athenian

to be

were

Building of

silver mines

it

171
liberal, These

more

political
partiesof the future.

had

been

which

; the

between

Ar-is-tei'desand

Lau'ri-um

at

the best way

to

Building of

derivingconsiderable

it owned

Attica.

democratic

make

to

Themistocles

disputeas

Navy

of

the
Themistocles,

income

in

usingthis

from

southeastern
revenue

arose

leaders of the

two

satisfied with the army

Aristeides,

party.

Navy.

which

had

Thence

he

the battle of Marathon,

won

evidently

was

willingthat the old

of dividing
custom
the
revenues

the

among

citizens

should

tinue.
con-

Themistocles,
the other

on

determined
should

hand,

that Athens

have

to
navy
from
the

protect her
Persian
It had

mind

attacks

by

long been

that Persia could

provision a
large enough to
Greece
reasoned

force

could

she

held

Athens, by usingher

outmatch

Greece.

Themistocles

ostracized.

was

and

the

same

the facts

We

to

the

Just,"and
same

politics.A

men
prove that these two
In genius Themistocles

tried to fasten

tocles
the friends of Themis-

with the

often meet

vilificationin modern

seems

"

while
oppositecharacter,

retorted in kind.

sea.

buildinga powerful
and in this
service,

silver for

the fleets in the Persian

Aristeides

the

of the

command

The friends of Aristeides called him

on

TRIREME

quer
con-

unless

that

save

way

sea.

in his

not

navy,

was

were

hero-worship

careful

study of

much

alike in

vastly superior.
After puttingdown
he carried his plan throughthe
the opposition,
which proved
assembly. The state built two hundred triremes,1
moral

of

character.

Vessels

the

with three banks

oarsmen

were

of

oars.

arranged in three

See

the

tiers,one

ancient
above

was

illustration. The
the

other.

Each

benches
tier

re-

the chief

be

to

with

War

172

and

Persians

of

means

Persia

winning

Carthage

great naval

the

making Athens

of

and

of

head

victoryover the
maritime
empire.

effects upon
Greece
far-reaching
the creation of an Athenian
by Themistocles
navy
of statesmanshipknown
to
grandestachievements
Measured

its

by

III. THE

by

the failure

Sardis, and
Greece.
than

ever.

after

now

was

than

more

little hesitation,
threw

fleet

been

one

of the

ancient

history.

troubled

more

the destruction

by

bent

ever

the

on

of

grander scale

Xerxes,

successor

The

be followed,but

to

was

of

conquest

soul into the work.

his whole

by Mardonius,
to be

was

was

Accordinglyhe began preparationson

his son
and
When
he died (485 B.C.),

route, undertaken

land

Darius

"

than he had

Marathon

at

the world,

EXPEDITION

for the Invasion.

Preparations

201.

THIRD

and

the

crush every

opposition
weight. Provisions were stored at convenient pointsalong
by mere
of the king were
the route, and the engineers
structing
busilyengaged in contory
the Hellespont. Rarely in hisa
bridgeof boats across
has a campaign been so carefully
prepared. In the springof
481 B.C. the nations of his empire were
pouring their armed forces
and

army

were

into Asia Minor, and

host

but

was,

it

with his
of the year found Xerxes
how large
We do not know
at Sardis.

did
certainly

the

troops.1 On

to

autumn

for the winter

encamped

his army

the

giganticas

so

sea

was

great fleet manned

Phoenicians,and

invasion

into

win

Egyptians. The
hoped to
great peril
; for Xerxes
Union

202..

Sardis,his
quired

an

about
Few

"battleship." In
and

we

hear

came

messengers

oar

rowers.

200

Loyal Greeks.

of the

of

to

yard longerthan

states

at

this time

had

later time, vessels with

some

with

fifteen and

"

by

the

one

Xerxes

it.

the trireme

On

soon

five and

of

six banks
The

in camp

was

demanding

triremes,but they

sixteen banks.

bring Greece

sheer force of numbers.

states

below

by Greeks,

to

was

While

the Greek

sand
thou-

three hundred

exceed

not

became
oars

latter must

became
have

at

earth
about

were

the normal
common,

been

cult
diffi-

to manage.
1

ments
a

total of

The
be

besides cavalry,reenforceAccording to Herodotus, it contained 1,700,000 infantry,

added along the march, and camp-followersmore
than fighters,
making
numerous

an

more

than

5,000,000.

Modern

estimates

range

from

300,000

down

to

50,000.

scholars to
of ships given by Herodotus, 1207, is also believed by modern
number
Greeks.
of
the
to that
exaggeration. There is no doubt, however, of its superiority

War

174
Greeks

the

and

and

Persia

with

Orientals

at

was

its

Carthage

height at Thermopylae

to battle ; on
side,the Persian officers scourged their men
other, the Spaitans voluntarilymet their death in obedience

one

"

law.
in

The

Lacedaemonians

body;

since

them

over

that master
from

is set law

as

; and

the three hundred

Lacedaemonians

to

fighting
things,

do whatever
They certainly
always bids them not flee in battle

he

of men,
lose their lives." 1

above

the

free in all

not

are

when

men

on

master.

multitude

any

tell the

though free,yet they

commands

victoryor
and

for

the best of all

are

their post, and

but

stay

The

dead

was

placed this

epitaph:

lie here

in obedience

that

we

at

buried

were

where
"

win

the

they fell,
Stranger,
to

their

laws."
Meanwhile

storm

off the

third of the Persian

Magnesian

This

navy.
the wavering admirals

at

Artemisium

sent
were

two
now

; and

hundred

ready

captured several
Fortunatelyfor
squadron
whole

shipsround
for battle.

After

that

learned
to

the

the Persians

had

off their retreat, they

cut

Greeks

had

destroyedor

Persian

vessels,night closed the engagement.

the Greeks, another
storm
wrecked
the hostile

in their rear, and

fleet of

of Greece

Euboea

destroyed a

loss to the enemy

couraged
ento maintain
their station

enormous

though they

had

coast

over

thus enabled

three hundred

them

to

their

concentrate

shipsagainstthe

enemy.
in full force

On

the

the two navies

followingday, accordingly,
put to sea
indecisive ; but the Greeks
againsteach other. The battle was
lost so heavilythat their admirals
had alreadyresolved to retreat
with news
of the defeat at Thermopylae.
when
a
came
messenger
It was
its position.
clear that the fleet could no longermaintain
now
of Xerxes
Xerxes
to Athens.
was
now
moving
204. The March
central
toward
all
Greece
Athens.
the
states west
through
Nearly
"

of Attica
The

submitted

and

sent

their

troops

reenforce

his army.

ures
Delphi,accordingto their own
account, hid the treasof Apollo in a cave
and prepared to resist the Persian corps
which had come
to pillage
their temple ; then some
god aided them
and hurlinggreat crags down -Mount
by bringinga thunderstorm
Parnassus
In this way,
the advancing enemy.
they said,
upon
Apollo defended his holy shrine.
men

of

to

Herodotus, vii. 104.

Battle
The

Greek

of

Salamis

175

fleet paused at Sal'a-mis to

help the Athenians remove

their families and property to placesof safety. This was
their last
bent on defendingonly Pelowere
resource, as the Peloponnesians
Indeed, the other admirals wished to hurry on to the
ponnese.
others

Themistocles

but

Isthmus;
felt

they

found

Themistocles

had

Athenians
the

could

would

and
go with his fleet,
afford to lose it. On enteringhis

not

it in

Some

despair.
the Delphic oracle

sent

and

dreadful

BAY

The

Athenian

reply,sayingthey would
not granted. Then
were
the

"

wooden
The

205.
"

wooden

wall
no,

the

was

would

was

determined

foretelling

come

and promised that

merciful,

grew

(480 B.C.).
"

the

about

thought that the

tocles
Acropolis
; but ThemisSome

nians
ships,and thus he induced the Atheand place all their hopes in the fleet.

the

the soul of resistance

suppliedcourage,

with respect to

them.

save

the fence

it meant

this the

photograph)

god

of Salamis

"

had

city

favorable
besought a more
messengers
in the shrine till their death if it
remain

quit their homes

Themistocles
mind

wall
Battle

said
to

"

answer

before

the

SALAMIS

OF

(From

ruin.

time

to consult

approachingwar,

utter

not

unity,and

that the battle

between

to Persia.

faith.
religious
Asia

foughtin the bay of Salamis.

First,he
eloquenceand argument to persuadethe

and

resourceful

His
He

was

Europe should

exhausted

the

resources

admirals that here

was

now

be
of

the

War

176

with Persia

and

Carthage

place for the fight; but when arguments and even

threats failed,
he secretly
advised the enemy
to block the Greeks
he conveyed to Xerxes by a trusty
up in the bay. This message
disunited and
slave,who was instructed to say that the Greeks were
vised
ready to flee,and that Themistocles,wishingwell to the king,adhim to cut off their retreat.
By followinghis advice Xerxes
compelledthe Greeks to fight. The three hundred and -seventymanned
nians,
eightGreek triremes,nearlyhalf of which were
by Athe-

most

favorable

had

face

to

much

greater fleet.

in the

But

narrow

strait

in number
was
a
superiority
disadvantage, closelycrowded
the enemy's shipswere
unable to manoeuvre,
and even
together,
wrecked
another by collision. Among the Athenian warriors
one
l
of
who givesa vivid and accurate
the poet Aes'chy-lus
account
was
the struggle.In this poem
he representsthe speakeras a Persian :
"

"

First their

[the Greek] right wing moved

the whole

Next

line its forward

in order

meet;

began,
all at once
And
heard a mighty shout,
we
of Hellenes,forward, free your
O sons
country ;
Free too your
wives, your children,and the shrines
Built to your
fathers' Gods, and holy tombs
the fight
ancestors
rest in.
Your
Now
now
course

"

"

Is for

our

Arose

in

And

all ! "

to wait

its

over

was

speech,
ship on ship

bronze-pointedbeak

Of Hellas

did the encounter

And

Phoenician

from

side indeed

our

on

din of Persian

answer

time

Dashed

And

; and

fierce

barque

begin,

vessel crashes

off

against his neighbor

Steers his own
ship : and first the mighty flood
Of Persian host held out.
the ships
But when
could they give
crowded
in the straits,
Were
nor
Help to each other, they with their mutual shocks,
With
beaks of bronze went
crushing each the other,
Her

carved

And

first a

prow.

Shiveringtheir

rowers'

each

Hellas,with manoeuvering
Charged circlinground them.

Floated

was,

And

all the shores

And

every

All that

could

capsized,nor

Filled,as it

with

ship was

composed

and

And

benches.

Of

wrecks

And

rocks

sea

and
were

wildlyrowed
the Persian
1

the hulls of
be seen,

carcasses

full of corpses,
in fight,

armament.

See " 240.

ships

unskilful,

not

the

the

ships

Plataea

Xerxes, who

viewed

and

Mvcale

the battle from

177

the brow

of

hill

the

near

shore,was disheartened by the overthrow of his fleet. He returned

to Asia, leaving the greater part of his force with
Mardonius.
fleet
dared
the
face
the Greeks, it still kept
no
longer
Although
communications

The

in Greece.

himself

between

therefore able

was

206.

open

Battles

The

had

Asia

Minor

and

the

winter
during the following

real crisis was

of Plataea

destroyedAthens

and
so

yet

Mycale

that when

to

their

The

"

the Athenians

vaders
in-

returned

OF

AMIS

Eng. Co., N. V.

citythey

the winter

maintain

(479 B.C.).

SAL

to

to

donius
Mar-

come.

MAP

Williams

army.1

have

found

Though they might during

with the enemy,
they remained

it in ruins.

made

good terms
loyalto Hellas,only urging that the Peloponnesianarmy should
be displayed
In the springof 479 B.C.
in Boeotia.
as soon
as possible
Mardonius
moved
from his winter quarters in Thessaly into central
of
their city. Some
Greece,and the Athenians again abandoned
the Peloponnesians
at home
were
busy working on the
; others were
fence.
Isthmian wall,behind which they still planned to make
thejr deinduced the.
With urging and threats the Athenians finally
1

After the battle Themistocles

destroythe bridge,and
The

move

would
N

have

thus cut
ended

advised
the

the Greeks

communication

the war,

to

sail instantlyto the Hellespont,

of Xerxes

but the other admirals

with his base of

considered

it too

supplies.
bold.

ephors of Sparta
of central

to

light-armedhelots.
joined him, and at
Persian

than

more

one

Pausanias

Pla-tae'a

on

between

the

thousand

followed

him.

Mardonius

The

Persians

would

level spot which

and

favorable

Plataea.

positionnear

movement

haste

retreat, made

the Greeks

overtook

decided

and

them

saw

little

Boeotia,

northeast

on
position

skirmish

of

the

height

with

the

placed himself

plainand

days, neither daring to open

cavalryhad damaged a springon

the

for the movements

successful

There

Plataea.

for water, Pausanias

encamped

took

the

at

retired to

giveroom

other twelve
Persian

Greek

thousand, the

thousand.1

estimates

Herodotus

Aristeides.

under

hundred

enemy

of

son

heavy-armed
forty thousand
heavy-armed
the allied troops from
There
Peloponnese
further reenforced
Eleusis he was
by eight

cavalry. The Greek commander

them; but, encouraged by a
down
to
horsemen, he came

Persian

for the young

fence
de-

perioeci,and

of their
above

militarystrengthin

five

Isthmus

the

three hundred

at

army

Carthage

Pau-sa'ni-as,
regent

to

Athenians

thousand

and

put forth their whole

Greece.

Leonidas, brought
Spartans, as many

and

with Persia

War

178

battle.

after

But

which

each

faced

armies

the
pended
de-

the Greeks

to retire in the

nightto a more
Mardonius, who thought this
attack.

to

face

the

When

about, they made

Persians
a

cade
barri-

long shields by fasteningthe lower ends in the ground,

behind this defence they poured their destructive arrows

of their
and

from

the

upon

The

Greeks.

had

critical moment

come

Pausanias

speed upon the foe. In

Marathon, the athletic soldiers
unskilful men
of Asia.
of Greece easily
the ill-armed,
overcame
In the summer
of the same
tempted
year, the Greek fleet was
the Aegean by the Samians, who wished
to revolt against
across
rushed
gave the word, and his men
the hand-to-hand
fighthere,as at

Persia.
says

on

About

the

same

Myc'a-le,and
Persians.

The

fear of Persian

the liberation
east

and

the

time

of

the

the crews
day,
gained a victoryover
"

battle

of Plataea

conquest ; that
from

Persian

at

full

battle

at

of the
a

Plataea,
Greek

"

Herodotus

vessels landed

greatlysuperiorforce

freed

continental

Greece

Probably

the forces

were

of the
from

Mycale pointedunmistakablyto
influence of the whole
Aegean region
at

north.
1

at

considerablysmaller

than

he states.

War
Greco-Carthaginian

IV.
The

207.

the

to

war

Condition

which

at
Sicily

the

attained

had

WAR

of

Sicily.

openingof

shall now

war.

The

turn

our

meanwhile

were

it is necessary

the

great wealth

We

Greeks

western

CARTHAGE

WITH

"

First,however,

Carthage.
of

the

THE

179

to

attention

waging with
the condition

glanceat

colonies established there

and

been
prosperity.All had once
aristocratic in government,
but had more
recentlyfallen under the
rule of tyrants. The ablest among
them
was
Gelon,ruler of Syracuse,
his
who made
city the largestand strongest in the island.
his authority. He
under
All southeastern
increased
Sicilycame
his power
still further by marrying the daughter of Theron, tyrant
of Acragas. While
the great cities of southern
thus
Sicilywere
unitingunder the rule of a singlefamily,a similar combination
the states of the north.
was
takingplace among
Rhegium, Mesunited by the intermarriage
of their ruling
were
sene, and Himera
families.
The

Then

came

tyrant of Himera

conflict between

a
2

was

driven

from

the
his

North

and

South.

city. Escaping to

the

him to his throne.

In
he begged them
to restore
Carthaginians,
this way
he played the part of a Htppias.
Battle
of Himera
208. The
(480 B.C.). The Phoenicians,who
had founded
industrial and trading
an
Carthage, were
originally
people,with little taste for war.3 But to defend their commercial
in the western
Mediterranean
begun on a
they had recently
position
largescale to hire troops from foreigncountries. With her great
aimed
of mercenaries
to win back the lands she
Carthage now
army
the time that
About
had been compelled to yieldto the Greeks.
Xerxes
was
crossingthe Hellespont,and probably in agreement
with him, Ham-il'car,
king of Carthage, landing with his army in
and defeated near
met
Him'e-ra.
He was
advanced
toward
Sicily,
Himera
by Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse,with the help of allies from
southern
Sicily.The story is told that all day long,as the battle
raged, the prophet-kingof Carthage 'stood apart from his host,
the angry
to appease
victims to the gods,and that at last,
offering
"

"

126.

This

"49-

was

father-in-law
Terillus,

of Anaxilas, tyrant of

Rhegium

and

Messene.

with

War

180

who

powers

seemed

livingsacrifice

into

Summary

of

209.
Persians

attempted
through

Mardonius

of the

wreck
second

the

to

War.

subdue

fleet and

(490).
built

threw

himself

of

conquest

by

the

defeat

met

the

at

Greeks

to

by

owing to^the
(3) The

was

natives.

landed

Aegean Sea, captured Eretria,and

army

led

the hands
for

hope

at

of the Athenians
in the

success

were
preparingfor another invasion,(4) the
(5) the Peloponnesian League was expanded

and

navy

Ionia, the

first expeditionwas

Its failure

his army

upon

encouraged

event

The

Macedon.

attacks
the

(2)

the

the Persians

While

war.

Greece.

the Persian

The

After

(i)

"

into

Thrace

There

Carthage

the flame.

expeditioncrossed

Marathon.

and

sidingwith the foe,he

be

to

Persia

nians
Atheinto

union

of all the loyalGreek

states.
(6) Xerxes in person led his great army
in the third expedition. (7) It annihilated
a Spartan force at Thermopylae

(480),and

(8)

destroyed Athens.

Persian

the

But

fleet suffered

an

whelming
over-

feated
followingyear (9) the Greeks dePlataea
and
Meanwhile
the Persians
at
at
Mycale. (10)
decisively
at Himera
a
(480).
Carthaginian army which invaded Sicilywas overthrown
Immediate
and
of
the
The
Results
the
210.
Larger Significance
Victory.
led to a treaty between
the western
Greeks
(i) The victory at Himera
retain
their
former
and
which
both
to
to
were
Carthage, according
parties
the war
with Persia for some
possessions. (2) Greece continued
years, for
of liberatingthose Hellenes
had
the purpose
who
been
subject to Persia.
effort and
intelligence,created a
(3) The victory,gained by individual
spirit,which in the following years we find active in
stronger democratic
defeat

Salamis

at

; and

in the

"

both

and

East

remained

Sparta

of the West.

The

(4)

West.
for

time

war

the

(5) Finally,the

did

much

of Hellas

the states
l

of the East

centre
political

victorious

unite

to

Greeks, filled with

and

Syracuse
and

energy

fidence
con-

their great age in

entered
unexpected success, now
upon
and
literature,
politics.
art,
Persian
would
certainlyhave checked
domination, had it been possible,
the growth of Greek
civilization in Europe, just as it did in Asia Minor.
be idle to
for centuries a part of Asia.
It would
Europe might have become
the
what
have
but
at
on
victory
might
been;
certainly
speculate
length
left
the
saved
misfortune.
It
the possibility
of such a
Europe from even
continent
free to advance
for it by Greek
out
genius.
along the lines marked

by

these

From
the

most

their

considerations

important

events

it is clear that
in the world's

the

Greco-Persian

war

was

one

of

history.

Suggestive Questions
i.

which

Beginning
led to

guiding
1

the

the

far back
conflict

Persians

Till 461 B.C., when

in the Persian
with

Greece.

2.

in their invasion
the

leadershipcame

career

the events
of conquest, trace
what
Hippias
object was

With

of Attica?
to

be divided

Find
between

the
Athens

answer

and

in the

Sparta.

XVII

CHAPTER

DELIAN

THE

CONFEDERACY

AND

479-461

Fortification

211.

As

all

as

soon

sacrificed

had

began

more

misfortune,

their

be

would

walls

The

join

to

the

the

Lacedaemon

to

only Peloponnese

of the

out

way

ambassadors

Before

setting out,

worked
material

to

he

could

It

suggestion.

tearing

if

Greece

in

The

all

of

policy

of

and

to

submit

not

condition

no

all.
sent

walls

would

were

for

city and

convenient,

Athenians

they

the

Corinth.

of

sion,
inva-

They

in

appointed

embraced

Athenians

his

building

easily find.

contain
a

to

face

provided

the

of

area

182

build

the

and

whole

remnants

and

had

two

issue.

at

with

the wall

population

walls, using

Some

than

him

question

to

advice,

gravestones
wider

the

discuss

to

the

directed

most

still extant,

buildings.

refuge

Athenians

Sparta

the

restlessly on
they

sufficient

Themistocles

Following

speed.

utmost

another

resourceful

the

advice,

others

the

the

army,

Athenian

stop fortifying their

the
As

the

ing
build-

difficulty.

his

Following

but

the

on

down

in

through

to

rule

to

cause

them

that

that

Persians

the

on

Isthmus

unjust.

so

Peloponnesian

the

evidently

was

arrangement

an

readily

of

the

afford

rather

north

communities

protect

would

Lacedaemonians

was

to

Athenians

the

advised

who

urged

protection

acted

ephors

It

with

asked

They

in the

doubtless

states,

Sparta,

Athenians

its walls.

together

and

stopped.
a

city and

sympathizing

Greek
to

the

over,

Greeks

of

the

Peloponnese

Spartan

envoys

merely

that

and

be

defences

of the

of

of Athens

jealousy, complained

other

was

their

instead

But

(479, 476 B.C.).

Peiraeus

Persians

all the

some

of

rebuild

to

than

freedom.

Hellenic

of

and

home

returned

the

from

danger

EMPIRE

B.C.

and

Athens

of

ATHENIAN

THE

whatever

fication,
forti-

of the

fragments
formerly

of

earlier

been

en-

Themistocles

'83

closed,the objectbeingto give the cityroom

for expansion. Though
hastilyconstructed,the wall proved strong enough for
every
emergency.
Meanwhile

day
a

Themistocles

he invented

report

excuses

for

delayingthe

REMNANT

OF

(From

find out

but

the

THE
a

WALL

at

last he

OF

on

send

hand.

on

the

after
When

fortifications

envoys

to

Athens

ATHENS

photograph)

the truth for themselves.

When

Sparta. Day

business

at work

were

advised
Athenians, secretly

envoys.

to do at

it,and urged the ephorsto

to

work

that the Athenians

came

stoutlydenied

he

had

heard

They

did

as

he

suggested;

by Themistocles,detained
that

the work

was

the

finished,he
that Sparta

fortifiedand
ephorsthat Athens was now
must
treat her as an
equal. It was a bold game well played. The
ephors repliedthat their proposalto Athens had been intended
of the matter
was
advice.
The outcome
that,
merely as friendly
tocles,
although the Spartans were
thoroughlyindignant with Themisinformed

the

the alliance between

As

soon

as

the

the two
had

Athenians
1

states

remained

finished

" 216 f.

intact.1

rebuildingtheir city,

184

The

Delian

Themistocles
massive

began

wall

followed

seven

the

the Athenian

Confederacyand
to

Peiraeus.
fortify

miles in circuit.

windings of

the

On

shore.

He

Empire
it with

surrounded

the side toward

There

the

three

were

it

sea

natural

in his archonshipmany
harbors,which Themistocles
years earlier
had brought into use.1
in fact the founder of Peiraeus.
He was
It
famous
for industryand trade.
In its markets
became
all
soon
the known
bought and sold. For ages
productsof the world were
it remained
of the most
commercial
cities of the
one
flourishing

Mediterranean.
The

212.

While

Naval

Leadership

the Athenians

were

events
port, interesting

were

the battles

and

Pausanias

of Plataea
to

command

passes

become

Athens.

to

their cityand
rebuildingand fortifying
happening elsewhere. The year after
sent
out
Mycale the Lacedaemonians
He

for the

war

laid

siegeto Byzantium, which

(478 B.C.); but while engaged in

still occupiedby the enemy

work
he offered to betray Greece

might

Sparta

the fleet of the allies in their

liberation of the colonies.

that he

from

into Persian

hands

tyrant of his country and

on

was

this

condition
of the

son-in-law

cruel and
he was
king. Meantime
arrogant to those under his
authority. The Asiatic Greeks who had joined the expedition,
Aristeides
resentingsuch treatment, begged the Athenian generals,
and Cimon,2 to take chargeof the fleet. The gentleness
and courtesy
of the commanders
from
contrasted
Athens
with the
strikingly
brutality of Pausanias.
They accepted the invitation. The
recalled Pausanias
the chargesagainst
Lacedaemonians
to answer
afterward
him, and soon
yieldedthe leadershipat sea to Athens.
They saw no advantage to themselves in continuingthe war with
of their prestige
Persia,and believed that they would lose none
by
this arrangement, for Athens was
still their ally. The Athenians,
the other hand, gladlyaccepted the burden
of the war
with
on
of their great navy
to gain both
Persia,for they hoped by means
wealth and political
power.
Confederacy (477 B.C.). The
213- Organization of the Delian
allies whom
thus acquiredincluded
Athens
from the first nearly
all the Ionian and Aeolian colonies of the Aegean islands and eastern
Greek
cities on
the Hellespont,those of Chalcidice,
coast,8many
"

"

IQ2.

" IQS.

"

92

f.

Confederacyof
and

few in Thrace.

equip and man

majoritywere
best but

one

as

Naxos, Thasos, Samos,

and

pointof view importantstates,able to

thirtytriremes each, whereas the great
to equipindividually
a single
trireme,or at

about
small

too

These

two.

or

them,

185

the Greek

from

Chios,were

of

Some

Delos

wide

differences in their financial and

added to the love of the towns

for complete
militarycapacities,
independence,made it exceedinglydifficult for them to form a selfgoverning union on the basis of perfectequality. Such a union,
however, Athens now
attempted to organize. Each state had an

equal voice. The council

whether of peace
interest,

objectof

The

allies from

of

or

It centred
named

was

all matters

on

of

common

war.

of
the protection
chiefly

confederacywas

Persia.

De'los,and

of

the

deliberated

at

the shrine of Apollo on

therefore

the

the island

the Delian

Confederacy. Its
the Peloponnesian
League.1
led by Athenian generals,

patternedafter that of
The allies were
to furnish shipsand crews
to meet
at
and a congress of deputiesfrom all the allied states was
Athens.
from
In
Delos
under
the presidencyof representatives
important respects the Confederacy of Delos differed from the
PeloponnesianLeague. It was necessary to maintain a largefleet
no
in the Aegean Sea as a defence againstthe Persians,whereas
for the protectionof Peloponnese.
needed
standing force was
Money is absolutelynecessary for the support of a fleet ; hence
the Delian
Confederacy,unlike the PeloponnesianLeague, levied
organizationwas

annual

Aristeides,who

taxes.

first assessment, decided

crews, and

which

generallyprovided naval
The

total annual

the

assessment

The

The

of the

to

never

let hot

"

make

shipswith

the
their

ties
largercommuni-

paid taxes.
Confederacy amounted, by
the smaller

of

and

Apollo,was

sixty talents.2

managed by

were

145.

As

secede.

piecesof
*

to

Athenians.
exclusively
tives
to be perpetual. Aristeides and the representawas
terms
league exchanged oaths to abide by the original

who

union

The

money.
forces,while

treasury,in the temple of the Delian

treasurers

and

states should furnish

maintainingthe
Aristeides,to four hundred

cost

of

commissioned

contribute

should

which

was

part of the oath-takingceremony

they

iron sink into the sea, with the idea that the agree2

The

value

of the talent

was

littleless thau $1200.

bindingtillthe

should be

ment

Confederacyand

Delian

The

86

the Athenian

metal

of its

rose

own

Empire
accord

to the

surface.
The

214.

of the

Growth

Confederacy.

"

With

Cimon

as

Delian

Confederacy rapidlyexpanded. He annexed

islands in the north Aegean, and dislodgedthe

the

the Thracian

from

and

coast

the whole

from

leader
the

maining
re-

Persians

country about

the

Hellespontand Propontis,includingByzantium. Then he turned

his attention to the southeastern Aegean. In 468 B.C., at the mouth
the coast
of Asia Minor, Cimon
of the Eu-rym'e-donon
gaineda
fleet and a land force of Persians.
double victoryover
a Phoenician
of his life. The booty was
the most
brilliant success
It was
mous,
enorand
the glory of Athens
was
greatlyheightened. As a
into the
result of this battle,the Carian and Lycian coasts came
of cities up to about
confederacy of Delos, bringingthe number
The Persians were
hundred.
two
dislodgedfrom the whole Aegean
region,and there was little apparent danger from them for the
present.
The

215.

Empire.

of Allies and

Revolts

this very

But

"

mischievous.
offered to

Many
taxes

pay

of

less expense

could

they

themselves,and

no

grew

tired

longer see

ceased

had

as

could

advised
build

and

the Athenians

to

equip triremes

at

the separate allied towns, and hence could fulfil

ing
to the laborto protect the Aegean Sea, give work

class among
But
some

they

Cimon

than

their agreement

use.

Beginning of the Athenian

of security
feeling
proved to be extremely
the allies,
findingmilitaryservice irksome,

instead.

accept these payments,

the

to

have

even

the need

money

left for their

own

paying the tribute.

of a confederacysince

of

public
Indeed,
the Persians

trouble them.

Eurymedon, Nax'os took the lead in

revolting.It had a strong navy and expected aid from Persia;
but Cimon
besieged the island and reduced it before help could
their walls,
Naxians
arrive. The
were
compelled to tear down
tribute. Thus
and pay henceforth an annual
surrender their fleet,
and became
lost its freedom
Naxos
dependent on Athens (469 B.C.).
the Confederacy was
A dependent state within
one
(i) which
Even

into relations of any kind with other states except

permissionof Athens, and (2) which had to accept a constitu-

could

by

before the battle of

not

enter

From
tion dictated

always

was

Next

by

Athens.
or

more

Confederacyto Empire
The

of government

thus

imposed

less democratic.

Tha'sos,the

the revolt of

came

form

187

between

the Athenians

Thrace,

in which

and

both

the Thasians

had

strongest of the allies ; it had

of which

cause

certain

over

interest.

an

was

Thasos

quarrel

gold mines

was

of

one

of
the

fleet of

thirty-three
shipsand valuable
After a siegeof two
in Thrace.
reduced
possessions
years, Cimon
it
he
had
and
Naxos
the island,
punished justas
(463B.C.).
a

in what way
to consider
It is necessary
now
violated the original
treaty of alliance. The
service

to

payments, brought about

money

legal. And
perfectly

was

to bear

states

it

the

was

their share

by

these

change

from

mutual

agreement,

of Athens

duty

of the burden.

transactions

luctant
compel re-

to

The

naval

firstviolation

by the states which revolted.

Here,
in compellingthe seceding
states to return
too, Athens acted legally
her right,however,in deprivto their allegiance.She exceeded
ing
them
of their autonomy.
pendent
Although still allies in law, the deformed
in fact an Athenian
states
empire. As conditions
then were, only two lines of policywere
: she could
open to Athens
either allow the Confederacy to dissolve or she would
be compelled
it into an empire. The latter policywas
in every way
to convert
and she readilyadopted it. Gradually the states
to her interest,
the entire confederacy
in the Age of Pericles,
were
till,
subjected,
became
an
empire.1 The great majorityof citizens in all the allied
cities were
pleasedwith the change,as it gave them control of their
of the

committed

treaty was

local governments.
sentiment

Athens

upon
216.
-

of the
as

But

Political Parties

The

Spartans

of

general,who
tyrant city.

Greeks
a

the coercion

were

in

at Athens

accustomed

therefore

began
with

their Relations

and

control

to

in their politics.
They always took
interfering
conservative
party.2 In the case of Athens they had
with
to the

urged
prominent

Themistocles

buildingof
Cimon
men

!Cf.

ever

the walls.3

forward

as

joinedCimon
"222.

since he had
In

outwitted

to
opposition

2Cf.

"145.

Sparta.

him

sides with
been

pleased
dis-

them

in

they

fore
there-

leader of the conservatives.

againstThemistocles.

look

to

affairs of their

the

allies by
the

the

offended

free state

gard
re-

Several

Representing
3"2II.

88

their

The

Delian

Confederacyand

great opponent

ostracized

the Athenian

Empire

dangerous to the state, they had

died an
exile in
and he finally
B.C.),

as

(about 472

him
Asia

Minor.
For

few

of Themistocles
the Lacedaemonians
years after the banishment
the battle of
remained
But when
friendlyto Athens.

tinually
Eurymedon had been won, and they saw the victorious cityconadding to her possessionsand power, fear and jealousy
them
turned
againsther. By promising to invade Attica they
secretlyencouraged the Thasians to hold out against Athens.
This agreement, however, they were
prevented from fulfilling
by
which nearlydestroyedSparta. Only a few
a terrible earthquake,
of lives were
and thousands
left standing,
lost. To add
houses were
and in the generalconfusion
to the misfortune,the helots revolted,
caused by earthquakeand superstition
they nearlycapturedSparta
of the perioeciremained
loyal,and the
by surprise.But most
saved by the promptness of King Ar-chi-da'mus.
shattered citywas
The insurgents,
who were
mostly Messenians, seized and fortified,
in their own
Ithome,1 one of the strongest military
country, Mount
could accompositionsin Peloponnese. As the Lacedaemonians
lish nothing againstthem
single-handed,
they asked help of their
the envoys reached Athens,
When
allies,
includingthe Athenians.

hot debate

banishment

ensued
of

as

to

whether

Themistocles,the

aid should
democratic

be

sent.

After

the

party, believingthat

Sparta was a dead weight attached to Athens, continued to uphold

his policyof cuttingloose from Peloponnese. Its leader was
now
Themistocles'
a
friend,Eph-i-al'tes,
good citizen and an upright
ance
He vehemently opposed the resolution to send assiststatesman.
the pride and
advised
that
to the Lacedaemonians, and
under."
of Sparta be trodden
Cimon, who was present,
arrogance
he
with Ephialtes,
of the oppositeopinion. In the debate
was
Athens
to
or
not to suffer Greece to be lamed
urged the Athenians.
be deprived of her yoke-mate," meaning that the alliance between
his conthese two states should be preservedat every cost.
It was
viction
that the strengthof Hellas should be united in continual
war
againstPersia. The assembly adopted his proposal,and sent
him with an army
againstIthome.
"

"

"" 78, 141.

The

go

Delian

Suggestive

Had

i.

her

relations

naval
in

with

detail

the
have

force?

in

Delian

the

Naxos,

the

to

3.

the

between
of

rebellious
Athens

the

in

Chios,

I.

ch.
ii.

The

History,
xxiii;

of

Founding

Bury,

ch.

vii.

II.

Aristeides.

9.

Byzantium,

and

History

Delian

of Greece,

Aristotle,

chs.

which

events

had

part
the

solved?
dis-

together

the

What

Describe

What

by
led

Aristeides

location

of

in

Peiraeus,

River.

Eurymedon

Topics

Confederacy.

(Thucydides)

148-151

"

the

7.
8.

Sparta.

5.
been

Confederacy

Trace

the

Compare

4.

Confederacy

the

been

Athens

to

League.

the

holding

Note-book

Greek

had

states?
and

yield

to

have

confederacy?

Peloponnesian

states,

Confederacy?

Samos,

is

the

allied

probably

wish

really

What

with

justified

Athens

Was

organization

Delos,

so,

Empire

would

what

Sparta

why?

Confederacy

subjecting

rupture

Did

2.

happened
6.

the

If

Athenian

Questions

unfortified,

Sparta?

leadership?

would

to

remained

Athens

the

and

Confederacy

ch.

viii.

xxiii,

"

Aristotle,
""

xxiv;

i,

2;

Fling,

Source

Constitution

Holm,

Plutarch,

Book

of
History

Aristeides.

Athens,

of Greece,

of

CHAPTER

AGE

THE

I.

218.

Wars

B.C.).
statesman

and

the

to

All

powerful

the

time

was

Under

his

with

with
loose

Sparta,

carried

now

down

to

the

family
the

through

had

Athens
for

political

which
in

had

and

trade

neighbors,
victorious

Aegina

became

these
over

and
1

by

laid

mother

he

the

herself

soon

ward
after-

of

breaking

been

cated
advo-

Ephialtes,
unity,

far

so

PERICLES

was

the
two

their

rival

the

It
the

artist

to

the

by land

city.

; British

Corinth

and

But

war.

and
After

sea.

by

the

191

tury,
cen-

Museum)

cramped
of their

some

Athenians

They
long

felt

resistance
"

were

invaded

then

" 198.

fifth

rivalry, however,

Supported

Peiraeus.

enemies

of the

Sparta

Aegina

declared

states

B.C.

commercial

was

peace.

rise of

siege

of

Cresilas,

after

(Copied

as

and

broken;

was

supremacy.

first disturbed

their

his

be

allied

policy

which

attained,

openly

political

state.

deserted

and

Hellenic

out.

been

of

Cretan

it

leading

this

shall

we

and

The

Themistocles

by

the

Xanthippus,1

and

war,

in

Athens

Thessaly,

Megara.

from

and
any

League,

and

Argos

of

became

character.

guidance

Peloponnesian

Pericles

son

(461-456

Boeotians

Alcmeonidae.

activities

public

his

the

as

the

lawgiver, and

Athens

noble

study

to

the

Eupatrids,2
as

his

Through
able

of

been

Pericles

Persian

of

and

the

B.C.

PERICLES

OF

Cimon,

was

the

gens

statesmen

had

He

city.
of

of

Cleisthenes

to

461-431

Peloponnesians

ostracism

general

related

was

his

PERICLES

IMPERIALISM

the

the

of

leader

THE

with

After

"

OF

XVIII

149-

Aegina

The

92

surrendered,dismantled
a

Age of Pericles

her

walls,and

entered

subjectstate.
In this struggle
Sparta

gave her allies

strong rival of Athens

the

confederacyas

help. She preferred

in
Boeotia.
create
to
a
Disgraced
by submission to Xerxes, Thebes had lost control of Boeotia, and
her leadership1
had dissolved.
the league of cities under
Sparta
into
Boeotia
to
sent a strong Peloponnesianarmy
restore the
now
at its head, as
a
league, with Thebes
counterpoiseto Athens.
marched
forth,and engaged the PeloponThereupon the Athenians
nesians
nians
at Tan'a-gra (457 B.C.). In a bloody strugglethe AtheSo far as we
worsted.
were
know, this was the first battle
Athens
and Sparta.
fought between
The
returned
Peloponnesiansnow
home, leavingthe Boeotians
in the lurch.

the Boeotians

defeated

Cyprus.
the towns

of

Locris.

and

About

the
were

Peloponnese,but
entrance

it is clear that

the

sudden

driven

from

the

he

compelled them

Athens

came

near

losingEuboea.

lost control

of Pericles saved
"

intended

to

Gulf.

unite

established

of Boeotia

time

the

the

mopylae,
Ther-

not

Corinthian

(447 B.C.). The

same

Their

power.
Isthmus
to

only Argos and Achaea

Nau-pac'tus,an important station controlling

to the

towns

Athens.

their

to

these

From

the

on

events

Hellenic

as

many
of Athens.
the military
leadership

end

Athenians,and

included

federation which

But
to

also

from

selves.
them-

to

alliance with

an

height of

extended

Pericles

under
possible

as

made

the

at

now

furthermore

and

governments favorable

time Achaea

same

Federation2

the

Athens
oligarchswhom
returned
in force,defeated
leave

the

league is sometimes

states

peninsulacame

country.

About

of

had
the
the

Locris,Phocis,and Megara, and

Only the militaryenergy and the diplomacy

empire at

this crisis.

120.

This

and

victoryAthens

democratic

set up

Athenians

Continental

in

the field and

brought into her alliance all

Boeotia except Thebes
; also Phocis, alreadyfriendly,
The Athenians
from the Boeotian
expelledthe oligarchs

towns, and
The

took

Oe-noph'y-ta(4566.0.).
Federation
(456-447 B.C.); Egypt

this

Through

"

later the Athenians

at

Continental

The

219.

months

Two

direct

no

described less accuratelyas

"Land

Empire."

Athenian
failure

The

which

was

in fact due

overtaxed

Reverses

193

the

ambition of Pericles,
imperialistic
strength of his country. Egypt had

the

to

againstPersia,and Pericles considered the moment

portune
opfor striking
at the national enemy
a blow
and for gaining
influence over
the rich valleyof the Nile.
Two
dred
huna political
triremes were
and fifty
sent to the help of the Egyptians but
;
a
nd
of
the
few
returned
all were
to Athens.
crews
ever
destroyed,
revolted

Even
on

Persia.

Cimon,
the

Cyprus

recalled

triremes
on

did not

this terrible misfortune

to

from

further attacks

revolted
time

some

against the king; and in

before from exile,
sailed with

aid in the liberation of that island.

expedition
;

nician armament,

deter him

and

the

though

his fleet

project came

to

But

two

The

dred
hun-

he died

destroyeda strong

naught.

B.C.

449

Phoe-

disaster

in

the
exhausted
so
Egypt, followed by this unsuccessful enterprise,
that she had to adopt a more
friendlypolicy
strength of Athens
her neighbors. She abandoned
her federation on the contoward
tinent
for peace
without
a
struggle,and she opened negotiations
with Sparta.
with near
The
220.
neighbors
During these wars
Long Walls.
While
enemies.
Athens
was
exposed to attacks from her many
been
not have
it would
of her forces were
absent on service,
'most
"

The

194
difficult for

Age of Pericles

hostile army

to

in

and

Attica

invade

few

days'

Pericles guarded against

siegeto starve the cityinto surrender.
this possibility
by buildingtwo long walls from Athens to Peiraeus,
about four
from the cityto the port
to have a fortified way
so
as
and a half miles distant.
They ran parallelto each other, and
them
road.
In time
far enough apart to enclose between
a broad
could easilybe defended
of danger these
Long Walls
by a few
veyance
guards,and thus could be maintained a safe passage for the conof troops from the port to
of supplies
and for the march
the sea,
the city. Henceforth
so
long as her navy commanded
Athens
from siege.1
secure
was
The
221.
Thirty Years' Truce (445B.C.);Peace with Persia."
the two
for Thirty Years
made
between
In 445 B.C.
Truce
a
was
Each
the rightto trade freely
hostile powers.
to have
party was
"

"

"

of the other

ports and markets

in the
Athens

gave

up

"

"

clause.
open door
allies except Plataea and Nau-

all her continental

the

"

Neither party was

to interfere with the allies of the other,
alliances with strangers could be made
at pleasure. Athens

pactus.
but

suffered

by

most

the treaty, as

Peloponnese,but also lost

Isthmus.
She gained,on
her maritime
the

About
Athens
each

and

The

B.C.).
"

Athens

In

not

was

excluded

only

of the Corinthian

the other

hand,

an

Gulf

and

from
the

acknowledgment

of

supremacy.
time
same

established
relations were
between
friendly
with
at peace
Persia,and thereafter they remained

other for many

222.

control

she

Change

years.
from

Confederacy

the

precedingchapter we
graduallyreduced to the
confederacyto empire was

to

Empire

have

seen

Completed
how

the

(454

allies of

subjects.2The
change from
completedby the transfer
of the treasury from Delos to Athens, probably in 454 B.C.
Only
the Lesbians,Chians, and Samians, as free and equalallies,
retained
whatever forms of government they desired.
time afterward
Some
Samos
revolted
and was
reduced to subjection.The
dependent
which
make
treaties
with
Athens
states were
new
requiredto
they
by
and to send their imagreed to adopt democratic
constitutions,
1

The

were

earlierview that there

recentlybeen

abandoned

was

by scholars.

condition

third wall extending from

of

Athens
2

"

to

215.

Phalerum

has

The

196

of five hundred
smaller courts,1

panels,or
tie.

received
the

one

each.

As

cases

to prevent
was
by a majorityvote, the odd number
the archons
were
Originally
judges and the courts simply
appealsfrom their decisions;but in the time of Pericles

had

archons

come

the

presentationto
trial,with
the

and

decided

were
a

Age of Pericles

no

power

be

to

and

courts

to

clerks,who

mere

prepared
them

presidedover

influence the
without

decision.
As

In

cases

through
other

for
the

words,

clined,
delargejury
judge.
the jurorsgainedin importance. Their largenumber
made
and
intimidation
difficult. Every person
involved in a
bribery
trial as plaintiff
defendant
had to plead his own
There
or
case.
writers of speechesfor such occasions,
to be professional
came
but
real lawyers.2 The Athenians
considered these popular cou^te
no
a
citizens from
protectionof the libertyof the common
necessary
the oppressionof the nobles and the wealthy. They served this
court

was

the

archons

well.

purpose

resided chieflyin these courts.

Once
a
legislative
power
jurorsmet and received from the
year, a specialbody of sworn
assembly proposalsfor new laws,and after hearingthem discussed,
them
decided upon
These legislative
by a majority vote.
jurors
called
law-makers
thus made
were
(No-mo th'e-tae).Laws
from the decrees passed by the Council
of Five
were
distinguished
of the current
Hundred
and the assembly in their management
The

"

"

business of government.3
The introduction of a fee enabled

the poorest citizen

to

attend

jury service. The pay was that of an unskilled day laborer. If

frugallymanaged, it would buy food for a small family. The
soldiers in their younger
days, and
or
jurorshad been oarsmen
drawing their
part too old to work, they were
now, for the most
fee as a kind of pension,for which, however, they were
quired
rejuror's
to sit on the benches judging from earlymorning till late at
night. Payment for public duties alone made equalitypossible;
to

Di-cas-te'ri-a,
pluralof dicasterium.
was
always odd.

Some

panels were

larger,others smaller,but

the number
2
3

"326.
The

laws

psephisma.

were

nom'oi, plural of

nomos

decrees

were

plural of
pse-phis'ma-ta,

Government
it

permittedthe

poor, equallywith
the benefits of government.

and

The

224.

above

Assembly.

eighteenyears

attend.

There

tenth of

were

The

"

the

I9y

rich,to

assemblywas

share in the duties

composed

of age who
had the leisure and
four regularmeetings in

of all citizens

inclination to

every prytany,

or

sessions as were
extraordinary
year, with as many
thought
One
of
each
meeting
necessary.
prytany was
occupied with examining
the conduct
of magistrates
and
;
any one of them who
a

was

thought guiltyof mismanagement

could

be

to

deposed and brought

trial before
All
a
popular court.
measures
fore
brought bethe assembly had
to be previously
considered by the Council

of

Five

but

Hundred,
had

pleasure. They

the

citizens could

master

no

offer amendments

they acknowledged no

at

authority

but the laws which

There was
they and their fathers had made.
no
ofHce than that of the citizen who attended
higheror more
dignified
the assembly and law courts ; he was
at once
a legislator,
a judge,
and an
executive
officer. This positionof honor and trust made
him
The
Athenian
citizen was
called upon,
public-spirited.
as
was

other in the ancient

no

of the state.

In the

in law
but

select few

The

225.

all of annual
elected

were

by

lot.

and

world,to

find his

largerinterests

in those

ucation
assembly and in the courts he received an edin statesmanshipsuch as has been granted to

in other

states, whether
There

ancient

or

modern.
hundred

offices,
A few of the more
duration.
importantmagistrates
by the people in their assembly,the rest were appointed
Magistrates.

"

were

fourteen

The

often as they pleased,

as
people could reelect a man
but the places filled by lot could not be repeated.1
the
in this century were
By far the most importantmagistrates
ministers of war,
the army, and were
generals. They commanded
of the navy, of finance,and of foreignaffairs. They had to be in
communication
constant
with the assembly. For this purpose the
giftof speakingwas necessary, and that generalwho was at the same
time an
orator
was
naturallyleader of the board. Through this
which
office Pericles ruled Athens
and her empire with an authority
surpassed that of kings and tyrants. His power was founded on
1

An

which

in favor of the Council of Five Hundred, the members

made
exception was
twice,though not in consecutive years.
serve

could

of

Age of Pericles

The

"

able to control the multitude in a

and integrity. He was
ability
rather than was
led by them ; for,not seekfree spirit
ing
; he led them
by dishonest arts, he had no need to say pleasantthings,
power
but on the strength
of his own
high character could venture to oppose
he saw
them
and even
When
to anger them.
unseasonablyelated
and arrogant, his words
and awed
them ; and when
humbled
they
were
depressedby groundlessfears,he sought to reanimate their
confidence.
Thus
Athens, though still in name
a
democracy,
in
her
ruled
citizen."
fact
was
by
greatest
l

SOCIETY

III.
226.

The

Population : Slaves.

of Attica

and

far advanced

however

Age

About

of Pericles the lation

popuslaves
150,000 were

aliens,leavingabout

children.

and

includingwomen

In the

"

350,000.

resident

were

40,000

about

was

EDUCATION

AND

Athens

These

facts

160,000 citizens,

show

at

that

once

beyond Egypt, her people had

The slaves
not yet adopted the idea of equalityfor all mankind.
differed from the freemen,not in color,but simply in nationality.
bora in the country, but most
of them
Some
were
were
imported
the parts of Europe northeast of Greece, from
from
Asia Minor,
distant lands.
As a rule captivesin war
were
duced
reSyria,and more
traders could find none
and when
of this class to
to slavery,
nian
buy up, they often resorted to kidnapping. Every well-to-do Athehad one
more
or
slaves,and we hear of a certain wealthy man
who

owned

house

and

of the
in
field,
Some

oarsmen.

as

The

by

country.
were

overseers

enough educated
few wealthy persons
the

their labor,had

the cultivation

making

life more

that the slaves

anywhere

let out

who

owned
and

means

and

Athens

else in the

were

historyof
1

of work

their master's

slaves,and

in the

business.
were

leisure to devote

the taste, and

and
comfortable,refined,
at

for hire in the

workshops. On shipsthey served

in chargeof other slaves ; a few

to manage

of the mind

to work

Slaves did all kinds

and

the mines

well

were

he

thousand, whom

silver mines

was

treated

Thucydides, ii.65

"

better

Yet,

themselves

devisingways

beautiful.

well

the world.

to

supported
to

of

It is true,too,

perhaps than

after all has been

Society

199

slavery,it must be admitted that the institution

is cruel and inhuman.
of the more
Appreciatingthis fact,some
enlightenedGreeks demanded, but in vain, its abolition.
said in favor of

Resident

227.

resident

Foreigners.

aliens.

Some

of the class

most

themselves

were

by

B.C.)requiredthe
but

those who

had

Above

from

Asia

from

other

Greek

state

admit

to

more

grew

done

the slaves in rank

were

manufacture

the Athenians

as

"

and

Minor

and

They

states.

trade.

the

law

the

were

Orient,but
to enrich

came

of Solon

(594
all such persons to the citizenship
;
exclusive,
they acceptednone but

great service in behalf of the state, and

some

only by specialvote of the assembly. Thereafter an alien

in Attica without
familymight reside many generations
acquiring
In this respect Athens
far different
a rightto the citizenship.
was
The- aliens paid a tax for the privilege
from
modern
of
state.
a
residingin the country, and a heavier war tax than that imposed
the citizens.
They were
requiredto serve in the army when
upon
the state was
in danger of invasion.
on
a
All, however, were
social level with
the Athenians
accordingto their personalfitness.
and their boys enjoyed the
festivals,
They shared in the religious
then

education.

same

in

Athens,

in

Peiraeus.

lived

Some

but

The

them

of

most

commercial

due

greatness of this city was

largely to
wealth

the

of these

228.

"

resident

little

cultivated

for

aliens.
Exclu-

hire; others

farms, which
alone

the

of the citizens

Some

laborers

had

and

Citizens; their

siveness.
were

labor

or

with

they
the aid
ATHENIAN

of

slave

or

two

; still others

KNIGHTS

(Parthenon frieze ; British Museum)

shopkeepers or artisans.
in
wealthy enough to live without work, to serve
Many were
to fill the offices
or
the cavalry
their only standing army
few
of
of the state.
There
no
were
paupers, with the exception a

were

"

"

and
pensioned by the government.
they were
persons,
of the
members
citizens
than half the population were

disabled
Less

"

Age of Pericles

The

200

They

state.

of the

considered

same

another

one

as

Apollo."1

"ancestral

kinsmen
Each

ants
all descend-

"

family in its own

great family,with

worshippedApollo. As the state was one

that
it felt disinclined to admit aliens
and daughters,
sons
many
is,to adopt other sons and daughters. As there was the keenest
rivalrywith other states, often breakingout into war, Athens felt
that aliens,who
had little
be loyal,and
that her citizens must
house

"

of the

interest in the welfare

exclusiveness
of resident

of the

country,

remain

This

aliens.

affected their treatment, not

Athenians

but
foreigners,

must

also of

who
allies,

were

now

in

only

reality

loyalan allied state might be, its citizens were

subjects. However
Thus
the
given no hope of ever securingthe Athenian franchise.
citizens had become
were
now
whole body of Athenian
aristocratic,
whom
over
they ruled,
livingin part at the expense of the many
of birth.
In
and were
taking pride in their exclusive privileges
earlier time

Athenians

were

allowed

to

marry

women

from

other

marriagesenjoyed full citizenship.

had become
an
When, however, Athens
imperialcity,and the
had grown
of citizenship
to be correspondingly
valuable,
privileges
the Athenians
would
Pericles
no
longertolerate the old custom.
ship
put an end to it by a law, 451 B.C., which restricted the citizenboth Athenians.
to those whose
By this measure
parents were
the Athenians
of themselves
made
ing
refusa closed caste, practically
to intermarrywith other Greeks.
The great advantage to the
states, and

progress

the children

of the world

of such

which

find in the character

we

state liesin the fact that it is possible

by careful

of the

Greek

generation
training,
after generation,
of such a society
of beings,
to make
a superior
race
far above the common
level of humanity as that level is above
as
the savage.
caste
Unfortunately,on the other hand, a narrow,
like that of the Athenians,with no fresh blood to revitalize
society,
later to physicaldecay. This narrowness,
or
it,is doomed
sooner
therefore,
though a cause of the greatness of Athens, was to prove
more
perniciousthan all the calamities of war that ever befell her.
the father
In nearly all ancient
states
Children.
229. The
had the rightto kill his children at their birth,if he did not wish to
times,and was
bring them up. The custom
began in barbarous
"

"

n6.

Children

not

abolished

by

highlycivilized

so

rarelymade

state

Athens.

as

But

the

of his

right; for he needed children

his familyand its worship after him.
His own
to continue
ness
happiin the next world was
secure, onlyif he had children to bury him
and to sacrifice at his tomb
according to the hereditaryfamily
ancestor
rites.1 In this way
humane
worship made parents more

Athenian

father

201

in their treatment

familytogetherin
Soon
the
On

of

use

children,and

the

the closest ties of affection and

after the birth of

parents gave

this occasion

bound

the

festival to

(From

PLAYING

their friends

its name,

of the

of mutual

child,usuallythe

child received

WOMEN

members

helpfulness.
lowing,
day fol-

tenth

and

the eldest

kinsmen.
son

gen-

KNUCKLEBONES

paintingon marble, Herculaneum)

erallybeing called after the paternalgrandfather. For the first

six years boys and girls
alike grew up under the care of the mother
enjoyed
and nurses.
With their many
toys and games they certainly
In order that a person might be
life as much
do.
children now
as
ognized
recshould be publicly
known
it was
as
a citizen,
necessary that he
while still an

infant.

phratry,as explainedin
"

100.

an

This

earlier

duty

was

attended

to

by

the

chapter.2
"

115-

The

2O2

The

At

Pericles

the

the boy was

sent to
age of seven
school,kept by a master who received pay from the parents of the
he instructed.
children whom
All boys, however
poor, learned to
read and write.
Great care
taken in school and at home
was
to
230.

School.

Age of

"

A
(From

teach

SCHOOL
a

vase-painting)

the

He
not to see
or
was
boy good morals and manners.
hear anything
vulgar or debasing,and he was kept entirely
away
from bad company.
He learned modesty, respect for his parents
and elders,
love for his country, and other virtues.
Most
of all he
Pleasures were
was
taughtself-restraint and moderation.
good,but
He had to learn the proper way
nothingshould be done to excess.
to sit,
walk, dress,and eat. If the father could afford it,he placed
the boy as governor
over
a slave,
boy leader
pae-da'
go-gos
"

"

"

"

IVORY

(Fifthcentury

B.C.

found

STYLUS
in Euboea

British

Museum)

accompanied the boy wherever he went and

that the rules of training
saw
were
obeyed. At school the
strictly
boy learned reading,writing,arithmetic,and a little geometry and
With
a
sty'lus he pracastronomy.
sharp iron instrument
tised
rolls
His books were
writingon a tablet covered with wax.

an
generally

old

man

who

"

"

The

2O4

Age of Pericles

They held frequentcompetitions

peace and war.
and the most
in the palaestraand in the religious
festivals,
ing
promisablyin

state most

winners
The

games.
for the

prizewas

state

simplewreath

set

honor

than

such

above

and

or

citizen.

direction.

passed nearlyall
the youth came

aim

what

youth
was

not

of him

has been

said

intellectu
physical,

was

him
prepare
the best possible
to

surroundings helped in this

boys merely ate and sleptat home, and
day in the open air. Living close to nature,
it far better than
understand
we
do, and
all his

Meantime
and

Men

the great national

laurel,or olive ;
parsley,
No
greater glory could

From

to make

at

of her citizens.

one

of the

The

moral.

but
profession,

of

"

the education

and
artistic,
for business

victoryby

state

money.

Education.

it is clear that

man

represent their

Well-Rounded

232.

above

to

Greeks

to

come

sent

were

the
to

clear
harmony with it. In that brilliantly
atmosphere he could see objectsnear or far justas they were, not
blurred by mist as they are in a great part of our
country. He kept
his own
mind
as
clear,so that he could describe objectsand actions
roundings
just as they were, with perfectnaturalness and truth. His surencouraged the growth of his imagination. He saw
about
him
endless varietyof islands,seas, plains,
an
slopes,and
the plainto
hills. From
the Acropolisof Athens he looked across
its border of mountains
and to other heightsstillfarther and farther
His imaginationled him to these distant places; it tempted
away.
learned

live

to

his mind

to pass

of

inventor

it.

or

the

satisfied with

was

and

became

father's

age.

so

was
a

mental

on

well-trained that he

discoverer

of

new

truth, an

have handled
Though he might never
brush, he was
by nature an artist,whose taste
tecture,
archinothing short of perfectionin sculpture,

literature.

man.

His

name

the

At

"

then

was

age of
enrolled

eighteen the youth

in the

registerof

eighteen to twenty
township (deme).1 From
to take military
trainingalong with his fellows

At

voyages
could

art.

Military Training.

233.

mind

he became

Thus

in science and

chisel

to the unknown

the known

from

exploration.The

safelyfollow
the

in

the end

of the first year

1

these

" 165.

young

he

was

of the

soldiers had

to

his
quired
re-

same

give

Women

and

publicexhibition

of their military

the

authorities of

skill ; and

presented
state, if satisfied,

the
each

with

one

shield.

his

of

two

years
duty, he

mained
re-

citizen soldier liable to

called

for

on

militaryservice
the age of sixty.

tillhe reached
Women

234.

and

spear

garrison
a

be

After

drill and

Athenian

and

Marriage.

and

from

received

their

kept closely

girlswere

home,

at

Marriage

tion
instruc-

mothers

and

domestic

Although proficientin
affairs,they had little

musical

and

nurses.

intellectual

Foreign

tion.
educa-

in Athens

women

far freer ; many

were
tally
menand
sociallyaccomplished,

were

and

hence

than

the

were

attractive

more

daughtersof

Between

twenty

the citizens.

and

thirtya

There was
usuallymarried.
no
opportunityfor courtship; in
fact, the young
people rarely
man

knew

each

other

but

the

chose

the

father

or

contract.
a

business

gave

his

before

the wedding;

youth's father
bride, and with her
guardian settled the
Marriage was
largely
affair:

daughter

every
a

father

dowry

proportioned
to his wealth
; and as
anxious to keep the
parents were

hereditary property within the

family,they preferredto marry
their

children

to

near

relatives.

205

The

206

Age of Pericles

of near
kinsfolk was
perhaps the chief cause of
intermarriage
decline of the Athenians.
the physical
in water
bathed
Before
the wedding both bride and groom
brought from the Sacred Spring. In the morning a sacrifice
tives,
offered to the marriage gods,and later in the day the relawas

This

and

men

In

feasted

women,

at

the house

of the bride's father.

home.
She
escorted her to her new
evening a procession
panied
in a carriageby her husband's
side,while the rest accomon
playing the harp and pipe,others singing
foot, some

the

rode

Various

the bridal song.

the house.

attended

ceremonies

her

into

entrance

public. She was present at the

festivals.
panied
Accomfunerals of her kin,and took part in religious
by a slave,she walked or rode along the streets to the houses
and
the wife was
home
of her friends.
But in her own
mistress,
she who had the necessary mental
giftscontrolled the opinionsand
her freedom
Restrictions
the politics
of her husband.
even
upon
to the citypeople.
appliedto the wealthy only, and especially
Among the poor, and in the country, women
enjoyeda largedegree
of liberty.
After
Banquet.
235. The
marriage, as before,men
spent
of their time away
from
most
in the gymnasia and the
home,
schools of philosophy,in the courts
in business
or
magistracies,
and society. Often for the celebration of a
happy event a man
invited his male
friends to an
evening dinner, ending in a
symposium, or drinking-bout.On such an occasion the host
entertained his guests with
daintydishes ; but the Athenians
many
a
nd
were
their
feasts were
naturallyfrugal,
far less expensivethan
The

wife

was

often

not

seen

in

"

"

those of the Romans.

The

guests reclined in pairson

their hands

couches.

After

they had

washed

in bowls

passed round for the purpose, slaves set before

them
low, three-legged
tables,on which they then placed the food.
The guests used
As they
spoons, but no fork,and rarelya knife.
therefore soiled their hands, it was
ing.
necessary to wash againafter eatFor the symposium they wreathed
their heads in garlands,
and
chose
what

the

ruler who

decided

subjectsof

how

conversation

much

wine

should

should be.

They

be

drunk

weakened

and
their

The
with water,

wine

Acropolis

that intoxication

so

drinking,
jugglers,
dancers,and
The

them.

guests themselves

was

or

While

rare.

musicians
sang

207

of both

sexes

told riddles

they were
entertained

conversed,as

or

the ruler directed.

IV.

INTELLECTUAL

236. The

LIFE;

Acropolis before

the Athenians

and

ATHENIAN

THE

Pericles.

The

"

their state offices were

GENIUS

private dwellingsof
small

ad

other

buildings,
leavingthe

inexpensive.
to build beautifully
and
grandly.
Athens, they burned the temples and
Acropolisstrewn with heaps of ruins.

For

time

the citizens had

Religion alone

the

means

entered

after their return

of

inspiredthem

the Persians

When

even

these shrines.
restoring

neither

the leisure

nor

Cimon, however, completing

work

levelled the surface of the Acropolis

begun by Themistocles,
to fitit better for buildings.1This end was
ing
accomplishedby erecta high wall along the southern
ern,
edge,a lower one along the northand filling
with earth and rubbish.
up the space thus made
The present steep appearance
of the hill is due chiefly
to this work.
But it was
left to Pericles to build the temples on the ground thus
prepared.
a

For this purpose

Pericles used some
237. The Parthenon.
the funds from
the imperialtreasury. When
the empire was
"

Athena

became

of
tablished,
es-

protectingdeity. A splendidhouse
for her would
be a glory to the subjectstates as well as to Athens.
Revenues
from other sources
likewise used; and as the state
were
owned
the chief cost was
the marble quarrieson Mount
Pentelicus,
its

for the labor.

cles
assembly appointeda commission, of which Periwas
a
temple to
member, to supervisethe erection of a new
Athena on the Acropolis. In ten years it was
completed
sufficiently
to receive the statue
of the goddess. It extends
nearlyparallel
with the southern
rim of the hill,
and is about
yards
seventy-five
It contains two
rooms.
long and about thirty-three
yards wide.
The largerone
is the cella,
in which stood the statue, and the smaller
In 447

He

B.C.

the

used for this purpose

edon; "

214.

the money

derived from

the sale of booty taken

at

Eurym-

208

Age of Pericles

The

2IO

winning

This

first of its citizens.

the frieze.1 It is

chapteris

is

scene
a

guardianof Athens and the

the west pediment. The final
of low reliefs extendingaround
the temple wall within the

the

becomes

victoryshe

the

on

band

It represents

colonnade.

-.-?iTw

group
preparingfor

^Ky

4^

sion

4?

T*

"*

the

of

ath-e-na'ic

citizens

of

various

the

procesPan"
Great

festival in her

every fourth
of July.
year in the month
The idea is that of plenty

honor, held

happiness under her

peacefulrule.
In beauty these sculptures
and

fit adornments

are

of

Parthenon.

the

comparing one
LAPITH

AND

(Parthenon metope

may
this

how

see

branch

fiftyyears.

CENTAUR
; British

wonderful
of

art

The

(Sketched by

are

the

PEDIMENT

with

succession

Parthenon

OF

above,3 we

had

Greeks
a

made

in

hundred

and

are

lifelike,

metope

PARTHENON

of the sculpturesto the British Museum)

earlier

great skill. The

of

described

period of

short

the

figuresof

the

advance

Carey before the removal

wrought

mechanical

an

within

WEST

and

nus

Seli-

from

that

with
Museum)

By

of its metopes

little
figures,

related

from
this is the Ionic frieze,
as
distinguished
Strictly
and
"
triglyphs
metopes;
175.

sculptureshows a
to
one
another,

the Doric.

latter is made

The

of the

up

adjective signifies"belonging to
Panathenaea
a Lesser
Panathenaea, there was
2

This

3"

177.

all the
held

Besides

Athenians."

annually.

It

was

the

harvest

Greater
festival.

Sculpturesof
whereas

those of the later

the

with

slab

greater genius in

the Parthenon

211

pieceform a natural group which fills

varietyof gracefullines. The frieze shows still
The colossal statue
designand skill in execution.

GROUP

MAIDENS

OF

(Parthenon frieze ; British Museum)

Athena

in this

temple was
gold and the

Iof
were

of

bare

on

wooden

frame

parts of ivory. We

; the

know

ments
garthat

the greatest sculptorof all

Phid'i-as,
of the
too, of the other sculptures
supervision,

this statue

was

the work

time.1

had

the

He

made

of

temple.
the severe
of design,
beauty,and the finish of these
nobility
still
of those which
rivalled.
Most
been
sculptureshave never
exist were
brought to England by Lord Elginearlyin the nineteenth
The

to

of Argos
Polycleitus

him

in genius.

sippusintroduced

It
a

new

was

was

contemporary

Polycleituswho

principle.For

set

of Phidias,and

nearly,if not quite,equal

the style for sculptorsof statues

the characteristicsof

till Ly-

see
" 330.
Polycleitus,

The

212

century, and

are

in the British Museum.

now

in size with

compare

Age of Pericles

the

The

temples of Egypt

time ; but in the

parts,in the beauty of the whole, in the absolute

cathedrals

of mediaeval

and

grace,

or

Parthenon
with

the

balance

tian
Chris-

of all its

harmony

it is the

not
can-

of

most

dignity
nearly

perfectpieceof architecture
hands.
created by human
239.

Other

ever

The

Buildings.

"

other

of Pericles,
though
buildings
artistic
be
of great
value, can
here.
mentioned
but briefly
At
the entrance
to the Acropolison
erected a magnifithe west was
cent
called
the
portal
Pro-pylae'a
front gateway." Nearly
touching it on the south is the
temple of Wingless Victory
Ni'ke Ap'te-ros. It is a neat
little temple of Pentelic marble.
reliefs
of the best-preserved
One
"

"

"

connected

with

it

represents

Victory adjusting her sandal.

Comparing it with the maidens of
discover
the Parthenon
we
frieze,
that its beauty is less
at
once
severe

ATHENA

OF

PARTHENOS

the

art is the

called The-se'um.
(Statuette; National Museum,

If

restrained.

highestattained
by mankind, this Victory represents
first
downward
the
step.1
of the Acropolis,
Northwest
on
a slight
elevation,stands the soPhidian

COPY

and

Scholars

now

Athens)

not
believe that itis really

shrine

to the hero

Of all

Hellenic

Acro-

but

It

seems

Theseus, but a templeof one of the greater gods.

temples it is the best preserved. At the base of the
probable that

later in the

same

this

century.

pieceof sculpturewas

made,

not

in the age

of Pericles,

il
2

it

The

214

age
had

of Pericles.

foughtin
he drew

had

He

Age of Pericles
lived

the battles of Marathon

his

seven, but all of

the

through
and

with

war

Salamis.

Persia,and

From

this

flict
con-

have only
we
inspiration.Of his ninetytragedies
them masterpieces
of literature.
To the student of
is the
history the Persians
'

r^

valuable.

most

In representing

the invasion

of

Xerxes, it

of
givesa gloriousdescription
the

battle

of

Salamis.1

moral

aim

of the

show

how

Zeus

The

play is to
punished

for his insolence.

Xerxes

In

fact, overweening pride

its fatal effects
of all his

are

and

the theme

writings.

was
Soph'o-cles

dramatic

the

great

writer of the age of

Pericles.

strong or
he

not
so
Though
as lus,
original
Aeschy-

so

was

artist.

careful

more

plotis more
his language

His

and
finished.

have

We

but

cate
intrimore
seven

plays. Though
the Oed'i-pusTyr-an'nus
won
second
but
a
prize,modern
scholars
usually consider it
of his hundred

VICTORY

(From

HER

ADJUSTING

balustrade

of

SANDAL

Nike

Museum,

temple; Acropolis
Athens)

It tells how

his best.

king
and

by

pious man,
unintentional
between
of God
to

divine and
in

the nobler

exhibition

sin.2

to the

In the

the
An-tig'o-ne

human

preferenceto
cause.

himself

ruin upon

brought utter

law.

She chooses

See the

"iiS.

and

to

just

his household
a

obey the

flict
conmand
com-

tyr
king ; and she dies a maralways been popular,from its first

present day.
1

Thebes,

heroine faces

that of the

It has

of

pus,
Oedi-

quotation from

it in

"

205.

Historyand Philosophy
History.

In

the

age of Pericles He-rocTo-tus was

at
his History,
the first masterpiece
on
of Greek prose.
An exile
his native cityof Hal-i-car-nas'sus in Asia Minor, the " father

241.

work
from

"

"

of

215

much

history spent

of the known

of his life in travel.

He

everywhere collected

from

world,and

visited

nearlyall

the natives

stories of persons and events.

These he wove
into
of the war
between
Greece and Persia.
In tracingthe
of the conflict
world

from

work

to be

he givesthe historyof
by way
introduction,
times
down
to the war
itself. He wrote
mythical

aloud, as

the poems

of Homer

had

tory
his-

causes

of

read

terestin
in-

the
his

been, at public
styleis so simple

gatherings.This helpsus to understand why his

and so interesting.
Many of his tales are myths or fictitiousanecdotes
but
all
are
they
valuable,as they illustrate the character of
;
nations

and

of individuals.

large-mindedof

most

takes littleinterest in
his

pictureof

countries

the

which

is
certainly

and

historians.

or
politics,

world

the most

art,and

in

of his time

he visited makes

Philosophy

242.

Herodotus

was

and

of mankind

his work

Sophists.
"

of the fairest and

Though uncritical,
though he
the deepercauses
of events, yet

of all
interesting,
of the

one

in the many
perhapsthe truest,as it

histories.

Pericles

was

ture
patron of litera-

friend of

philosophers.Among his teachers was

the first philosopher
who taughtthat Mind
rules the
An-ax-ag'o-ras,
1
universe.
The class of philosophers
called sophists
coming
bewas
now
numerous.
They travelled through Greece teachingpractical
knowledge of every kind for pay.
Especiallythey aimed to
in mere
for statesmanshipby trainingthem
men
prepare
young
cleverness of thought. As a rule they were
sceptical
; with their
false logicthey tried to undermine
belief in everything. They
destroyedrespect for religion
by pointingout its inconsistencies
and
the immoralities of the gods. Their influence,
fected
however, aflife was
but a few men
and leisure. In general,
of wealth
wholesome
and the people were
moral.
Character

243.

of Pericles

music,

and

From

mentioned

were

philosophy was

oratory he had
1

of Pericles.

no

"

The

above.2
the

best

specialtraining,for

o-o06s,wise.

noble
His
his

connections

birth and
education

in

afford.

city could

in his younger

literature,
In

days rhetoric
2

5 218

The

216

Age of Pericles

into existence.1 Though he attended carefully

to
yet come
he had no technical rules of composition
the wording of his speeches,
His delivery
not dramatic,but statuesque. He stood
was
to follow.

had

not

with scarcely
a gesture
quietly,
audience

The

mantle.

moved

was

to ruffle the folds of his

movement

or

the

by

weight of

his person, his deep earnestness, and

and noble character inspired. Other

his

words, the

majestyof

the confidence

his pure

speakers of the

thought of merely as human;

were

Athens.

A comic

thunders

from

tongue."

time

Olympian,2the Zeus of
fateful
speaksof him as
rolling
was

"

poet of the time

his

he

which

Like

orator, Pericles felt

true

every

deeply the emotions which he knew how to stir in others ; but he

under the control of his intelligence,
so
as
kept his feelingsstrictly
and calmly. His character had the
to look at everythingclearly
completenessand the poisewhich we admire in a Greek statue, and
which

describe

we

Though
He

a man
tocles,

able commander.
an
militarygenius,Pericles was
of diplomacy and a great statesman.
Themismaster
of far highergenius,
had boldlyfollowed his intuitions ;
cold and calculating, he would make
his entire policy

Pericles

was

rightby

most

"

careful attention

of his earlier

world.

more

engaged in
buildingof

triremes

Pericles

not

and

the

on

only more

bold

strokes

to make

his

the dominant

in the Mediterranean
power
through the followingyears

publiccharacter

the historian.

the

and

to the manufacture

of

Athenian

with

Character.

greater

is Pericles himself.

"

the other

earnestness

In

one

" 102.
Thu-cyd'i-des,ii. 35-46.

best

Athenians

The

Greeks, but

and

force to litical,
poof their
interpreter

of his orations

The

ideas

are

those of Pericles.

'

Oration,in

arms.

splendidmilitarycondition in which
beginningof the PeloponnesianWar.3

intellectual life. The

Cf. " 274.

Funeral

arsenals

than
intenselyreligious

themselves

and
artistic,

His

few

failed ; and

herself at the

they devoted

and

he had

activityis

found

244.

hoped by

In the enthusiasm

details.

patienceand energy in preparationfor a new

successful trial of strengthwith Lacedaemon.
While
his city,he paid even
attention to the
more
beautifying

of this

Athens

were

But

to all the

he toiled with

of peace

Proof

he had

career

head of all Hellas

citythe

and

classic.

no

was

as

The

language

is

he de"

247.

largelythat of

Pericles
fines their
the

"

kindness.
We

There

what

neighborif he does

the laws

he calls attention
is

he likes ;

in

we

offices for

do not

liberality
course.
private inter-

our

another,nor

one

and

to their social

exclusiveness

no

of
suspicious

not

are

equalitybefore

as

which

after
qualified,"

and

"

democracy

217

put

angry
on

sour

with
looks

our

at

though harmless are unpleasant. We have not forgotten

with many
relaxations from toil ;
to provide our
spirits
weary
and sacrifices throughoutthe year; at home
have regulargames
we
life is refined;and the delightwhich we
the styleof our
dailyfeel
sadness."
The
in all these things helpsbanish
mentalityand the
in his time intense.
were
We
physicalenergy of the Athenians
of thinkingbefore we
have
the peculiarpower
act," he asserts,
other men
and of acting,
from ignoare
too, whereas
rance,
courageous
but hesitate on reflection." A great foreign
s
uch
as he
policy,
but on
was
pursuing,had to be based not on ignorantselfishness,
alone do good to our
kindness and generosity. We
neighborsnot
of interest,
but in a frank and fearless spirit."
a calculation
upon
and other temples,in enHis objectin buildingthe Parthenon
couraging
artists to produce the best possiblepaintingand sculpture,
to
in fosteringliterature and a many-sided education,was
and heart to the
in mind
make
of the Athenians
a peoplesuperior
would
be ashamed
to acknowledge
rest of the Greeks
none
a peoplewhom

him,

which

"

"

"

"

the school
person
varied

at

the

teachers

of

Hellas,and

or

rulers.
that

up, I say that Athens is

in his own
the individual Athenian
"

To

of
the power
of action with the utmost
to

seems

forms

the hour
to the

as

have

of trial Athens

report of her.
which

reverses

alone among
who
No enemy
he sustains

at

sum

adapting himself to the most

In
and grace
versatility
is superior
her contemporaries
comes
againsther is indignant
the hands of such a city;no
The
are
unworthy of him."

subject complains that his masters

ideal,though high, was
nearly reached
245.

The

Troubles

drawing

to

an

of Pericles.

end.

The

"

But

moderate

in fact.
of peace was
idly
rapPericles
of
pleased
policy
the

era

His enemies,not
democrats.
the extreme
nor
oligarchs
after another.
assailed his friends one
daringto attack him directly,
zling
the charge of embezon
First theyprosecutedPhidias, the sculptor,
the
to be used in gilding
to him
of the gold entrusted
some
neither

the

The

218

for the

Athena

of

statue

Age of Pericles
Parthenon.

he

Although

ready

was

to

by having the metal taken off and weighed,

About
the
they threw him into prison,where he died of sickness.
indicted for impiety and immorality. She
time As-pa'si-a
was
same
of remarkable
cles
was
a Milesian
by birth,a woman
intelligence.Perihis innocence

prove

divorced

had

his

Aspasia to
and

orators,

But

the

be

law

who

in

this

age

restricted to the house

sons, and

of 451

teacher

inspiringgenius of

Athenians,
must

woman

of his two

own

the

became

She
the

"

mother
his

house, though

alien.

an

marry

wife,the

his

of

the

had

taken
him

forbade

B.C.

to

artists,philosophers,

Periclean
to

come

and

had

social
believe

talk with

must

circle.

that
no

one

immoral.
as
family,regarded Aspasia'sconduct
the judges to acquit
Happily Pericles by personal entreaty induced
with Pelothus beset by privatedifficulties,
her.
While he was
war
began to threaten.
ponnese
of her

outside

own

Suggestive
i.

Write

Athens

and

Sparta, 456
3. Compare

controlled.

chapter like that

of this

summary

B.C.,

in

on

and

military power

Athenian

the

Questions

jury system

p.

189.

in extent
with

that

2.

of
of

Compare
territory
our

own

are
systems?
4. Compare
the seated
and
are
youths
training of boys at Athens
Sparta.
5. What
Describe
Describe
the
in
the
202?
material..
writing
doing
picture on p.
the appearin the picture. 6. Compare
musical
instruments
the two
seen
ance
whole
with the temple of Poseidon, and explain
of the Parthenon
as
a

country.

the

What

relative

merits

of the

two

the

the

superiorityof

the

one

over

the

other.

Note-book

Topics

under
Pericles.
of Athens
Aristotle, Constitution
of
Athenian
stitution,
Conxxvii
the
xxvi,
Botsford,
of
xxiv,
Development
Athens,
;
History,
Greenidge, Handbook
of Greek Constitutional
221-233;
xvi.
ii.
ch.
Holm,
History
Greece,
of
166-189;
II. Pericles
the Man.
Oration,
Thucydides, ii. 65, also his Funeral
ii. 35-46;
Plutarch, Pericles; Abbott, Pericles,357-367.
I. Government

"

chs.

"

III.

Greek
ch.

xx

Ancient
Literature, 103-106;
Jebb, Greek
Murray,
Literature,ch. vi ; Fowler, Ancient Greek Literature,ch. xv ; Holm, ii.
Great
Persian
War, xiv.
; Grundy,
Herodotus.

"

CHAPTER

WAR

PELOPONNESIAN

THE

XIX

TO

of the

majority

of Athens
years

but

between

of

Greece;

and

Athenians

League.

The

half

powers.

the

growing

the

the

several

sent

envoys

also

came,

Athenian

be

secured

to

make

fleet

great
with

the

was

for
a

Corinthian
this

broke

leadership
with

Sparta

them

the

preparing

in

battle

Corinthians
and

themselves
off Syb'o-ta,
219

and

their

defending
The

joint colony

great

the

432

B.C.

the

inevitable,

should

ament
arm-

latter

before

causes

Lacedaemon

them;

Cor-

ambassadors

Corinthian

with

terfering
in-

was

and

Thereupon

their

self
her-

battle, Corinth

in

advice, therefore,

with

between
In

in

Corcyraeans

his

armament.1

interference

war

of the

Upon

aid

aid

alliance.

an

alliance

to

Peiraeus

Athens

had

found

Corinth

defeat

parties pleaded

navy

Athens.

to

ask

Persia,

Ep-i-dam'nus,

severe

the

Corinth

Corinth

and

seas,

of

states

and

with

war

Corcyra.

Believing

defensive
sent

overwhelm

two

the

of

possession

to

particular

colony, Corcyra.

neighbors

to

felt that

her

of her

assembly.

Pericles

thirty

war

the

Furthermore,

trade.

suffering

Athens

and

of the

After

which
to

and

the

since

in her

the

for

mainland.

with

when

filled

Athens

ship
leader-

last

to

was

for

Athens

between

commerce

her

fought

persuaded

rivals

with

also

but

friendly ;

between

on

of

B.C.

great

the

under

elapsed

were

power

relations

painfully cramped
had

period

trouble

usual

monopolizing

cyra

had

B.C.

431

brought
of 445

peace

They

two

had

extremely

was

that

been

year

fear.

The

been

had

The

Sparta.

scarcely

and

jealousy

of

or

the

Before

"

of Greece

states

the

out

War.

the

of

Causes

EXPEDITION

B.C.

431-415

246.

SICILIAN

THE

by
it

was

small

island
were

their

all

means

resolved
Athenian

against
justly

the

angry

colonies,

es-

PeloponnesianWar

22O

peciallyas they had

in Athenian
interfering
the

treaty,and

to the Sicilian

Expedition

from
prevented Lacedaemon
affairs. They asserted that Athens broke
exerted all their energy to stir up Peloponnese

now

several times

againstthe offender.
the

At

same

Corinthian

city,

now

urging Potidaea1

they were

in Chalcidice

settlement

tributaryto
state,it

mother

time

had

revolted,whereupon

into

grown

Garrisoned

Athens.

to

by

the Athenians

revolt.

This

prosperous
force from
the

laid

siegeto

the

place.
allegedthat this was another violation of the
to call a
They persuaded the Lacedaemonians
treaty of 445 B.C.
congress of the League to consider the various grievancesagainst
the deputiesgathered,the LacedaemoAthens
nians
(432 B.C.). When
invited them
to bring their complaintsbefore the Spartan
the Megaassembly. Among those who had grievanceswere
rians. Athens
had recentlypassed an act which excluded them
from
of Attica and of the empire. This,
the ports and markets
suaded
also,the Megarians averred,was a violation of the treaty. Perby these arguments, the Spartan assembly voted that the
Athenians
the treaty. The
had broken
Peloponnesiancongress
ratified the decision,
and declared war
againstAthens.
The
Resources
of Athens
and
Sparta.
empire of
247. The
Athens,composed of subjectsstates,was stronger than it had ever
been before.
Chios, Lesbos,
Among her independent allies were
Thessaly,and Plataea,besides a few citiesin Italyand Sicily.She
had thirteen thousand
heavy-armed troops, and a largerforce for
garrisonservice. There were three hundred triremes of her own,
besides those of the allies,
and her sailors were
the best in the world.
Corinthians

The

"

She commanded

the

sea

and

subjectcities,
togetherwith
about
of

thousand

talents

its

resources.

The

tributes from

her

amounting in all to
revenues,
be nearlyenough, in case
year, would
other

Attic populationon imported food.

siege,to support
All the Peloponnesianstates,except Argos and a part of Achaea,
in alliance with Lacedaemon
were
; and outside of Peloponnese,the
and in
others ; in Sicily
Megarians,Boeotians,Locrians,and some
Italymost of the Dorian cities sympathized with Sparta. The few
the whole

"

128.

First Three
commercial
forces

the strongest in the world

Three

First

248. The

221

League provided ships; the others,land

only. The League could muster

Though by
heavy-armed men.

it was

the

of the

states

Years

army

no

means

of

sand
thoutwenty-five
a
numerous
force,

that time.

at

Years

an

of the

(431-429B.C.).

War

In

"

of the first year a Peloponnesian army

invaded Attica.
battle on land,but to bring
no
plan of Pericles was to venture

summer

The

populationinto the cityor behind the Long Walls,and to

damage Peloponnese as much. as he could with his fleet. While
the invaders
were
were
devastatingAttica,the Athenians
sailing
These operations
round Peloponneseand ravagingthe coasts.
were
The
repeatednearlyevery year through the earlypart of the war.
removal
of the country people to Athens
was
very painful.They
and shrines which
distressed at exchanging the homes
were
they
find
of
them
could
where
most
loved for the crowded
no
fortable
comcity,
and
orchards
houses
their
And
when
shelter.
they saw
ruined by the enemy,
they could not helpbeingangry with Pericles.
the whole
successful.
Nevertheless his policywas
on
visited by a plague,which
and Peiraeus were
Next
year Athens
the entire

inflicted

done.

have

would

terrible

more

togetherand

damage

the

risked their lives to attend

and
But

blamed

Athenians

The

their

crowded

they were

because

of life.

comforts

in battle

defeat

the severest

peoplesuffered

The

lacked

than

Although

izing.
demoral-

the total effect was

friends,
Pericles

for both

war

nobly

many
and

plague,
heavily.

griefand anger by fining him

they repented,and again elected him generalwith
vent

gave
soon

their

to

lute
abso-

power.
The

249.

died

Pericles

of the

into the hands

he had

of

In

the

surplus in

the

levied
the

wealthy by
he

hated

was

him.

(429 B.C.).
of the state passed
the leadership
(429 B.C.). Though no general,

plague,and
tanner

talent for

Cleon

as

finance,and

Leader

was

an

orator

of

great

the
policyof Pericles.
the state
treasury was 'soon exhausted by the war,
with
tax, and Cleon made himself very unpopular
main

direct

Pericles

Cle'on,a

remarkable

force.

of

Death

he

followed

his ruthlessness

in

the

it.
collecting

providingways and
They could not endure
in

As

means,
to

see

the

The
more

more

getic
ener-

the nobles

this upstart from

the

to the Sicilian

PeloponnesianWar

222

industrial

class at the head

in taxes

pay

250.

Cleon

The

had

the expenses
Revolt
to

come

Expedition

of the government,

compellingthem

to

they did not favor.

of Lesbos
(428-427B.C.). In the year after
of Lesbos induced Mytthe front,the oligarchs
of

war

"

i-le'ne and
was

But
and
As

nearlyall the other cities of the island to revolt. There

danger that all the maritime cities would follow this example.
the Peloponnesians
too slow in sending the promised aid,
were
the Athenians
made
desperateefforts to conquer the island.
last resort (427B.C.)the oligarchs
the comof Mytilene armed
mons
the cityto the Athenian
; but the latter promptly surrendered
commander.
garchs,
Thereupon he sent the oliwho alone were
guiltyof revolt,
to

Athens

for

the
angry because
revolted
without
cause;
were

too, for the safetyof

indeed

for their

Athenians

trial. The

own

Lesbians

they feared,
their empire,and
lives.

With

therefore,Cleon
great difficulty,
them
death

to

all the

had

condemn

and

no

suaded
per-

put

to

captiveoligarchs.Cleon's
idea was
to make
an
example of them
of"
that other communities
might fear to
revolt. The punishment,decreed under
excitement,was too severe, and out of
In putting
character of the Athenians.
keeping with the humane
this revolt,they passed the dangerouscrisis,
down
and were
again
of
the
Sea.
masters
undisputed
Aegean
The
of
Capture
Pylos (425B.C.). The war now
began to
251.
This change was
turn
decidedlyin favor of Athens.
chieflydue
the ablest commander
to De-mos'the-nes,
since the days of Themistocles and Cimon.
In 425 B.C., he seized Pylos, on
the west
of Peloponnese,
coast
and fortified it. This became
thorn in the
a
side of Sparta,
a refuge for helots and
a good basis for ravaging
It was
Laconia.
with an excellent harbor protected
a promontory
Demosthenes
held the placeagainst
by the island of Sphac-te'ri-a.
repeated attacks of the Peloponnesians.A select corps of the
landed on
Sphacteria,and tried to carry his positionby
enemy
A. A

B. Point
S. Land

since formed

"

"

Cleon
The

storm.

and

Brasidas

223

found themselves blockattempt failed ; the besiegers

aded

fleet ; and then, to save

the troops on
by an Athenian
the
made
with
truce
a
Demosthenes
with a view to
island,they
tiating
negofor peace.
to Athens
Spartan envoys came
to discuss the
; but

terms

accept, the

Pylos,and

The

demands

of Cleon

continued.

war

home,

latter

captured

hundred

two

her

and

raise the

measure

increased

to

under

the

the command

in

hold of Athens

tribute

the Athenian

to
to

of Demosthenes.

troops of Sphacteriaand
two
ninety-

victorystrengthenedthe

enabled

great for them

brought reinforcements
too

were

Cleon

wiselyplacedhimself

The
them

the

as

to

number
the

on

thousand

for

resources

brought
(425 B.C.).
empire, and

talents.

This

war.

(424-422B.C.). Soon the tide

A certain Spartan officer named
began to turn againstAthens.
Bras'i-das discovered
the one
pire,
emexposed point of the Athenian
It was
the only part of the empire outside of
Chalcidice.
Attica which
the Peloponnesianscould reach by land.
Brasidas
invaded this country with a small force of allies and emancipated
helots.
and diplomatist,
he induced
An exceptionally
able commander
them Am-phip'several states of the empire to revolt,
among
the most
o-lis,
important cityin that region. The states which
revolted became
members
of the PeloponnesianLeague.
Cleon,
but
who had been elected general,tried to regain Amphipolis,
was
Brasidas; Athenian

252.

Losses

"

"

defeated
death

and

Brasidas

slain.

of these

two

was

removed

men

killed in the

same

the chief obstacles

battle.
in the

way

The
of

peace.

(421 B.C.). Both Athens and Sparta

The Athenians
were
discouragedby Cleon's recent
peace.
appointed
The
bitterlydisLacedaemonians, for their part, were
in the results of the war.
They had hoped to crush the

The

253.

desired
failure.

Peace

power

of Athens

Pylos

the

of Nicias

in

greatest

few

reverse

"

had suffered at
years at the most, but
anxious
in their history. They were

of them
for many
Sphacteria,
were
no
ordinarytroops, but pure Spartans. Nicias,a generalof
of his
as
the Athenians, carried on the negotiations
representative
concluded
It was
city,and the treaty accordinglybears his name.
also to

in 421

recover

B.C.

the

The

taken
prisoners

at

treaty providedfor

return

to the relations which

Peloponnesian War

224

had existed before the

both

was

to

last

opposingpowers seemed evenly

was
accepted as just. Later events,
lost greatlyby the treaty.

fiftyyears

sides.

Expedition

As the

war.

balanced, the arrangement

however, proved that Athens
Peace

to the Sicilian

and

the

to

was

extend

to

the allies

on

Though
treaty was
directlyattack each other for seven
years, and
the Athenians
while
it lasted.
enjoyed the peace
They returned
the
to
country, and began again the cultivation of their little farms,
behind the walls.
pleasedto be free from their long confinement
(418 B.C.). When it
254. Alcibiades; the Battle of Mantinea
became
in Athens
known
that peace with Sparta could not be maintained,
the war
into power.
leader
The principal
party againcame
of this party was
Al-ci-bi'a-des. He belongedto one of the noblest
families of Athens, and was
kinsman
of Pericles. Though
a
near
still young,
he was
influential because
of his high birth and his
fascinating
personality.His talents were brilliant in all directions ;
lawless and violent,and followed no
but he was
motive
but selfinterest and self-indulgence.
Through his influence Athens allied
herself with Argos, Elis,and Man-ti-ne'a againstthe Lacedaemonians
imperfectlycarried out, the

cities did not

two

"

and

their allies. The

Mantinea

at

best

in

418

success

and

enabled

them

daemon

apart from

unions

met

in battle

Lacedaemonians, who still had the

in Greece, were
victorious.
This
discipline
disgracewhich had latelycome
them,
upon

regain much

to

Peloponnese. Argos

of these two

The

B.C.

organizationand
wiped out the

armies

Mantinea

and

of

their

now

former

made

peace

influence
with

in

Lace-

Athens.

(416B.C.)."In 416 B.C. Alcibiades

the only
fleet againstMe'los, now
to send
a
persuaded Athens
Aegean island outside her empire. It was a colonyof Lacedaemon
but remained
neutral tillthe Athenians
began to attack it. They
and all
that the Aegean Sea was
were
theirs,
actingon the principle
the islands in it. Insisting
that the strongest had a rightto rule,
they tried to justifytheir own
conquests by their mild treatment
be
of subjects. Thus
should surrender,they would
if the Melians
requiredmerely to pay an annual tribute. But as Melos resisted,
255.

the

Slaughter of the Melians

Athenians

into surrender.

blockaded

They

the island

then

and

killed all the

starved
men

of

the

inhabitants

militaryage

and

An

the

enslaved
them

to

good

the
in

common

of

name

Act

children.

and

women

annex

though

Inhuman

island,
that

Greek

but

the

has

age,

Which

reasons

war?

5.

the

the

Was

justified

war

Had

the

at

state

I.

II.

Cleon's
of

right

to

seize

in

Policy

Source

the

on

7.

plan

What

of

after

Elis,

the

conducting
his

ideal

high
location

the

Mantinea,

Give
for

responsible

conflict
6.

Describe

of

death?
did

the

Mytilene,

Melos.

and

Topics

to

Allies.

the

"

of

(see

Thucydides
the

Peace

of

Index)

Nicias.
"

Fling,

stain

Thucydides,

iii.

36-40

Cleon).

Alcibiades.
Terms

the

Melos?

Amphipolis,

Relation

Pericles'

Was
of

course

Sphacteria?

Cythera,

"

III.

for

conquered,

Lacedaemon?

or

chiefly

was

4.

general

Note-book

(speech

the

indelible

an

Athens

B.C.,

431

unavoidable?
the

Athenians

Pylos,

Sphacteria,

of

just

Questions

Which

2.

war

by

abandon

Spartans

in

stronger

opinion.

your

3.

the

slaughter

it

Athens.

was

for

made

usage

proved

Suggestive

i.

22$

Book,

207-211).

Plutarch,

Thucydides,

Alcibiades.

v.

17-19

(also

in

CHAPTER

FROM

THE

SICILIAN

XX

EXPEDITION

TO

how
to

and

Athens

256.

time

of their

After

Italy

their

and

upon

an

Greece

the

had

of war,

in

the

Persian

with

Sparta

those

and

of

From
more

and

Athens

to

the

she

under

cities which

interest

in the

the

manufactured

Ionian

island

her

aimed

control
of

consequence

disliked

of Corinth

the

rule

two

friendship

(2) she

; and

In

ing
dur-

followed

close

under

in time

Greeks

eastern

the

of

as

this

and

Syracuse

protection.

livelycommercial

the

abolished,

Syracuse,

maintained

Sparta.

the

city, and

the

flourished,

cities of western

cities of the
led

Sicilyand

was

hostile to Athens, the enemy

Sicilian

gradually

of the

thoroughly

as

Themistocles

other

most

city,Corinth

of

Commerce

When

time

the

tified
tyrants beau-

position Syracuse

policy : (i)

were

The

tyranny

had

this

cities

of

governments.

Sparta

mother

Greeks

Then

Hellenic

In

Sicilian

for

from

Literature

statues.

century
the

as

her

Peloponnese
policy,(i)Syracuse was
looked

Greeks

western

stand
under-

it is necessary

war,

prosperity.

democratic

way

with

(2) the

in the

the

easy.

of the

of

Sparta, and

was

Sicily,led

lines

all the

bring

to

life

invasions.

related

nearly

of

To

"

involved

and

temples

middle

such

some

be

of great

era

and

in

(479-416 B.C.).

Greek

history

introduced

greatest power

WAR

THE

EXPEDITION

Carthage.
Himera
(480 B.C.),1the

cities with

before

to

OF

over

of

abounded,

Western

the

over

battle

entered

SICILIAN

came

victory

the

wealth

the

Sicilynow

rapidly

run

THE

END

B.C.

415-404

I.

THE

articles
led

to

War

West.

took

They

more

exported

and
vases

Italy, Sicily,and
Carthage.
politicalinfluence ; Se-ges'ta,a foreign
to

and

Rhegium

Peloponnesian

Athenians

Le-on-ti'ni

began,
1

"

208.

226

the

Dorians

became
of the

their
West

allies.
gave

228

Expeditionto

the Sicilian

From

Lam'a-chus

Alcibiades,Nicias, and
school of Pericles

of the evils of

councils of

258. The
Athenians
or

or

ing
say nothAlcibiades were

Nicias and

prospect of harmony in the

give no

to

as

the

expedition.To

the

divided command,

the War

officer of

able

an

"

of

war.

Mutilation

placeon

to

temple,a

Hermes

each other

opposed to

so

to conduct

were

"

the End

"HERMES"

before

the street

It

"

customary for the

was

the door of

privatehouse

endingat the top in the head of

pillar,
other god. Whatever
deitymight be represented,
of Hermes).
called Hermae
the figureswere
(plural
was
One morning when the armament
nearlyready
horrified to find that
the Athenians
to sail,
were
these Hermae, which they held in great reverence
the guardiansof peace and publicorder,had been
as
nearlyall mutilated in the night. The citizens were
with terror.
overwhelmed
They feared that a band
had attempted to depriveAthens of
of conspirators
and would next
divine protection
try to overthrow
the government.
pected
Some, without good cause, susof
A
Alcibiades.
court
inquiry was
apIt failed to
pomte(} to investigatethe matter.

square

some

of the Hermae.

stone

but learned that certhe perpetrators of this sacrilege,

tain
been
them
Alcibiades, had
profaning the
among
men,

discover

Eleusinian

mysteriesx by imitatingthem

for amusement

in

private

houses.

the welfare

of the state

depended upon keeping

them secret, the citizens were
greatlyalarmed at hearingthat they
had been
profaned and divulged. Alcibiades in vain demanded
enemies
feared that he would be acquitted
a trial. His
through the
he was
with whom
support of the soldiers,
very popular. It would
parted
had dehis opponents thought,to wait tillthe armament
be safer,
Believingthat

and then
259.
armament

The

recall him

Voyage;
was

to

the

for trial.
Plans

of the

gatherat Corcyra.

throngedthe wharves of Peiraeus

imperialcity's
galleys. The moment
1

"

179-

Admirals
The

was

"

whole

to watch

(415 B.C.). The

Athenian
tion
popula-

the

departureof

full of tears

and

the

prayers,

Plans
of

anxietyand hope.

forth to war, and some

and
One hundred

thousand
and

the

surmised

seen

formidable.

so

its voyage

across

About

gave
alwaysbeen

had

now

Rhegium,

which

Athenians

within its walls.

The

no

going

more.

great number

Corcyrawith

at

of
five

board, besides lightauxiliaries

but none so
largerfleetsthan this,

the Ionian

Greeks

But the western

return

and

shipsassembled
on

was
strength

that it would

triremes
thirty-four

Hellas had

crews.

229

flower of Athenian

heavy-armed men

splendidor
began

The

merchant

transportsand

of the Admirals

the middle

of the

summer

it

Sea toward

Italy.
Athens a cold reception.
Even
would not admit the
friendly,
seemed

great armament

menace

to the liberties of all alike. It

could furnish littlesupport.

theyshould do. Lamachus wished

the
to attack Syracuseimmediately;Nicias preferred
to display
Either plan
fleet along the Sicilian coasts and then return home.
would have been good; but Alcibiades proposedinstead to win
Sicilian citiesas possible
over
as many
by negotiation.With allhis
in this instance he miscalculated ; the Greeks
geniusfor diplomacy,
of the West could not be won
over
by mere discussion. His unwise
plan,however,was adopted. Yet before it had been followed far,
were

in doubt

soon
appeared,too, that Segesta
mirals
Disappointed
by such news, the ad-

as

to

what

the way home

he made
his escape to Peloponnese,
tenced
whereuponthe Athenians senhim to death.
The trick of his opponents had succeeded

Alcibiades

recalled to Athens for trial. But

was

on

probablyto their satisfaction ; but it made of Alcibiades as

dangerousan enemy as Athens ever had.
who now
260. The Siege of Syracuse (414-413B.C.). Nicias,
held the superior
command, trifledaway the autumn in half-hearted
and then wasted the winter at Cat'a-na. Meantime
undertakings,
the Syracusans
their citywith strong walls. In the
were
enclosing
"

"

springof 414 B.C. the Athenians entered

siegeto Syracuse
; theybegan to build
would

cut

the

of the island.
but

which,if completed,
by land with the rest

a crossbesiegers

minor

engagements ;

lost
and with his death the command
killed,
Syracusans built and maintained againstthe
wall extendingfrom their outer line of defence on

was

The

and laid

wall

cityoff from communication

They were successful in several

Lamachus

all energy.

the Great Harbor

From

230

the north

the Sicilian

free communication

Syracusanswere

with

acquiringa

reasonable

hope of taking Syracuse; and Nicias

but dared not face the Athenian
siege,

failure.

In the winter

fleet.

he wrote

country.

There

letter

a.

was

no

the

longerany

would

gladlyhave
assembly after so
to Athens,givinga

Athenian

naval

b. Athenian
c.

At

sufficiently
strong

navy

battle with

great

the Athenian

the

to venture

raised the

War

heightin the rear of the Athenian position.This

the northern part of their
besiegersfrom finishing

the

time

of the

the

to

prevented the
wall,and secured
same

Expedition to the End

camp.

fort.

Height in

rear

of Athenian

wall.

d. d. Athenian wall.
nian
k, I. Unfinished part of Athewall.
n,

n.

Old city wall.

New
m.
city wall (415
B.C.).
h, h. Syracusan cross-wall.

m,

of the

detailed account
be withdrawn

or

and asking that

situation,

strong reinforcements

either the
The

sent.

ment
arma-

Athenians

and prepared
thought of abandoning the enterprise,
to send nearlyas large a land and naval force as the original
one,
the fact that the war
with Lacedaemon
and this notwithstanding

would

was

take

openly

now

261.
-

In

no

Agis

resumed.

in Attica ; Ruin

Armament

A'gis,king of the
413 B.C.
Attica,which for twelve years had seen no

the

spring of

ravaged
suggestionof Alcibiades,he

positionin

the

to hold it winter

could
were

of the Athenian

now

north

and
do

no

seized and

of Attica.
summer

to

fortified

The

farming except

Lacedaemonians,

enemy! At the
a strong
Dec-e-le'a,

Lacedaemonians

the

end

of the

war.

continued
The

nians
Athe-

their very walls.

They
about
the city to prevent

under

obligedto keep perpetualwatch

(413B.C.).

Ruin

of the

Armament

231

and their slaves deserted to the enemy

in great numbers.
surprise,
themselves
thus
But
though they were
practically
besiegedby
fleet
of
sent
to
a
new
triremes and
Syracuse
land,they
seventy-three
commanded
five thousand
hoplites,
by Demosthenes, their ablest
general. On his arrival at Syracuse he found the army in a sorry
plightand the fleet alreadydefeated in the Great Harbor by the
either resume
active
must
Syracusans. He saw that the Athenians

STONE

(Interiorview

the stakes and

QUARRIES

lines

are

modern

AT

SYRACUSE

rope-makers' works.

From

photograph.)

siege. In the followingnight,

accordingly,he attempted to take the Syracusan cross-wall by
but was
surprise,
repulsed with great loss. In spiteof his advice
to put the army
board the fleet and sail away, his slow colleague,
on
Nicias consented,and
Nicias,delayedfor some
days. When finally
an
eclipseof the
everythingwas
ready for embarking, there was
which
filled him as well as the soldiers with superstitious
moon,
fears.
He
would
remain
twenty-seven days longer,to avoid the
nians
the Atheeffect of the evil omen.
Before that time had elapsed,
operationsat

once

lost another

or

abandon

naval

the

battle,and

the disheartened

crews

would

the Sicilian

From

232

fightno

The

the End

Expeditionto

Athenians

then burned

of

the War

their

shipsand began
and Demosthenes
to retreat by land,Nicias in advance
bringingup
The two divisions were
the rear.
the
on
march, and both
separated
losses.
were
compelled to surrender after severe
Probably forty
taken
thousand
had
men
part in the Sicilian expedition,and
thousand
left to begin the retreat.
Demosthenes
were
twenty-five
both put to death.
and Nicias were
Many of the captiveswere sold
thrown
into slavery; many
into the stone
were
quarriesnear
where
of
of
them perished exposure
and starvation.
most
Syracuse,
The failure of the expedition
due chiefly
and
to the stupidity
was
of Nicias.
It compelled the Athenians
the superstition
at once
to
all hope of conquering other peoples,and
abandon
to consider
instead how they could save
themselves and their empire from ruin.
more.

II. THE

CLOSING

YEARS

413-404

262.

Effects
could

Athenians
when

of the

they heard

to realize the

it from

the

But

once

other

more

allies of

thither

city.

As

even
Sicily,
they came

with

overwhelmed

in

some

way
down

the enemy
could attack.
The Lacedaemonians
and

went

themselves.

first the

their rage upon the orators and the

persuaded them to engage in the enterprise.

they resolved to cut

empire. Fortunatelythey

and

of the disaster in

news

the survivors

time

hope

At

"

despair: while mourning

have to contend
that they.should
now
against
Greek world and they had no ships,
no
men, no money.
of Athens
elastic ; her hopes revived,and her
was
spirit

citizens determined

to

(413 B.C.).

truth,they vented

soothsayerswho had
For a time they seemed
their losses they feared
the whole

the

WAR

THE

B.C.

Sicilian Disaster

believe

not

OF

The

from

for

had

alliance with

expenses
the winter

fleet.

new

the

At

same

to hold fast to their

and

for

preparationbefore

by the news, began

They despatchedaid to the Chians

revolting. Alcibiades himself

rebellion againsthis native
encourage

Athens, who

Lacedaemonians

their allies,
elated

success.

Sparta to

to build

were

then

concluded

Persia; they

surrendered

an

offensive
to

that

and

power

fensive
dethe

Alcibiades
Asia

cities of

for

enemy

Minor

nearly seventy

Athens

had

protected from

every

years.

checked;

Rebellion

263.

which

233

(412 B.C.).

Alcibiades

The

"

ans
Atheni-

put forth

Samos,

To

to prevent the revolt from

every energy
spreading.
their most
faithful ally,
and
they granted independence,

this island the base

made

of their naval

operations.

The

ing
contend-

after
partiesremained
nearly balanced in strength,even
arrival of a Syracusan fleet to help the Lacedaemonians
; but
of Athens
were
resources
graduallyexhausted,while those of
seemed

enemy

limitless.

Such

unexpected event

turned

Alcibiades,hated

by King Agis

Sparta,went

over

the Phoenician

back
Sea.

Athens

the

desired to return

satrap of

and

to Athens

of affairs when

state

time

in favor

fearingfor

the
the
an

of Athens.

his

life,forsook
Sardis,and persuaded him to keep
was
dailyexpected in the Aegean

satrap that it would

each

wear

for

war

which
fleet,

convinced

He
and

mon

to the

the

the

was

the

other

out

; and

in order

in

be well to let Lacedae-

Alcibiades

war.

sincerely

bringabout his recall

he aimed
to win the gratitudeof his countrymen
by making them
think he could gain for them
the friendship
of Persia.
He wished,
his return
the leadership
of the democratic
on
too, to recover
party.
the
in the way,
But a serious obstacle was
An'dro-cles, present
to

"

of the

head
To

the very man

Alcibiades
accomplishhis object,

party,

who

was

had

sent

felt that he must

him

into exile.

first persuade

popular government along with the chief,

and then himself step in to restore it. In the lightof a saviour of
to his
democracy he believed that he could return all-powerful
native city.
"The
264. The
Conspiracy of the Oligarchs (412-411 B.C.).
others

time

oyerthrow

to

ripefor

was

the

change of government

Athens, as the
democracy. Some

Sicilian

themselves

of the

at

the failure of
prove
officers of the Athenian
at Samos, who
army
disaster

seemed

to

were

of the

in which
class,favored the establishment of oligarchy,
of the privileges
naturally
they thought they should have more
Alcibiades
when
of their standing. Accordingly,
belongingto men

wealthier

sent

them

allyof

word

Athens
But

that

he

would

if they should
when

their

set up

an

spokesman

make

and

return

the

satrap

an

sented.
they readilyconoligarchy,

came

to

Athens,

the

citizens

the Sicilian

From

234

Expeditionto

the End

of the War

of indignation.They objected
proposalswith a storm
the impious
equally to changing the government and to recalling
the objectorsone
the oligarchaddressed
But
traitor Alcibiades.
How
we
are
by one, and asked them what else could be done.
both
Persia
the
and
to support
our
to raise money
war
against
many
this pointed arguhe asked.
Unable
to meet
Greek enemies?
ment,
the
the people gave way, in the hope that they might renew
It soon
appeared,however, that
democracy at the close of the war.
in making them
the Athenians
Alcibiades
had grosslydeceived
believe he could win the help of Persia.
to carry out their designs.
The oligarchs
proceeded,nevertheless,
his

met

"

"

As

their clubs

part of the program,

at Athens

assassinated

An-

prominent democrats, and in this way terrorized

of the conspiracy,
the whole
state.
Overestimatingthe extent
the peoplefeared to talk on the subjectwith one
another,lest in so
This mutual
to an
doing they might betray themselves
enemy.
safe.
the citizens made
the conspirators
distrust among
They
managed to placethe state under the control of a Council of Four
Hundred, which included the principaloligarchs.This body was
drocles and

other

to rule with

absolute

265.

The

Rule

the Four

power.

of the Four

Hundred

(411 B.C.).

Hundred

assumed

the

"

reins of

When

ized,
organ-

They
ruled by force, assassinating,
banishing,and imprisoning their
ism
suspicion.They showed their lack of patriotopponents on mere
their
make
with
Lacedaemon
to
at any
willingness
by
peace
price,and their weakness by yieldingEuboea to the enemy.
News
of the violence and crueltyof the Four Hundred
to
came
The
soldiers assembled, declared
the Athenian
at Samos.
army
constituted
that Athens
had revolted,and that they themselves
the true government
of the empire. They deposed their oligarchic
and filled the vacant
officers,
placeswith popular men
; they prepared
the war
with vigor,and hoped through Alcibiades
to carry on
to win

Persia

to

their side.

brought
once

more,

Alcibiades

in chief command
resources

the famous

of

of his mind

government.

one
Thras-y-bu'lus,

exile to

their

of the

camp.

new

manders,
com-

democrat

immediately elected general and placed

the army.
he was
Now
ready to use all the
to save
Athens from the ruin he had brought
was

236

From

the Sicilian

Expeditionto

the End

of the

War

aid to the enemies of Athens.

and to giveall possible
About
powers
the same
time Ly-san'der,
born leader of men,
a
a
general and
from
came
diplomatistof surpassingability,
Sparta to the seat
of war.
He visited Cyrus,and easily
his way to the heart of
won
the ambitious young
nian
prince. Next year he defeated a largeAthefleet off No'ti-um, near
Ephesus, capturingfifteen triremes.
In the absence of Alcibiades,
their admiral,the Athenians had risked
a battle;and
as
a result they suffered their first reverse
since the

THE
AND

HELLESPONT
SURROUNDING

TERRITORY
Williams Engraiing Co., N.Y.

time of the Four

Hundred.

As

they held

the

Alcibiades

for
responsible
generalfor the following

misfortune,
they failed to reelect him
pont
Fearingto return home, he retired to a castle on the Hellesyear.
which
he had prepared for such an
occasion.
Thus
the
Athenians cast away
who might have saved them.
a man
Though
than in his
working to the end for his own glory,he was wiser now
youth, and would have served his country well ; but the confidence
of his fellow-citizens in one who had been so impious and so traitorous
of inattention
could not but be shaken by the slightest
appearance
to duty.1
268. The
Battle
of Arginusae (406 B.C.). The
contending
efforts. In 406 B.C. the Athenians,
now
put forth enormous
powers
"

Afterward,while residingin Phrygia,he

authorities.

was

assassinated by order of the Spartan

Arginusae and Aegospotami

with

hundred

and

met
fiftytriremes,

237

Peloponnesianfleet of a
hundred
and twenty triremes near
the islands of Ar-gi-nu'sae,
and
gained a complete victory. Athens lost twenty-fiveships; the
a

seventy, with

enemy
about

fourteen

war.

After

their commander

thousand

This

men.

of

hearing

and

their

the

was

disaster,the

amounting

crews,

to

battle of the

severest

Lacedaemonians

were

the sake of peace to leave Athens

what she stillpossessed
;
the Athenians
t
he
conditions.
againrejected

willingfor
but

Athenians

The
death
the

six of the
that

ground

wrecked

disgracedthemselves for all time by 'puttingto

the victoryat Arginusae,
generalswho had won
on
the crews
of the triremes
they had neglectedto rescue
attend

to
ship-captains

the

the

constitution

The

the

to

of

rescue

violated the

battle.

in the

commanders

work,

but

in

sudden

unfortunate

had

two

had

storm

sailors.

condemning

ordered

vented
preAthenians

The

the

generalscollectively
and in refusingthem
sufficient opportunityfor defence.
Soon
a
repentingof their conduct,theyprosecutedthose who had persuaded
them

to commit

the murder.

Aegospotami (405B.C.). Athens and Sparta

made
one
more
desperate effort to gain the mastery of the Aegean
and
The opposingfleets met in the Hellespont,
Sea.
a hundred
from Peloponnese.
eightyAthenian warships againsttwo hundred
269.

The

Battle

of

"

"

The

Athenians

were

on

the

European

side at

the

mouth

of the

of
the opposite shore
the Peloponnesianson
Ae-gos-pot'a-mi,
nian
the Athethe strait. Lysander,who
in command, surprised
was
fleet while
the sailors were
seeking provisionson shore.
There
resistance.
It seems
no
was
probable that the Athenians
Co'non.
of their generals.
were
betrayedto Lysander by one or more
alone of the commanders
escapedwith a few ships; and sendingthe
cent,
official galleyPar'a-lus to Athens
with the news, he, though innofled for his life with the rest of his shipsto Cyprus.
of Peace
(404B.C.).
270. Effects of the Battle ; the Terms
on
was
nightwhen the Paralus reached Athens with her evil tidings,
-

receiptof which a
followingthe line
swept and
That

bitter wail of
of the

swelled, as

night no

man

woe

Long Walls up

each

man

forth.

broke
to

the heart

passed the

slept. There

was

news

Peiraeus,

From

to

of the
his

mourning and

city,it

neighbor.

sorrow

for

238

From

those who
in

even

they were
the

men

lost,and

the Sicilian

were

lost,but

the End

Expeditionto

for the dead

the lamentation

the War

was

merged

they picturedthe evils

about to suffer,
the like of which they had inflicted upon
of Melos," 1 and upon many
others.
were
Ships and men
Finally,when
they were soon besiegedby land and sea.

deeper

for

of

sorrow

themselves,as

THE

(Restoration. View from

the west

; two

right a

corner

ERECHTHEUM
columns

in north

of the Parthenon

porch

cut

away

to

show

interior ;

on

is seen)

the

point of starvation,
they sent envoys to Sparta with full
to treat for peace.
Thereupon a Peloponnesiancongress
powers
in
held
was
Sparta,in which the Corinthians,the Thebans, and some
others proposed to destroy Athens
utterly,and to enslave the
Athenians.
But the Spartan ephors objected; they were
ing,
unwillthey said,that a citywhich had done such noble service for
Greece in the periloustimes of the Persian
invasion
should be
enslaved.
be content
with
conditions : that
milder
They would
Athens
should demolish
the fortifications of Peiraeus and the Long
on

Xenophon, Hellenica,ii. 2.

Peace
all her

Walls, give up

239

warshipsbut twelve,follow Spartain

peace
in war, and permitthe return of the exiled oligarchs.With these
Athens
concessions,
might remain free and " under the constitution

and

As the Athenian

of the fathers."

entered

envoys

their

a great
city,

gatheredabout them,tremblinglest their mission should have

proved fruitless ; for many were dying of starvation. The majority
ratified the treaty. Lysander entered Peiraeus with his fleet,
the exiles were
alreadycoming home, and the Peloponnesians
began
crowd

the destruction

of the walls to the music

the
celebrating

they were

III. THE

return

PROGRESS

of

Architecture

and

"

"

north

intended

for two

which

on

Hellas.

LEARNING

NEW

THE

spiteof the heavy expenses

the

temple on
wish
a
fulfilling

of the Parthenon.

plan,(i) the ground

In

Sculpture.

of the war, the Athenians

built
the E-rech-the'um
doubtless
stands

the idea that

B.C.

431-404

271.

pipes,with

to
liberty

CULTURE

or

of

new

For
it

Athena
divinities,

was

two

of

Acropolis
"

Pericles.

it is

reasons

It

in
irregular

built is uneven,
(2) it was
The Athena
and Erechtheus.

the guardian of the state, as distinguished

worshipped here was
from the imperialgoddessof the Parthenon.
She was
represented
This
archaic
form.1
image the
by a log rudely carved in human
Athenians
venerated
more
highly than all the artistic statues of
times.
To her belonged the eastern
recent
more
portionof the
temple. In the western part lived Erechtheus,the hero,who, as the
This templeis
been king of Athens.
Athenians supposed,had once
The
to us.2
the most
beautiful example of the Ionic order known
of all artists,
rich carvings
which adorn it have been the admiration
The Porch of the Maidens
but no one
has been able to equalthem.
is especially
attractive.
Though bearing heavy weights on their
In dignified
stand at perfectease.
grace of
heads, the maidens
of the
posture and draperythey are littleinferior to the sculptures

Parthenon.3

Through

*
3

the Athenians

of money

want
Cf.

"

177-

figurethus used

of this

as

support is sometimes

"

period accom-

J74-

termed

caryatid.

240

From

the Sicilian

Expedition to

PORCH

OF

(Present condition

THE

the End

MAIDENS

; from

photograph)

of

the War

Literature

plishedlittleelse
Greece.

The

as

notable

most

Pae-o'ni-us

Victoryby
there

in art.

memorial

at

of the

Good

work

241
done

in other parts of
of the periodis that of a Winged

statue

Olympia.

was

The

Messenians

dedicated it

capture of the Spartansat Sphacteria.1

The

goddess is represented,not as standingon the loftybase,but

above
it with wings outstretched and garments
floating
streaming
in the wind.
It was
a bold artistic experimentsuccessfully
achieved.
Literature
the Drama.
:
272.
Though the war
discouraged
art, it stimulated literature. Eu-rip'i-des
(480-406 B.C.),
a writer
of dramas, belongs to this period. His education was
broad; he
had been an athlete,
and a student of all the philosophy
a painter,
"

of the time.

human

No

ancient writer
well

seems

so

modern

as

he ;

none

knew

sympathized so deeply with it,especially

with women
and slaves,with the unfortunate
and the lowly. His
playsrepresent a decline in art,but a great advance in kindlyfeeling.
The most
in which the heroine dies to save
popularis the Al-ces'tis,
her selfish husband's
life. Among
the strongest is the Medea,
whose
plot is drawn from the voyage of the Argonauts.2 There
remain
in all nineteen plays of the ninetyattributed to him
two
by the ancients.
The most
famous
comic dramatist of Greece was
Aristophanes
failed
his
(about450-385 B.C.). His wit never
fancywas as lively
;
ful
and as creative as Shakspere's
; the choruses of his playsare beautilyrics,
fragrantof the country and woodland, free from the polish
and from the restraints of life within the city. He has much, also,
has given so true a
he lived. No one
to tell of the times in which
tures
time such caricapictureof Athens and her people,and at the same
ter
his characof her individual publicmen.
We might compare
nature

sketches
Clouds

is

ideal state

so

with

in

The
newspaper.
sophists.In his Birds he picturesan
of

the cartoons

attack

an

or

on

the

Cloudland,whose

the

citizens

modern

were

the fowls

of the air.

Knights holds Cleon up to ridicule ; the Wasps presents the

Athenian jury-systemin a comical light. He is said to have written
fifty-four
comedies,of which we have but eleven.
Thucydides wrote a historyof the
273. History : Thucydides.
PeloponnesianWar, includingthe events which led up to it. He
The

"

"

25L

2"II2.

242

the Sicilian

From

gatheredthe

Expeditionto

facts for it with

of the

the End

War

by travel and personal

of events.
His work
by questioning
eye-witnesses

observation

and

is therefore

remarkable

extreme

care

for accuracy.
It contains no anecdotes or
the historyof Herodotus
attractive.1
In contrast

myths, which make

with Herodotus, he is not only critical
complex in styleand thought. He
character

and

partiesand
of

and

correct, but

ceedingly
ex-

deeply into the

of political
motives
goes

into

the

causes

is

It

events.

and

nection
con-

the

first

scientific

written.
He
history ever
admits that his strictly
truthful narrative
lieves
disappointthe ear, but bemay

one

that it will prove

who desires a true

useful to any
pictureof the

to happen in
past and of what is likely

the future
human
of

in the

events.

ordinary course

As his work

he
to generals,
especially
tails,
campaigns with all the de-

but

pays

little attention

improvements
274.

The

Sophists.
"

Paeonius.

Since

2
sophists
knowledge were

the age

professors
of useful
increasing
in number
and in influence.
As they
aimed chiefly
to prepare
their pupils
"

"

"

Restoration

in Museum,

ternal
to in-

civilization.

and

of Pericles the

(By

to be

service

narrates

VICTORY

was

of

Olympia)

original

for

statesmanship,they laid great stress on rhetoric. This new

livery
branch
of learning
and dewas
a system of rules for the composition
of speeches. Through such study,the sophists
asserted,
any
could fit himself in a short time for publicspeakingand for
man
statesmanship. It is true that the teachingsof certain eminent men
of this class contained much
that was
wholesome.
They began the
the criticism of literature.
and
and philology,
study of grammar
of which was
a principle
They were founders of the science of ethics,
fore
thereand that slaverywas
that all men
were
by nature brothers,
But
mere
were
jugglersin words; and the
wrong.
many
1

"

241.

"

242.

244

the Sicilian

From

Expeditionto the End

of the

War

he devoted himself to searchingfor

living,
The
truth.
are
ignorant." Socrates,
sophistshad said, We
in
heralded
era
a new
thought when he said, I
admitting this,
the
will seek knowledge," thus asserting,
contrary to the sophists,
truth.
of learning the
Though people called him
possibility
of study and charged no fee,but simply
he gave no course
sophist,
his oppohe met
till he had convinced
questionedany one whom
nent
of
the
in the argument that the latter knew
nothing
subject
he
he
In all this
of conversation.
was
a heaventhought
fulfilling
appointedmission, the quest of truth with the help of his fellowmen.
Taking no thought of natural or of physicalscience,he
for instance,what was
busied himself with moral duties,
inquiring,'
bravery and what cowardice ;
just and what unjust; what was

could make

but

poor

"

"

"

what

state

was

and

what

the character

of

statesman.

True

only guide to virtuous conduct.

Thus
Socrates laid for ethical science a solid foundation,on which
could build far better than on the sands of sophistry.
men
his teaching tended
In religion
to strengthenthe traditional
and he performed
faith. He often spoke of the gods in the plural,
duties of the citizen in the customall the religious
ary
conscientiously
But he sometimes
spoke,too, of one God, the creator of
way.
His idea seems
been
that the other gods
to have
the universe.
subordinate
to the one
were
being. Moral conduct he
supreme
based on religion
the reason.
We should be virtuous,
on
as well as
he taught,not only because virtue is useful to us, but also because
God is good because he likes that very conit is pleasingto God.
duct
which is most
to our
own
advantage. In this way, Socrates
reconciled knowledge with faith.
the close of the PeloponnesianWar, thinkingpeoplegrew
About
of the uncertainty
of the new
and went back to the
learning,
weary
stroyed
himself deold faith. Socrates
but was
helped this movement,
by it. In 399 B.C. he was brought to trial on the ground
that he had corruptedthe youth and had acted impiouslytoward
took
conscientious but ignorant,and misthe gods. The
was
accuser
had
done
him
for a sophist. In fact,Socrates
exactlythe
him
to death.
Though he
contrary. But the jury condemned
might have escaped from the country,he considered it the duty of
knowledge,

he

was
asserted,

the

Socrates

citizen

good

he

way

Inspired

the

death.

painless

this

drank

he

Cheerfully

It

crowned

them

Through

the

useful

hemlock

life

his

of

philosophy
the

Suggestive
did

Why

i.

it?

413

the

government.

"

4.

Spartan

"?

the

was

sculpture

them?

for

Write

and

"

changed

sophist

?
of

summary

Sicilian

The
of

II.

Apology;
Greece,

Expedition.
historical

dramatic

Socrates.

"

Murray,
ii.

452-456;

is it

the

10.

the

the

the

Cyzicus,
"

of

Age

entire

to

of

the

war?

speak

of

the

in

porch

In

respects

the

(p. 211).

what

Pericles

Arginu-

Notium,

frieze

8.

in

effect

pre-Solonian
in

Parthenon

what

In

that

greater

wrong

sculptor?

since

with

the

with

Maidens
in

B.C.,

respects

Why

9.

did

he

Peloponnesian

differ
cluding
in-

War,

effects.

Topics

Note-book

I.

of

the

advised

victorious

why

"

the

for

task

time.

have

had

Hundred

war,

Maidens

architecture

n.

causes

the

difficult

more

and

mistaken

Socrates

was

from

with

"

all later

454

Which

location

the

Compare

7.

martyr.

principles.

Pericles

Egypt,
?

Four

this

of

Describe

6.

loss

Peloponnesians

operations

(p. 240)

Which

the

the

were

Aegospotami.

Erechtheum

had

the

army

and

sae,

Why

describing

In

5.

government

of

In

throughout
his

on

Would

in

greater
of

and

scattered

thought

caused

execution.

saint

based

Sicily?

disaster
the

was

which

Questions

invade

Athenian

Which

B.C.

Compare

3.

the

Compare

2.

Sicily,

Athenians

the

of

of

disciples

influenced

Socrates

death

administered.

poison

method

the

by

unjustly
"

Athenian

ideal,

schools

when

even

of

cup

great

founding

Hellas,

laws

was

the

by

the

obey

to

245

Fling,
Ancient

"

vi, vii

Thucydides,

(bk. vii

is

piece
master-

writing).
Source
Greek

Gildersleeve,

Book

of Greek

Literature,
Essays

and

History,
170-177;

Studies,

240-249

Holm,
"Xanthippe

Plato,

History
and

of
rates."
Soc-

CHAPTER

SICILY:

THE

XXI

TYRANT

AND

The

fall of Athens
well
of

her

bay

those

to

as

was

had

name

; but

foreign

of

Carthage

sent

hundred

thousand
who

Hamilcar
laid

siege

thousand

the

captives

Hannibal

way,

fleet

conveying

ninth

day

Thence

the

spot where

to

killed

the

appease

great

with

that

of

armament

great
the

city

and

marched
Three

had

Hamilcar

ficed
sacrithis

In

torture.

hungry appetite

of

army

repeated.

horrid

the

Selinus,1

Hannibal

were

at

On

an

it stormed

led

sought

two

by

This

Himera.

massacre

were

Persians

Han'ni-bal, grandson

the

there

himself,2 and

vast

as

terror

Hellas.

threatened

(409 B.C.).

to

of

West

the

these

parts

siege and

were

the

supremacy

The

"

years

still

at

B.C.).
of the

was

King

the

on

naval

conquer

his death

met

inhabitants

where

Himera,

to

under

Selinus;

the

to

which

men

had

to

butchered

of her

Sicily a

to

over

Greeks

nearly seventy
Carthaginians and

the

again hoped
Segesta,

the

to

For

both

overthrow

powers

invitation

East.

kept

the

on

the

of

misfortune

great

Sicily (409-404

invade

Carthaginians

LIBERATOR

B.C.

413-337

276.

THE

of his

father's
grand-

ghost.
A

fresh

of

army

wealthiest

and

most

reenforced

by

their

their

city

quarters

Soon
made

of

to

art,

Syracuse.
1

tyrant

of Cam-a-ri'na

"

the

sent

young

officer of

of his

city.

to

was

Greek

much

the

world.

Though

finally abandoned

inhabitants

took
of its

He

Syracuse,

up

his

winter

wealth, including

compelled

indignation

of

the

246

people

invader

"

208.

of Ge'la

and

classes

all
2

257.

Di-o-nysri-us,

named

their cities to the

abandon

Great

the

(405 B.C.).

Carthage

to

in

the

then

Acragas,

Himilcon

Leontini.

in

Acragas, and

afterwards
himself

city

neighbors,

settled

invested

next

luxurious

in deserted

works

many

and

and

mercenaries

to

tire
re-

against

Dionysius
; but

the usurper

through his

againstevery attempt
he concluded

whole

the interior

in the Wall

corner

ginians,for
Syracuse.
277.
not

intend

busied
war

he

War

with
to

new

more

huge
Though
-

of Dionysius at Syracuse, interior view ; from

than

as

"

scale.
army

He
of

built

an

instrument, afterward

infantry
; his

known

some
vessels,

Dionysius did

wall about

as

againstthe enemy's walls.

three hundred

photograph)

Seven
years he
enemy.
and with preparingfor

immense

eightythousand

the absolute ruler of

Carthage (397-392B.C.). But

throwinglargestones
were

In 404 B.C.
he yielded

EURYELUS

yieldSicilyforever to the
his power
with increasing

grand
organized an
a

invented

to

their part, acknowledged him

himself

on

deposehim.
Carthaginians,
by which
or

himself

"

FORT

(A

maintained

island except the Sicels

nation in
a native
the Greeks of the eastern
The Carthacoast.

and

"

he

mercenaries

assassinate

treaty with the

the

them

to

to

247

of them

the

Syracuse;
engineers

for
ballista,

In his

new

fleet

quinqueremes,

with five banks of oars, invented by his shipwrights.

galleys
utterlyunscrupulous,though he ground do\vn the rich

Sicily:The

248

nearlyevery sentiment dear to the Greek

heart,yet he gained a certain degreeof popularityby the military
him
a
as
preparationswhich made
strong champion of
appear
Hellas againstthe barbarian.
He
Carthage in 397 B.C., and with his vast
began war
upon
armament
nearly swept the Phoenicians from the island; but in
the followingyear
Himilcon, landing
in Sicily,
.regained
everything which
Carthage had lost,
with

taxes

and

Tyrant and the Liberator

violated

and

in

Messene

addition.

Most

the Messenians

of
caped,
es-

con
Himil-

but

compelled his
men

burn

to

woodwork

and

grind the
powder.

stones

The
then

KINGDOM

OF

in

The

raised

was

extreme

and

western

newly
the
end

built ramparts

vaders
in-

saved

the

sieged
be-

tyrant

Syracuseby land
city. The siege

pushed back till he held but the

enemy
of the island. All the rest Dionysiussecured

the

treaty of 392 B.C.

278. Conquests of Dionysius in Italy (to287 B.C.)
; Other

by

to

feated
de-

Dionysiusand
the

sea.

to

the fleet of

DIONYSIUS

and

the

Wars.

conquering the Greeks of southern

Dionysius was
Italy. In the year 387 B.C. we find his kingdom extendingas far
to Syracuse,
Croton.
of the conqueredpeoplehe removed
Some
as
the utmost
others he sold into slavery. Everywhere he showed
but the Greeks were
disregardfor sacred placesand institutions,
powerlessto resist.
In two more
which he carried on with Carthage, he failed to
wars
"

Meantime

Dionysius in

Peace

249

from Sicily,
but stillheld the larger
dislodgethe foreigners
part of
his Italian possessions. He aided the Lacedaethe island,
as well as
monians
in maintaining their supremacy
eastern
over
Greece,1and
his power

He

was

poet

greatestin the Hellenic world.

; his Character.

"

Though engaged in

end, in

to the

wars

in Peace

Dionysius

279.

the

recognizedas

was

as

his later years a desire for

peace grew upon him.
well as a general. A story is told that Phi-lox'e-

his court,

imprisoned in a stone quarry as a

the tyrant's
liberated soon
When
verse.
punishment for criticising
afterward and invited to hear another recital,
he endured
ing
the reada

nus,

for

at

poet

few

was

and

moments,

then

"

cried out,

Take

back

me

to

the

"

A splendiddisplay of horses and chariots,of

quarry !
athletes and actors, which
Dionysiusmade at the Olympic games,

stone

in like

manner

applause.

no

won

tried to incite the Greeks

there

tyrant by plunderinghis rich

prevented this outrage,

his chariots

and

the favor

from Athens,
Lys'i-as,
the
to begin war
upon

orator

assembled

tents.

holiness

The

of the festival

the reciters of his poems

were
overturned
in the race.
Far from

were

but

of the Greeks

admiration

and

The

by

his

hissed,

winning

exhibit,the tyrant

hated.
universally
No
In 367 B.C. Dionysiusdied,after reigning
thirty-eight
years.
of strong
tyrant could have ruled so long without the possession
without
proach.
requalities.The private character of Dionysius was
hesitated at bloodshed,
the other hand, he never
On
that he

discovered

was

confiscation, of property,

Many spiesin
he suspectedat
whom
performed a service
280.

337

"

was

Corinth.

of character.

He

of

Strife

which

would

make

Greece

and

for

him

of those

he
failings,
Europe by protecting

Italyand Sicily.

(367-345); Timoleon

the

Liberator

(345-

nysius
period of civil strife followingthe death of Dioat lengthended
by Ti-mo'le-on,a generalsent out by
of remarkable
abilityand strength
Timoleon
a man
was

B.C.).

death

for

civilization in
Civil

anything else

the movements
watched
his pay
With all his
and abroad.
home

safe.

Hellenic

or

Dionysiushad

then gave

since the
the tyrants who
usurped the power in many Sicilian cities.
laws and settled governments. On the

Gradually

he

overthrew

the cities good

"

291.

Sicily:The

250
Cri-mi'sus
which

River

had

he
to

come

his small

met

the Liberator

Tyrant

and

the

mercenary
of
purpose

Sicilyfor

vast

the

force of

Carthage
overwhelming him.

the
up the hill from the top of which
soldiers expectedto get their first view of the enemy,
their religious
fears were
aroused at sightof a train of mules laden with parsley,
As

marched

army

But with the exclamation

plant used for decorating tombs.
the reward
of victoryin the Isthmian
that the parsleychapletwas
Timoleon
seized some
of the plant and made
wreath
for
a
games,
his head ; the officers,
followed his example ; and
then the soldiers,
a

"

the

swept

army

the hill like

over

Throwing

his enthusiastic

which

had

justcrossed

blow.

sudden

thousands

and

host

of victorious

the

troops upon

Carthaginiancentre,
it with one
mighty

full in the faces of the enemy

the swollen
in attempting to recross
beat

killed

were

athletes.

Crimisus,he crushed

the

storm

drowned

were

or

made

captive. The

sands
; thou-

stream,

victory was

complete (340 B.C.).

he had

When

liberated

all Greek

Sicilyfrom Carthage and from

writh Syracuseas leader
tyranny, he joinedthe cities in a federation,
in war.
All members
of the union were
guaranteedtheir freedom.
turned his attention to the improvement of the country.
He next
As the long anarchy had left largetracts of land uncultivated and
without

he

owners,

and

settle

few

peacefulyears

the vacant

on

lived to

invited

Greeks

farms.

from

other

Thousands

to

come

the call ;
and Timoleon
brought prosperityto fruitful Sicily,

the desolate island bloom

see

countries

answered

again like

garden.

After
the
all

and passed
rulingeightyears, he resignedhis dictatorship,
remainder
of his days a privatecitizen of Syracuse,honored
by
their liberator.

as

he died his fellow-citizens established

When

festival in memory
the
tyrants,had overthrown
an

annual

and
cities,

had

their

laws."

own

281.
of the
and

Summary
Athenian

restored

to

"

man

had
foreigner,

the Sicilians the

suppressedthe
the desolate
replenished
of livingunder
privilege
who

had

History (413-337 B.C.). (i) After the ruin

the island
in Sicily,
the Carthaginians invaded

of Sicilian
armament

of the

"

destroyed Selinus, Himera, and Acragas. (2) With

great difficulty
Dionysius, the able tyrant of Syracuse, saved his own
city from conquest at
their hands, and eventually won
the greater part of the
back
from
them

CHAPTER

THE

XXII

SUPREMACY

OF

B.C.

404-371

282.

the

The

Decarchies.

Peloponnesian War,1
in the

was

done

than

more

Spartan
lacked

the

beyond

the

dealing
In

board

of

the

allies

newly

oligarchs,with
The

low

birth,

caused
over

noble

and

killed

and

family

The
a

the

Thirty

board

of

state.

of the

unscrupulous

appetite

for

blood

ruled,

condition

of

nothing

methods

of

to

brutal

toward

Relying

rank.

He

could

man

Sparta

within

his

At

plunder.
1

"

270.

252

his

on

feel

the

fenceless
deport,
supfiscated
con-

women

that

Greeks

life,
found

career

and

Lysander

Athens

authority

absolute

with

the

cold

short

the

perioeci.

of

established

was

port
sup-

usually

the

mistreated

or

in most

politicalenemies,

and

under

guiding spirit of

and

was

"

be

To

harmost,"

their

decarchy,

up

garrisons

(404-403 B.C.).

Athens

The

highest

to

talents,

government.

and

greed,

safe ; but

thirty

set

watch.

kept

sheer

the

"

expelled

or

were

to

at

had
under

rare

Athenian

of the

Lysander

Athens

degraded

of

think

Lacedaemonian

he

through
While

of

opportunity

could

and

termed

to

whom

children.

283.

stationed

servile

over

property

themselves

He

full control

commander,

oligarchs

property,

task.

state, accordingly, he

decarchies, he

the

such

who

Greece

man

end

Syracuse

as

Lysander,

eastern

but, though

east

excellent

an

the

at

subjects.

allied

people

and

and

cities.
of

man

had

of Athens

stood

bring

to

man

Athens,
in the

of power

now

for

of

supreme

long-established Spartan

of ten

the

summit

He

genius

with

each

overthrow

Sparta

other

any

the rule

upon

left

the

leadership.

improve
he

At

west.

The

"

SPARTA

board

was

Crit'i-as, a

calculating,ambitious
he

developed

strange

Democracy Restored
after

Soon

of
takingpossession
political
opponents.

253

the government,

the

Thirtybegan
safety,
they called
in a Lacedaemonian
force of seven
hundred
and
men,
lodged it in
the Acropolisat the expense
of the state.
Supported by these
the
with
their
As they
Thirty proceeded
troops,
bloody work.
for
their
often murdered
men
property, they preferredwealthy
victims.
Hundreds
fled into exile; but the Spartan ephors,to
the fugitives
from all parts of
uphold the Thirty, warned
away
kill their

to

Greece.

of

Some

the

states

For

their

sheltered

own

them

in

defiance

of

the

ephors. Thebes, long the enemy of Athens, became their rallyingbecause

of the cruelty
of the
place. Their number dailyincreased,
government

at home.

284. Democracy
into

swelled
bulus

up

on

(403 B.C.).
"

The

of

crowd

exiles

of seventy patriots,
At the head
Thrasyarmy.
the border from Thebes, seized Phy'le,
a strong fort

an

crossed

high

restored

Mount

Par'nes,and

held it

againstan attack
thousand, he soon

his army
increased
With
to a
enemy.
the Thirtywith
ward seized Peiraeus.
When

of the

after.

their Lacedaemonian

down
to attack him, the
garrisonand citizen supporters marched
patriotsdefeated them and killed Critias.
The patriots
returned
to Athens.
They pardoned all for wrongdoing
except the Thirty and a few other guiltyofficials. The
had enough of oligarchy.Their two recent experiAthenians now
ments
in that
and
called
who

"

form

of the
better

claimed

of constitution

Thirty

class

"

proved

"

was

"

that the government

delusion and

on
superiorprivileges

rule of the

the

the

lie,and

ground

Four

dred
Hun-

of the

that

of virtue

the
were

so-

men

in

who had
of people,
The great mass
cutthroats and robbers.
reality
obedient to law and exerfar more
cised
littlewealth or education,were
Athens
was
greater self-control in public life. Henceforth
with democracy.
content
285. The Expedition of Cyrus (401B.C.). Although the Thirty
the Lacedaemonians
fell,
upheld the decarchies in the other cities
of their empire. It was
a
part of their policyas well to keep on
good terms with Cyrus, who had done so much to give them the
the death of Darius, the late king of
On
Athens.
victoryover
his elder son, succeeded to the throne,while
Persia,Ar-tax-erx'es,
"

The

254

Supremacy of Sparta

Cyrus, the
desirable

stillheld at Sardis the command

of the most
younger,
Wishing to be king in placeof his
part of Asia Minor.1

brother,Cyrus prepared a great

thousand

Greeks.

The

force of Asiatic

Lacedaemonians

of these mercenaries

from

not

troops and thirteen

only favored

Greece,but

even

sent

him

his

listment
en-

seven

hundred

this
state.
With
heavy-armed troops from their own
the princemarched
into the very heart of the Persian empire,
army
and met
his brother in battle at Cu-nax'a,near
Babylon. Cyrus
and
his
Asiatics
from
the
killed
retired
was
field; but the little
victorious over
the immense
Hellenic force was
of the king.2
army
286.
under

The

Return

of the

began their
entrapped

"

Ten

Thousand."
in

"Then

the

Greeks

northerlydirection. Their
and
slain by the Persian
commander
generals were
rival of Cyrus. Thus
left leaderless
a
Tis-sa-pher'nes,
they were
in the midst of the enemy's country, surrounded
by hostile nations,
with impassablerivers and snow-covered
mountains
between
them
and home, with no guideeven
which way to go.
to tell them
While
in despair,
from
they were
encouragement and good advice came
Athenian
who
had accompanied the expedition.This
a
young
was
Xen'o-phon,a pupil of Socrates the philosopher.Taking
from
his words, they chose new
them
generals,among
courage
march, harassed
Xenophon. Then they set out on their northward
Media
From
at every step by the enemy.
they entered the Car-du'chi-an mountains, which
covered with snow
and inhabited by
were
fierce barbarians.
In passing through this rough country the
Greeks suffered every kind of hardship,and were
sailed
constantlyasby the natives,who rolled stones down upon them from
harassed
them
in the rear, or
blocked
their adthe heights,
vance.
or
losses were
Their
is that any
heavy, and the wonder
escapedalive.
Thence
Their
was
now
easier;
they entered Armenia.
way
but it was
and
stillsuffered
from
The
the
cold.
winter,
they
satrap
of the country promised them a free passage, but proved treacherous,
and
the fighting
continued.
After a long, weary
march, full of
a

"

The

truce

retreat

191.

lowest

this number

estimate
a

of ancient

writers

great exaggeration.

is 400,000.

Some

modern

historians

sider
con-

A
adventures

and of

the footsore

it raised

narrow

with Persia

255

they neared the Black Sea. As

certain height overlooking
the water,

escapes,

reached

van

War

a
"

joyfulshout, The Sea ! The Sea !

quicklyup to enjoy the good sightand

soldiers

New

ran

cheering. The

"

embraced

men

another

one

and

The

rest

of the

to share

in the

their officers with

tearful eyes.
It seemed
like home.
They had lost about a third
of their number
in a journey of perhaps a thousand
miles.
The

thrilling
story of

the

"

"

Thousand

Ten

expeditionof Cyrus

is told in the

and

of the retreat

of the

An-ab'a-sis of Xenophon.

The

of these mercenaries
in the midst
harmony, and discipline
and moral
hardshipsand dangers prove the high political
character of the Greeks.
To the world of that time, however,the
evidence of Persian weakness.
as
significant
expeditionwas chiefly
The
discoverythat so small a force could penetrate to the very
heart of the empire and return
almost unscathed
the first step
was
courage,
of such

its

toward

287.

conquest.

War

Lacedaemon

between

and

-The

(beginning
400 B.C.).
important effects: (i) it

Persia

expeditionof Cyrus had two

brought the Persian power into contempt among the Greeks ; and
between
Persia and Lacedaemon.
(2) it immediately caused war
For this state, by supportingCyrus, had incurred the anger of the
Persian
king. A strong force of Peloponnesianscrossed to Asia
of the Ten Thousand, began war
Minor, and, joiningthe remnant
who
had recently
the Persians.
In 396 B.C.
A-ges-i-la'us,
upon
succeeded

to

additional

king was
life,and
years

one

of the thrones

troops and

took

command

at

; but

his small army

few thousand

The
little lame
in person.
Faithful in friendship,
simple in

command

gentleand courteous.
he was
incorruptible,

of age

with

Sparta,came

at

ideal

an

his

accession,he

he

proved himself

without

was

he freed the Greeks

Spartan. Though

an

forty
experiencein

wholly
able king and general. With

of Asia

Minor

from

the Persian

yoke.
(395-387 B.C.). The plan of Agesilaus for further conquest was
rudelydisturbed by trouble at home.
selfish and
Sparta was
tyrannical;the greater allied states, as
288.

Thebes

The

and

communities

Corinthian

War

in her supremacy
at least their independence. As

Corinth, wished
desired

"

share

; the lesser

theywere

all

The

256

Supremacy of Sparta

disappointedin their hopes,they began to show discontent. In

which lasted eight
to a war
395 B.C. they provoked Lacedaemon
This is called the Corinthian
War, because the struggle
years.
about Corinth
and the Isthmus.
centred chiefly
Athens,Corinth,
several

and

other

states

took

the side of

Thebes,

while

Persia

plied
sup-

the funds.
In the second
fleet under

year

Conon,1

of the war,
the

off Cni'dus.

Lacedaemon

Athenian
Thus

combined

Greek

and

admiral, destroyedthe
the

fleet of

fell
Spartan naval supremacy
island to island,
the
expelling

sailed from
Conon
singleblow.
all from Lacedaemonian
and freeing
rule.
harmosts
and
he anchored his fleet in the harbors of Peiraeus,
he began
of Persia and of the neighborsof Athens
at

Phoenician

The

next

with
to

the

year

help

rebuild the

Long Walls.
home

the Lacedaemonians

fortunate.
scarcelymore
Ly sander was killed;it became necessary to recall Agesilaus. But
the victories he gained on his return
helped Sparta little. One of
the most
importantfacts in the historyof this war is that the welltrained lighttroops of Athens
were
now
proving superiorto the
Near
Corinth they attacked a
heavy infantryof Lacedaemon.
battalion of the Spartanphalanx,2six hundred
strong,and cut it to
Lacedaemonians
never
pieces. The
fully recovered from the
dation
which
blow ; the militaryorganization
had always been the founof their supremacy
in Greece proved defective.
289. The Treaty of Antalcidas (387B.C.). They acknowledged
their failure in the war
by coming to terms with Persia. The king
of a
and influence for the preservation
was
ready to use his money
him the possession
of Asia Minor
should assure
; and
peace which
could do nothingbut accept his terms.
Lacedaemon
Accordingly
her ambassador, An-tal'ci-das,
and
the king'slegateinvited all
the Greek
of
states
to send
deputiesto Sardis for the purpose
When
concludingpeace.
they arrived,the Persian legateshowed
them
the king'sseal on a document
which he held in his hand, and
read from it the following
terms
imposed by Persia upon the Greeks :
King Artaxerxes deems it just that the cities in Asia, with the
islands of Cla-zom'e-nae
and
Cyprus, should belong to himself;
Nearer

were

"

"

" 269.

" 138.

Spartan Tyranny
both
the rest of the Hellenic cities,

independent,with

the

which

belongto

three

to

are

partiesconcerned
land

sea, with

and

impossibleto
Persia

they

Lacedaemon

her

positionmade
290.

It

terms.

the

Sparta.

of the

any

I, Artaxerxes,together
As

was

offenders

the Greeks

both

and

understood

that

treaty for the king; and

The

"

by

believed it

Lacedaemon

well

again the undisputedhead

of

Should

againstthe

war

money."
with
successfully

enforce

Violence

The

views, will

my

war

to

great, he will leave

of yore.

as

accept this peace,

accepted the
was

Athens

shipsand

wage

and

exceptionof Lem'nos, Im'bros,and Scy'ros,

not

share

those who

with

small

257

of eastern

this

Greece.

Lacedaemonians

stillruled

of brute
accordingto the policy of Lysander, a combination
force and cunning. It was
their aim to weaken
the states from
which
Greece
they might expect resistance. In northern
they
assailed the Chalcidic League, which, though newly formed, had
with
this league,they
already grown
powerful. While at war
seized the Cadmea
the citadel of Thebes
and
occupied it
with a garrisonin open
the
violation of law (383 B.C.). Even
citizens of Sparta,not
in general,were
to speak of the Greeks
indignantwith the officer who had done the violent deed ; but
Agesilausexcused him on the ground that the act was advantageous
that Greece was
to Sparta,thus setting
forth the principle
to be ruled
for the benefit merely of the governingcity. Though the Lacedaemonians
punished the officer,
they approved the deed by leaving
"

"

the

garrisonin

291.

the Cadmea.

Tyranny
the

"

arouses

heightof

Resistance.

their power.

"

Their

The

Lacedaemonians

citywas
leader of all eastern Greece, supportedby Persia
Dionysius in the west.2 But their policywas
now

at

forces which

to

were

first aroused

was

the

were

acknowledged
and

in the east
to

soon

by

awaken

ance
Resistforever.
their supremacy
hand was
the oppressor's
in Thebes, where

overthrow

like the Thirty

citywas an oligarchysomewhat
Athens.
at
garrison,these
Supported by the Lacedaemonian
opponents and
oligarchsruled by terrorism,imprisoningsome
banishingothers. The exiles took refuge in Athens, and there
a wealthy
found sympathy. Among the refugees
was
Pe-lop'i-das,

heaviest.

In that

Xenophon,

Hettenica,v.

2
i.

"

279-

The

258
Theban,

full of

Supremacy of Sparta

patriotismand

brave

recklessness, the very

his cityneeded
to save
her. Pelopidashad left behind him
man
in Thebes
intimate friend,
able
an
an
orator of remarkEp-am-in-on'das,
keenness
and force,and a philosopher.
The
oligarchsthought Epaminondas a harmless dreamer; but
while they allowed
him
unmolested
to remain
at home, he was
into his school the most
attracting
capableyouths of Thebes, and
was
arousingin them the moral power which was to set his country
free. The
Thebans, who delightedin physicaltraining,
young
learned from the philosopherthat mere
size of muscle
of no
was
and endurance.
advantage, that they should aim rather at agility
He encouraged them
to wrestle with the Lacedaemonian
soldiers
the crisisshould come, they might meet
in the Cadmea, that when
them

without

292.

The

the
was

now

was

Liberation

need

(379 B.C.).

of Thebes

"

planning to return with

oligarchy. Four years passed in

to

of 379

Sparta was

B.".

The

becoming

Meantime
the

was

the winter

resistance

"

fear.

Athens

at

to

das
Pelopi-

exiles to

this manner,

throw
over-

and

it

Chalcidic

every

League had fallen,

day more
hopeless;there

of haste.

he set out on the dangerous

twelve of the younger
Selecting
men,
blow for their country. They dressed
mission of striking
secret
a
themselves like huntsmen, and, accompanied by dogs,crossed Mount
toward Thebes in groups of two and three. A snow-storm
Parnes

justset in when at dark these men, their faces muffled in their

cloaks,entered the cityby various gates and met another band of
On the following
in the house of their leader.
night
conspirators
official who
also in the plot held a banquet, to which he
an
was
the head of the
invited all the magistratesexcept one, who
was
oligarchic
party.
of the conspirators
While these magistrates
were
some
carousing,
time
At the same
and killed them.
entered,disguisedas women,
Pelopidaswith two companions went to the house of the remaining
The
magistrate,and after a hard strugglemade away with him.
next
spiracy
morning Epaminondas introduced the leaders of the conwho
elected them
to the assembled
Boeotarchs,
citizens,
chief magistrates
of Boeotia.
A democracy was
established,
or
now
had

The

260

Supremacy of Sparta

in

the treaty. Sparta insisted on signing

regardto ratifying
but would
it in behalf of her allies,
not grant the same
to
privilege
demanded
tian
that the BoeoThebes.
When, accordingly,
Agesilaus
should be permittedto signfor themselves,
towns
Epaminondas, the Theban
deputy,declared that his cityhad as good a right
arose

to

represent all Boeotia

of

awe

was

Sparta,and

the borders

within

Sparta

startled the convention.

boldness
in

as

no

one

rage sprang
should be

to his feet and

the

bade

His

ages the Greeks had stood

dared
questionher authority

For
had

of Lacedaemon.

winning his point with

represent all Laconia.

to

the

deputy from Thebes

members, when Agesilausin great

him

But

say

once

for all whether

Boeotia

"

freedom
independent. Yes, if you will give the same
to
Laconia," Epaminondas replied. The
Spartan king then
in the
struck the name
of Thebes
from the list of states represented
convention,excludingher thus from the peace.
(371 B.C.). The treaty was signed,
295. The Battle of Leuctra
All eyes
the convention
dissolved,the deputiesreturned home.
turned
toward the impending conflict ; every one
expectedto see
the cityof Epaminondas punished,perhaps destroyed,for the boldness
"

of her leader.
Leuctra

was

small

town

in Boeotia

southwest

of Thebes.

The

effects the most

fought there in 371 B.C. was in its political
important in which Greeks only were
engaged; to the student of
in history.
militaryaffairs it is one of the most interesting
As a result of studies in military
science,
Epaminondas introduced
The Boeotians had always made
a sweepingrevolution in warfare.
excellent soldiers,
and in the PeloponnesianWar
fully
they had successin a heavy phalanx.
tried the experimentof massing their men
in the new
This solid body of infantrywas
to be the chief element
of
the experiences
militarysystem ; Epaminondas was to convert
his countrymen
into the most
important principleof military
the principle
science
the attack upon
of concentrating
a
single
of
the
the
line.
to
Peloponnesianright,
point
Opposite
enemy's
their
made
of
of
Lacedaemonians
under
one
kings,he massed
up
his left in a column
deep and led it to the attack. The enemy,
fifty
drawn
deep in the old-fashioned way, could
up uniformlytwelve
Boeotian centre purposely
The
the terrificshock.
not withstand

battle

"

Battle
advanced

more

that

slowly,so

slowly than

of

the

Theban

the

Leuctra

column, and

But

the

Boeotian

high-spirited,
easilyput

enemy;

261
the

rightstill more
only the slightest
horsemen,who were
well

these divisions of the line took

part in the battle.

trained and

of

and

the

Sacred

to

the inefficientcavalry

rout

Band, Epaminondas' school

youths,followed the

impetuous Pelopidasin
extreme
charge on
Spartan
right. The king was
killed,his
THE
THEBAN
beaten
thoroughly
army
by a
BATTLE
OF
much
smaller force,and
the supremacy

of

irresistible

an

the

TACTICS

IN THE

of

Sparta

was

at

an

LEUCTJRA

end.
-I I

of the Spartan
296. Estimate
and
Power.
At the close
Policy

II

frqqq

""

J"1

\\

"

f^jU!
Peloponnesian War, the
Athenian
der
Empire had passed unthe control of Sparta,which
continued
to treat
it as subject.
But the Spartans were
less capable
of governing an
in
empire than
the
Athenians
had
been; they
less intelligent,
less justand
were
mild.
They had no experiencein
edge
governing an empire, no knowl[,I,
of finance,
I, II,
and no
system of
II,III,
had the
as
administering
justice,
Athenians. They could only think
of controlling
their subjectsas
in the most
favored
they did their perioeci,
or
cases, their
allies. Naturallythey were
guiltyof many harsh
of

the

inu,

ODDDTHEBAN
I a

CAVALRr

a, BOEOTIANS

I,

THEBAN

COLUMN

",

SACRED

BAND

THEBANS

AND

THEBAN-.

ADVANCE

"""

SHOWING

CUTTING

ALLIES

BEFORE

IN

^^^

SPARTANS,
THEBAN

THE

FORMATION

PELOPONNESIANS

AND

COLUMN

SPARTAN

ADVANCE

ECHELON

SACRED

BAND

LINE

tyrannous

Iin

C...

ponnesian
Peloand

acts.

all these facts,

admit that after Athens
must
we
Notwithstanding
had proved her inability
well for Sparta to
to unite Hellas,it was
make
the attempt.
A great number
of liberty-loving
could
states
not possibly
be welded
of force and
into a nation without
the use
the infliction of some
temporary injustice.But the Greeks were
to cooperate in safeguardingtheir rightsagainstSparta,
learning
while adapting themselves to her supremacy.
In time the system

The

262

proved

have

might

for

efficient

and

in

and

Thebans.
the

The

of

skill

the

was

the

Greeks

rule

for

it

as

of

view,

was

After

keeping

was

she

battle

fall

both

by

and

Athenians

justice, they

city-states

of

misfortune

obedience.

in

Sparta

independence
for

enough

strong

was

Had

the

of

triumph

Hellas.

preserved

city

no

Leuctra,
to

have

might

her

hundreds,

supremacy.

the

great

the

few

intelligence

by

their

of

to

surpassed

now

were

to

leadership,

nation.

the

they

end

point

patriotism,

retained

the

to

dwindled

had

Spartans

Unable

this

From
local

of

strength, too,

result

acceptable

and

easy

protection.

military

lacked

as

number

the

But

of Sparta

Supremacy

the

task.

Suggestive
Write

i.

rule
3.

of

in

Sparta

Compare
in

constitution

treaty

of

disagree
effects

and

the

over

of

the

method

battle

B.C.

should

Why
the

treaty

II.

The
The

Return
Battle

of
of

had

371

B.C.

7.

What

in

the

respect

any

Agesilaus

the

were

her

place

from

and

Epaminondas
?

with
taken

Greece

to

come

the
fifth.

the

century

changes

of

in

various

Leuctra?

Note-book

I.

fourth

good

Compare

2.

Athens

of

convention

peace

ratifying

the

what

any

250.

p.

that

in

Did

6.

on

with

interval

4.

the

387

of

of

this

Was

of

that

Lacedaemon

In

5.

that

like

century

society

?
on

chapter

of

seventh.

Antalcidas

improvement

this

fourth

condition

the

in her

an

the

the

condition

of

summary

Questions

the

Ten

Leuctra.

Topics

Thousand.

"

Fling,

"

Xenophon,

Source

Anabasis,

of

Book

Greek

ii-vi.

History,

269-

275III.
iii.

The

(conspiracy

Plutarch,

Condition

Internal

Lysander;

of

Cinadon)
Agesilaus.

of
;

Lacedaemon.
Lacedaemonian

"

Xenophon,
Constitution;

Hellenica,
Agesilaus

CHAPTER

THEBES

XXIII

ATTEMPTS

TO

GAIN

371-362

The

297.

reached
slain

not

women

the

with

bright

reported
with

to

and
be

and

clad, with

degraded

beards

occasion

present

three

What

should

be

Sparta

had

As

done

the

decided
for

through
298.
the

the
the

law

them

hundred

to

who

one

them

of

public
were

flitted
1

ship
citizen-

meanly

in the

resist.

not

street

On

the

citizens, of

hundred

themselves

those

in

and

them

met

seven

sorrow

these

unwashed

dared

they

the

if in humiliation."

as

go

to

friends

and

seen,

the

see

fro

whose

deprived

fifteen

hundred

would

be
to

government

In

be

to

out

and

to

to

of

by surviving

defeat.

about

sleep

their

fortune
mis-

in the

this

present

way

he

Agesilaus,

ruinous.

settle

remaining,

citizens

this
to

case,

piloted

serious

his

question,

revived,

be

who

ever,
how-

safely

country

crisis.

confusion
that

the

downfall.

Battle

the

of

control, while
her

sent

with

future.

Effects

wildest

it seemed
lost

let the

to

had

disgraced

only

requested by

was

had

warning

bear

to

those

and

Any
and

had

three

disfranchise

to

by

hundred

they

them,

Sparta

whom

shaven.

beat

of

was

runaways,

of

but

moving

whilst

man

names

strikingspectacle

slain

the

word

of the

news
"

delivered

scowling brows,

honors

half

liberty to

at

and

heads

of all other

was

looks,

living, barely

laws

Spartan

it

the

among

When

"

lamentation,

day

next

radiant

lowered

Sparta.

ephors

loud

SUPREMACY

B.C.

families, with

any

relations

had

was

and

make

to

who

by

friends

; and

in silence

the

Sparta,

their

to

of

Unfailing Courage

THE

and

anarchy

arose.

was

falling into

enemies

rejoicedin

world
her

Peloponnese.

on

first to

The
1

Xenophon,

profit by
Hettenica,

263

To

the

chaos,
the
the
vi. 4.

Peloponnese

In

"

friends
now

freedom

that

of

Sparta
she

assured

revolution

were

had
them
the

Thebes

264

of whom

Arcadians, most
in

Attempts to Gain

to unite in

They

then

of government,
were

attacked

MOUNT

Lacedaemonians

helpat

in

peasants, living

They

war.

the defence

now

of their liberties.

to be the seat
city,Meg-a-lop'o-lis,
the Arcaa strongholdagainstSparta. When
dians
by the Lacedaemonians, Epaminondas came
a

new

ITHOME

the head of

men.
all,seventy thousand
conia,and ravaged it from

CITY

AND

(From

to their

leaguefor

permanent

founded
and

Supremacy

still shepherdsand

were

and following
the
villages,

resolved

the

an

WALL

OF

photograph)

army

of Thebans

With

this

end

MESSENE

to end

and

their allies

great host he invaded

; for the first time

in

"

in
La-

history,

camp-firesof an enemy.
to
Unable
to Messenia
to capture Sparta,Epaminondas went
built
aid the revolt of that country. With his help the Messenians
and fortifieda new
Ithome,
city,Messene, near the citadel of Mount
senia
sacred by many
for liberty. Mesa heroic struggle
on
a spot made
became
that LacedaeThe result was
an
independentstate.
sank to the condition of a
deprivedof a third of her territory,
mon,
Spartan women

saw

the smoke

from

the

Difficulties
of Thebes

The

second-rate

Thereafter

power.

Greek

with other

she would

which

states

did not

territory.As the Greeks would

deprivedof Sparta'sinvaluable
of their liberty.

lost
were

Athens.

with

and

Pelopidas. As

of

allies of the

were

over

the entire

lengthof

aid in future

compact

few

now

for the preservation

wars

Greece,
years
Macedon.
the

majority of

Thebans, they were

no

the recovery of her

grant this condition,
they

not

next

to

include

Thessalyand
the

consent

Northern

the

Within

"

their influence
work

with

Relations

Theban

299.

265

the

with

the

Persia,

Thebans
This

continental

leadingpower

tended
ex-

the

was

states

through

the

peninsula.
This
interference everywhere disturbed existingarrangements
their militarystrength fell short of
but failed to bring peace;
When

their ambition.

it became

apparent

to

the Thebans

selves
them-

order in Hellas,they
too weak
to maintain
they were
to Susa
to bring the influence and
sent
Pelopidasas ambassador
in favor of peace.
of the king to bear once
Artaxerxes
more
money
was
ready to dictate another treaty ; but the Greeks had learned to
As this
him, and would no longerendure his interference.
'despise
to the
disgracefulbusiness failed,Epaminondas turned resolutely
almost
hopelesstask of reducing Greece to order by force of iron.
The maritime
from Athens.
The chief resistance to his plan came
now
element, as she refused to
cityhe had to meet on her own
of Persia.
dismantle
her fleet at the command
Though as well supplied
that

as

had

coasts, Boeotia

with

Attica

little

and

commerce

no

before the time of Epaminondas. But

worthy of mention
suddenlyhis state became a naval power, the great tactician stepped
forth to sweep
went
into the place of admiral, and an
armament

fleet

Athens
300.

had

no

from
The

time

Athens
mander

the

of

Mantinea

(362 B.C.).
"

had

complete this task. He

Peloponnese,and again he found
to

Isthmus

to

and

restore

Sparta were
attempted by

Mantinea,
a

sea.

Battle

invasions of
across

the

in the

battle ; but

hope

in both

order.

his chief
forced

that he

it necessary to march
Many allies joined him;

enemies.

marches

might

Epaminondas
alreadymade three
But

thus

attempts he failed.

to

The

capture

Theban

com-'

Sparta, then

establish peace

without

Thebes

266

Then
tedious

the

came

Attempts to Gain
conflict at

journeys,the

of his

condition

full of enthusiasm

were

Mantinea.

and

the

Notwithstanding their
excellent; they
troops was

absolute

had

Supremacy

confidence

in their

they would shrink

either by night or by day ; there was
no
danger they would
their discipline
from ; and with the scantiest provisions,
never
"

them.

And

There

was

so, when

no

which

labor

he gave

them

his last orders

mander.
com-

from,
flinch

failed

for
prepare
spoke the word ;
to

impending battle,they obeyed with alacrity.He

the cavalryfell to whitening their helmets, the heavy infantryof
the club (ofHeracles)as a crest on
the Arcadians
began inscribing
in imitation of the Thebans, and all were
their shields,
engaged in
sharpening their lances and swords and in polishingtheir heavy
shields."

Epaminondas repeatedthe tactics

by surprise,
His charging column, now
in
of Leuctra
with
perfectsuccess.
the form of a wedge, cut through the opposingranks and shattered
the enemy's host.
fell mortally wounded
The
with a javelin.
great commander
Carried to the rear, he heard the victorious shouts of the Thebans,
both dead, he advised
but when
told that his fellow-generals
were
Taking

the enemy

his countrymen

to

make

The

peace.

surgeon

then

drew

out

the

been
javelinpoint,and Epaminondas died. Pelopidashad recently
slain in battle in Thessaly. The
heroes were
buried where
they
fell ; and

their gravestones in northern

and

southern

Greece

stood

with their lives.

which
ended
leadership,
Pelopidaswas bold and chivalrous,a zealous patriotand an able
ally
commander.
Epaminondas was a great militarygenius. Personhe was
without
or
to live as a privatecitizen,
ambition,content
his state in the lowest offices. Absolutelypure in character,
to serve
he aimed
only to promote the welfare of his cityand of Hellas.
Though in statesmanshiphe was as able as any of his time, though
his ideals were
high and his methods honorable,he failed to discover
the evils of the Hellenic state system, much
to remedy them.
more
Fortune
kind to him and to his worthy helperin cuttingthem
was
off at the heightof their renown,
before they could see the failure
of their policyand be made
for it.
responsible

as

monuments

of Theban

"

Xenophon,

Hellenica,vii. 5.

CHAPTER

XXIV

RISE

THE

OF
To

and

Country

302.

river-system.

Its

People.

the

to

the

including

their

upper

and

then

century

skins, and

habits

were

till he

had

wear

They
weapons

fed

In

it had

of

arts

under

his

regions

the

three

with

the

country

Highland,

and

allel
par-

radiating

The

interior

sheep

body

Highland,

on

could

the

land,
Low-

as

sign

that

exposure

foe

no

men

had

to

yet free.

not

rudest

the

with

into

them

toughening

were

the

with

was

fought

Their

sides.

slain

he

the

as

hovels, dressed

table

had

who

late

as

lived in

sit at

not

he

even

mountain

the

dishes; they

and

valley dwelt

the

in the

of

the

tribe under

Greece

who

had

the rule

of

day.

The

of Homer's
not

yet

from

emerged

cellent
ex-

colonies

alon^

Lowlands

their

barbarism.

all the

the

and

By

coasts.

finallyunited

king and
nians
Macedo-

rapidly learning the ideas

were

Hellenic

hard

tribes

of

time

of

his sway.

Philip : Accession
Epaminondas
the Thebans
303.

explained

in

continent.

population

boar, and

Greeks

fighting,the king
Macedon

the

youth

Lowlanders, however,

useful

plains

few

the

wild

been

indeed

were

The

of

hand

single

through plains

run

together

like

the

of

for soldiers.

separate

as

two

sparse

wooden

poverty

each

nobles,

about

material

flow

distinct

covered

their

from
;

of

The

B.C.

killed

ate

into

coast

and

nearly

warlike

rope

course

basin

sea.

forests

fourth
in

mountains
the

nearer

Dense

the

accordingly

up

is the

It is somewhat

sea.

from

fingersreaching
is made

B.C.

Macedon

separated by high mountains,

streams

338

"

in

waters

MACEDON

above,1

and

and

carried

Early

interfered
as

away

Philip.
1

"

299.

268

Conquests.
in the

hostage

"

In

affairs of
a

young

the

Macedon,

prince named

as

Philip
Thebes
army
and

then

was

the

assembly thronged
a

be useful to

ambition

with

to be

her

; her

busy

preparations for

barbarian,with
would

heightof

the best in the world

were

with

an

at

269
glory:

her generalsand her

schools,streets,market-place,

life ; her

arsenals

sounded

tinually
con-

The

a halfroyalyouth came
for learningeverythingwhich
voracious appetite
his country ; he returned a civilized Greek,with

the maker

war.

of

nation.

king, an elder brother, fell while fighting

the throne,
againstthe rebellious Highlanders; and Philipmounted
beset on all sides with difficulties and dangers (359 B.C.).
Within the next two years he had proved his rightto rule by overcoming
his hostile neighbors,
his domestic
and seating
foes,defeating
evident
It became
that he inhimself firmlyin power.
tended
at once
to enlargehis kingdom by subduing the surroundingstates.
the coast cities,
that he might have free
First he wished
to annex
afterward

Soon

to the

access

others

Some

belongedto the
by Lacedaemon.1

Chalcidians
coast

sea.

the

and

as

of these

allies of

were

Chalcidic Federation,restored

Grossly deceivingboth

to his purpose,

seized

cities

he robbed

Athens

Amphipolis,the greatest

Athens, and

after its

throw
over-

Athenians

of her allies on

cityin

commercial

and
the
the

neighborhood. It must be said in his favor that he treated his

new
fairness,
subjectswith the utmost
grantingtheir cities more
rightsthan the native Macedonians
enjoyed.
War
and
Athens
between
(35 7-346 B.C.). In anger
Philip
304.
Athens broke the peace with him, but could do nothingmore
because
that is,a war
she was
time in a social war,
engaged at the same
"

"

with

some

of her allies who

had

revolted.

She showed

ness
great weak-

through this period in all her dealingswith other states, as

of her citizens were
opposed to an active foreignpolicy. She
many
failed in the social war, and ended it by grantingindependence to
the seceding states, Chios, Cos, Rhodes, and Byzantium. Other
allies deserted,till only Euboea
and a few small islands were
left,
than
whose
amounted
to no
contributions
more
war
forty-five
talents a year.
other
the
hand, acquired enormous
Philip,on
and
revenues
working its gold mines.
Pangaeus
by seizingMount
This source
yieldedhim a thousand talents a year. With the money
1

"

290.

he

Rise

The

270
enabled

was

keep

up
of the forests about

timber
every
himself

to

His

cityof Greece.
of

master

of Macedon
build

standingarmy,

fleet from

Pangaeus, and bribe supporters

immediate
aim, however, was
the

and

Thessaly;

in

the

nearly
make

to

offered

opportunity soon

itself.
305.
Athens

The

Sacred

broke

peace

race, whose

martial
and

commerce

with

(356-346 B.C.).
him,
the

trouble

ardor

had

were

submit

to

time

when

Phocis

and

fresh,vigorous

yet been

not

they refused

As

the

between

arose

Macedonians,

strengthand

citylife.

About

"

Phocians,like

The

Thebes.

War

to

softened

by

Thebes,

this

citypersuaded the Amphictyonic Council to declare a sacred war1

upon them on a false chargeof having wronged Apollo. To pay the
expenses of the war, the Phocian
the Delphic
from
of money
as
transaction,
Delphi was

defence

yet the enemies

commanders

borrowed

treasury,

Phocian

perfectlyhonorable

"

cityand

of the little state

largesums

the

was

war

cried out

in self-

hypocritically

againstthis

stillmore

of

this money,

the

of

impious crime againstthe god. By means

Phocian
generalbrought togethera great army

mercenaries,with

which

he

overran

Locris,Doris, and

Boeotia,

Philiptwice

Thessaly,

seized the pass of Thermopylae, defeated

and
drove
him
back
This
to Macedon.
and

Macedon

was

for the control

of

of

conflict between

Thessaly.

Philipmerely spurred him

followingyear he reappearedwith an

campaign

in

to

The

Phocis

unfortunate

greater exertions.

In

Thessaly,defeated
behind
the Phocians, and
drove them
Thermopylae. Only the
force prevented the victorious king
timelyarrival of an Athenian
from passingthrough Thermopylae into central Greece.
However,
all Thessaly was
quered
now
his, and immediately afterward he conThrace
nearlyto the Hellespont.
Olynthus (352-349). Up to this time
306. Philip threatens
the Chalcidians
whom
had been in alliance with Philip,
they looked
at the wonderful
growth
upon as a petty tribal chief. But alarmed
of his power,
they made peace with Athens in violation of their
The
craftyking let three years slipquietly
agreement with him.
to himself by threats and bribes a
over
by, during which he won
considerable party in every Chalcidic town; then, when fullyprethe

army

in

"

"

104.

Demosthenes

pared for

l
O-lyn'thus

he ordered

271

give up his step-brother,

who had taken refuge from him in that city. As Greeks considered
it a religious
duty to harbor exiles,
Olynthus refused,and sent at
time an appeal to Athens
the same
for
help.
the
Demosthenes.
Among
307.
speakers in the Athenian
assembly,
when
the request from Olynthus came
war,

to

"

up for

as

who

man

known

through future ages

thenes,
antagonistof Philip, Demosbe

to

was

the

was
consideration,

the

"

the

eminent

most

orator

the

has known.

world

Demosthenes

only seven
father,a wealthy
died, whereupon the

old when

was

his

took
themselves.

He

home

his wrath

guardians
of

himself for

youth
body

with

unsocial,
"

for such

his

mother,
the
To

prosecutingthem
under

said,too,
to

his voice
and

an

ing
nurs-

unfaithful

became

youth.

he resolved

weak

guardians
for

slender,sallow

against the

his

It is

; but

estate

of

till it

legal oratory
master.

the

facturer,
manu-

rades
joiningwith comof
the
sports
gymnasium,

in the

passion

was

instead

boy, who,
stayedat

of

most

years

ruling

prepare
he studied

experienced
that

become

even

in

man
states-

defective,his
awkward, his habits
was

his whole

nature

(Vatican Museum,

Rome)

unfitted

calling.Strength of soul,however, made up for personal

disadvantages.He trained his voice and deliveryunder a successful
he
studied
the
of
Attic
he
actor;
great masterpieces
prose;
steeled his will and so exercised his mental muscles that they became
capable of the highest and most prolonged tension. Severe toil,
a

The

chief

cityof Chalcidice.

The

272

Rise

of Macedon

continued

through many
years, gave him his genius. Success in
prosecutingthe guardians led to speechwritingas a profession,
from which he graduallymade
his way into publiclife.
He was
the first to foresee the danger to Hellenic freedom from
and lost no time or zeal in warning Athens
it while
to meet
Philip,
it was
to the king
yet far off. In 352 B.C. he began his opposition
of Macedon
in an
oration
called his First Philippic;and when
from Olynthus begged Athens
for an alliance,
he urged his
envoys
to accept the opportunity.
Give prompt and vigorcountrymen
ous
for
rather than for
use
assistance,
war
your surplusrevenues
be
festivals; not content with sending mercenaries,but take the
field yourselves
and you will certainly
defeat him, for
againstPhilip,
his strength is derived from your weak
policy,his power is based
and all his subjects
will revolt,if only you give them a
on
injustice,
little encouragement
and support." Such were
the sentiments
of
his OlynthiacOrations.
He tried to inspirehis countrymen
with
the vigor and ambition
of their fathers,who
had beaten
down
Persia and had founded
an
empire ; yet his words had little effect,
"

he

as

stilla young
Athenians
made

was

The

that before

the end

and

man

the

almost

unknown.

but
alliance,

of another

insufficient help;

sent

so

Philiphad taken Olynthus and

the thirtyother cities of the League.
He destroyedthem all,and
enslaved the entire population.
308. Character

punished for the

of

Philip;

Philip.
crueltyand
equalledthis one
scarcely
There

could

now

be

his

of her

disunion

The

year

violence
deed

states, but

that

his

He

was

the

hirelings
among

self-made

an

man,

he

in his struggle
for power
and
person, but
out, his collar-bone fractured,a hand and a

willingto
choose
and

to

sacrifice

take,provided

glory."l

The

he could

body
1

tyrants combined

king.

served

live with
a

He

of the Hellenic

ruled

cities.
his

sparednot
empire had an

eye

leg mutilated,and

part of his body which

any

justify

not

who
toiler,

"

was

greater part of Thrace;

leadingmen

incessant

Hellas

dangerous.

was

the

"

this does

of the Macedonian

Macedon, Thessaly,Chalcidice,and
he had

State.

of all the Greek

doubt

no

and

Army

fortune

the remainder

masterful

Demosthenes, De Corona, 67.

own

cut
was

might

in honor

intellect ; few

men

Army
have

equalledhim
judgment.
The

in

and

State

273

quicknessof thought and

greatest of his achievements

in soundness

the creation

was

of

of the Macedonian

The

and the peasants of

rough Highland huntsmen
the Plain, organized in local regiments, composed his phalanx.
Learning a lesson from Athens,1 he lightenedtheir defensive armor
and increased the length of their spears.
Thus
they could move
army.

rapidlythan

more

any

their lances

enemy

in the

the

"

cavalry as

old-fashioned

phalanx,and

first to draw

were

"

companions

blood.

in conflict with

The

nobles

served

of the

king ; the light troops

composed his guard ; the sons of nobles were
ing
royalpages, associatwith the king and protectinghis person.
Gradually military
the
of
and
of
all
the
most
pride,
glory success,
magnetism of a great
commander,

welded

this

of

mass

into

men

organic whole.

an

The

jecting
militaryorganizationnot only civilized the Macedonians
by subbut it also destroyedtheir clannishness,
them to discipline,
and
and

of them

made

nation

one

with

hopes.

interests,
sentiments,

common

And

exclusive as the Hellenic

so
Philip's
country was
admitted
citieshad always been ; it readily
ship,
strangers to citizenand in this way showed
capacityfor indefinite growth in population
and
in area.
Macedon
far
than
was
larger
already
any
its
other Greek state ; its army
better
was
organized;
troops were
and
its
for
and
for
war
superior
kingpossesseda genius
diplomacy.
;
with Athens
of Phocis
and the Overthrow
(346 B.C.).
309. Peace
Three

Athens
years after the fall of Chalcidice
The
treaty included the allies of both

Philip.
exceptionof
His

not

excuse

the

was

Philipreserved

Phocians, whom
that

had

they

peace with
with the
parties,
made

seized

the

for destruction.

treasures

Apollo at

Greece

and

Delphi ;

he

at the

prophet god.
lae,
days after signingthe treaty he passedthroughThermopyas
agent of the Amphictyonic Council he destroyedthe

same

A few
and

reallywished
time

to pose

gain

to
as

foothold

champion

twenty-two cities of Phocis

and

scattered

The

the

Phocians

council

instalments

that

decreed
the ten

treasury. Their

thousand

seat

"

of the

the inhabitants

in

villages.

by annual
repay
taken from Apollo's

should

they had
was
givento Philip. This posi-

talents

in the council

in central

of

288.

tion,togetherwith
him

Rise

The

274

great honor

only

310.

The

the

and

Greek, but
Battle

presidencyof the Pythian games,

influence throughoutHellas.
He was

the greatest of the Hellenic

(338B.C.).

of Chaeronea

which

followed, Philip was

Greeks

; it

was

of Macedon

his aim

to

"

busily winning
bring Hellas under

BATTLEFIELD
(From

OF
a

assured
now

not

nation.
In the years

of peace

friends

among

his will

by creating

the

CHAERONEA

photograph)

in each

city a party devoted to himself. In all his movements,

thenes.
however, he was met by the eloquenceand the diplomacy of DemosGraduallythe orator brought togethera Hellenic League
Several states in Peloponneseand
to drive Philipout of Greece.
in central Greece joinedit.
As the time seemed
ripefor a final attack upon Greek liberties,
in central
Philipcaused his agents to kindle another sacred war
Greece.
He then marched
pied
again through Thermopylae, and occuened
threatthe
Boeotian
frontier.
As
this
movement
near
El-a-te'a,
the Hellenic League.
induced to enter
Boeotia, Thebes
was
The

allied forces met

him

at

Chae-ro-ne'a in Boeotia.

On

each

Rise

The

276
later

Significance of

312.

Hellas

earlier in

the

to

nobilityof

character.

and

motive

inferior
distinctly

as

congress

Macedon

of

Supremacy.
of and

long dreamed

end

The

united.

was

Macedonian

the

At

"

struggledfor

The
Hellenes
reached.
Greeks was
patriotic
the leading peoplein a great empire,and were
the benefit of their superiorcivilization. In so far as
achievement.
it profited
by Philip's
acceptedthe offer,

by

were

many
to become

that the Hellenes

Now

last

soon

to offer

the

it

world

themselves and still

among
should expect them to progress

at peace

were

livingunder free governments, we

more
rapidlythan before and to bring their civilization to a still
greater heightof excellence. But if we take this view of the case, we
thereafter made
shall be disappointed.Progresswas
along certain
which will be considered in a later chapter.1 In reality
narrow
lines,
the growth of civilization had passed
the conditions which favored
from
away
of absolute

freedom, which
he

benevolent

that various

It is true

bringingabout
emphasized is

be

to

came

could

not

the

was

exist under

Another

the

was

fearlessness

master, however

stimulus

of

party

warfare,which

Philipfor a time suppressed.

causes
were
cooperatingwith these two
of Greek genius; but the fact here to

other
decline

that the classic age of Greek

who
with the lives of the men

end

an

condition

One

be.

might

of interstate

strife and

in

forever.

Greece

literature
saw

and

art

the battle

of

Chaeronea.
Growth

313.

Before

"

could think
Soon

of the
the

of

conquering Persia

of

battle

Plataea

Philip'sPreparations.
Hellenes

(479B.C.),the

from
nothing further than self-protection
afterward,however, those who organizedthe Delian
of

conceived
the

the

strengthas

and

even

was

Cimon.

to

believe

profitable. The
For

greatlydisable

in the liberation of

failed,the

idea

of

idea

was

Persia

and

Egypt
a

and

time
1

advanced

such

war

held

so

Persia.

federacy
Con-

aggression

far in confidence

would

be

successful,

exponent of this policy

famous

most

Pericles

time

for

that

of

perpetualwar

great empire. They had

upon
and

could

Idea

to

it.

He

believed

that

he

empire for Athens by aiding

Cyprus. But when these attempts
dropped. Early in the fourth cenwin

an

Ch. xxvii," 345

ff.

The
revived

tury it was

Idea

of ConqueringPersia

the successful march

by

of the

"

277
Ten

Thousand,"
proved
empire
against
the Greeks.
the
of
Resuming
Cimon, Agesilaushoped at
policy
Asia Minor
least to conquer
for the Greeks,and would
doubtless
have
home.
succeeded, had he not been recalled by war
nearer
then took up the idea,and made
Writers and orators
the public
ship,
to the leaderacquaintedwith it. When, accordingly,
Philipcame
he found
the Hellenic mind
prepared for his propositionto
the Persian empire.
conquer
went
in 336 B.C.,
on
Preparationfor this enterprise
actively
till,
into Asia.
the army
But Philipwas
was
ready to move
delayed
in
his
His
wife
house.
troubles
own
the
by
O-lym'pi-as, mother
of his son Alexander,was
an
a wild,fierce woman.
Epeirotprincess,
and supplantedby a younger
Sent home
to her kinsmen
wife,she
began in jealousrage to plotagainsther lord. Between
Philipand
the weakness

which

Alexander

an

with

of the

brawl

angry

; then

arose

splendidfeasts

when

and

came

matched

reconciliation

In the midst

games.

of the

brated
cele-

ing
rejoic-

assassinated.

Philipwas

(i) Gradually the tribes of

Greeks.
(2) In the first
adopted
half of the fourth century B.C., they united in one
under
state
a king.
(3)
his
extend
the
to
kingdom
by
ascending
throne,
began
Philip,
B.C.,
359
eleven
(4) For
annexing Greek colonies on the neighboringcoasts.
years
314.
Macedon

of the

Summary

Rise

of Macedon.

civilization

the

of

the

"

other

he conquered
(5) Meanwhile
(357-346) he waged a successful war with Athens.
this
time
Chalcidice.
of Thrace, and
(6) During
Thessaly, most
in the world.
he was
and
the
best-disciplined
army
best-organized
creating
for
Phocians
the
(7) Invited by the Amphictyonic Council to punish
alleged impiety to Apollo,he destroyed all their cities and transferred their
in the

votes

(8)

When

council

to

himself.
and

Athens, Thebes,

he defeated

their army

federation,represented

presidency. In this
preparing to lead the

way

He

he

Greeks

few

was

now

minor

Chaeronea.

at

in

congress

greatest of the Hellenes.

the

states

united

(9)

He

meeting

to resist his aggressions,

organizeda

then
at

Corinth

under

(10) But
great part of Hellas.
assassinated.
against Persia, he was

unified

lenic
Helhis
while

Suggestive Questions
Why
Compare
i.

2.

Athenians

did

not

the
in the

Macedon

Macedonians
age

of

develop
with

Philip with

rapidly in civilization

as

the

Homeric

their

ancestors

Greeks.
in the

3.

age

as

Attica?

Compare

the

of Pericles.

The

278

what

In

constantly

If

Greece?
find

you

Philip?

Epaminondas.

under

Thebes

in

so,
of

way?

with
the

is

Note-book

Philip.

I.
iii.

II.

question.

of

estimate

his

that

of

advantageous

Philip,

of

with

Philip

of

Compare

5.

Lacedaemon

career

683-7

37

Empire,

Macedonian

"

III.

in

Source
The

Holm,

the
Book

Athens

History

histories

various
Greek

of
of

Demosthenes;

Plutarch,

Demosthenes.

Indices

Fling,

133;

Demosthenes

what

to

evidences

general

character?

Holm,
23-85

of Greece,

History
;

Hogarth,

Philip

Alexander.

and

see

Curteis,

Was

Topics

of Greece,

History

Bury,

"

xv-xix

chs.

of

career

the

your

4.

this

that

In

7.

What

genius?

his

Debate

Was

6.

what

improved?

or

Philip

under

army

Macedon

of

declined

they

opposing

Macedonian

the

do

had

respects

in

wise

Rise

of

History,

Greece.

"

iii.

Extracts

Demosthenes;
from

his

Orations,

286-295-.

Demosthenes.

of Greece,

Butcher,

chs.

Curtius,
xiii,

xv.

History

of Greece,

v.

123-

CHAPTER

Alexander's

315.

twenty
of

knowledge
the

learned

most

fond

the

of

hero

Iliad,

Achilles

The

exercise

for

his

king

young

generation

he

When
he

as

he

found

was

found

rapidly

in

great

him

urged
him

but

his

316.
on

the

spring
the

of the

Persian

to himself

as

which

order.

Asia;

Alexander

with

forty

empire.
hero

who

terful
mas-

subjects and
to

of

in

beset

few

"

B.C.

bellious.
re-

Macedon

(334 B.C.).

the

ceit,
de-

father

cautiously

his

Invasion

Hellespont

passionately

was

the

tribes

of

enemies

334

his

Greece

with

reduced

Granicus
of

Aristotle,

was

nians
Macedo-

and

men

Alexander

The

of

proceed

troublesome

for

inheritance,

difficulties

strokes

form

midst

barbarous

wise

the

meeting

of

yet

of

the

the

"

invasion,

to

Alexander

the

eagerness

tutors

of

youth

with

same

time

image.

age

his

work

disaffected,

The

an

'in

to

crumbling,

threatening

and

the

of drones.

came

the

in

and

the
his

among

impetuous

an

active

incessantly
of

the

ideal

him

Greeks.

all

spirit,sincere

manly

and

At

"

ruddy-cheeked

in

was

of

own

was

336-3238.0.

Policy.

full of animation

face

There

runner.

as

and

Alexander

and

eyes

EMPIRE

Character

Early

with

years

Olympic

an

ALEXANDER'S

(336 B.C.)

accession

his

OF

FOUNDING

THE

XXV

He

Battle
ALEXANDER

In

the
(Capitoline Museum,

Rome)

troops,

and

invasion

draw

the

crossed

thousand

aspired
would

to

punish
279

the

began
hearts

Persians

his

of his
for

people

desolating

Founding of Alexander's

The

280

country and burning its temples. The

his

Alexander

Gra-ni'cus

the

on

crossed

River

the stream

the

enemy's positionby a bold

opposed him there consisted of
king for

Soon
pay.
Hellas
would

of

of the
fleets

follow

Nile and

to

seize all the

had

to

find

the

coast

storm

Macedon.

As

harbors

on
rear.

and

Greek

had

never

seen

force

policyat

once

which
atic
Asi-

the

ships
war-

This

enemy.
to

fact

the mouths

the way, that hostile

On
the march
he
his communications
open
cities of Asia Minor

keep

democratic

one

before

carried

servingthe

Ephesus

them
into his power, he gave
the privilegeof
denied
them

by

the

were

the

from

the

darts,and

of

sistance
re-

hesitation

learned,too, that

in his
landing-place
fortresses,
garrisontowns,

but
Hellas

who

no

with
fell one

Greeks

cooperate with

to

might

Half

he

; without

of

storm

dash.

afterward

him

determined

first offered

enemy

Troy

near

under

Empire

ments,
govern-

banishing oligarchs.
so
vigorousand so

humane.
317.
"

At

Battle

The

of Issus

(333B.C.);Alexander

Is'sus in Cilicia he met

yet posted

in

Darius

narrow

in command

'numbers

valleywhere

and
of

did not

the Greeks.
vast

host,

count.

By
royal

the

unwieldy mass, and sent

into headlong flight.Alexander
coward
always exposed himself
in battle,
wounded
and on this occasion was
by a swordrecklessly
the mother,
thrust in the thigh.A great quantityof booty,and even
These persons
wife,and children of the king,fell into his hands.
with Darius for peace.
he treated kindly,but refused to negotiate
who had
ambassadors
Soon after this battle he took captivesome
ance
come
plan of resistup from Greece to form with Darius a common
for
Instead
of punishing the envoys
to the Macedonians.
for them
what he might have regardedas treason, he found excuses
tried to win the Greeks by
and let them go.
For a time Alexander
similar acts of kindness; afterward he alienated them
by his own
a

he routed

skilful attack

the

unreasonableness.

Siege of Tyre (332 B.C.); Founding of Alexandria.

318. The
From

Issus

Alexander

cityby siegeand
Tyre

only reach

the

storm

stood

on

proceeded to* Tyre.

was
an

the most

cityby buildinga

mole

capture of this

The

brilliant of all his

island ; and

as

he had

to connect

no

ploits.
militaryex-

he could
fleet,

it with

the main-

282

The

The

Founding of Alexander's

armies

two

halted in view

of each

Empire

other.

While

troops sleptthe nightthrough,Darius, keepinghis

them

reviewed

torchlight.The

by
plainaglow

beholdingall the
hearingthe

and

uncertain

with

and

like the distant roar

camp
multitude
of the foe,and

Macedonian
the

of the

sound

vast

under

men

arms,

generalParmenion,
fires of the Asiatics,

and
lights

confused

Alexander's

of voices from

ocean,

amazed

was

their
at

the

sought
hasteningto the tent of Alexander,behim to make
a night attack that darkness
might hide them
from
I will not
the enemy.
steal a victory!
the young
king
replied. He knew Darius would lose all hope of resistance only
when
in a straightforward
battle.
It
conquered by force of arms
which took placeon the following
was
a fierce struggle
day ; but the
donian
steadyadvance of the phalanx and the furious chargeof the Macethe day over
the
cavalryunder the lead of their king won
of Orientals.
The long strugglebetween
mass
unorganized,spiritless
"

"

continents,which
decided
in
Greece, was

began

two

on

robust
320.

and

manliness

successor

of

the earliest Persian

Europe by

the

of the Westerners.

fled northward,

"

murdered

by

master

was

attacks

and
intelligent

Conquests (331-323B.C.). Darius

Other

was

favor

with

an

attendant

of the

on

empire.

Alexander
his
the way.
as
Babylon surrendered without

cityhe wished to make the capitalof his world

dence
resiempire. From
Babylon he pushed on to Susa, the summer
of silver
treasure
of the Persian
kings. Here an immense
talents
fell into his
and
at fiftythousand
gold estimated
Thence
he fought his difficult way, againstmountaineers
hands.
In
of Persia proper.
the capital
and imperialtroops, to Persepolis,
this cityhe found
much
a
greater treasure of the preciousmetals
resistance.

This

"

"

kingshad
to

and

hundred

twenty thousand

talents.

hoardingthis wealth,which
circulation.
One night,while

been

put into

For

ages

the Persian

the conqueror
was
he and his friends
to burn

the

now

were

beautiful

carousingthere,the idea occurred to them

palaceof the kings in revenge for the destruction of the Athenian
The
deed was
hardly done before Alexander
temples by Xerxes.
repentedhis folly.
still needed
to pacifythe great country.
A few campaigns were
The

victorious marches

which

he next

made

into the remote

north-

Organization

283

and to distant India are

erlyprovincesof Bac'tri-a and Sog-di-a'na
both as brilliant militaryachievements
and as explorainteresting
tions
of regionshitherto unknown
to the Greeks.
His return
from
India through the Ge-dro'si-an desert was
a marvellous
feat of endurance.
of the army
Three-fourths
but
perishedon the way;
Alexander
lord of Asia,and to such a despot human
now
was
life
is cheap. His admiral Ne-ar'chus,
who at the same
time was
aging
voyfrom
the

to

for him

the

Greeks

mouth

of the

Indus

the water-route

to

the voyage.
it could be accomplishedin less
of

the

to

make

route

were

India.

Though
time,the

hindrance

the

to

It
under

Persian

Gulf,opened
requiredfive months
favorable

distance and

its extensive

to

conditions

the

use

hardships
throughout

ancient times.
321.
return

Organization of
to

Babylon,

empire, which
"

He
the

the

Alexander

reached

River
Hyph'a-sis

in

greatestextent

left the taxes

officials under

and

the

from

India,and
of
the

better

Empire.

began
the

to

western

from

Immediately

"

the

of Greece

River
Jax-ar'tes

country yet united under

The

after the pattern of the

satrap had

to
to

the

Nubia

government.

one

satrapies
nearlyas they were,
control.

his

affairs of his

settle the
limit

after

but

been

brought
a
despot

he served,unitingin himself all

king whom
and judicial
in organizing
financial,
military,
authority; but Alexander
of these functions to a distinct
a provinceassignedeach
that the work
of government could be done better than
so
officer,
of power.
less opportunityfor the abuse
before,and there was
and
He appointed to the offices Persians as well as Macedonians
the coloAn important element
nies
Greeks.
of his organization
was
which he planted in all parts of the empire. The nucleus of the
ans.
veterGreek and Macedonian
colony was
usuallyhis worn-out
associated many
natives.
With them were
They were organized
from
ute.
triband
free
in the Greek form, and were
self-governing
of garriTheir objectwas
the empire by means
(i)to secure
sons,
(2) to promote trade and industry,(3) to fuse Hellenic with
The
Asiatic civilization.
one
opportunity for colonization was
which
the Greeks had long been wanting,and in which, therefore,
they took an eager part.
While engaged in this work, Alexander busied himself with recruit"

The

284

Founding of Alexander's

Empire

ing and improving his army and with buildinga great fleet; for he
was
planningthe conquest of Arabia,Africa,and Western Europe.
When
Death
His
(323 B.C.); his Place in History.
322.
ready to set out on his expeditionto the West, he suddenlyfell sick
of a fever,caused probably by excessive drinking. As he grew
rapidlyworse, the soldiers forced their way in to see their beloved
fileby
commander
once
passed in single
more, and the whole army
his bed.
He was
no
longer able to speak,but his eyes and uplifted
farewell.
hand
his
silent
expressed
in the brief narrative given
His character appears
clearlyeven
and in plantabove.
His geniusand energy in war, in organization,
ing
colonies were
marvellous.
His mind expanded rapidlywith the
captainprogress of his conquests. First king of Macedon, next
to be
generalof Hellas,then emperor of Persia,he aspiredfinally
His objectwas
lord of the whole earth.
not to Hellenize the world,
"

but to blend

the continents

dizzyheight of
mental
poise; in an
the

in

to
power
outburst

one

nation

which
of

he

and
had

passionhe

one

civilization.

climbed

murdered

disturbed

But
his

his dearest

him tillhe bade the manly

friend ; his lust for worship grew upon
Macedonians
grovelbefore him like servile Asiatics,and sent an

recognizehim as a god. Year by year he

and more
despoticand violent.
egotistical
grew more
what
he might have
It would
be idle to speculateon
plished
accomhe lived to old age.
We
must
had
judge him by his
His
actual achievements.
conquests stimulated explorationand
They
discovery,introducinga great age of scientific invention.
and
Greek
tended
down
the barrier between
to break
barbarian,
and
they gave Hellenic civilization to the world. People of
better acquainted with one
widely separated countries became
broader
liberal spiritand
a
another, and thus acquired a more
view
The
of mankind.
building up of an empire far greater
than
the Persian
itself a stage in the growth of the idea
was
that all men
It is a fact,too, that Alexander's conbrothers.
quests
are
other
the
made
easier the growth of the Roman
empire. On
of the
hand, the conquest conferred no lastingbenefit on the masses
of Alexander
were
more
successors
conquered. The Macedonian
oppressiveplunderersthan the native rulers had been; and the

order

to

the

Greeks

to

Alexander's

of the

civilization
Within
Hellenic

but

all
invaded

then

critical

Arbela

(6)

empire

and

reorganizing

the

the

for

(i)

further

campaigns

he

conquered
and

empire

conquests

short

cut

were

Can

we

say

for

reasons

to

his

there

Are

4.

would

Greeks
Wheeler's

his

for

Greece

further

the
nor

from

but

Alexander.

Great;

"

Fling,

of Alexander}
Hogarth,

Philip

Source
;

and

India.

(7)

the

(5)

ward
After-

Susa

and
inces
prov-

Meanwhile

(8) Preparations

colonies.

the

5.

world
to

find

still free ?

was

What

3.

Alexander's

to

and

Philip
Explain

joined
what

success?

Alexander

the
from

civilization

of European
the

due
nesses
weak-

this statement

of

Give

Alexander

of

success

himself?

to

seed-ground

two."

benefits, if

any,

6.

In

zation
civili-

conquests.

Topic

Note-book

Anabasis

and
In

northeastern

Greece

without

history, try

Alexander's

capitals

the

largely

Persia
The

Orient,

the

of ancient

study

derived

"

Great:

Darius.

He

death.

was

that

conquered

have

ever

of

many

much

how

believing

(4)

of

Alexander

much

and

(2)

Granicus

Persian

part

Alexander

of

army

by

contributed

side

reasons

and

How

2.

generals,

Persian

Alexander

is neither
your

and
the

on

Philip

under

opinion.

your

father

that

successors

Questions

Suggestive
i

touch

Alexandria.

subdued

planting

close

Greece.

battles

the

great

diately
imme-

his accession

On

and

vast

and

lying

rule of his

founded

the

distinctive

Orient.

the

won

Babylon

of

last

"

and

their walls.

in

kept

Macedon

and

Tyre

overthrew

he

his

of

Career.
in

beyond

country

the

the

empire

possession

and

history of

himself

to

captured

In

Persepolis.

was

of

took

which

Persian
he

Next

battle
he

Mediterranean,

of Alexander's

the

(3)

Issus.

the

in the

285

cities lost their

of Alexander

opposition

far

extend

from

career

episode

an

Summary

323.
crushed

he

the

Europe,

formed

east

History

remote

more

Apart, then,

the

round
with

the

character.

in

cities did not

Greek

centuries

few

Place

Book

Plutarch,
Alexander.

of

Greek

Alexander;

(Arrian,
History, 300-329
the
Alexander
Wheeler,

XXVI

CHAPTER

THE

OF

MATURITY

THE

TO

POETRY

FROM

MIND:

GREEK
PROSE

B.C.

404-322

the

the

had

imagination
this

In
at

chapter

present

the fourth
from

; the

before

the

with
There

and

of

exception
three

are

the

whose

History

Xenophon.

have

works
who

got

then

with

Cyrus

went

than

charming
des.

His

event

in

an

Greeks

Memoirs

of

best

fifth to

of literature

ing
chang-

of the

nation
imagiGreeks

of the

poetry

century;

and,

that

date.1

after

prose

Greek

history,oratory,

prose:

on

and

Hel-len'i-ca,a
is only

longer

his Asiatic

gives

but

the

us

of
date.

the

hand

other

of

school

less

us

character
of

and

was

an

Socrates,

and

The

productivity

Antiphon,
z

an

of

eminent

" 285.

Thucydi-

narrates

of the
and

character
His

tactics.
of

Aristophanes
orator,

that

The

man.

Thucydides,
Attic

great

teachings

of

age

is less

style he

plain, practical

history

286

He

than

deep

much

the

earlier.

In

only

not

tells

this

Xenophon.

expedition.2

also

of

historian

military organization

approximate
on

the

thought

standpoint

continuation

and

in

and

their

of

the

an

in

is

already mentioned,

Socrates
from

principal
time

our

education

interesting way,

philosopher

This

to

Herodotus

Anabasis,

the

somewhat

his

The

"

survived

Athenian

the

fourth

the

than

deeply

language

the best
of

and

preme.
su-

was

reason

from

pass

form

maturity

at

philosophy.

325.

of

of

great departments

we

is the

their

history, all

keenly

the

All

beginning

the

and

considered

age

individual

As

former

reason.

The

an

find

occasionally helpful to

man.

more

history.

The

of the

of

thought

men

prose.

latter

produced

was

that

accordingly, we

to

poetry

of

somewhat,

declined

in ancient

century,

It is

"

that

like

was

period

time

other

any

with

nation

Mind.

Greek

the

life of

the

compare
in

of

Growth

324.

covers

continued
lived

what
some-

History and
the

periodfrom

to

B.C.

411

favorable

Oratory

the battle

of Mantinea.

Sparta, it is our

to

287

He
periodtreated,and hence is very valuable.
of other subjects,
the
as hunting,housekeeping,
and

the Lacedaemonian

knowledge of
man
a practical
in the breadth

326.
other

constitution.

the times
of the
of

in which

Oratory

the

heightof

on

variety

Athenian
are

revenues,
storehouse of

soldier of fortune and

in the

humanity

and

of his age.

Lysias, Isocrates, and

great departments

reached

he lived.

story of the

wrote

His works

world,Xenophon shared

sympathy

cessively
Although ex-

only continuous

of

prose

Demosthenes.

oratory and

"

"

The

philosophy
"

their

development. Oratory flourished in all

democratic states,which requiredthe citizens to express their opinions
affairs.
There
Athens
real
because
at
on
was
no
public
lawyerclass,
the laws were
so
simplethat everyone could understand them ;
but the oration which the privatecitizen committed
and
to memory
delivered in the law court was
usuallycomposed for him by a professional
speech writer. The most eminent of this class in the early
of his
part of the fourth century B.C. was Lysias,an alien. Robbed
fortune by the Thirty,he turned to speechwritingas a profession.
Many of his orations have come- down to us ; they serve at once as
models
of
of the purest and simplestprose, and as a direct source
information on the publicand privatelife of the author's time.
"

Isocrates,
and

eloquent,"was

man

liberal-minded

most

school

rounded

the old

men

in Athens

education

and

of his age.
in which
young

read

rather

than

For

could

men

properlybe
vigor,but was

he

gain a
for

themselves

orations,which,

delivered,should

His

years

many

time prepare

at the same

for statesmanship.
especially
While teaching,Isocrates wrote
to be

of the best educated

one

as

ducted
con-

well-

life,

they were

termed

essays.

the

perfection
literary
stylelacked freshness and
chosen with
of grace.
His languagewas
melodious,his words were
the finest sense
of the appropriateand
arranged with the most
delicate taste.
pletely
He
brought to perfectionthe period the comrounded
thought expressedin a symmetrical sentence.
Nearly all the later prose of Greece, and afterward of Rome, shows
"

his influence.
Of

Demosthenes, the

world's most

eminent

orator, some

account

288

The

has

Maturity of the

alreadybeen given.1
the greatest master

was

works

of

With

of Greek

art,"inspiredby

Mind

possibleexceptionof Plato,he
His

prose.

"

orations

are

vellous
mar-

intense love for Athens.

an

the greatness of his

questionas
accordingto the point of view
Philipand Alexander embodied
the empire, as constituted in
to

the

Greek

statesmanshipmust

taken.

He

The

be decided

stood for local freedom

the

imperialidea. Sooner or later

ancient
to hamper
sure
times,was
the freedom
of the cities and grind to dust the civilization of the
This was
world.
the final effect of the Roman
ing
empire. In resistthe firstencroachments
of imperialism
local freedom,Demosthenes
on
showed
a
statesman.
But
himself,therefore,
far-sighted
the whole tendency of our own
time is toward the buildingup of immense
and empires. We
states
satisfied with these conditions
are
because they bring us certain great advantages,and because under
the present system we
We
to need.
enjoy all the libertywe seem
writers of the present
that many
can
easilyunderstand, therefore,
of an utter lack of statesmanship,
Demosthenes
day accuse
saying
that he was
all wrong
and that Philipand Alexander
were
absolutely
in
the
conflict
of
But
should the governments
of
right
principles.
modern
our
empiresso change as to repress our local and personal
freedom
did the ancient,thinkingmen
would again go back to
as
for inspiration
Demosthenes
and guidance in a new
pendence.
fightfor inde327.
and

one

Philosophy
of the most

death of his master,

Plato.
eminent

"

The

of the age
greatestphilosopher

of the world

Socrates,he

travelled

"

was

Plato.

to various

"

After the

parts of Greece,

Egypt. On his return to Athens he began teachingin

the Academy,2 which gave its name
Plato is chiefly
to his school.
noted for his theory of ideas.
According to his view, ideas are the
sole realities; they are eternal and unchangeable,and exist only in
in this world are
heaven ; the thingswhich we
shadows
mere
see
of those heavenly forms.
While engaged in teachingPlato composed his Dialogues,
which
and

even

"

The

to

307.

Academy, a public garden in the neighborhood of Athens, was

adorned
It was
and afterward
Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus,
by Cimon.
place for recreation.

founded
a

by

pleasant

The

go

not

become

like

the Greek

Mind

generallyknown

that time for

from

Maturity of

tillearlyin the first century B.C., but

than a thousand
years their author ruled,

more

absolute

monarch, over the thought of the civilized world.

Christian theologyowes
its form to him.
The
subtle though narrow
thinkers of the Middle Ages worked strictly
along the lines he
had drawn ; and even
to-daythe soundness and thoroughnessof his
an

THEATRE

AT

(From

EPIDAURUS

photograph)

Logic,Ethics,and Politics cannot be surpassed. The present systematic

groupingof our knowledge in the various sciences we owe
to him.
chiefly
329.

Architecture

play was

performed in

the hillside so

orchestra

"
"

In the centre

the Theatre

the open

that all could

see.

of the orchestra

patron god of the drama.

from

air.

"

dancing place

the audience

stood

the

and

At
for

the Stadium.

Greek

The

"

the people sat

Originally
the foot of the hill
the

chorus

placedan altar
the oppositeside
On
booth (Greek skene,
was

and
to

the

scene

the

actors.

Dionysus,the

of the

"

was

on

orchestra

") in

which

Architecture
the chorus

and

changed
graduallydeveloped. At

theatre

of wooden

seats

actors

stood

spectators. About

Meanwhile

on

291

dress.

From

these elements

the

Athens

in the age of Pericles rows

the hillside for the accommodation
of the

hundred

seats
years later marble
the actors' booth developedinto

stituted.
sub-

were
"

scene

"

THE

NEW

STADIUM

(The buildingin the interior was erected

of the Antigone of Sophocles.

in the modern

AT

as

From

ATHENS
"

"

(palacefront) for the presentation

photograph by Dr. A. S. Cooley)

scene

a
a

the front of a palace.

Generallyit represented
All the stone theatres of Greece belongto the fourth century B.C., or
to stilllater time.
That
is the best preat Epidaurus,in Argolis,
served,
and for that reason
illustration of it is given here.
an
The
The
stadium
for races.
for athletic contests, especially
was
famous
the great national games
most
at Olympia,where
were
was
held.

That

sense.

of Athens

theatre.

It

centuries

later,marble

was

in

was

built about

valleyjust outside
seats

were

the

same

of the

put in ; and

time

as

the stone

city. About
recentlyit has

three
been

The

2Q2
rebuilt of the

same

the Greek

Maturity of
material.

Mind

present seatingcapacityis fifty

The

thousand.
330.

Sculpture : Praxiteles

the fourth

century lost much

THE

and

Lysippus.

of the

HERMES

OF

(Museum,

severe

"

The

sculptureof

dignityand

self-restraint

PRAXITELES

Olympia)

possessedin the Periclean age ; but it gainedindividuality,

taken
in working
gracefulness,and feeling.Greater pains were

it had

out

the minute
of the

details.

These

generalchange

artistic changes are

that had

come

over

but

an

the whole

sion
expreslife and

Sculpture
genius of

Hellas.

Next

to

Hawthorne

has

unlike

or

at

famous

Rome

is

described in his Mar

anything
wrought in that

SATYR

who
Phidias, Praxiteles,

the most

fourth century, B.C., was

the CapitolineMuseum
else

that

severe

293

ever

material

of
sculptor

copy
ble Faun:

of his
"The

in the

Greece.

In

satyr, which
whole

statue,

was

of

DORIPHOROS

PRAXITELES

lived

(SPEAR-BEARER)

OF

POLYCLEITUS

(Copy; CapitolineMuseum,

Rome)

(Copy

Vatican

Museum,

Rome)

marble, conveys the idea of an amiable and sensual creature

easy, mirthful,apt for jollity,
yet not incapableof being touched
of the
with pathos." We
in it the gracefulcurves
admire especially
body which Praxiteles was the first to produce successfully.We
find them in all his statues.
Then, too, he was the first to make the
addition to its beauty.
tree trunk or other support of the statue
an
The surface of the body he worked
out with greater delicacyand
"

naturalness than

qualitycan
discovered

be

any

some

other artist has

only in

seen

years

of the skin is shown

with

Maturity of the Greek Mind

The

294

delicacyof

at

genuine work
Olympia.

ago
the illustration.

by
modelling. The

able to attain.

been

ever

of his
The

The

face

the

"

power
But
this

is intellectual.
does

not

is rather

Greek

of the age.

Lysippus was

the

This

ideal

rary
contempois said

and

privilegedto
of the

the

of Alexander
been

like

seem

he

have

finish

combines

god;

to

Hermes,

remarkable

statue

Hermes

This

only sculptor
make

traits
por-

great conqueror.

fact marks

him

as

ter
mas-

of

portraitsculpture. A
worker, he made in
prodigious
his

lifetime

fifteen

hundred

statues, all in bronze.

They

have
of

disappeared; but of one

them
have
marble
we
a

Ap-ox-y-om'e-nos
athlete
his
an
working on
rightarm with a flesh-scraper.
Down
to this time Polycleitus
of Argos had set the stylefor
the

copy,

APOXYOMENOS
(Copy; Vatican

OF

the

LYSIPPUS

Museum,

making

were
figures

Rome)

"

of

statues.1

somewhat

His

flat

or

influenced
square, still slightly
Their whole
by the archaic block forms.
was
heavy.
appearance
the
loose
from
old
made
the
smaller
head
Breaking
rule,Lysippus
and

the

body

slimmer.

lifelike. Whereas

Thus

the statues

his

figuresappear

lighterand

more

of

to be seen
were
Polycleitus
mainly
from
the front, those of Lysippus were
perfectlyround, equally
His
symmetrical from every point of view.
controllingmotive
to represent the body, not
it actually
was
but as it apas
was,
peared

to the eye.

In

some

ways
1

therefore

" 238.

his work

seems

great

Lysippus

sculptor

classical

the

of

of

that

beyond

advance

artists.

earlier
of

age

Write
is

respects
3.

Why

4.

Compare

nation

like

nearly

all

was

with

its

291).

(p.

the
is

Which

is

in

lacking

be?

with

Xenophon.
Greek

Empire,
II.

ch.

Literature,
ch.

Archaeology

Handbook

(see

Doriphoros

stadium?

9.

pare
Com-

Polycleitus.

of
in

admirable

what

stadium

the

earlier

the

Greek

Mahaffy,

xxv;

ch.

Literature,

of

Progress

xv;

Hellenism

Fowler,

cient
An-

in

der's
Alexan-

Art,

ch.

i.

Fourth-Century

Gardner,

orchestra

Topics

Ancient

Murray,

"

the

the

Greek

latter?

the

Note-book

I.

7.

rebuild

anything

find

you

the

his

the

Describe

the

was

were

describe

290
out

B.C.?

400

Who

5.

what

different?

What

p.

Point

Greece

Do

great

In

2.

it

before

composed

on

of

Lysippus

graceful?

more

which

work

of

is

Thucydides.

"scene"

modern

Apoxyomenos
the

made
the

should

Why

8.

last

285.

p.

respects

Demosthenes?

illustration

the

should

Where

form?

and
before

seats

on

what

poetry

Herodotus

the

were

that

In

Greek

orator

From

6.
What

like

chapter

best

Attic

characteristics?
theatre.
is

the

the

was

Questions

individual?

an

Xenophon

distinguished

most

tfris

of

summary

He

Hellas.

Suggestive

i.

295

Sculpture.
of

Greek

Lysippus,

"

Tarbell,
ch.

Sculpture,
Praxiteles,

and

History
iv

Scopas

Fowler
in

of

Greek

and

Index).

Wheeler,

ix;

Greek

CHAPTER

HELLENISTIC

THE

Character

331.

the

Persian

The

of

interest

the

through
about

For

states.

the

with
ancient

time

same

this

there
The

the

after

while

non-Greeks

internal

it

great

more

or

from

the

two

less.
of

cerned
con-

selves
them-

upon

the

At

foreign

fluence.
in-

is termed

causes

Hellenic

better

city-

of the

part

taking

these

little

history is

changes independent

of

culture

EVENTS

POLITICAL

322-146

The

332.

died,

yet
but

and

infant,

an

decisive

authority passed
fill the

qualified to

none

for

the

as

the

the

first

place, the

battle

among

these

(301 B.C.).
times, as

This

B.C.

Battle

the

Succession;

Alexander

was

of

ization
civil-

time.

I.

war,

were

modified

resulting from

distinguished

over

world.

Hellenic

and

conquest,

culture

culture, they

were

the

of the

of the

creation

of

conquest

in that

merges

politicalparties

of Hellenic

civilization

Hellenistic,as
earlier

two

Naturally
of

of

centuries

spread

world.
some

rivalry

Alexander's

With

Greece

in

centres

AGE

"

history of

longer

no

Period.

the

the

empire

XXVII

was

it determined

the

Ipsus

to

his

place

of

(301 B.C.).

the

fight

to

the

fought

the

empire

among

his

son

selves
them-

pieces.

The

Ip'sus in Phrygia
of ancient

battles

important

most

history of

at

to

in

trained
As

master.

empire naturally 'fell

was

When

"

generals, all

generals began

generals
of

one

of

till it fell under

the

of Rome.

power

The

victors

Se-leu'cus

divided

received

and

Thrace

and

Cassander,

fell to

Asia

the
from

Phrygia

Ly-sim'a-chus

already

into

empire

governor

India

Ptolemy

of
296

to

kingdoms

themselves

; western

became

Macedon,

for

was

king
now

Asia
of

Minor

Egypt

recognized

Great

Powers

297

sovereign. In this way four kingdoms arose from the empire.

later Lysimachus was
Somewhat
killed and his realm divided. While
of his Asiatic possessions
annexed
most
to the kingdom of
were
terior
tribes,
Seleucus,barbarous
includingmany
Gauls, seized the inand threatened
of Thrace
the Greek cities along the coast.
The
Great
Powers.
Through most of the Hellenistic age,
333.
therefore,to the Roman
conquest (146 B.C.)we have to do with
three great eastern
powers, the Seleucid empire,Egypt, and Macedon.
of the world in this age we
To complete the political
map
include the Carthaginian empire, often mentioned
should
above,
in
and Rome, now
Italy.These western powers were equal
supreme
in strengthto those of the East.
Never
before had the world possessed
so
vies,
thorough a political
organization.Finance, armies, naand internal improvements assumed
than
grander proportions
had hitherto been possibleoutside the Persian empire. Industry
and the wealth
and commerce
of the world increased.
flourished,
The eastern
rulers were
absolute monarchs.
donians,
They were all Maceand they based their power
armies made
of
on
up largely
Macedonians
and
Like Alexander, they professed to be
Greeks.
of an
gods. Surroundingthemselves with the pomp and ceremony
to prostrate themselves
Oriental court, they compelledthe subjects
in a
in the royalpresence.
To the end they remained
conquerors
foreignland. Alexander's
attempt to employ Orientals in high
office had failed ; for they were
morally inferior to Europeans, and
his successors
could not be trusted.
Profitingby this experience,
admitted
them to the lowest offices only,and in limited numbers
and in generalthe refined and
All the court society,
to the army.
lenic,
Helwas
educated
with the rare
exceptionof individuals,
society,
whereas
there was
much mixing of races in the working population.
The advantage of Greek civilization to the natives,
therefore,
than counterbalanced
by the
was
exceedinglyslight.It was more
The Persian empire had meant
of foreigndomination.
peace
curse
of
for the Orient, defence
againstforeignenemies, protection life
ice.
and property, and tolerable burdens of taxation and militaryservcreased
the insubstituted devastating wars,
monarchies
The
new
officialclass of
of great standing armies, of an
expenses
rapaciousforeigners,
utterlydevoid of sympathy with their subjects.
as

"

Hellenistic

The

298

have been,most of them

the kingsmay
justice
their officials.
strengthnecessary for controlling

desirous of

However

lacked

the

334.

The

policyof

of the

Empire

ablest

Alexander, the

Among

Seleucidae.

administrator

his master, he

in his realm.

them

Babylon

in

founded

Antioch

in

splendor. As
Syria,not far

of

Alexander's,was

these

as
colonies,

from

active

this nucleus

were

of the

Most

commerce

the

from
a

in

Hellenic

the

to Hellenize

eastern
western
a

the Romans
from

kingdom
335-

convert

of

he

nucleus

of

189

B.C.,

it

Seleucus

the

however,

Ptolemies.

empire,Ptolemy, one
Syria and a few

"

towns

into

his descendant

and

Macedon.

new

they lacked

But

cient
in suffi-

long in subjection.The

their dominion.
some

On

the

On

parts of Asia

Antiochus

at

also the

new

III

was

Magnesia, and compelled to withdraw

Asia Minor.
The
shrank
to
empire soon
Syria.

Egypt

Greece.

the country farther east

to hold

or

The

Around

tions.
in free local institu-

in this effort.

provincesrapidlyfell away from

border the Seleucid kings held

little longer. In

by

it

to

have

kingdom

The

sea.

hands.

Syria,which

in

were

tried
Se-leu'ci-dae,
a
great extent they succeeded
of plantingcolonies in
means
numbers

his

to

to

of veterans
retired
company
houses
and
lands from
the

and
language,in civilization,

the

To

and

They received
of performinggarrisonduty for him.
grouped natives and colonists from
and industryof the empire,hence

of them

Most

Tigris,said

inhabitants

greater part of its wealth, fell into Greek

were

the

capitalfor

service.

condition

king on

Followingthe
colonies
seventy-five

as

many

thousand

rivalled

of

successors

Seleucus.

Se-leu'ci-aon

was

the

Among

"

was

planted as

six hundred

contained

have

Age

their
Minor

defeated
nently
perma-

the petty

division of Alexander's

received Egypt, with parts

generals,
scendant
other widely scattered possessions.His dethe Ptolemies,con'inued to rule Egypt tillits incorporation
in the Roman
The
of
this line
rulers
in
B.C.1
earlier
empire 30
were
able,intelligent
men.
Aiming to hold merely their own, they
of the situation of
Because
generallysought to preserve peace.
their country, the task of defence was
They made
relatively
easy.
no
attempt, however, to Hellenize the natives,but regardedEgypt
of his

of

" 497-

Alexander's

Successors

299

privateestate, to be worked
prudently for the owner's
profit.They refrained from oppressingthe natives in order to
and in good working condition.
keep them in good spirits
The
It
only Greek colony worthy of mention was Alexandria.
their

as

the

now

was

India

of

centre

Britain.

to

In

commercial

wealth, in

facilities it outshone

educational

the

which

of

from

and
life,

cities of the time.

It consisted

of various

mercenaries

extended

refinements

all other

exceedinglymixed.

populationwas

world

of native

Greeks

in
The

tians,
Egyp-

nationalities,
pure
the
like
for trade,
Jews, who came
foreignresidents,
of Greeks
and lastlya mongrel class formed
by the intermarriage
and

donians,
Mace-

other

with

all sorts of

people.

(323-322B.C.). When the Greeks

mopylae
heard that Alexander
was
dead, they revolted,and defended Therthen governor
of Macedon.
against An-tip'a-ter,
They
this struggleis known
the Lamian
as
besieged La'mi-a, whence
War.
Many states, chieflythe Aetolians,supported the Hellenic
For a time all were
cause.
hopeful; but an attack on Lamia failed,
and
thereafter everything went
Finally the states fell
wrong.
Athens
apart, and Antipatermade
separate treaties with them.
was
garrison in Peiraeus, to
compelled to receive a Macedonian
336.

and

Macedon

Greece

"

"

exclude

the franchise,and to deliver up

poorer citizens from
who
had opposed Macedon.
Among these offenders

her

the

orators

was

Demosthenes.
took

He

poison,that

his pursuers.

Thus

despotism. On
Had
epitaph:
"

the Macedonian

the

his

fled at
he

from

once

might

not

Athens,

fall alive into

mighty spiritceased

base

of his statue

and

soon

the

contend

to

his countrymen

ward
after-

hands

of

against

placedthis

strengthequalledyour will,Demosthenes,
your
have conquered Greece."
War- God would
never

(beginning279 B.C.). The inroads of

A horde
the Gauls into Thrace
have
already been mentioned.1
of these barbarians
poured into Macedon, defeated a Hellenic army
Thence
the country.
there, and devastated
they crossed into
A Greek
Thessaly to continue their widespread ravages.
army
entered
tried in vain to block their march
at Thermopylae.
They
On the
central Greece, and robbed
Delphi of its rich treasures.
337.

The

Gallic Invasion

"

"

332.

The

300
of

approach

Hellenistic

winter, however, they

great losses from

cold

hunger and

as

Age

retired

well

as

northward, suffering

from

the attacks of the

Greeks.
Soon afterward

of ten thousand

swarm

into Asia

Minor.

Gallic warriors

with their

After

plunderingthe country
forth
far and
wide, they settled permanently in the district henceafter them
For more
Galatia.1
than thirtyyears the
named
from
states of Asia Minor
paid them tribute as the priceof security
little
their plundering. FinallyAttalus, king of Pergamum,
a
them
Asia Minor, defeated
in two
in western
state
great battles
and put an end to their domination
(about 230 B.C.). The artistic
in another place.2
of these victories will be mentioned
memorials
The
Greeks began to feel that in
League.
338. The Aetolian
unite more
their liberties they must
order to preserve
closely.
idea
into
the
the
The firstto put this
least
Aetolians,
practicewere
the foremost
in political
civilized of the Greeks,yet among
capacity.
Their league,which
had existed from earlytimes, enjoyed in the
Many
present period a remarkably good form of government.
outside Aetolia
it.
others
communities
willinglyjoined
Though
become
all
had equal rights,and
forced to
were
members, yet
enjoyed fair representationin the government.
Achaean
Some
Achaean
cities,
too,
League : Aratus.
339. The
of
this
renewed
in
imitation
Aetolia.
From
ancient
an
league
afterward
built up,
small beginning a great federal union
was
father of Aratus
had
noble of Sicyon. The
a
chiefly
by A-ra'tus,
been killed by the tyrant of his city,
and the lad who was
one
day to
be the maker
of a great state grew
exile in Argos. While
up an
still a young
he expelledthe tyrant from his native cityand
man
true
He was
a
statesman,
brought it into the Achaean
League.
his
the public than
intent upon
private
high-minded,and more
concerns
good the
; a bitter hater of tyrants, making the common
advanced so
rule and law of his friendships
and enmities."
He
that they elected him general
rapidlyin the esteem of the Achaeans
crossed

families

"

"

"

when

by

he
no

was

means

extended

but

twenty-seven years of

misplaced.
itself till it

See map

between

Under
to

came

pp.

370

and

age.

confidence

Their

was

lifelongguidance the league

the
include
all Peloponnese with
his

371.

"

345.

The

exceptionof

was

dear

so

fostering, for he believed that

could be preserved by nothing else
the closest bond

Constitution
Power.

Federal

Nothing

301

the

was

under
340.

Lacedaemon.

Unions

"

he

union

Federal

"

of the

The

of the

objectof

within
its borders
of peace
and
The
federal power
limited
was

League
the

union

the

mutual

protectionfrom

the
vidually,
indi-

ance
assist-

States
the

was

as

weak
cities,

interest."

common

Achaean

but

him

to

and

the

maintenance

foreignenemies.

to this object. It alone

strictly
made
and managed all diplomaticmatters.
war, peace, and alliances,
and navy,
The
though furnished by the states according to
army
their means,
of the federal power.
It
were
solelyat the command
coined all money,
exceptingsmall change,and enforced a uniform
Aside
from
these necessary
measures.
system of weights and
the states
The
were
restrictions,
sovereign and self-governing.
that they should be republicsand
should
only requirement was
remain
They enjoyed full rightsof
permanently in the union.
with one
another ; and any state was
trade and intermarriage
free
the inhabitants
of any other.
All stood
to admit
to its citizenship
absolute political
on
an
equality. To prevent any one of them from
it was
decided
that the cities should serve
gainingthe leadership,
in turns as the placefor holdingthe federal assembly.
Federal
The highestfederal authority
Government.
341. The
the assembly of all the citizens of the league. It elected magiswas
trates
and voted on all important matters
concerning the union as
The
whole.
counted
votes
not
a
were
by heads, but by states.
Each
allowed a number
of votes proportioned
to its popustate was
lation.
"

The
a
we

do

council
number
not

each sending
composed of deputiesfrom the cities,
proportionedto its population. The total number

was

know.

This

council

deliberated

on

matters

be sented
preits own

to

assembly,and settled less important affairs on

It met
more
responsibility.
frequentlythan the assembly.
The highestmagistracywas
the generalship.At first there were
He not only
with equal power, in later time but one.
two generals
to the

commanded

but

acted

of ten

him

and

the army,
advisers aided

as

the

limited

Plutarch,Aratus,

chief executive.
his
24.

authority. The

board
same

The

302

might

man

successive
an

office any
number
of times,though not in
This restriction was
to prevent him
from gaining

years.
of power.
the
commander
was

Age

the

Among

excess

admiral,
treasurer

hold

Hellenistic

of

needed,

as

the

other

cavalry,
the

high officials were

and

states

the

the

secretary. No
all

managed

financial

matters.

342.

Significance of the Federal

described

Unions.

above, appliesin broad

"

The

outline

Achaean
to

stitution,
con-

the Aetolian

in civilization,
were
more
league as well. The Achaeans
progressive
inclined to peace.
The
federal union,in
however, and more
the form used by these two
the most
peoples,was
nearly perfect
institution
created
While
political
by the ancients.
providing
of all,it gave complete freedom
for the security
to each
state to
In this respect it was
developits own geniusin its individual way.
a
beyond the league under a city-state
great advance
leadership,
less oppressive. It was
which was
or
a still
always felt to be more
greater advance beyond monarchy, a form of government altogether
A striking
merit of the
foreignto Greek sentiment and character.
federal union
is that its increase in area, while affording
greater
in
of
the
The
the
states.
security, no way hampered
individuality
citizens of the league were
satisfied with their condition,
and it
rarelyhappened that any state wished to revolt.
There were, however, certain defects in the institution.
It was
unfortunate
that the highestmagistracyhad to be filled by a man
who
both statesman
and general. For militaryscience had
was
the whole attention of the general
so
complex as to demand
grown
throughout his entire life ; in this respect it was in the condition
which
exists to-day. Usually,therefore,
the magistratewas
little
for one
fect,
another part of his duties.
A still greater deor
qualified
from a military
pointof view, was the weakness of the federal
in relation to the states.
funds
of
It possessedno
government
its own
the
of its own, but had to depend wholly upon
or
army
for these resources.
it rarely
states
In time of war, accordingly,
succeeded in persuadingthe states to do their best,and it had no
efficient means
of forcingthem.
In a word, it was
very similar to
the union of the American
states before the adoptionof the present

federal

constitution.

On

account

of

these

defects,the

federal

Hellenistic

The

304

Age

Italy,and earlyin the second she began to interfere in the

affairs of the Greek peninsula. Acting as the protector of Greek
in three separate wars, put
she defeated the Macedonians
liberty,
end to their kingdom, and divided their country into four repuban
lics
she
this
work
had defeated the
(168 B.C.). Before completing
Asia Minor
of the Seleucid king and had forced him to evacute
army
(190 B.C.).1Meanwhile
changing her attitude toward the Greek
tyrannical.Opinionsin Greece differed as to the
states,she became
of yielding
wisdom
or
resisting.Thus every Hellenic citydivided
into a Romanizing and an
anti-Romanizingparty. The quarrels
outside

these

between

factions and

further interference
there
leagues,

had

they

Rome,

on

other

in the

They

Besides

These

facts

another

the Aetolian

also

more

were

great

good
at

and
Thus

led to

Achaean
the Hellenes

inclined
peacefully

more

of their

had
hand, now
world, and they

authority.

and

isolated states.

were

time

state

one

to be many

in the

been

the other

state

central

continued

Rome.

stilldisunited.

were

than

from

between

the

war

with

Persia.

soldiers than

command

sufficiently
explainthe

of

any
one

Roman

conquest of Hellas.
To

an
suppress
another army

outbreak

in Macedon

and

Greece, the

Romans

to the

stand
peninsula. No force great enough to withit could be brought together. The Romans
made
of Macedon
a dependent district ruled by a magistrate
sent out by
a province
the imperialgovernment.
They destroyed Corinth as a punishment
sent

"

for her rebellion.

the entire Achaean

All the states

which

had

ing
revolted,includ-

deprivedof their independence

and placed under the governor
of the new
provinceof Macedonia.
They may be considered therefore a part of that province(146 B.C.).
The
rest of the states, includingThessaly,Aetolia,Athens, and
about 27 B.C., all the
Sparta,remained free allies of Rome.
Finally,
became
a
peninsula south of Macedonia
separate provinceunder
the name
of Achaia.2
Though the Greeks thus lost their independence,
and
intellectual
of the
remained
the
artistic
masters
they
League, were

world.
1

" 334-

The

story of the conquest will be given in somewhat

the historyof Rome;
"" 433-438.

greater detail in connection with

Growth

II.

In

declined.

Art.

sightof nature,
models.

the

"

and

literature

of
activity

noblest

mind,

the

CULTURE

this age, the Greek

art, the two fields which

ceased

it had

writers

time

same

305

In

both artists and

At

Realism

HELLENISTIC

and

Literature

345.

of

THE

were

they

DYING

to be

genius had
displaythe
inventive.
Losing

content

to imitate

lost the classic balance

isting
ex-

and

GAUL

(CapitolineMuseum,

Rome)

realistic effects. The most

and pursued emotional
or
self-restraint,
eminent
of pastoral
a composer
The-oc'ri-tus,
poet of the age was
idyls. His delightful
picturesof country life pleased the prosaic

scholars of the time, and

The

day.
another

scientific

of their minor

them.

from

age

charmed

writingsof

the

the world

period will

be

to

the

present

mentioned

in

place.

Classic art had

new

have

aimed

represented
persons

individual
to

traits.

express
In classic art human

disturbingemotions.

It

as
was

types of character
ideal.

The

and
even
peculiarities,
beings are portrayedas
In

the

fourth

stripped

realism
to

of the

exaggerate

calm

and

free

century, however, the

The

Hellenistic

Age

and
in the periodwe
are
now
sculptorbegan to express feeling,
he put into his statues a great amount
of emotion.
reviewing,
One of the best portrait
thenes,
statues of the time is that of Demoswhich
combines
realism and emotion
with classic dignity.

GAUL

(Museum

He

is

represented as

the

"

AND

HIS

WIFE

of the Terme, Rome)

mourning patriot,"grievingfor

his

country'smisfortunes.1 The struggleof Pergamum with the Gauls

of Asia Minor brought forth some
of the most
vigorouswork of the
Among the memorials of the victorywon by Attalus,king of
age.
that city,2
the
are
Gaul and his Wife."
Dying Gaul" and the
In the latter the defeated Gaul, after killing
his wife,is thrusting
"

271.

"

"337-

A
the

sword

into

his

Great

Age of Science

3""7

breast.

They represent the Gauls accurately,

and are full of lifeand feeling,
but lack the classic poise. The
Apollo Belvedere of the same
period,though admired for its refined
of Praxiteles.1
beauty,is weak in comparison with the Hermes
In every
Science.
:
346. Alexandria
important Greek city
whether
in
old
Hellas
in
the
of this period,
or
Orient,lived poets,
tists,
artists,scholars,scienand
philosophers.
own

"

Under
the

the

patronage of

dria
Ptolemies, Alexanthe chief of

became

these

of
centres
many
intellectual life. In the
so-called

Alexandrian

cient
Age (323-146 B.C.),an-

science

and

reached

arship
scholtheir

highestpointof development.
The
campaigns
of Alexander
had greatly
of
enlarged the bounds
geographical
knowledge,
had

and
to

stimulated

men

explore other regions

then

unknown.

The

information

they
gathered was
published
in geographies. Greek
scientists had
lieved
long benew

the

earth

to

be

APOLLO

BELVEDERE

(Vatican Museum,

round

; and

now

one

Rome)

of

the

famous

at about
28,000 English
geographerscomputed its circumference
miles,which is remarkably near the truth. He believed,too, that
the oppositeside of the world was
inhabited,and that India could
it possible
to
be reached
the Atlantic,were
by sailingwest across
made
in astronomy.
make
Similar advances
so
were
long a voyage.
times as largeas the earth,and
It was
is many
found that the sun
1

" 330.

The

308
revolves

that the earth

its axis and

on

however, by
rejected,

was

view

afterward

the earth
found

as

known

the

Hellenistic

Age

scientists of the

most

the Ptol-e-ma'ic

as

of

centre

the

that the brain is the seat

the

around

day

in favor

system, which

universe.

of the

This truth

sun.

certain

mind,

represents

physiologist

that the

and

of the

nerves

are

kinds, for conveying the feelingand the will respectively.

He discovered,too, the circulation of the blood.1
Many of these
to be rediscovered
at the time,or soon
truths were
forgotten,
rejected

of two

In the
years.
and surgeons
scientific,

in recent

347.

The

same

age

the

practiceof

acquiredgreat

Zoological Park

and

medicine

became

skill.

the Museum.

"

One

of the

kings

park,in which he and his successors

Egypt founded a zoological
gatheredmany varieties of animals from all the known parts of the
but as an inearth.
It served not only as an attraction to visitors,
Scholars began to write works on
'centive to the study of nature.
the Museum,
zoologyand botany. A far greater institution was
collection of books in the ancient world.
which contained the largest
of volumes,
that in the time of Caesar the number
We are informed
A
hundred
thousand.
amounted
to seven
includingduplicates,
entire work, but a largedivision (book)
volume
not an
was
(roll)
The historywritten by Herodotus, who lived in the
of a work.
of Homer
time of Pericles,
contains nine such books, and the poems
included a
the Museum
contain forty-eight.Besides the library,
din-ing-hall,
buildingsfor the residence of poets and scholars,and
The entire financial
and lectures.
for walking,conversation,
porticoes
from the treasury of the kings.
support came
of

and

348. Scholarship, Hellenic

Jewish.

"

In

the Museum

entists
sci-

truth; and
discoveryof new
scholars were
knowledge.
equallybusy with systematizingexisting
They compared and criticised the manuscriptsof earlier authors,
with a view to preparingcorrect texts.
They wrote commentaries
the language and styleof these works, and composed histories
on
of the various departments of literature.
Others produced biographies,
and works
on
philosophy. Naturally
histories,
political
the work in Hellenic literature and historywas
all done by Greeks.
devoted

The

whereas

themselves

to

the

Er-a-tosth'e-nes

geographer referred

to

was
Hi-er-oph'i-lus

the great discoverer

was

in

the astronomer

physiology.

was

Ar-is-tarch'us ;

Our

The

Jews, who had

with

Debt

to Hellas

their quarter in

the

Greeks

309

Alexandria,enjoyedequalopportuniti

for trade

and

for culture.

patronage of the Ptolemies,learned Jews translated

the Old Testament

into Greek.

"

a-gint,because, it is
work.

The
the

even

had

fact that

Jews, with

beautiful

Greeks.

The

such

seventy

were

translation

language for

own

of Hellas

Contributions

349.

said,there

version

their Bible

is called the

"

Sep'tu-

engaged

men

the

in the

necessary
proves that
all their love for the institutions of their fathers,

exchanged their

and

This

Under

thingsof the life

fundamental

was

that of Hellas.

to Civilization.
we

now

Most

"

enjoy were

thing is freedom

"

of the

created

freedom

good
by the

from

the

despotism of kings and

priests.Perfect freedom
gives courage.
The
Greeks
had no fear of men
their
loved
and looked
gods
; they
them as friends.
It is only the brave, free mind
that dares
upon
think original
Their greatest contribution
thoughts,that dares invent.
and intellectua
to civilization,
was
accordingly,
political,
religious,
freedom.
is
worth
it
is
unless
little,
however,
Liberty
self-controlled.

The

Greeks

have

given us

the ideal human

ter
charac-

strong, perfectlydeveloped body, and an equallystrong

but held in control
free and fearless,
intellect and feeling,
absolutely
their science,
and
Their language, their literature,
by the reason.
"

their art

are

and

of
simply expressions
which

the

spiritof symmetry
personalcharacters and

classic

find in their noblest

we
beauty
tion,
The greater part of Hellenic civilizastates.
best-regulated
however, died out during the later Roman
empire and the
Middle
nations in the periodof their origin
Ages. As the modern
and
were
ignorantof the ancient Greeks, they had to create anew
civilizationwhich
of the elements of our modern
independently
many
learned
had once
existed in Hellas; much, too, they
by the study
it happens that
Thus
of the literature and the art which survived.
life is Hellenic.
much
of the attractiveness
and beauty of modern

in their

Suggestive Questions
chapter like that on p. 285. 2. Why did the
and Achaean
tions
federathe Aetolian
empire
3. Compare
with the Peloponnesian and Delian leagues. In what details of organization
the earlier?
the later leagues an
on
were
improvement
4. ExI.

Write

summary

of Alexander

of this

fall?

pieces

which

6.

In

of

emotion?

In

with

what

In

Polycleitus.

of

ideal

the

(p. 307)

Belvedere

Apollo
by

between

difference

the

plain

this

The

League.

Achaean

(Polybius)

Life

Greek

Mahaffy,

Greek

chs.

Thought,

and

Book

Source

of

Handbook

Greenidge,

(p.

5.

294)

improvement
do

you

Compare
with

or

discover

the

statue

decline

evidences

Topics

Fling,

"

art.

peculiarities?

Note-book

I.

an

chapter

individual

pieces,

in

Lysippus
see

you
in

real

the

by

can

mentioned

which

and

statue

respects

art

Age

Hellenistic

The

3io

of

Greek

History,

Constitutional

xv,

xvi;

330-338
ch.

History,

Alexander's

Empire,

vii
chs.

xviii.

xvi,
II.

Hellenistic

Handbook
III.

Alexandrian

Sculpture.
of

Greek

"

Tarbell,
ch.

Sculpture,
Civilization.
"

ix-xii;

Alexander's

Empire,

ch.

xiv.

of Greek

History

Art,

ch.

and

Thought,

x;

ner,
Gard-

v.

Mahaffy,

Greek

Life

chs.

The

312
life. In

ern

roots

trunk

are

brief,historymay
Mediterranean

the

is the

Country and

Roman

be

the

compared

countries

empire,and

People

of

whose

pre-Roman

branches

nations.

It is

clear,then, that

necessary

to

understandingof

all later time.

an

with

knowledge

are

of Roman

tree, whose

time, whose
the

modern

historyi?

Italyis mainly a peninsula,

the central one of the three great peninsulas
which branch
off from
the southern coast of Europe. It is long and narrow, and extends
direction. The northern border is formed by the
in a southeasterly
covered with snow.
On the east is the Ad-riloftyAlps,eternally
at'ic Sea ; on the west
the Tuscan
Instead
Sea.
or
Tyr-rhe'ni-an
of clusters of islands,
which
find in the neighborhoodof Greece,
we
there are near
Italythree singleislands,
Sicilynear the toe of the
often mentioned
above
Sardinia
as a part of Hellas,and
peninsula,
lie close togetherto the west of central Italy.
and Corsica,which
All these islands are connected
with the historyof Rome.
find it composed of two prinwe
Examining Italymore
closely,
cipal
mainland
and the peninsula, (i) The
parts, the mainland
is in the north, and consists chiefly
of the basin of the Po River,
which
the Alps on the north and
the Ap'en-nines
lies between
on
This is by far the largestriver of Italy. It flows in an
the south.
ably
direction through a great alluvial plain,
forming a remarkeasterly
is usuallycalled northern
fertile district. The mainland
Italy.
central
is
divided
into
often
For convenience
the
(2)
peninsula
the
from
hood
Apennines on the north to the neighborItaly,extending
of
the
the
of Naples,and southern
rest
sula.
peninItaly,including
the
two
There is no natural boundary, however, between
351.

Physical

Features

of

Italy.
"

sections last named.

tween
Apennines as forming the boundary bethe map, p. 3 16.
northern and central Italy.This isbest seen
on
First they extend
eastward
along the coast of the mainland, then
they verge to the southeast tillthey pass the centre of the peninsula.
with
After that they continue
throughoutits lengthnearlyparallel
the coasts.
Though not so loftyas the Alps, the Apennines are
interior is rugged.
very high,and the whole
to the
It is a noteworthy fact that this mountain
range lies nearer
We

eastern

have

than

spoken

to the

of the

western

coast.

This

circumstance

makes

the

Effectof Geography
slopeshorter,the

eastern

steeper and

coast

the

and

less

of harbors.

in fertile coast

terminate

west

rivers smaller

devoid

more

History

on

313

navigable,and the

The

longerslopeson

plains. The rivers,too, are

are
navigable. The principal
It rises in the Apennines of

longerand larger,and a few of them

river of the peninsulais the Tiber.
is southwest.
and its generalcourse
There are several
central Italy,
The
is the Bay of
one
principal
harbors,too, on the west coast.
Naples. The Tiber River itself served as a harbor for small ships.
of the peninsulaharbors
quent.
freIn the south and southeast
are
more
excellent is the bay on
Next
to that of Naples,the most
stood.1
the Greek
which
colony of Tarentum.
Effects

352.

of

Geographical Conditions

the

on

History of Italy.

the historical bearingof a few great

It is necessary
to examine
facts regardingthe situation and physicalfeatures of Italy; for the
-

greatness of Rome
Italian

whole

certain

only at
off from

did not

relations

with

her to associate
is one

This
Another

is its

notice

population. We
points,and

the

depend"on

the
with

that

there with

even

interior

cityalone, but
the

passable

are

difficulty
; they cut Italy

of the

the other

Alps

the

upon

continent,and

pelled
com-

nean.
countries of the Mediterra-

of the great facts in the

Noteworthy
accessibility.

historyof

the

peninsula.

in this connection

are

its

shore beyond
Illyrian
the Adriatic.
it connects
On the southwest
closelywith Africa.
Its nearness
to other countries has always exposedit to invasion
of the
from across
the Adriatic,from Sicily
and Africa,or by way
Ionian
to
the Alps,though a hindrance
Even
Sea, from Greece.
barrier against enemies.
have
often proved a weak
commerce,
various
From
to Italyfrom
came
earlytimes, accordingly,
many
either individually
in mass,
as
or
directions,
traders,immigrants,

lengthand

and

narrowness

its

to the

nearness

"

These

or

conquerors.

in

friendshipand

In

fact,for

of the

older

of courage,
were

war,

centuries

drawing

to

strangers of diverse
stimulated

one

Italy formed

itself the

world, and

nationalities,
mingling

another

the western

boldest

and

to

great activity.

frontier of civilization,

enterprising
people
qualities
intelligence.There
practical
most

developingintenselythe frontier

patience,hardihood, and

differences in language and

i

customs

"

126.

between

one

part of the

The

314
country

and

Country and

another ; and

there

the

grew

People
a

up

warring among
states,continually
however,

as

life became

more

settled and

developed,the people found

peace

country

positivedisadvantage.

accept the supremacy

of

the

multitude

of small

themselves.

refined,and

In

depende
in-

time,

desire for

exposed positionof their

circumstance

This

Rome, the strongeststate

led them

in the

to

peninsula

of the country
give protection.Thus the accessibility
the first great work
unification
complished
achelpsexplainits political
of
her
in
the
The
same
buildingup
empire.
by Rome
another
fact ; even
when
united,
geographicalconditions explain
unsafe while neighboringnations remained
free to
the country was
that motives of self-preservation
led Rome,
assail it ; and thus it was
into her career
of foreignconquest.
the head of the peninsula,
as
the secunification of the Mediterranean
world was
The
ond
political
accomplishedby Rome.
great stage of empire-building
in
The
third and most
was
important task achieved by Rome
the western
half ; and in this work,
the empire,especially
civilizing
ern
too, she was favored by the form and situation of Italy. The westcoast, as we have noticed,is better suppliedthan the eastern
that the Romans
It was
with harbors.
came
partlyfor this reason
into closer touch and sympathy with Spain,Gaul, and northwestern
In some
Africa than
with
and
Greece
the Orient.
degree they
vital
but
the
their
whole
character
the
on
fresh,
empire ;
impressed
far more
ready than the decaying East
peoplesof the West were
and ideas.
to adopt their customs, institutions,
and

ablest to

"

353.

Climate, Soil,and

Products, and

their Effects.

"

more

acquaintancewith the physicalgeography of the country

will yield other facts which
its history. Its extension
bear on
of climate,
through many degreesof latitude givesa great diversity
increased further by the Apennines. In the south is a sub- tropical
climate and vegetation,
nearlylike those of Africa ; in the north,
especially
high up on the slopesof the mountains, we find the air and
the productsof central Europe.
mer
Everywhere the extremes of sumThe sunny
and winter are tempered by the neighboringsea.
of
sky, the luxuriant vegetation,the great variety and abundance
and grains, have
useful products,
stone, copper, timber,fruit,
supported a dense population,promoted its many-sided develop-

intimate

"

"

The

316
with the natives
is Latium.

are

Country

known

Their

and

the

historyas
languagecontains

the earlier inhabitants.

to

Another

branch

People

the

try
Latins,and their counwords adopted from
many

of the

stock

same

HE

settled

TRIBES
oz-

ITALY

in the country north

and

SICILY

Tiber, the Etruria of historical time.

They did not limit themselves to Etruria,however, but occupiedthe
breadth of the peninsula. They, too, mingled with the natives,and
which
the race
this blending is called the Umbrians.
sprang from

Closelyrelated

to them

of the

"

in

loose

sense

their colonists

"

were

the

THE

FALL

(Tibur.

From

THE

or
a

ANIO

photograph)

Mountaineers
Oscans.

Sa-bel'li-ansor

Thereafter

Etruscans.1
do

central

the

and

the Sabine

Italy.

Umbrians

country and its

the mountains

over

The

and

and

west

the

onlyUmbrians

those of the interior.

were

317

important

most

Samnium.

was

country north

the

time

Men

their settlements

Mountaineers

356. The

Plain

Startingfrom

neighborhood,they extended
and the eastern
slopes of
Sabellian country

and

of the Tiber

We

Sabellians

Sabellians.
was

with

whom

we

by

the

have

to

overrun

therefore

must

After

"

regardboth

the

mountaineers.
These
essentially
of the Italic race
branches
differed little in language and
two
subsisted
ing
Both
customs.
by hunting,herding cattle,and farmsmall
patches of soil. They lived in villagesand had no
states like those of modern
times, but each mountain
valleywas
of a tribe with
its own
the abode
independent government.
tribes were
with
another.
The
Whereas
one
constantlyat war
lived a more
the Sabellians
settled and peacefullife,
the Umbrians
for
restless and
were
were
aggressive,and for that reason
civilized plainmen
to the more
centuries a constant
menace
along

Umbrians

their western
The

357.

border.
Latins.

Latium.

was

as

"

The

It extended

exposed to these attacks

between
to the southeast,

most

country

the Tiber

from

the sea, as far as Tar-ra-ci'na. On account

of
their fertile fields near
the coast, the people of this country grew
in the interior.
more
wealthy and refined than their kinsmen
the mountains

and

outgrew the old tribal life and

They

soon

those

of Greece.

ranges

which
them

among
a

reach
was

lake which

of the Latin

short

distance

fortified and

out

Alba

most

from

attractive
1

" 358.

were

Longa,2 high
of

an

built

the

on

the Alban
up on
extinct volcano.

the cities of the union

Here

Mount,
It

held

their
Jupiter,
northeast
of Alba was
one
Prae-nes'te,
From
powerful cities of earlyLatium.

they sacrificed

follow the mountain

may
well-fortified cityin a

we

spurs of the
the interior into the plain. Prominent

of them

fillsthe crater

League.

in which
festival,
A

Most

like
city-states,

founded

is the fall of

ox

an

to

head

was

an

side
be-

annual

chief

deity.

of the best
Praeneste

other
Tibur, ancially
remarkablybeautiful situation. Espethe Anio from a great heightinto a deep

range

For

the

northwestward

placesin Latium,

to

see

map

opp.

p. 353.

wooded
but

ravine.

the most

about

There

were

fourteen

Rome,

central hill was

slopeswere

be

may

very

This

steep. The

SHORE

OF

(From

The

studied

the Pal'a-tine.

citywas

heightwas
is true

ALBAN

of the Tiber
on

of

group

(p.335).

the map

on

same

THE

of Latium,
city-states

the left bank

on

its mouth.

miles from

situation

other

many

important was

whose
hills,
its

Country and the People

The

318

The

easilydefended,as
of the Cap'i-to-line

LAKE

photograph)

-Palatine,
separatedfrom it by a deep
the Palatine,
around
from the Capitoline
keeping
the latter to our
to the QmVi-nal
right,we come
successively
Hill,the Vim'i-nal Hill,the Es'qui-line
Mount, the Cae'li-an Mount,
and the Av'en-tine Mount.
tine,
It is worth
noticingthat the Palawhereas
Capitoline,
Caelian,and Aventine are isolated heights,
the other three are
tongues projectingfrom a broad tableland,
which lies on
border
the
of the city. The
seven
heightsnamed
above
Seven Hills
are
of Rome.
spoken of as the

Mount, nearlywest
valley. As we pass

of the

"

The

Romans

settlement

was

of the
on

the

"

historical age

believed

Palatine,and

graduallyincorporatedin

the

city.1
1

"

375.

that

that

the

their earliest

other

hills

were

Etruscans

The

358.
much

time

that

their

Aegean

Etruscans.

ancestors

partlythe

colonization

Greek
forced
new

by sea, a
beginningbefore
came

800

new

home

with

the

natives.

seek

time,

In

B.C.

The

guage
lan-

the

new-comers

the Etruscan
time

historical

was

blending of
immigrants with the

formed

by

these

the

earlier Umbrian
of

If this view

Minor.

zation
superiorcivili-

the

prevailed,but
of

the

they mingled

their

race

of

Italy. They

in

of

of Asia

islands

early

to

few at

and

northern

which

of them

many
homes

are

recently devoted
becoming convinced

been

of

pressure

have

the

neighboringcoast

have

is correct, it must

inhabited

once

the

and

who

the Etruscans

study of

to the

Sea

Scholars

"

Etruria.

inhabitants

Their

country

rich in natural

was

copper,

"

resources,
marble, timber for

building,and

fertile soil.

The

neighboring island of
Elba suppliediron.
In addition
this country, they
to
acquired by conquest and
colonization

With

their

west

coast

time

they

in

the

no

one

1
2

From

valley and

Po

photograph)

of

Campania.

warships they controlled the sea which washes the

of Italy, named
after them, Tyrrhenian.2 For
a
"

were

the

powerful

most

yet has been

"" 92-94.
Tyrrhenian and Etruscan

the latter from

ARCH

ETRUSCAN

(Volaterrae,Etruria.

the greater part of the

peninsula. Though they

as

AN

the Latin.

have

able to read

are

and

the

most

left abundant
their

equivalentin meaning

ambitious

inscriptions,

language. Scholars

the former

race

is from

are

the Greek,

The

320

Country and the People

Indo-Europeans. Part of
into Italy. Afterward
them
colonists the phalanx,the alphabet,

inclined to believe that

their civilization

they were
they brought with

they adopted from

the

Greek

AN

ETRUSCAN

not

TOMB

Etruria)
showing wall-paintings; Tarquinii,
(Interior,

ideas of architecture,
and advanced
ture,
sculpbeliefs,
religious
of their own.
and sculptures
and painting. They made vases
and on
They paved roads,dug canals for drainageand irrigation,

various

AN

ETRUSCAN

in
(Wall-painting

BANQUET

Etruria)
tomb, Tarquinii,

The

322

taughtthe
army,

and

359.

The

People

to

build

Greeks.

"

It

of the Italians

the

the

Greeks, who

virile

the

to organize
and equip their
interpret
omens,
temples,and cities.
sewers, walls,dwellings,

Romans
to

and

Country

destined,however, that

was

Etruscans

should
about

in the end

the middle

be

as

teachers

outrivalled

by

of the

eighthcentury
B.C. began to settle the shores of southern
Italyand Sicily.Soon
their thrivingsettlements
and lined the
nearly surrounded
Sicily,
more

Italian coast

from

Tarentum

Cumae.

to

As

these cities have

been

it is unnecessary
to
chapteron Greek colonization,1
here.
mention
them
We should notice,however, that
individually
the Greeks
of the West
performed a most useful service in imparting
the Romans
a largeshare of their culture to Rome.
Particularly
received from them their alphabet,their military
and
organization
ideas,the elements of all
equipment,higherand better religious
the fine and
useful arts, and later the sciences and philosophy.
others through the Etruscans.
Some of these gifts
came
directly,
360. Other Peoples of Italy. The other peoplesof Italywere
of minor
the Li-gu'ri-ans
in the
importance. Among them were
northwest
of the country. In remote
time
extreme
prehistoric
they had inhabited a much wider area, but had been crowded back
and
into the mountains
Gallic invaders.
by Etruscan
Opinion
differs as to whether
they were
Indo-Europeans or the original
inhabitants of Italy. They were
tained
a
hardy race, who long maintheir freedom.
In the northeast of Italy,about
the head
of the Adriatic Sea, lived the Ve-ne'ti-ans,
who
an
were
invading
from
race
Illyria.The modern
cityof Venice retains their name.
the I-a-pyg'i-ans
or
Closelyrelated in originand language were
in and about the heel of the peninsula. Neither the
Mes-sa'pi-ans
Venetians
the lapygianshave any special
nor
prominence in Roman
the Gauls who
about
the middle
history.-More important were
of the fifth century began to cross
the Alps and to overrun
the Po
blond barbarians,
brave in battle
valley.2They were at the time tall,
and greedy for plunder. Early in the following century a horde
of these fierce warriors ravaged central Italy and
sacked
Rome.3
described

in the

"

1
2

now

Ch. xi. " 126.

Formerly it was
found

to

be

held that the invasion

too

early.

began in

the sixth century, but

3

" 398.

this date is

Minor

Peoples

Suggestive

maps).
countries
best

of

made

"

the

Fall

do
the

Sea.

banquet

the

animal

life?

represent

what

the

form

of

Italy

History
II.

History

of
The

and

Rome,
Greeks

of Greece,

her

People.

i.

"

of

Greek

Botsford,

temple

this

the
"

what

think

from

the

and

the

of

(p. 321).

Tuscan
in

men

the

beings

we

ences
infer-

Rome,

and

women

should

tion
condi-

Describe

5.

you

the

illustrations

Lake

human

temple

Etruscan

Note-book

I.

do

forms

two

and

mountains,

the

(see

these

would

Campania,
of

What

7.

the

of

From

Alban

Apennine

dress

Greece

harbors

country?

Etruria,

the

320).

Describe

8.

With

peristyle?

to

River,

the

4.

the

the

the

Latium,

(p.

scene

artist

Etruscan

Pb

Had
difference

of
of

Describe

6.

Shore

appearance

the

what

of

features

peninsula?
"

those

physical
3.

coast,
the

the

Tibur,

Praeneste,

Tyrrhenian)

and

of

and

east

of

and

the

to

as

location

the

Etruscan
of

"

Anio

the

the

on

with

Italy

histories?

history

the

draw

River,

Tiber

different

been

in
of

you

maps

(or

Italy

of

have

of

situation

the

their

explain

lands

do

far

How

2.

Questions

features

physical

the

Compare

i.

323

and

the

ability
of

plant

it

Does

have

it?

compare

Topics

Story

of

14-28

Rome,

Duruy,

17-43.
in

ch.

Italy.
ii.

"

"

3.

Holm,

History

of Greece,

i.

282-291

Bury,

XXIX

CHAPTER

I.

the

the

slaying

taken

had

Greeks

and

storms

mother,

And

him

after

and

and
A

of Latins.

the

from

kingship

Numitor's

forth

an

named

She

order

by

of war,

and

of

would

were

taken

they

had

Numitor,
362.

the

king, they

their

The

Myths

value,
2

"113.

are
see

had
for

by

manhood,

the

the

not

to

Founding
twin

merely

for

of

brothers

reading,

of

coast

taking

Longa.

Many

Italy.

the

size

human

adrift

Set

ashore

nursed

shepherd

of that

bring

she

bore

and

beauty.

on

the

Tiber

till

them

they

When

region.

Amulius,

to

Palatine,

Mount

near

she-wolf

killed

daughter,
and

marry

had

He

the

However,

than

name

tions
genera-

throne.

not

wrongs.

the

Nu'mi-tor

his brother

might

restored

and

throne.

(753 B.C.?).

Rome

led

not

brought

she

they
the

peril,and

Rhe'a,

a
a

goddess

compelled

cast

with

him

all

usurped

Re'mus.

were

with

city.

Alba

more

and

grandfather,
of

Myth

cared
to

grown

king's consent,
1

perished
and

of

sons

Rom'u-lus

up

that

were

his

west

in peace,

himself

family's

them

have

the

wickedly expelled

the

twin

dangers,

on

founded

Virgin4

of

avenger

and

together

Alba, and

of

Vestal

god

Mars,

build

assassinated, and

son

become

to

to

lived

A-mu'li-us

afterward

threatened

haven

and

together

sea

every

When

"

horse2

Juno3

trials

to

of Aeneas

son

angry

by

safely through

began

natives

escaped

with

wanderings

landed

Trojans

him

Remus.

of the wooden

means

Ae-ne'as

path

guided

many

he

There

by

and

of Romulus

though

his

beset

Venus,

and

Troy

inhabitants,

followers.

many

MYTHS1

THE

of Aeneas

Myth

361. The

KINGS

THE

UNDER

ROME

for

"

colony

study

and

to

the

recitation.

the

With

place
On

where

their

" 365.
3"373324

4"374-

torical
his-

The

Seven

Kings

325

founded
a
they had passed their youth. There Romulus
cityon
Palatine.1
Mount
Remus, however, in derision,
leaped the halffinished wall, exclaiming, Methinks
might
any of your enemies
Then
I
do."
of
this
his
as
Romulus, or one
easilyas
leap
men,
replying, But any of us might easily
and killed
chastise that enemy," struck
him with a pickaxe. The
new
citywas
"

"

named

after the founder.

Rome

its first king,Romulus

laws and

had
alive

of

Martius.

ended

and
reign,

Romulus

Numa

was

human

and

of

his

"

heaven, Nu'ma

Whereas

aim

of Tullus

Numa,

of Ancus

to

his

gave

Hostil-

After
had

became

had

ulus
Rom-

ascended

been

king.
warlike,

in
peace, learned
made
it the
divine law, who
a

of

man

of his rule to soften the iron

the

people

constitution.

363. Myth
ius,and

ing
Becom-

tempers

Refraining from

Romans.

war

throughouthis reign,he occupiedhis time

in givingreligious
laws and institutions to
his people.
At

his 'death

peace
Tul'lus Hos-til'i-us,
the
and

people

to

where

Rome,

the Caelian Hill.

an

end.

third

destroyed Alba
and
territory,

her

to

came

he

quered
king, connexed
Longa,2 an-

removed
settled

the

VESTAL

(Museum

VIRGIN

of the Terme, Rome)

them

An'cus

the fourth king,stillfurther

Mar'ti-us,
of the
at the mouth
enlarged the Roman
domain, founded Os'ti-a,
Tiber,to be a seaport to his city,and fortified Mount
Ja-nic'u-lum,
the Tiber, as an outpost againstthe Etruscans.
across
on

364. Myth
Ancus

Martius

of

the

was

Tarquins

king,a

and

of

Servius

certain resident

of

Tullius.

"

While

in EtruTar-quin'i-i,

of 'Lu'ci-us
taking the name
Pris'cus (" the Elder "),he won,
Tar-quin'i-us
by his courteous
the favor of all. The people,therefore,
elected him king
manners,

ria, journeyed

to

Rome.

'"357.

There

He

after Ancus.

Latins,and made
carried

successors

the

under

Rome

326

Kings

gainedfamous victories over the Sabines and the

which his
a beginningof the great publicworks
and
to completion. At lengthhe was
assassinated,

the
Servius Tullius,

son

of

slave

mother,

succeeded

to

the throne.

reorganizedthe army,
his magnificent
Such were
his cityleader of Latium.
and made
But the plotsof his wicked
deeds.
daughter,Tullia,embittered
his old age ; and at last he was
openly murdered by her husband,
Tarquin the Elder's son, who, succeedingto the throne,gained the
The
the Proud."
hateful title of
Tarquin completed
younger
his father had
the public works
begun. On these buildingshe
till they cursed
the
compelled the citizens to labor unrewarded
to
came
Sib'yl,"
tyrant. One day a prophetessof Apollo,the
l with
nine books
of propheciesconcerningthe
Cumae
him from
She wished him to buy them, but he objectedto
future of Rome.
six of them, however, curiosity
the price. After she had burned
fear led him to pay the original
and religious
pricefor the remaining
of two men
of rank,
three.
He placedthem in charge of a college
the templeof Jupiteron the Capiwho kept them in a vault beneath
Servius built

great wall around

Rome,

"

"

toline

Mount,

danger or
But

the end

consulted

and

them

whenever

the state

in especial

was

distress.
of

kinglyrule

broke the laws of the

drawing near.

was

slew senators, and

forefathers,

The
so

last

Tarquin
oppressedthe

theywere ready for rebellion. Col-la-ti'nus

Lu'ci-us Ju'ni-us
Bru'tus,both kinsmen of the king,
led a revolt of nobles and commons
againstthe tyrant. He was
that they would
banished,and Brutus persuadedthe peopleto swear
suffer a king to rule at Rome.
nevermore
The account
365. Historical Value of the Myths.
given above
is but a brief outline of the story of the seven
kingsas told by the
writers of later time.
They could have had no real knowledge of the
terial
foundingand of the earliest historyof the city,for no written ma-

peopleby hard
Tarquiniusand

labor that

"

came

date

the

of

down

to

them

that far-off time.

from

The

traditional

the beginis a fiction. Doubtless

nings
founding 753 B.C.
of the citywere
far earlier. About
adopted
700 the Romans
alphabetfrom the Greeks,but for two centuries they made little
"

"

"

126.

Historical Sources

327

of it.

In the later years of the regalperiodthey began to put

into writingtheir treaties and perhaps also some
of their religious
use

laws,1which

could

afterward

whom

Evidently Romulus,
but a deity.2 The
man,
fact been forgotten,
and
remembered
only were
ruled

toward

the

the

other

most

of

been

real

six.

to

as

story

belong
the

or

have

The

count
ac-

lives,however,
with

what

myths

elements

and

true

are

in

scholars will agree

two

no

who

to

seem

is interwoven
and

worshipped,was not
the earlier kings have

close of the

persons.

of their

of all

names

historians.

those

They,

them,

by

the Romans

real

this time

To

period.

be used

of

what

the
are

fictitious.

366. Other
Sources.

"

Historical

the

In

accounts
"

THE
INSCRIPTION"
FORUM
given by ancient writers are
(In archaic characters ;
early religiouslaw.
of many
descriptions
customs,
From
photograph)
and buildingsas
institutions,
writers refer them
The
critically
unthey existed in historical time.
the
to
we
can
regal period. By careful examination
often distinguish
between
existed so earlyand
those thingswhich
those which
later into being. Thus
in
reconstruct
came
we
can
broad outline the publicand privatelifeof Rome
under the kings.
an

this task

In

of reconstruction

archaeology.
which
and
Such
Wall

derive

cemetery has recentlybeen

great assistance from

discovered

in Rome

used in the earlier

regalperiod. A study of the graves

of their contents
throws light
the life of the common
on
people.
the
the
so-called
Clo-a'ca
as
Max'i-ma,
publicworks, however,
of Romulus
and Wall of Servius,belongto a far later time.3

One

Forum.

we

was

of these

religious
laws,engraved

It belongs probably to about

Compare Lycurgus;

"

140.

450

on

stone, has recentlybeen

discovered in the

B.C.
3

" 375.

II.

PEOPLE

THE

Kings
STATE

THE

AND

Romans.

of the

Character

and

367. Occupations

the

under

Rome

328

As

"

Rome

navigableriver,and well situated for small trade with the

of the citizens' engaged in
and other neighbors,some
Etruscans
of the Romans,
and in buying and selling.Most
making wares
however, were
peasants. The farmer, clad simply in his tunic,
a loose woollen
garment which reached the knee,followed his bronzemind held only
drawn
shod plough.
by a yoke of cattle. His narrow
ideas ; for he saw
nothing of the world beyond the
sober,practical
mountains
borderingthe plain
mountains
of the
Tiber,
which
inspiredhim with no
a

on

was

"

love of the beautiful and

grand,but

rather with

URN

AN

from

Front

side
IN

THE

FORM

or

to sweep

wont

them

upon

down

his littlefield.

his warfare
life,
and
againstfamine,pestilence,
always
neighbors who Were

His laborious

HUT'

Boisena, Tuscany ; oicott Collection,

a
photograph,
University. From
with Professor Olcott's permission)

(Found

were

ing
feel-

for the enemies

of hatred

who

the

at

Columbia

"

made
stern and
mm
harassing,
and
in his dealingwith the gods, calculating
harsh,and, even
found little place
illiberal. Though love, pity,and benevolence
heroic virtues, he was
in his heart,he was
strong in the more
fathers,
the gods and the forebrave, and energetic
dignified,
; he revered
of his word.
he was
and obeyed the laws ; above all,
a man
and
We find the same
simplicity
368. The Family and the Gens.
made
act which
severityin the family. Marriage was a religious
the dwellingwas
hut with a single
the home
sacred.
a
Originally
"

"

like that

room

shown

in the illustration.

In time

it

to

came

have

holy place. Within lived the

Pe-na'tes,
guardian deities of the family store, and the Lar, who
protectedthe house from every harm.
Every person had a guardseveral

rooms.

In early Latium

The

and

dwellingwas

Etruria

it was

customary

ashes in urns, often shaped like the dwellings of the

of this character.

to

burn

the dead

living. The

urn

and
here

to

depositthe

illustrated is

Rome
united in
the

was

under

the

Kings

tribe,and three tribes composed the

tribe

the Roman

was

curia

and
phratry (brotherhood),
In early
the Greek.1
the same
as
practically

institution

same

The

state.

as

the Greek

the

Rome
formed

tribe

foot and

the

troop of horse.
The

370.

The

regimentof

nobles

of each

commons

Social

commons

were

Classes.

called

ple-be'-

(the"multitude") and the

nobles
In general
pa-tri'ci-ans.
character the patricians
like
were
the Eupatrids at Athens,3 or like

ians

the

nobles

other

of most

states.

to be
qualified
and priests.
senators, magistrates,
The king could ennoble
beian
any ple-

They

alone

were

whom

he

marked

considered

by

ciently
suffi-

wealth

or

personalmerit.
In generalthe plebeianswere
AN

ETRUSCAN

CURULE

CHAIR

like the

(CorsiniGallery, Rome)

modern

of most

commons

of Athens

other states of ancient

and
or

kings and for a long time afterward

their rights
limited.
gage
were
They could own
property and could enin business.
free,and had a rightto
Personallythey were
protectionof life and property. They could vote in the popular
not
assembly, but were
permitted to sit in the senate or to
hold any
office or priesthood. As
the patriciansalone were
unwritten, the plebeian,
acquainted with the laws, which were
times.4

the

Under

'"117.
2

The

word

plebeiansrefers

denotes the entire body

noun,
3

"

The

to

or

them

as

whereas
individuals,

"plebs," a

collective

class.

149-

the patricians
the only citizens and that the plebs
theory that originally
were
of various classes of aliens originatedabout
modern
1800
A.D., when
historical science was
into
stillin its crude beginnings,
and before sociologyhad come
existence. There is no evidence whatever
scholars are
for the theory,and progressive
referred to
of the subject teachers are
discardingit. For a detailed examination
Botsford,Roman
Assemblies, ch. ii (Macmillan, 1909).
were

composed

Societyand Government
to

protectionfor himself

secure

law,chose

noble

Thus

client.

as

his patron, whom

of the

many

duty of the patron was

givehis clients legaladvice
business,to
when

them
on

the

sued.

their patron to
labored
him

The

himself to

clients of the

serve

as

patricians.

to

in

clients,
followed

and

war

in

him

he bound

of

the courts

defend

to

hand,

other

familybefore

for them

sue

injured,and

when

his

became
plebeians

The

their

and

33*

ported
sup-

public life,

in his fields

or

made

presents, that he might

fill his offices with

becoming
dignity. Though the original
less
doubtwas
objectof clientage
good, we shall see how,
after the

overthrow

kingship,it became
oppressive.1
371. The

King.

"

at

this

He

was

Government

of

the

ably
intoler-

the

The

only magistrate
time
the king.
was
elected for life by the

peoplein the way described in

the following
paragraph. His
im-pe'ri-um
authority
LICTORS
AXES
WITH
conferred upon
him
the
by
made
him
absolute
in war
commander
and
people,
supreme
with
of life and
his subjects. In addition
death over
judge
power
to these duties,he was
head of the state religion.All
officials,
civil,military,and religious,were
appointed by him,
and were
but a citizen,
merely his helpers. Although originally
his office gave
him
great dignity. Accordingly he dressed in
embroidered
an
purple robe and high red shoes, and with an
eagle-headed sceptre in his hand sat on an ivory throne, the cu"

"

'"381.

In his walks

rule chair.
called

curule

the

he

was

each bearingan
lictors,

his
signified

axes

chair

Kings

accompaniedby ^twdye^attendants
axe

bound

in

bundle

of rods.

The

power, extendingto life and death. The

with
lictors armed
first used by
were
axes

absolute

and

the

kings,and

Etruscan

the

under

Rome

332

borrowed

from

them

by

the

rulers

of

Rome.

When

the

king wished to
consult his people on questionsof publicinterest,
his criers went
about
the citywith ox-horns,calling
them to the co-mi' ti-um, or
placeof assembly. Here the curiae met, each in a group by itself,
and listened to the proposition
of the king,with the reasons
he might
372.

The

Assembly and the Senate.

urge in its favor.

Then

each

"

curia voted

whether

it would

sustain

king'swish ; and a majorityof the curiae decided the

This assembly was
called the co-mi'ti-a cu-ri-a'ta. The
matter.
ing
king consulted it when he wished to begina war, to change an existcustom, or to undertake any other importantbusiness.
To be binding,such a decision of the assembly had to receive
the sanction of the senate,
the pa'trum auc-tor'i-tas. As all,
without distinction of rank, had a voice in the comitia,a great
majorityof that body were
necessarily
plebeians.It was chiefly
that the nobles exercised their politithrough the senate, therefore,
cal
influence. The king was
of the
accustomed
to ask the advice
all important matters; and though he was
senate
on
not
legally
bound by this advice,he generally
for
the
it
followed
throughrespect
nobles and through desire for their support and cooperation.
On the death of a king the senate
took entire charge of the
government ; the senators ruled by turns, each for a periodof five
days,in the order determined by lot. The ruler for the time being
termed
and the periodbetween
was
the death of a king
in'ter-rex,
and the election of his successor
The interrex
was
an
in-ter-reg'num.
nominated
a
king,the assembly elected him, and the senate gave
its sanction.
The
conferred through the election
imperium was
or

oppose

the

"

itself.

the
the

Religion.

The

of the Romans, like that of

original
religion
Egyptians,Babylonians,and earliest Greeks, was a worship of
and
firstunder Etruscan
objectsand powers of nature.1 It came

373.

"

""

24, 42,

101.

Religion
then

under

Greek

influence.

the belief that the

It

mainly the

was

gods had

human

the chief deitywas

religion
Janus, the
the beginningsand ends of actions.
open
but

in

and

closed in peace.
the reignof Numa
they were
war

rarelythereafter

of Rome.

From

introduced

the

and

in the

333
latter which

form.1

double-faced
The

duced
intro-

In their earliest

god

who

blessed

gates of his temple were

ing
Dur-

shut,
long history

the Etruscans

Rome

great trinity,
Jupiter,

Minerva.

Juno,
Supplanting
be
the supreme
to
Janus,Jupitercame
guardianof the state ; Juno, his wife,
the patron spirit
of women
was
erva
; Minbecame
the goddess of war, skill,
and

wisdom.

likewise

deity,was

the

was

Vesta

Mars,

was

native Roman

god

of

god of fire and

goddess of the

the countless
mentioned

deities

here.

When

can
Vul-

war.

of the

forge.

hearth.

few

Of

only are

the

Romans

became

acquaintedwith Greece, they

began to identifythe gods of that
Jupiterwas
country with their own.
identified with Zeus, Juno with Hera,
Minerva
Ares.2

Athena, and Mars with

Venus, a garden deity,they
with

MINERVA

(Etruscan;

Archaeological Museum,
Florence)

identified with

Aphrodite,goddess of
love. The
attributes of the Greek deity they transferred to the
right.
native god. Several Greek deities they adopted outcorresponding
One
of the first thus
pansion
introduced
was
Apollo. This exof the native religionunder
foreigninfluence continued
not only during the kingshipbut throughoutRoman
history.
374.

held
made

"

"

Services

of

the

by priests fla'mi-nes,
pluralof fiamen
"

uncomfortable

conduct.3
1

Religious Officials.

101.

Among
2

"

chief
"

whose

deities

were

lives

were

by strict rules governingevery detail of their

the regulations
regardingthe flamen of Jupiter
102.

3For

group

of

flamines,see illustration,
p.

459.

Rome

334

are

not

his
his

the

under

Kings

It is a crime for him to ride horseback ; he is

:
following
permittedto take an oath ; he is to have no knot about him, on
but a freeman
cut
or
may
; none
any other clothing
cap, girdle,
be plastered
with
hair ; the feet of the bed he sleepsin must

the

mud.

No

they afford

us

the

knows

one

reason

rules of

for such

conduct;

but

in the details
religion
and
of its cramping
life,

idea of the strictness of the

an

of

the mind.

effect upon

duties
'religious

of groups,
sacred persons.
care

tain
Cer-

were

the

of
colleges,

or

Such

were

Virgins,who
attended
to the worship of
Vesta, and kept the sacred
fire of the state in her temple.
The
collegeof augurs had
for
the duty of interpreting
the king the omens
sent by
vealed
Jupiterthrough which he rehis will regardingthe
the

six Vestal

These

state.
"

the
AN

ETRUSCAN

(Wall-paintingfrom

tomb

AUGUR
;

tfTarquinii,
Etruria)

of
flight
and

elements

of
from

pices
aus-

"

in

manifested

were

thunder

omens

birds and

in the

lightning.The
rowed
borthe auspices,
Etruria,

were

As the Romans
to a complex system.
were
developed in Rome
intensely
religious,
they gave strict obedience to what they believed
will. It was
fore,
thereto be the divine
mainly through the auspices,
that the magistratecontrolled the people.
The collegeof pontiffs
had charge of all religious
knowledge,
includingthe calendar,which had to do primarilywith fixingthe
sacred days. When
questionarose, the pontiffs
any difficultreligious
called upon to decide it. This generalsupervision
in all
were
max'imade
the chief of the college pon'ti-fex
matters
religious
of the most
mus
one
important persons in the state.
So influential were
these priests
that the government
might have
"

"

Topography
fallen into their
been

hands,as

335

happened in the Orient,had it not

offices were
held by
importantreligious
have been pontifex
king must generally

often

for the fact that all the

magistrates. Thus the

time the chief augur.
The
maximus, and probably at the same
holds for all Roman
same
history: the magistrateswere not
principle
rather as an aid to government.
but used religion
slaves to religion,
The earliest settlement at Rome,
of Rome.
Growth
375. The
have
the Palatine.1
we
as
on
noticed,was
Graduallythe poputhe

"

E-A.RL.Y

lation outgrew
the

the

this

narrow

neighboringhills.
CapitolineMount,

Then
and

ROM

E3

space, and built their

of the kings took
one
established
1

" 357.

on
dwellings

of
possession

his citadel there.

At

first

people could
because
they were
the

these low

drained

works

these

of

it

marshy and often

of
grounds by means
the

drained

Forum1,

it habitable.

the

But
of

separatedthe hills,
overflowed.
The
Tarquins
The

sewers.

famous

most

Max'i-ma

Clo-a'ca

the

built hundreds

was

Kings

valleyswhich

live in the

was

sewer"), which
the ground about
covers

not

the

under

Rome

336

(" the greatest

market-place,and made

or

arch which

great stone
after

years

the

downfall

now

of

the

community henceforth centred

and the shopkeepersset up their stalls
it the king built temples; and
About
round
the Forum.
ing
adjoinit on the northwest
they made an assembly-place the comiAbove
the Forum,
tium
in which
they built a senate-house.
erva,
the Capitoline,
on
they erected a temple to Jupiter,
Juno, and Minthe temple of the Capitoline
as
Jupiter.
usuallyknown
for
centuries
in
Etruscan
the
the
most
Though
style,it was
nificent
magbuildingin Rome.
ated
situUnder
of straggling
the Tarquins Rome
was
a group
villages
on
neighboringhills and separatedby wide tracts of vacant
The
traditional account
land.
of the periodasserts that Servius
kingship. The publiclife
in this valley. The smiths

of

the

"

"

"

the whole

surrounded

; but it is
of which

be true
remnants

B.C.,

than

more

now
are

with

well known

hundred

traditional

same

tribes and

the Greek
soldier had
found
who

Servian

account

built in the fourth

years after the kinglyperiod.

the Palatine.
of Romulus
on

Reforms

may

the

Tribes

story represents Servius

and
as

the

the

Army.

creator

Wall,

century

Equally
"

of

reorganizerof

buy

to

take

heavier

the army.

census

and who

of the citizens in order

armor.
lighter

new

First,then,he
and

new

His

to know

this purpose
for the three old
For

local division of the country was

necessary,
tribes had been outgrown by the increase in population
and
a

The

objectwas to introduce
militarysystem alreadyadopted by Etruria. As each
and equip himself at his own
to arm
expense, Servius

the

it necessary

should

This

that the so-called Servian

stillstanding,
was

late is the so-called Wall

376. The

wall.2

great stone

divided

the

the country into sixteen

1

Find the Forum

" 364.

and

the

territory.
called tribes,
cityinto four districts,
tribe by
tribes.
Taking the census

CapitolineMount

on

the map

of Rome,

p. 335.

their

build

to

men

homes

small

and

trade

the

chief

which

event

led

Greeks

and

system,
This

the

too,

in
the

was

Servius

the

Rome
of

beginning

Suggestive

do

i.

Write

we

need

fact

resemble

Romulus
of

with

with

those

are

early

the

the

by
the

If

kings

it?

6.

at

of

Source

Roman
Book

II.

Religion.
of

8.

in

History,
that

has

foundation.

no

in

early

Time

Abbott,

22-29;

theory

the

Rome

the

the

military
Latium.

p.

285.

revolution

in
it

Has

early

with

Rome

Servian

pleased
dis-

be

to

what

reforms

Athens.

7.

windows?

any

the
does

place,

take

scribe
De-

What

chair

curule

the

of

respect

likely

the

Why

2.

view

in

most

detail

phalanx

the

what

should

in

in

(p. 330).

Etruscan?

Topics

Botsford,

History,

Roman

Government

"

resemble

chair

with

of

classes

were

Describe

Note-book

I.

people

the

In

3.

of

(p. 328).

top?

curule

Roman

Hills

head

Rome,

social

the

Compare

dwelling
the

Seven

superior

on

early

of

truth?

class

adoption

Roman

projections

did

Why

of

most

attending

the
the

profit

that

to

myths

Compare

What

5.

rule

the

4.

the

for

career.

similar

historical

Lycurgus?

the

would

class

little

Athens.

early

of

telligent
in-

Questions

chapter

something

contain

they

that

those

know

to

this

of

summary

political

great

their

and

situation

intercourse

adopt

to

the

of

City

Commercial

made

turn

the

life

city

of

advantage

made

Latins.

the

of

Kings

Hills, encouraged

manufacturing

market

Etruscans

the

on

Then,

enterprise.

the

under

Rome

338

of

Story

6-16;
of

Carter,
the

were

made

33,

Religion
"

up

Munro,

40-44;

1-61.

of Numa,

Pelham,

of

Outlines

Institutions,

Political

Roman

curiae

Kings.

Rome,

exclusively

ch.
of

ii.

man
RoThe

patricians

CHAPTER

EARLY

THE

XXX

(I)

REPUBLIC:

THE

PLEBEIANS

WIN

THEIR

RIGHTS

509-287

378. The
the

Magistrates.

with

equal

for the
the

chair

compelled
had

Often

disadvantage
senate,

under

state

dangerous

to

the

martial

six months

it

; and

the

safelythrough

the

as

cu-

were

the

over

the

as

power

double
the

at

rule

request

was

of

the

dictator, who, placing the

him

He

power.
His

cavalry.

term

bring

to

appointed
limited

was

the

to

government
the

within

command

resign his

crisis and

of

usually alternated

this

case,
a

to

powerful

consuls

same

by

authority

assembly

army

absolute

honor

an

was

the

each

rulers

too

the

the

seditions

such

the

command

to

to

As

attendants,

the

of the

with

of

capital cases

nominated

ruled

law,

his

exercised

or

In

state.

growing

most

and

appeal

an

wars

consuls

the

of horse

master

in

But

command

in

of

one

trappings

grant

The

possessed.3

daily.

enjoyed

to

way

(colleagues)

consuls

two

office from

field,however, they

in the

soldiers

king

judges

as

their

lictors.
to

gave

the

They

his

with

monarchy

annually by
assembly.
public act of the other,the two

any

state.

the

and

lifelongking,

hindered

of the

good

king, together

rule

veto

other

each

checking

the

B.C.

509

elected

were

right to

of

place

power

had

consul

In

republic.1

In

"

B.C.

fewest

possible days.

quaes'tors, appointed

Two

in the

treasury
1

The

dates

temple

for the

Also

only approximate.
than
2

"

371.

the

praetors,

already
3

curule

The

period

republican

not

some

centuries

fourth
of the

the

on

Forum.

B.C.,

assigned

events

the

based
to

the

on

the

ancient

fifth century

authors,

are

are

less certain

of later time.

those
Cf.

fifth and

of Saturn

consuls, kept

the

annually by

chief

the
and

noble,

the

the

magistrates
officers
curule

position

of this
aediles.

ennobled

those

were

class
If
him

"371339

were
man

and

who
the

sat

to

chairs.

curule

consuls, the

elected
all his

in

one

In

dictator, the

of these

descendants;

"

392.

offices

the
sors,
cenwas

Early Republic

The

340
The
chief
"

the

of the state religion

passed from the king to the
supervision
including
pontiff.He appointedthe Vestals and the priests,
This
sacrificialking
now
priest-king
(rexsa-cro'rum).
formed
perthe
had
which
of
attended
the publicworship
that part
king
"

in the state, he

In title the first man

to in person.

the weakest

was

office.
political
All importantplacesof honor and trust
Senate.
379. The
filled by patricians,
and
pecially
esreligious were
military,political,
of
three
hundred
Now
consisting
members,
by senators.

in real power,

as

he could

hold

no

"

"

"

continued

the senate
It

king.
by

its decisions.

from
For

it

reason

abide

to

taken

were

experienceand ability.
the consuls,who at the

influential than

more

was

of

men

were

the

for the consuls

of life members, who

composed

was

leadingfamilies and

the
this

It

king ;

held under

to consult it and
greater obligations

under

felt themselves

of the

the downfall

gainedby

even

it had

to exercise all the powers

for their administra

close of their year of office could be called to account
controlled both the magistrates
As the senate
and the

assemblies,it was
380. The

Comitia

been

organizedin the
militarysystem was
to

Centuriata.

assembly
to

to

in

words, the

the

place of

every
of his armor
more

by

to furnish

each.

men

this

use

make

For

"

republic.

In the

curiae.2

had

the army
of
principle

the

classes according

fixed number

of

companies

it occurred
earlyrepublic

also
plan of organization

that

property

The

peopleinto

Their

citizen's voting power

"

time

some

Servius.1

the division of the

of a hundred
(centuries)

been

devised

way

property, each class

to the Romans

in the

the chief power

motive

for their
seems

correspondto
soldier.

to

the

his worth

man

the greater was

possessed,

his

have
pleteness
com-

In other

is,to

as

voting

to be

influence.
political
In the new
the citizens were
comitia,accordingly,
grouped into
in all a
There
centuries,each century with a singlevote.
were
hundred and ninety-three
vided
dicenturies. As in the army, they were
into knightsand infantry
subdivided
were
; and the infantry
into five classes,
of their property. The
accordingto the amount
centuries of which
this assembly was
composed did not necessarily
contain
hundred
a
men
each, but varied in size. A century of
1

" 376.

"

372.

Assemblies

The

341

juniorswas

while that of the

largerthan one composed of seniors,
landless was
by far the largestof all. Meeting in the Cam'pus
Mar'ti-us outside the city,the assembly of centuries elected the
heard appealsin capital
magistrates,
cases, and voted on proposals
for laws and for wars.
To be valid,an act of this assembly had
to receive

the sanction

of the Senate.

ORGANIZATION

OF

THE

COMITIA

CENTURIATA
SENIORS
JUNIORS
(17-46years) (above 46 years)

I. Class

40

II. Class

centuries

centuries

40

10

10

III. Class

10

10

IV.

Class

10

V.

Class

10
"

14

14

84 centuries

84
1

Cavalry

centuries
68 centuries
18

Substitutes

for the

killed and

"

wounded

Musicians

and

"

workmen

....

"

Landless

Total
.....

The

I93

knights (cavalry)voted

first,then

the first

or

centuries

wealthiest

then the other classes in their order tilla

class,

majoritywas reached.
The knightsand the first class formed
a majority. If they agreed
they decided the question,so that the voting proceededno farther.
It rarelyhappened that all the centuries were
called upon
to give
their votes.
centuriata
his

the

rightto

The
of

These
more

property

comitia

formalities.

Roman

magistratesor
"" 37i f-

had, the

man

curiata continued

It had
a

it clear that in the comitia

more

effective became

vote.

magistratesafter their

the

make

considerations

When

to

sanction
attend

the
to

imperium
other

such

its organization,
authority. Whatever
little power
as
compared with

the senate.

the election of the chief

centuriate assembly,the former

to

real

assembly had
with

meet

and
election,1

longer a

no

to

retained

the

magistratepassed from the curiate to the

privilege
merely of sanctioningthe election.

Early Republic

The

342

381. The
most

First

respectsthe

Secession

the

Plebs

peoplelost by the

common

kingshad

of

shielded them

from

the

(494-493 B.C.).
"

overthrow

monarchy.

oppressionof the nobles.

The

later

But

that the poor no longerhad a champion, the

to reduce their clients to the condition of slaves.
now

of

In

gan
bepatricians
They exacted

failed to pay his rent at the time

And if the tenant
rents.
illegal
due was
looked upon
debt bearing
a
as
agreed upon, the amount
heavy interest. The creditor had a rightto seize the delinquent
off the debt,or to sell
deb tor,to hold him as a slave tillhe had worked
him into actual servitude to foreigners.A harsh creditor sometimes
threw his debtors into his privateprisonand scourgedthem in the
them.
The people
their kinsmen
to redeem
hope of influencing
revolted againstsuch injustice;the whole
desertingthe
army,
off in good order to a hill afterward known
as
commanders, marched
which
and
threatened
to found a new
the Sacred Mount,
citythere,
control.
The senate, helpless
without
should be free from patrician
ambassador.
the support of the plebeianarmy, sent them
an
and Aediles (493B.C.).
Tribunes
382. Institution of the Plebeian
(493 B.C.),
By an agreement drawn up on the Sacred Mount
of
called
have
annual
their
the plebeians
officers
to
two
were
own,
to protect
whose persons were
to be sacred,and who were
trib'unes,
all citizens who felt themselves
mistreated or oppressed. Any person,
even
a
consul,who injureda tribune or hindered him in the
accursed.
exercise of his duties,might be slain by any one
as
a man
The law forbade the tribune to be absent from the cityover
night,
the
him
and compelled
to leave his door open always,that
injured
and oppressedmight find refugewith him at any hour.
who assisted
The plebeians
had two other officers,
named
ae'diles,
unes,
the tribunes.
Meeting by curiae under the presidencyof the tribthey elected their officers and passed resolutions which were
Thus
bindingonly on themselves.
organized,they maintained the
liberties they had, and graduallygained more
rights.
found
earnest
The
an
383. Spurius Cassius.
plebeianssoon
helperin one of the patricians,
Spurius Cassius,1the most eminent
of his time.
While
he was
statesman
consul,in 486 B.C., he proposed
know.
the
of
which
do
not
an
contents
we
agrarian law,
"

"

" 395.

Plebeian

He

have

may

who

were

nobles

holding it,and
would
not
permit
that

asserted

had

he

his real
of

objectwas to
the
office expired,
condemned

was

The

and

to take

wished

to

strong

distribute

to

his

publicland
it among
to become

from

the

the rich,
The

poor.

offered

measure

law.

it

"

death.

were

384. Establishment
could not

of the

343

They
merely to win popularity, that
himself king. When, therefore,
make
his term
quaestors prosecutedhim for treason, and he

fate of Cassius

how

some

Progress

shows

how

helplessthe plebeiansstillwere,

their oppressors.
of the Comitia

(471B.C.). Though
"

the

pices,
plebeianassemblythrough the austhey with their clients attended the meetings to impede the
who owned
land.
business.
no
Among these dependentswere
many
To destroythe influence of the latter class,Pub-hTi-us
a
Vo'le-ro,
and the assemblyof centuries
tribune in 471 B.C., induced the senate
to pass a law which
providedthat the plebeiancomitia should vote
As
by tribes,each of the twenty-one tribes to cast a singlevote.
enrolled in the tribes,
the landless were
were
cluded
exonly landowners
from the assembly. The newly organizedgathering,
called
had as yet no
the comitia tri-bu'ta,
authorityover the state, but
In the same
met
simply for the transaction of plebeianbusiness.
of tribunes was
later was
doubled, and somewhat
year the number

the nobles

increased

control

Tributa

to ten.

(462-452 B.C.). Up to
this time the laws were
unwritten.
The patricians,
who were
alone
them
down
acquaintedwith them, handed
orallyfrom father to
This exclusive knowledge they used for the oppression
of the
son.
of his
commons
judge decided cases in favor of men
; the patrician
justice.
own
rank, and no plebeiancould quote the law as proof of the inThe
tribunes began therefore to urge the codification of
the laws in the interest of the common
people. Their aims were
favored by one
of
of the patricians,
Appius Claudius,a man
heartily
and ability.Under
the influence of Appius and
rare
intelligence
the tribunes,the senate yielded,
and sent a committee
of
to some
the Greek
of Italyto examine
states
their codes of law.
On their
the centuries elected ten men
with the power
return
(de-cem'm-ri)
of consuls,for the purpose
of writingthe laws.
During their term
385.

The

Struggle for

Written

Laws

"

Early Republic

The

344

absolute control of the government ;

to have
year they were
to be
all other offices,
includingthe tribunate of the plebs,were
of

one

suspended.

(451-449 B.C.).
board of ten, the assembly
to the new
were
eligible
Though plebeians
filled it with patricians.Before the year ended
they had engraved
and
ten tables of the law, which, after ratification by the senate
people,they set up in the Forum, where all could read them.
As they had not finished writingthe laws,and as their government
386. The

gave

the

Decemvirs;

Tables

Twelve

satisfaction to all alike,it

was

decided

to

elect decemvirs

for

Claudius and three

board were
On the new
following
year.
and especially
their
possiblyfive
plebeians. Their liberal policy,
efforts to promote manufacturingand commerce,
angered the peasants
and
of
the
As
and most
the senate
fused,
patricians.
assembly reto consider the two tables engravedin the second
accordingly,
in office
determined
to remain
year, Claudius,with his colleagues,
till they secured
the ratification ; for the constitution
compelled
their
enemies
his
will.
to
retire
no
Hereupon
magistrate
against
accused
them
of actinglike tyrants and of attemptingto maintain
for life. The
themselves in power
plebeiansseceded again to the
virs
Sacred Mount, and thus compelledthe senate to depose the decemof his colleagues
and
Claudius
were
one
contrary to law.
thrown
into prison,where
they were
probably murdered; the
the

"

"

other

members

of the board

consuls
Ho-ra'-ti-us,

in 449

fled into exile.

B.C., secured

Then

Va-le'ri-us and

the ratification of the two

tables.

387. Contents

of the

Twelve

Tables.

"

Intermarriagebetween

and plebeianswas
patricians
prohibitedby one of these laws, as
it had alreadybeen by custom.
With this exceptionthe Twelve
Tables
equalizedthe privaterightsof all,and continued to be the
fountain of justice
for centuries.
after
As a part of their education thereRoman
them to memory,
a text-book
boys had to commit
useful than entertaining.The following
of the more
more
are
a few
laws :
interesting
Let none
make
of gold in funerals.
But if the teeth of the
use
deceased are fastened with gold,let none
be prosecutedfor burying
or
burning the deceased with that gold.
"

"

The

346
restricted

rightto

veto

Early Republic

all acts

the senate, and

magistrates,

of the

the assemblies.
Tribunes
(445 B.C.); the Consular
(444-367 B.C.). A few years after the consulshipof Valerius and
Horatius,a law of the tribune Can-u-lei'us permittedmarriage beThose wealthy and influential plesocial classes.
the two
beians
.tween
in a positionto profit
who alone were
by this reform looked
to office.
with the patricians
as
a stepping-stone
upon intermarriage
They reasoned rightly;for immediately after the passage of the
formed a plan of admitting them to
Canuleian law, the patricians
office,
though not to the consulship. It was agreed that whenever
the senate
determined, militarytribunes l with consular power
so
should be elected for the
consular
tribunes
briefly,
or, more
and that both classes should be alike eligible
year in placeof consuls,
often
so
to the office. The
plebeian candidates,however, were
of the party came
to regard
defeated that at length the leadingmen
the consular tribunate as a disadvantageto their cause.
(443 B.C.)and of the Military
390. Institution of the Censors
Quaestors (421 B.C.). All the powers of the consuls did not pass
Law

Canuleian

389. The

"

"

"

"

to their

created

the
substitutes,
two

new

consular

tribunes

; for in 443

B.C.

the Romans

chief
whose
the censors,
patricianmagistrates,
of the citizens and their property and
a register

duty was to make

hitherto perto assigneach man
to his tribe and class, a work
formed
of collecting
by the consuls. They also let out the privilege
the taxes to the highestbidders,and attended
to the erection of
elected at intervals,
usuallyof five
publicbuildings.They were
within eighteen
requiredto complete the census
years, and were
"

months
For

after their entrance

a

long time

to

with

meet

B.C.

two

business

greater

Before this time they

in the occasional
to take

commanded

remained

censors

in their

success

military
quaestors
of the army.

militarytribunes
power"

trates.
patricianmagisstrictly
direction,
however, the plebeianleaders began

the

In another

into office.

instituted

were

At the

strugglefor

same

to attend

time it was

office.

each

election of from

legion. The

agreedthat plebeians

change mentioned

three to six additional

the place of the consuls

for the year.

421

to the financial

purely militaryofficers appointed by

were

In

the consuls.

in the text

"militarytribunes

with

Six

consisted
consular

The

also should

be

Licinian

Law

the office of

to
eligible

-347

quaestor, whether

civil or

military.
(367 B.C.). But the leaders of the
desired especially
the office of consul thrown
to have
commons
Many plebeians,
too, felt oppressedby debts,and
open to them.
discontented with the way in which the authorities disposed
were
of the publicland.
When
they acquiredland in war, they either (i)granteda part
forthwith to settlers,
or
(2)leased,or (3)sold it. To these ways of
disposingof the land the poor did not object; but (4)the larger
left unsurveyed,and the authorities proclaimedthat all
part was
who
it on
condition of handing over
wished might
to
occupy
the government
of the grainand a fifth of the fruit proa tenth
duced
each year.
those who
flocks
these
From
on
lands,a
kept
share of the animals,both oxen
and sheep,was
required.In spite
of the liberal form of the proclamation,
however,it is clear that
the patricians
and wealthyplebeians
alone exercised the privilege
of
occupying or
possessing portionsof the unsurveyed
land.
They bought, sold, and bequeathed it,tillin time they
Licinian

The

391.

Law

"

"

"

"

"

look

to

came

their small

it

upon

rich

"

"

as

their

satisfied with

Not

own.

this advantage,

often ejectedhis
proprietor

farms, which

he then

poor neighborsfrom
There is
to his estate.

annexed

wonder

that the poor were

dissatisfied with the unjustworking
of this system. The tribune Li-cin'i-us with his colleagues
ingly
accordno

proposeda
367

to

support.

B.C.

Its

(1)There
consuls

two

reform
After

which he urged all discontented

bill,
ians
plebein
bill became
a law
a long strugglethe

were
provisions

shall be

no

consular

more

shall henceforth

follows

as

be

"

tribunes,and

of the

one

plebeian.

(2)Interest alreadypaid on debts

and the balance of the debt
principal,
annual

shall be

deducted

shall be

paid in

from
three

the

equal

instalments.

(3)No
the

shall occupy more

publicland. Probably

the

surplus among

than five hundred

one

(4)No one
sheep on
1

The

the

poor

provisionwas
in

shall pasture more

the publicland.

Roman

acre

(jugerum)was

seven-acre

than

about

acres

made

of
(ju'ge-ra)

for

distributing

lots.

hundred

cattle

two-thirds the sizeof

or

ours.

dred
five hun-

The

348
The

392.

the law

was

Effects

but

Early Republic

of the

Licinian

Law.

superficial
remedy

The

"

second

clause

of

for the distress of the poor ;

the cause
of poverty.
nothing to remove
still eager to retain in their own
The patricians
hands as
were
much
authorityas possible.The senate accordinglywould not
permit the first clause to go into effect tillthe peoplehad consented
to the institution of three new
: the prae'tor,
patricianmagistrates
who
who were
was
to
judge in civil cases, and two curule aediles,
and
the markets, and the
publicbuildings,
supervisethe streets
After
the consulship,the
to
gaining admission
public games.
in winning their way to other
leaders of the plebshad less difficulty
placesof honor and power in the state. At the end of the century
find them
of pontiffs
and
to all offices and to the college
we
eligible
of augurs.
The opening of the consulshipto plebeiansgradually
it consisted
not
enlargedthe nobility.Hen'ceforth
only of patricians
but also of all plebeianswho
admitted
to a curule
were
new
office,1 themselves called
men,"
togetherwith their
In other words, the patricians
descendants.
and the plebeians
ceased to be the political
(i)
parties;thereafter the partieswere
the nobles,who
office-holders and their descendants,
and (2)
were
it did

"

"

"

who

the commons,

were

the other

citizens.

the more
honor would
Understanding that the fewer they were
be theirs to enjoy,the nobles strenuously
opposed the admission of
members.
hold
new
They preferredto have one of their number
the consulship
four or five times,and other high offices in addition,
rather than to receive new
into their privileged
men
society. But
when
in
a law2
was
passedthat no one should hold the same officewiththan one
office at a time, a greater
a periodof ten
years, or more
number
of new
men
was
elected,and, in consequence,
necessarily
the nobility
became
of the people as a whole.
more
representative
393.

Liberation

of the

Assemblies.

"

While

the

of the

leaders

the people in their assemblies

plebs were
winning political
rights,
from
the control of the senate.
were
strivingfor legalfreedom
It has been
the

tribal

stated

above

assembly

" 378, n.

The

was

that

valid

no

act

unless

either of the centuriate

authorized

by

the

2.

Genucian

Law,

342

B.C.

"" 380, 388.

or

of

senate.

Summary

of Development

In the latter half of the fourth

349

century B.C., however,the centuriate

that time
assembly succeeded in shaking off this control. From
free to pass whatever
it was
laws it saw
fit. Even
constitutionally
more
important was the emancipationof the tribal assembly. In
287 B.C., a law of the dictator Hor-ten'si-us declared that without
resolution of the plebs in their tribal
the consent
of the senate
a
assembly should have the force of law.
the assemblies
free from the senate
were
now
Constitutionally
and were
the sovereign
in the state.
In form the government
power
therefore a democracy ; but in fact it remained
was
aristocratic,
for the senate

composed

exercised

actual

more

of the ablest and

than

power

ever.

As

it

was

in the state, its

experiencedmen
moral influence was
irresistible. Through the collegeof augurs it
controlled
both
the auspices,which
giously
magistratesand people reliobeyed.1
SUMMARY

394.

OF

most

CONSTITUTIONAL

THE

(509-287 B.C.)

DEVELOPMENT

coming
bewere
During this period the duties of government
and
and
for that reason
the number
of
difficult,
offices gradually increased.
At first (i) there
were
(a) two consuls,who
chief executives,judges, and commanders
in war;
were
(b) two quaestors,
whose
chief duty was
the care
of the treasury, and who
were
appointed by
the consuls ; and lastly(c)an occasional
dictator,who took entire charge of
the government
and ruled with absolute
Next
instituted
(2) were
power.

Magistrates.

1.

more

tribunes

plebs for

of the

first two,

"

numerous

the

the

protectionof

the citizens from

oppression.

At

to ten.
gradually increased
(3) The two plebeian
aediles were
their assistants.
for compiling the laws,
(4) The decemvirs
and (5) the consular
tribunes, to act in certain years as substitutes for the
vals
consuls,were
temporary expedients. (6) The two censors, elected at inter-

of about
In

time

number

five years,

and

census

they acquired a supervisionover

militaryquaestors

Two

made

of the

have

appointed

military chest

charge
judge in civil cases.
streets, markets, and
with

were

them

(9)

The

public

and

the

to

Soon

games.

in this work.

The

morals

of the

accompany

the

supplies. (8)

curule

two

of the inhabitants.

assessment

the

aediles
the

number

The

citizens.

(7)

and

army

praetor

had

was

supervisionof
plebeian aediles were

of quaestors

and

to
a

the
sociated
as-

of praetors

graduallyincreased.
2.
"

the

Assemblies,

The

comitia

assembly

"

the

curiata.

comitia

(i) Under
(2) About

the

but one
kings there was
assembly
the beginning of the republic a new

centuriata

was

"

"

374-

instituted.

In

the

former

there

The

350
the

equalityamong

was

of their wealth

the

"

Early Republic
in the latter the citizens voted

members,

property

more

had,

man

the

the

his vote

more

The

in the order
counted

question
people.
than a
placeof the curiate assembly, leavingthe latter hardly more
third
kind
in
the
of
form.
the
tia
comia
republic
(3) Early
mere
assembly
introduced.
At first it attended
tributa
ness,
was
solelyto plebeian busilaws gave
it the right,with the consent
but the Valerian-Horatian
of
this
for
the
In
all
the senate, to legislate
had
state.
an
assembly
equal
curiata
the
comitia
but
which
in
the
the
to
as
came
advantage
great
vote,
;
tribal
in
the
the
fact
that
it
from
was
organizationlay
plebeians
presided
inclined than patriciansto
over
by the tribunes, who were
naturallymore
laws favorable
Soon
introduce
gan
to the commons.
patricianmagistrates belikewise to call the people together in this form
of assembly for making
distinction
laws
and
for electinginferior magistrates. The
between
the
of organization; for all practical
of assembly is mainly one
three forms
consider
identical
in composition.
them
we
may
purposes
and tribal assemblies,
After the institution of the centuriate
the next step
in the
took

decision

of the

before

comitia

centuriata

the

"

"

their liberation

was

constitutional
law

of 287
3. The

from

right.

which

the control

This

the senate

emancipation

was

exercised

completed by

over

the

them

by

Hortensian

B.C.

described
In the way
above
the senate
lost its constitutional
rightto control the assemblies.
Meanwhile, however, (i) through
Senate.

"

its great ability,

recognized alike by magistrates and people, (2) through
its management
real power
of the auspices,it gained more
than it had ever
held

before.

supreme.
4. The

At

Rights

(i)lacked
from

all

was

to win

virate

At

"

protectiondue

and
political

Twelve

period it

our

of the Plebs.

the

(a) through
of the

close of

the

the institution

Tables.

admission

of the

the

the

offices.

plebeian.

(5) all other

little in these
rather

than

became
consular

then

The

of the

leading plebeians
(i)to the decemeligible
tribunate, and (3) to the

declared

that

one

consul

had

ways
al-

disappeared.

far the

most

influential

main

democracy.

and
office-holdingnobility,

by

was

offices and

conflicts.

toward

This

republicthe plebeians

ward
important gain. Afterthrown
rapidly
priesthoods were
In the early part of this struggle the rightof intermarriage
open to them.
between
the two
social classes was
established
by the Canuleian law (445
marriage
able to form by interB.C.). The alliances which the leadingplebeianswere
with patrician families were
a great help in the strugglefor political
rights. Beyond the securityof person and property, the masses
gained
to

be

chief aim

the

compiling the laws, (2) to

quaestorship. (4) The Licinian law

legally,

as

They

for

the

not

and
debarred
citizens,
(2) were
the
They gained
tion
protecnecessary
tribunes,(6) through the publication

them

Thereafter
to

beginning of

the

religiousoffices.

actually,though

was

the

tendency was
leading men

The
old

distinction

always

toward

in the state
between

aristocracy

formed

new,

beians
patriciansand ple-

Government

and

Suggestive

did

How

i.

(2)

the

consuls

two

date

the

From

as

to

list

the

with

laws

all

the

brief

laws

the

of

The

Institutions,
II.

of

Government

The

24-29

Ihne,

Decemvirs.
"

Rome,
340.

76-79;

Ihne,

Early

Early

Early

Rome,

Botsford,
Rome,

the

and
of
in

people

the

that

time?

mentioned

why?
infer

we

7.

the

each.

and

may

in

of
of

Make

chapter,

the

each.

Topics

Republic.
chs.

Story
ch.

showing
table

people,

the

what

of

functions

"387,

the

prefer

magistrates,
Make

trates,
magis-

the

Romans

4.

quoted

of

contents

the

the

each.

subjects

Note-book

I.

of

(i)

affect

did

representative

constitutional
of

statement

table
of

Tables

character

on

Why

organization,

most

Twelve

the

and

customs

the

was

2.

functions

the

republic

to

Make

composition,

the

of

monarchy

3.

and

351

Questions

people?

the

king?

single

showing

the

of

assembly

Which

6.

(3)

senate,

to

from

change

institution

of

assemblies,
5.

the

People

xviii;

Abbott,

"

Roman

Political

x-xiii.

of
Duruy,

Rome,

90-92

History

of

History
Rome,

i.

of
327"

XXXI

CHAPTER

REPUBLIC

EARLY

THE

509-264
I.

Romans

in

begin
the

through
downfall
had

longer
strife.

the

Under

of

the

Cassius,3
with

the

alliance;
defence

for

of

the

with

they

their

hills.

later

now

they

had

and

their

year

the

homes,

pillaged

Aequians

burned

farmhouses

story is told

See

"

This

that

once

the

and

the

united

year

Rome

the

brief

the

Spurius

war

time, negotiated

(486-405 B.C.).

Volscians
the

lives

against

their

renewed

Latins

long,

hard
the

off

the

hungry

tribes

from

their

and

352

the

cattle.

peasants'

consul

in

struggle

territory. Often, too,

they entrapped

for the

the

acknowledged
a

greatest

his

army

plebs.
3

in which

civil

been

357.

is the

no

plebeians

The

long

had

state

(493 B.C.).4

drove

of the

tinue
con-

put down

to

After

peace

Roman

pansion
ex-

and

the

Sabines, descending

and

especially " 381 for the secession

for

had

of

begin

territorial

neighbors.

cities

and

to

soon

mountain

The

and

Romans

after

patricians

statesman

gradually

republic

and

war

revolted.

of

preceding chapter.

kings they

Aequians
the

in

all its

perpetual

the

the

condition

were

this

Rome;

whose

the

property

Year

from

Roman

the

that

the

Latins,

League

well

was

but

leading

Latin
Wars

396.
-It

Rome,

the

lead

to

attacks

from

of

weakened

ruler

they

While

"

the

tracing

by

between

to

In

founding

covered

monarchy

country

came

headship

of

of

league.2

the

dissensions

the

danger

with

single strong

The

exposed

Italy.

Latins.

and

above,

over

period

the

government

described

way

power

must

we

The

the

their

extending

the

ROMAN

BECOME

with

; Alliance

improving

were

B.C.

LATIUM

AND

of Rome

plebeians

in

ETRURIA

Weakness

395.

the

SOUTH

ITALY

IN

SUPREME

BECOMES

(II) ROME

first time

had

tribunes

of the

" 383.

plebs; " 382.

Aequians and
in

consul,at the request of the

Cin-cin-na'tus dictator.1
Messengers then bore

senate, nominated
the

commission

him

in his

he leaned

brow,

the

Tiber

his

rural

some

spade. Then,

his four-acre

to

relieved the

Rome,

to

his

He

victorythat the senate

Finding

took

and

dust

from

command.

the enemy,
and
booty. So brilliant

with

grantedhim

as

his

Without

humbled

besiegedarmy,
troops laden

farm.

work, they greeted him

wiping the sweat

listened to the message.

he

delay he
the

across

tunic,
engaged in
on

353

the other

valley. Thereupon

Volscians

turned
re-

was

triumph.
grand procession,
2
Sacred Way
through the
to the temple of Jupiter. In front
Forum, then up the Capitoline
the captiveleaders of the Aequians; men
followed with the
were
standards
of the enemy;
then came
the triumphal car in which
Behind
the car the soldiers
robes.
sat the generalclad in splendid
marched
carryingthe booty,singingthe hymn of triumph,while
the citizens spreadtables before their houses for the entertainment
of the army.
halted before the temple,that the
The procession
of gratitude
generalmight bring the chief of the gods an offering
for the victory. Then, resigning
his command
the sixteenth day
after taking it, he returned
to his farm.
Though not genuine
the story of Cincinnatus givesa true pictureof the simple
history,
life of those earlytimes and of the triumph of a victorious general.
After Cincinnatus,
the Romans
had stillmany
ful
years of unsuccesswith the Aequians.
war
Meantime
the Volscians,
southeast
who
lived in the mountains
of the Hernicans,descendinginto Latium, overran
the country to
moved
accordingly,

within

few

miles

along the

of Rome.

At

one

the mountaineers

time

help!

But after a long struggle

Rome
for existence,
nearlyall Latium.
and
her allies began to make
headway againsttheir enemies.
Before the end of the century they had recovered Latium
(405B.C.).
the
Though
Aequians and the Volscians still gave trouble,they
ceased to be dangerous.
the
Siege of Veil (405-396B.C.). Toward
397. The
the century the Romans
Etruscan
an
began war upon Vei'i,
"

end

of

cityas

largeas their own, situated twelve miles distant on a steep and

stronglyfortifiedheight. After a long siegethe dictator Ca-nuTlus
1

" 378.

2 A

A street

in the

city,indicated

on

the map,

p. 457.

Rome

354
it.

took

This

afterward

conquest doubled

extended

398. The

Sack

fair hair and

music

the north

on

of Rome

OF

this time

drive the Etruscans

About

of the

SO-CALLED

THE

eleven

in

fought

the

helmets

bore

panic;

no

one

news

of

Etruria

tall warriors

"

"

SERVIAN

with

harsh
din."

WALL

photograph)

the entire force of the Romans.

dense
and

masses;
gashed the

their

heads

men, who had often faced the hill tribes in

these giganticnortherners.
Some
took
others

soon

they had begun to cross the Alps and to

the Po Valley.1 Now
they were invading
miles from Rome, on
tary
the Al'li-a,
a tribu-

Tiber, they met

barbarians

through

from

In

"

they marched, their

filled all placeswith a horrible

(From

Etruria.

(390 B.C.).

Wherever

clamors

REMNANT

Shortlybefore

which
territory,

Ci-min'i-an Hill.

to the

by the Gauls

flashing
eyes.

discordant

and

the Roman

into collision with the Gauls

first came

Rome

Supreme in Italy

Becomes

the

thought of

disaster

to

" 360.

of the

Romans.

battle,fled in

refuge in

Rome.

defending the

swords

enormous

walls.

terror

deserted

The
The

citywas

The
cut

The
from

Veii;
in

soldiers and

First

the younger
The

hurried

senators

of the

rest

Samnite
to

the

city was

War

355

citadel

sacked

to

and

strengthenits

fences.
de-

burned.

length,weary with continual watching and threatened with

the Capitoline
offered the Gauls a thousand
on
famine, the Romans
It is said that the barbarian
pounds of gold if they would withdraw.
chief threw his sword into the scale,exclaiming, Woe
to the
this
disputingover
vanquished!" and that while the partieswere
increased
demand, Camillus, again dictator,appeared with an
drove the Gauls away
without their gold.
the scene, and
on
army
the
The peoplereturned to the cityand proceeded to clear away
At

"

Each

rubbish.

man

place. Within

year

built his hut

wherever

he found

Rome, with her narrow,

crooked

convenient

streets,arose

guard againstfuture attacks,they surrounded

of which are stillstanding.1
the citywith a great stone wall,remnants
First Samnite
War
(343-341B.C.). The half-century
399. The
followingthe rebuildingof the city was a time of great military

from

the ashes.

To

"

for Rome.

success

enemies,and

On

either

every

side she

victorious

was

over

her

thorough
territoryor secured more
control of the lands she had alreadyacquired. In this period she
into contact
with Samnium, the most
came
powerfulnation in the
interior of the peninsula. For a time the two
states were
allies,
but afterward quarrelledover
the possessionof Cap'u-a,
a
wealthy
cityof Campania. As the Samnites threatened to conquer Capua,
this citygave itself up to Rome
in return
for protection.By accepting
these terms
the Romans
brought upon themselves their
first

with

war

The

won

new

Samnium.

nations,however evenly matched, differed in character.

The Samnites
were
mountaineers,who had no cities,
no
wealth, no
king or aristocracy.Poor but brave and free,they looked greedily
down
their western
border. With
on
upon the well-cultivated plains
their skilful swords
they hoped to win a title to these rich lands.
The
Romans
and Latins
far superior in militaryorganwere
ization
and equipments. Their
dient
obea
was
peasant militia,
army
to command, brave, patient, hardy, ready for long marches
1

two

Writers

"" 364, 375^

century

B.C.

who

lived long after these

Scholars

now

agree,

events

assigned this wall

however, that the work

is

no

to Servius Tullius ;
earlier than the fourth

and

toils,rarelyover-elated by

severe

misfortune.

They

strugglewas

were

one

with
fought,therefore,
the

war,

success

or

inspired,too, with

the

for home

civilization of the

and

Supreme in Italy

Becomes

Rome

356

Romans

not

and

cast

down

by

idea

that

the

of the

country, in defence

wealth

They
plainagainstencroachingbarbarism.
As a result of the
and success.
great spirit
only retained Capua, but gained control of

nearlyall Campania.
(340-338B.C.). In 341 B.C. Rome
and
Samnium
suddenly made peace and alliance;but the Latins
continued
the war.
and other allies of Rome
Finallythe Latins,
demanded
as
thinkingthat they were
strong as the metropolis,
that they be made
citizens of Rome
and that one
consul and half
The

400.

the

Great

Latin

should

senators

War

be

"

chosen

from

their number.

The

demand

"

rejectedwith scorn ; a foreignconsul and foreignsenators

in the temple of Jupiterwould be an insult to the supreme
sitting
taken captiveby the enemy
!
god of the state,as though he were
was

"

War
the

followed.

The

the Latins

and

Romans

militaryorganizationand

same

enjoyed the advantage that comes

loose confederacy. She brought
two

one

or

the

Latin

fierce battles and

the Roman
extended

the

same

arms,

discipline.Rome, however,
to a singlecityin opposing a

the

war

series of

to

successful close in
then dissolved

sieges. She

League.2

Admission

401.

had

State.

from

of South
"

The

Etruria, Latium, and

now
territory

the Ciminian

the control

under

Hill in Etruria

Campania

to

of Rome

Vesuvius

Mount

into

in

Campania. It remains to consider how she organizedthe territory

recentlyacquiredin war, and how she treated its inhabitants.
Rome
enslaved the people of Veii.3 The territory
belongingto
that city she assigned to her own
of it four
and made
citizens,
in some
such way
formed from territory
states are
new
tribes,4
as
There
no
acquiredby the American
was
government.
reason,
for
the
Latins
however,
treating
harshly; for in blood and
and
soldiers
with the Romans,
one
language they were
as
The
in her future wars.
they would be of great value to Rome
senate

determined
and

to

therefore

organizethem

Livy, viii.4 f

""

to

and
3S7"

admit
their
39S"

most

of them

in
territory
3

"

3Q7.

to
new

full citizenship,
tribes.
4

" 376.

Second

Latin

few

Samnite

War

towns, however, remained

357

inferior to

the rest.

They
were
given the
Thus
their citizenship
rightto vote or to hold office at Rome.
limited. The Etruscan
mitted
was
city of Caere had already been adstate and
to the Roman
placed in this position. Such
described as citizens without
people were
suffrage cives sine
they were
suffragio.Like the other citizens,
requiredto perform
militaryservice. A largepart of Campania had fallen under the
1
likewise placed in the
Roman
power ; and the inhabitants were
class of inferior citizens. Whatever
the grade of their citizenship,
same
the peopleadmitted
to the Roman
state retained their towns
in local matters.2
with self-government
admitted

the

to

Roman

but
citizenship,

not

were

"

All the

Latins,however, were
Tibur, Praeneste,and one or two
them

and

were,

like Tibur

of alliance

and

there
the

was

Second
peace

CONQUEST

Samnite

War.

The

fortunes

tide turned

Samnite

of

B.C.

fifteen years
During this time

(326-304).

War

Rome

varied.

war

in favor

at the

compelled them
1

between

leader,enticed

ambush

Samnite

ITALY

OF

For

"

and

Samnium.

continuallygained strength. This ambitious policy

the Samnites
fear for their own
safety. Accordingly,when
nites
laid siegeto Naples,a free Greek cityof Campania, the Samreenforced the place. This unfriendly
act led to the Second

Rome

an

between

Romans

made

the

made

were

colonies.4

338-264
The

cities 3 remained

founded in Etruria and Latium,

colonies,
Praeneste,given the positionof allies. Such

II. THE

402.

state.

Several

Rome.

called Latin

were

old Latin

other

independent,and separate treaties

into the Roman

taken

not

Among

Latium.

the consuls

them

were

Pass, in

surrender.

" 39Q.
Sutrium

first Rome

of Samnium.

Cau'dine
to

At

As

and

The

In

was

321

successful;then

B.C.

the
Pon'ti-us,

into
fortythousand men
valleyof the Apennines,and

with
a

consuls,in the

explainedin "

405.

Nepete in Etruria

of the

name
*

"

357-

and Norba, Satricum,and Setia in

state,

swore

to

the

in

Supreme

Becomes

Rome

358

enemy's

Italy
Then

of peace.

terms

yoke

was

uprightin the earth and the

Deprived of their arms by the enemy,
third placedacross
the Roman
troops passedhumbly under this yoke in token of their
the worst
It was
disgracea soldier could
complete submission.
of three

formed

two
spears
the top.
"

undergo at the hands of an

home, exceptingsix hundred
To

than

the

peopleat

would

Accordinglythey

have
soon

fixed

enemy.

All

knights,who

home
been

found

were

the surrender
the

allowed

were

was

detained
a

entire destruction
for

pretext
the Caudine
Pass, the
a

to

return
as

tages.
hos-

iation
greater humilof the

breaking the

army.

treaty.

dragged on from
to settle and organize
the policy of Rome
It was
year to year.
lishing
in her enemy
and to hem
by estabevery foot of conqueredground,
the border.
fortress colonies on
Although the Samnites
and the Umbrians, Rome
now
reenforced by the Etruscans
were
in all her battles. The consuls ravaged Etruria,
with success
met
ended in 304
The war
of Samnium.
and capturedthe strongholds
had suffered great losses,
they remained
B.C. ; though the Samnites
free,and renewed the former treaty.
War
Third
Samnite
(298-290B.C.). In the Third
403. The
horde
all the Italic peoples,the Etruscans, and
a
Samnite War
decisive battle
The
took part againstRome.
of Celtic invaders
was
(295 B.C.). Here by a hardfought at Sen-ti'num in Umbria
Deserted by
won
victoryRome broke the leagueof her enemies.
for five more
their allies,
the Samnites
held out resolutely
years.
who
At last Man'i-us
Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus,
a peasant
by personal
them
to sue
merit had raised himself to the consulship,
compelled
for peace.
now
They were
dependent allies of Rome.
The
the mountains
the plainand
strife between
began in the
with the Aequians and the Volscians as earlyat least as the
wars
beginningof the republic.1In time it culminated in a fierce struggle
between
Rome
and
Samnium, which, with brief interruptions,
than half a century. The
now
raged for more
long conflict was
Cities
ended.
It had desolated
Italyfrom Etruria to Lucania.
and villages
in ruins; pastures and cornfields had become
a
were
lonelywaste; thousands of warriors had fallen in battle and thouAfter

the disaster at

war

"

"" 356 f.,396.

these

they called

as

So

miles of Rome.

great had

been

his

house

Pyrrhus

he

these words

In

take

would

we

forth the

set

of the interests of

care

battle

another

won

crossed

was

As'cu-lum

at
"

to his

he

senate

Another

friends,

aid

Sicilyto

over

to

; but

even

the enemy,
dor,
his ambassaCin'e-as,

on

Claudius

Caecus,

litter into the senate"

:
proceedings

make

Italy. Failingto

returned

by eloquenceor bribery,Cineas
report that the Roman

with

peace

Appius

may

join
forty

recent

with
peace
principlethat thereafter

then

and

home,

return

to

within

came

shameful

againstthese

raise his voice

to

carried

blind,was

old and

statesman

of the

losses in the

own

the senate; but

dash

began

now

till he

battle,however, that he was anxious to make

he admired.
whose bravery and discipline

spoke eloquentlyin

sudden

Allies

completed their ruin.

general,who pushed on

victorious

the

Italy

beasts,when

enormous

horse

Thessalian

in

Supreme

Becomes

Rome

360

win

to

him."
Rome

his

his master

Let

cause

with

the

assembly of kings. Pyrrhus

marked
(279 B.C.),so dearlythat he reThen
such victorywill ruin us."
his countrymen
thaginians
againstthe Caran

there,he failed

with his brilliant successes

to

from
the island.
erans
Returning with a few vetdislodgethe enemy
defeated
at Ben-e-ven'tum
to Italy,he was
(275 B.C.)by
parture
After his deto his home.
Dentatus, and thereupon withdrew

surrendered,and

Tarentum

of all

Italysouth

mistress

became

Rome

soon

of the Rubicon.

Suggestive Questions
Write

i.

the

triumph

the

increase

location

of

of this chapter like that

summary
the
a victorious
general. 3. From

of

Rome's

territoryto

of all the

the

conquest

the
on
peoples mentioned
Rubicon
River,
River, Ciminian
Heraclea, Beneventum, Sentinum, Lacinian

of the

Allia

5. Describe
the

shape

this

the structure
of

period

the

formed

of the Roman

stones, and
part of

how
the

are

long

map.

on

p.

285. 2. Describe
facing p. 353 show

map
of Veil.
4.

Describe

Describe

the

the location

Hill,Caere, Naples, Asculum,

and

Promontory,

wall illustrated

they arranged?
conflict between

on

Tarentum.
What

p. 354.

6. Which
the

wars

plain and

is
of
the

mountains?
Note-book
I. The
Source
II.

Second

Samnite

Topics

War.
Botsford, Story of Rome,
Duruy,
History
of Rome, i. 425-445.
74-77;
Pyrrhus.
Botsford, 77-83; Plutarch,Pyrrhus.

Book,

"

"

72-77

Munro,

XXXII

CHAPTER

I.

Rome

citizens.

these

enjoy

to

Such

advantages.

notice

let

us

so

near

or

of

that

lived

Others

persons

the

from

Roman

could

they

sellingand

and

municipium

mu-ni-cip'i-a. A

called

Rome,

its courts.

before

disputes settled

their

in

under

privilege,ranging

First

city for buying

of that

markets

the

use

lived

of them

Many

of

grade

citizenshipto subjection.

full Roman

territoryunited

the

Within

"

of every

communities

were

ORGANIZATION

Citizens.

Roman

The

PROGRESS

ITALY;

CIVILIZATION

IN

405.

IN

RULE

ROMAN

OF

ORGANIZATION

THE

could

have

far away

too

had

towns

of their

the

best

standing

own
was

our
municipality. It had a government
as
practically the same
of its own,
consisting of magistrates, council, and an assembly
like a
The
all the citizens.
town-meeting," but
assembly was

of

"

oftener

met

magistrates
the

was

and

had

and

voted

the

in

vocations

there.

As
and

Rome

to

to

go

as

candidates

they

office.

for

and

town,

own

assemblies

the

character

Athens.

their

had

followed

or

of such

example

An

at

or

had

it
The

law

their

citizens,they

Roman

were

in

vote

Rome

at

it elected

as

general

usually

municipium

government,

origin and

In

popular assembly
of their

courts

the

with

do

laws.

on

such

of

inhabitants
settled

the

as

same

to

more

it

cases

several
a

right

present themselves

municipium

was

Tusculum.

municipia, however,

Other
their

own

standing.
a

right to

but

not

to

mentioned

termed

local

self-government,

Their

inhabitants

trade
vote
as

"

with
or
an

citizens

the
to

hold

example
without

of

at

this

the

"

401.

361

to

grade.
those
of Rome

intermarry

capital.

class.1

suffrage."
1

citizens

and

citizens
office

than

less

no

also

were

other

inferior

of

were

The

Caere

had

They
of

highest
they

with
has

inhabitants

had

them,
been
were

Organizationof

The

362

Rarely to punish a
and

government
Such

Citiet

The numbers

="

are

Rule

Rome
rebellion,

prefectto

in

deprivedit

rule it with

pre'fect-ures.
They

than

cities

two

1They
War

absolute
were

power.
the lowest

which

were

treated

in this way,

out
citizens withhear
and

of

no

their

more

dation
degra-

only temporary.

was

Punic

of self-

the dates

in name
grade of municipia. The inhabitants were
but in reality
suffrage,
they were
subjects. We
1

Italy

Latin
Colony.
Military Road.

"
"

called

were

Colony.
Other

out

sent

communities

for

town

Roman

were

Anagnia,

deserted

to

which

rebelled

Hannibal.

in 306

B.C., and

Capua, which in

the

Second

Allies
kind

363

the Roman
community
usuallyof three hundred citizens
colony. It was always a garrison,
It was
with their families,
placedin some
newly conquered town.
generallyon the coast, and the garrisonwas for the protectionof
from
the natives,was
A third of the land, taken
the seaboard.
and they were
transferred to the new
settlers,
given full control of
the natives
the government.
as
They stood therefore toward
The natives were
out
withnobles toward commons.
givencitizenship
ship.
the rightto vote ; and graduallythey acquiredthe full citizen-

There

The

406. The
with

do

more

one

was

Allies

Roman

customs, and

and

Latins

only.

Those

nearest

old Latin

and

Italians.

citizens

sympathy

"

them

distinction between

the allies.

the few

of Roman

We

to

now

to the Romans

the

were

Thus

"

are

the

Latins.

colonists

far

in

They

towns, like Tibur,1which

had

appeared
dis-

have had

we

take

then

under

to

eration
consid-

blood,language,

(i) of
yet accepted

consisted
not

(2) of many Latin colonies founded in all

citizenship,
ments
well as Latins took part in these settleas
parts of Italy. Romans
called Latin colonies because
they had Latin
; but they were
condition
old Latin
in the same
as
an
rights that is,they were
their origin,
All Latin towns, whatever
town.
were
self-governing,
Each
bound
to
Rome
almost sovereign
states.
was
by an individual
The
the two
states.
treaty,which regulatedthe relations between
had an unrestricted rightto trade, to
Latins who
to Rome
came
buy property there,and to intermarrywith the Romans, and could
colonies of this
The
if they wished.
easilyobtain the citizenship
for holdingthe neighboringcountry loyal
class served as garrisons
of extending the Latin
and as a means
to Rome,
language and
the

Roman

"

civilization to

the

natives.

Inferior to the Latins

for instance
had
them

in

every

the Samnites.

rightsto Rome,

restricted.

Rome,

but

in the

As

its separate treaty with

gradation
Neither

of

whereas
Latins

simply the Italians,

the Latins,each community

the allies called

were

case

of

Rome.

There

was

among
inferior
little

were
privilege;some
the independenceof others
Italians paid taxes or
nor

all their communities

1

furnished
"

4"i.

the number

was

more

tribute
of

to

troops

The

364
fixed

by treaty

Those

the

on

with their
their
of

in

serve

or

whatever

allies had

All the

crews.

the conclusion

had

might

wage.

furnished
cities,

ships

and
equip,provision,

to

voice,however,

no

Italy

Rome

wars

Greek

the
coast, especially

troops. They

own

wars

to

in

Rule

of Roman
Organization

pay
in the declaration

of treaties.

of Italyhere described had the form

organization
political
of Rome.
the leadership
It was
of a league of small states under
like the PeloponnesianLeague or the Delian
Confederacy,but far
the whole
more
stronglycentralized than either. It included
coast
peninsulasouth of the Rubicon, excepting the Umbrian
which
was
occupied by Gauls. They had been conquered by
now
tributarysubjects. Indeed, it was chiefly
Rome, and were
led by Rome, had come
in opposition
to the Gauls that the Italians,
themselves as one
to look upon
people, the nation of the gown
This federal system, based
againstthe nation wearing trousers.
and
Italian nationality
directed by Rome, assured
to the
upon
peninsuladomestic peace, and to the leadingcitya place among

The

"

the

great states of the world.

this time
B.C.,

"

Egypt,

were

Macedon,
and

and

2.

3.

with

the

foremost

which

Seleucid

of the East

powers

at

allied herself in 273

thage
Empire ; of the West, CarRome

Rome.

of the
407. Members
I. Roman
Citizens
1.

"

The

Roman-Italian

League

Those

and courts.
livingin or near
Rome, using its markets
Citizens of municipia of the first class
with local self-government
and the rightto vote
and hold office at Rome.
Citizens of municipia of the second
local self-govclass
with
ernment,
but
without
the right to vote
hold
office at
and
to
"

"

Rome.
4.

Citizens
neither

of

municipia of the
self-governmentnor

with
class, or prefectures
hold
office
at
and
vote
right to

third
the

"

Rome.
5. Citizens
II.

of

Roman

colonies

"

municipia of the first class.

Allies,bound by treaty to follow
tributary.
i.
Latins,especiallyfavored, had
1

"

333-

in

the

easy

privilegeslike inhabitants
leadershipof
access

to

Rome

the

in war,

Roman

of

not

ship.
citizen-

Military Reform
old Latin

few

a.

Subjects.
"

408. MilitaryReform

Change from the Phalanx

During the first century

used.
by Servius,1was
without

Legion.

"

republicthe phalanx,as organized

of the

and

pay,

themselves

equipped
according

their

to

the

In

means.

to the

privileges.

served

soldiers

The

in

another

favored, differed greatly from one

The
Gauls of Umbria, tributary.

Italians,less

2.

with

towns.

colonies.

b. Latin

III.

365

war

Veii,however,

the

began to pay
thus
for service,
them
ough
a thormaking possible
change in the
military system ; for
senate

the

henceforth
had

who

citizens,

been

tomed
accus-

short

to

mer
sum-

campaigns, could
when
the
as
a

entire year,
and
necessary,

the

serve

man
as
poor
the rich could

ITALIAN

buy
complete equipment.

Hence

the

distinction

of the

The

line,and

when

same

vase-painting,about

of classes in the

line of the

he became

lines,besides

armor

300

B.C.

and

way,

thence
heavy infantry,

veteran,

defensive

javelinsfor hurling,and

in the

; British

Museum)

in the arrangement

to a ranking accordingto experience.

way
the lightdivision; after a time
he
recruit entered

the front

the first two

(From

SOLDIER

troops gave

passedto

or

well

to

instead

except that

lance.
1

" 376.

carried

armor,

sword.

the third.

The
of

veterans

the

to

The

second

soldiers of

each
were

javelinseach

two

pi'la,
armed

carried

In
now

in

Italy

were
phalanx,the lines of heavy-armed men
into ten companies, called maniples,stationed

placeof

the solid

divided

each

intervals in such

at

Rule

of Roman
Organization

The

366

way

that

the

spaces in
followingline. Each
vacant

line

were

line was
companies of the
sand
several ranks deep. Ordinarilya legionconsisted of three thouheavy-armed troops and twelve hundred light-armed. The
of legionsvaried accordingto the requirementsof war.
number
covered

by

the

AN

As

(A bronze coin of the fourth century

B.C.,

weighing io"

There

regularlythree

were

legion.
The beginningof
the
at

famous

the end

dictator
of the

war

II.

Public

Front, head of Janus

oz.

hundred

cavalry attached

this

militaryreform is
who
captured Veii; it
with Pyrrhus.

CIVILIZATION

While

back,

prow

of

galley)

AND

ascribed
was

to

to

each

Camillus,1

nearlycompleted

CHARACTER

becoming masters
of Italyand improving their laws and their constitution,
they were
also growing richer. In the fourth century B.C. they began to coin
silver. The nobles reaped the profits
bronze,and earlyin the third,
of largetracts of conquered land and bought a great number
of
409.

Works.

"

the Romans

"

4"4-

were

The

368
410.

forced the
the
that

and

Education

Greek

more

language.

children had

to

Business

Intelligence.
"

ambitious

Romans

in

Rule

of Roman
Organization

in this

even

Italy
and

diplomacy

earlytime to learn
yet no schools,so

probably as
their parents or from
get at home, from
Greek
slaves,their whole education.
Tables
and a
Apart from the Twelve
few poems,
proverbs, and orations
composed by Appius Claudius,the
had no books
Romans
whatever,and
Greek literature was
not yet studied,
exceptingby a few individuals. The
Romans
continued,however, to adopt
of their latest acGreek gods. One
quisitions
in this period was
Aes-cula'pi-us,
god of healing,for whom
they built a shrine on an island in
the Tiber adjacent to the city. It
There

were

for

sick

to
persons
night in this temple,in the

was

customary

pass

the

belief that

the

god would heal them

while they were
asleep. Many stories
of divine healingwere
in circulation.
Personal

411.

and

Public

The

acter.
Char-

tinguishe
diswere
earlyRomans
for their patience and
Their virtue,the fruit of a
energy.
increased
in strengthand
simplelife,
AESCULAPIUS
in Severitythroughout the period.
(Excellentancient copy of fifth century
(B.C.)original.Probably stood in the
This growth WaS
Owing to the Care
shrine at Rome.
National
Museum.
with
which
the
republican government
Naples)
supervised the citizens. The
had power
to punish,not only for crimes,but for every
magistrates
offence against order,however
and
for immorality,
even
slight,
includinglazyor luxurious habits. While all officers enjoyed this
that
authority,it became the especialduty of the censors
to see
every citizen subjectedhimself to the severe
discipline
prescribed
the
state.
by
"

.,,

,,

,.

Character
in the

aim of education

The

make

of brave

nation

familyand

of the individual

the freedom

results of this stern

warriors

in

publiclifewas

in the interest of the

and

dutiful citizens.

reached

were
training

thereafter

369
to

state,to

The

in the Samnite

press
re-

highest

Wars,

"

the

goldenage of virtue and of heroism.

obedient
A citizen of this time was, in the highestdegree,
to authority,
and generally
But
honest.
pious,frugal,
though he was
to sacrifice his life for the good of the state,he was
willing
equally
ready to enrich himself at the expense of his neighbors; the wealthy
did not hesitate to sell the poor into slaveryfor debt,tillthey were
Their hard, stern souls knew
forbidden
neither
to do so by law.
Severe toward
the members
of their family,
nor
generosity
mercy.
periodknown

of

cruel in the treatment

for their heroic

As

long

as

from

and

even

and

poor

under

strict

following
periodthey were
and,
magistrates,

wealth.
their

discipline,
they
dom
gaingreaterfree-

to

the control of their

and

power

These

conditions

new

to the

government

transactions

time, however admirable

harsh, and unlovable.

narrow,

they remained

in their business

of the

Romans

virtues,were

In the

moral.

were

slaves,and

the
grasping,

and

shrewd

as

same

time,

put their virtue

to

were

severest

the

at

test.

Suggestive Questions
Compare

i.

the

and

Roman

colonies.

Greek

2.

Some

of the

allies in

offered.
Explain why. Did
citizenshipwhen
a
municipium? 3. Compare the
advantage over
any
Roman-Italian
League with the Confederacy of Delos ; with the Peloponnesian League.
the development of the Roman
militaryorganization
4. Trace
from the earliest times to the end of the PyrrhicWar.
lustrati
the il5. From
warrior
of
about
of
the
describe
B.C.
on
a
365,
equipment
300
p.

Italy refused the

allied city have
an

does

the text

that

this

How

stamp
Romans

the prow

with

agree

the illustration ?

warrior
of

introduce

with
discipline

Roman

might
galleyon their
be

Greek

the

gods

Roman?

Roman
II.

into their state?

8.

did

the

7.

Why

Compare

the

fore
thereRomans
did the
Roman

the

Roman-Italian

Topics
League.

History,96-107; Greenidge, Roman

Internal
Condition
of Rome
during
2B

(p.366)?

conclude

Spartan.

Organization of

Historyof Rome,

you

Why

6.

earliest coins

Note-book
I.

Would

i. 500-524.

Public
the

"

Pelham,

Outlines

of

Life,295-310.

Samnite

Wars.

"

Duruy,

XXXIII

CHAPTER

ROMAN

THE

OF

EXPANSION

THE

POWER

SECOND

THE

PUNIC

264-201
I.

PUNIC

FIRST

THE

WAR:

and

her

Africa, opposite Rome,

did

the

country

for trade

situated

These

Italy.
time

In

it
of

islands

strip of

the

of

small

of

tried

departed, he

is said

These

two

that

they

nations
would

the

in
to

Greeks

vain

have

Rome,

the

to

dispute

soon

rivals'

movements.

The

"

49.

two

protector

ambition
"Punic"

of the

of

when

whole

cities,they
the

(Punicus)

would

Italians, was

Carthaginians
is Latin

was

for Phoenician.
370

and

great

of

to

the

the

all

Sicily,

wrest

the

came

regretfully,

Mes-sa'na

and

up

nearly

"

island

Sicilyand

Africa,a
Hercules, part of

of

possession

well

was

coasts

coast

their

as

island.
What

As
a

of

he

knew

the

well

exception

Syracuse.

If

they
Italy.

anxiously watching

her

for commercial

more
2

!"

Sicily. Quickly

with

naturally invade

even

fair

Carthaginians
but

against him,

the

only

prosperous.

the

from

and

it

and

Pyrrhus
her

Romans

allied

Not

with

about

was

drive

to

the

then

were

these

north

Pillars

exclaimed

Carthaginians regained
the
territory belonging to
conquer

the

Carthage

the

could

of the

of

coast

built

Carthage

Corsica, all Sardinia,and

leaving

are

and

West,

the

islands.

He

northern

harvests,but

the

and

beyond

Sicily from

we

abundant

larger part

coast

the

city wealthy
politicalpower.2 On

POSSESSION

THE

city of Carthage.1

Mediterranean

western

many

battlefield

made

western

champion.3

of

advantages
too,

FOR

On

"

Punic

produce
East

Spain, and

remainder

the

with

It included

southern
besides

it

became,

the

the

the

the

empire.

he

about

OF

B.C.

Empire.

was

END

SICILY

264-241

Carthage

THE

B.C.

STRUGGLE

OF

412.

TO

WAR

"

208.

"

404.

Longitude

20

Roman

ROMAN

POWER

To the time
SCALE
100

50

100

of the
OF

Gracchi.

Power

1 Acquired
Acquired

in 264. B.C.

241-218

B.C.

201-1 33 B.C.

MILES
200

300

Allies of Rome

in 133 B.C.

400

Carthaginian

Posessions

264 B.C.

Expansion of the

The

372

immediate

The

from

mercenaries,released
killed the men,

They

of

cause

war

was

Roman

as

Power

follows.

the service of

Some

Campanian

Syracuse,seized

divided the women,

For a time the Mam'erand

Messana.

and property
children,

("sons of Mars "),

called themselves,enjoyed their ill-got
homes,
of Sicily
towns
and levied tribute on many
; but, threatened by both
for aid on the
Greeks and Carthaginians,
they appealed to Rome
ground of kindred blood. Although the senate felt it would be
unjust to aid the Mamertines, it feared that if the Carthaginians
should conquer
them and gain control of all Sicily,
they would not
the assembly was
hesitate to lay hands
on
Italy. For this reason
This
persuaded to vote for a defensive alliance with Messana.
act was
equivalentto a declaration of war with Carthage.
themselves.
among
these robbers
as

414.

The

of Rome

Resources

of the two

nations

Carthage

controlled

and

Carthage.

quitedifferent.

were

the

sea.

great armies of mercenaries,who

Her

tines

wealth

however

Her citizens were

citythey served.
artisans,wholly unfit for militaryduty.
officers.

as

resources

magnificent
navy
her

enabled

to

enlist

proved treacherous
mostly merchants and

Few

condition of the army

This

The

often

to the

except

her

With

"

served
was

in the

great

war

source

tural
Carthage. Italy,on the other hand, was an agriculfit for
men
country with a dense population; it had more
militaryservice than any other state of the world at that time.
the
their farms, they were
Accustomed
to severe, patientlabor on
in the world.
best- disciplined
hardiest,
Equallyimportant
fighters
is the fact that they were
devoted to their country and to Rome.
Their
states formed
a
strong league of kinsmen; each managed
absolute mistress
its own
local affairs,
but all acknowledged Rome
of their militaryresources.
their lack
Their only weakness
was
of shipsand of naval experience. Of the two
now
great powers
weak.
each was
coming into conflict,
strong where the other was
of weakness

The

to

strugglewas

to be

long and

severe

no

one

knew

which

would

conquer.
415. Opening Events; the Battle of Mylae (260 B.C.). After
the government
had resolved to help the Mamertines, the consul in
"

command

brought

borrowed
his army

and skilfully
shipsfrom the naval allies,
Messana, though the Carthaginiansand

few

into

Victories

Roman

Syracusans were

besiegingthe city by

had

To

373
and

land

Driving
alliance with Hi'e-ron,
made
the Romans
the besiegersaway,
an
as
they
king of Syracuse. The cities of the interior readilyyielded,
than either Syracuseor Carthage
under Rome
found greater security
it

given them.

drive the

to build
necessary
could furnish a few

was

Rome

Carthaginiansfrom

fleet.

sea.

the coast

though the Greek allies of

state in Italypossessed
quin'-

For

triremes,no

of oars,
such
vessels with five banks
que-remes,
But usinga stranded
of the enemy's navy.
the strength
"

"

quinquereme as

model,

the

towns

Romans,

with

energy, began to build a fleet. While some

work, others trained the crews
by having them

made

as

ian
Carthagin-

their usual

and

were

sit

on

up

busy

courage
with this

benches

along

pleted
practiserowing in the sand.1 When they had comtheir fleet,
they put to sea and engaged the enemy off My'lae
(260 B.C.). Their shipswere
clumsy and their sailors awkward,
of drawbridges
but they boarded
the enemy's vessels by means
which
they had recentlyinvented, and thus gained the victory.

the shore

This

and

increased

success

The

416.

Invasion

of

their fervor for

Libya

and

war.

Captivity of Regulus (256-

the

and
then built a fleet of three hundred
B.C.). The Romans
and forty
thirtyvessels,and placingon board nearly a hundred
the Sicilian
thousand men, they set sail for Libya. Off Ec'no-mus
on
coast
they met and defeated a still largerfleet of the enemy,
after which
they continued on their way to Africa. There, under
the consul Reg'u-lus,they gained victories and captured towns,
till Xan-thip'pus,
a
Lacedaemonian, taught the Carthaginians to
offer battle in the plain,where
they could use their elephantsand
their great force of cavalryto advantage. The result was
the destructio
250

"

of the Roman

Other

misfortunes

Pa-nor'mus
circumstances
still a

promisinghim

is no

This
reason

libertyif he

poets who
account

for

to

lived

the

capture of Regulus.

in 250 B.C. a great victoryat

these
nearly all Sicily. Under

; but

the
Romans
gave
the government

captive,to Rome,

Roman

and

army
followed

of

Carthage

for an
arrange
should succeed.

long

after the

is given by Polybius,an
doubting it.

Regulus,who was
exchange of prisoners,
In the story told by

sent

event, he refused

to

and
eminently trustworthy historian,

enter
there

Rome
his

he
not

Expansion of the

The

374
as

senator

as

even

or

rightsby allowing himself

persuaded

was

to

to make

the land

they would

an

their fate.

share

and

as

serve

citizen,
sayinghe had

to

be

the

address

peace or to
where they had

Power

Roman

taken

forfeited all

captive.

senate, he

When

advised

that

the

but to let them

captives,
disgracedthemselves by surrender.
example to others ; he would himself
ransom

In

vain

the

die in
Thus
return

remonstrated

senators

finally
body

against

he kept his eyes fixed

departingfrom Rome
the ground that he might not see his wife or his children.
on
Then,
he
is
in
accordance
with
his
said to have
oath,
returningto Carthage
suffered death by torture.
Notwithstandingsome
poetictouches,
in the main to be true.
It is a pictureof a man
who
the story seems
was
absolutelyfaithful to
his plighted word, of a
stern
patriot ready to
his decision.

While

sacrifice himself

for
fellow-captives
he believed

fate

of

strong-

who

man

knew

walked

and

traits of

his
lutely
reso-

it.

to meet
were

what

to be his country's

good,
willed

his

and

the

These

ideal

Roman.
417.

CHICKENS

IN

PORTABLE

COOP

bae'um

(From Schreiber,Atlas of Classical Antiquities)

north

was

Drep'a-na,where

stationed with
sailed from

his fleet.

"

this time

were

SACRED

at

(249 B.C.).

Drepana
At

Defeat

The

the

Romans

besieging Lil-yon

the west

coast

Sicily.Farther to the
Ad-her'bal,a Punic
admiral, was

In 249

B.C.

of

the

consul

Publius

Claudius

But
Lilybaeum to Drepana to surpriseAdherbal.
the admiral,far from being caught napping, met
and
the enemy
inflicted upon
him
tried
an
overwhelming defeat. The Romans
to account
for this disaster by a story that when
Claudius
was
the
he
received word
that the sacred chickens
planning
attack,

Hamilcar
would

which
that the gods forbade
eat,1 an omen
signified
enterprise. Haughtily exclaiming that if the fowls would
have
to drink, he threw
them into
eat, at least they would
His impiety,together with his lack of skill,
is given as
sea.

the
not

the
the

375

not

"

of this great misfortune.

cause

(247-241B.C.). While the Romans

were
who
sent
out
a general
to prove,
besiegingLilybaeum,Carthage
was
in himself and in his sons, the most
Rome
ever
dangerous enemy
This was
met.
Bar'ca
surnamed
Ha-mil'car,
(the Lightning"),
of
He occupiedMount
a man
genius for war.
extraordinary
Erc'te,
above
On the
Panormus,- which was then held by a Roman
army.
Hamilcar

418.

Barca

"

"

top of the mountain

handful

of

genius.
swoop

troops who

From

the Italian

he

fed cattle and

performed

the littleharbor

coasts, while

down, rapidas
and

as

from

the

raised

wonders

beneath
the

him

the

could

small

cooperate with

his

under

the

support the

spellof

friends

which

no

Drepana.

he

used

in the

to

borhood,
neighdared

enemy

years in this
side of Mount

at

his

his lightshipsharassed

the Romans

nest

explore.
After maintaining himself for three
it for a post on the
suddenlyabandoned
he

to

eagle'sperch above

lightning,
upon

easilyretire to

corn

position,he
E'ryx,where

But

with

his

force he could

accomplishlittle. Neither nation in fact had

of supporting
in service.
a fleet or
a strong army
any longerthe means
Without
Rome
could not hope to gain complete possession
a navy
of Sicily.Under
the wealthier citizens offered
these circumstances
their privatemeans
for the building of new
warships. With two
hundred
vessels thus provided for,the consul Cat'u-lus,
at the Aega'ti-an
islands,met a new
Carthaginianfleet bringingsuppliesto
and totally
defeated it (241 B.C.).
Sicily,
As the Carthaginians could carry on
the war
no
longer,they
full power
In the treaty as finally
to make
gave Hamilcar
peace.
the
adopted, the Carthaginians agreed to give up Sicily,
pay
Romans
within
ten
amount
equivalentto three and a
years an
1

Whereas
of

an

magistratein
army

of eating furnished
the omens.
favorable were
manner

Rome

carried with
him

took
him
with

on

auspicesby watching
his campaigns

auspices.

The

a
more

the sky

(" 374), the

mander
com-

flock of saered chickens,whose

greedilythey ate,

the

more

Power

Roman

dollars,and release all prisonerswithout ransom.

continuing twenty-threeyears, the First Punic War came
of

half millions
After
to

Expansion of the

The

376

in 241

end

an

II.

B.C.

"BREATHING-TIME"

24I-2I8

GREAT

Two

BETWEEN

WARS

B.C.

the
(227 B.C.). When
their first thought was
to
Romans
began to win victories in Sicily,
regard the island merely as an extension of Italy. In this frame of
mind
they made treaties of alliance with Messana, Syracuse,and
favored them.
These
states
which had specially
a few other towns
condition as Italian allies. Another
in the same
left precisely
were
declared
class of Sicilian states, slightly
were
more
numerous,
act of
not by treaty,but by an
exempt from tribute and free
the same
the Roman
rights
They had substantially
government.
419.

Province

Roman

First

Sicily the

"

"

"

"

the allied states, but

as

could
Rome
as
rights,
a
was,
departurefrom
taken
departurewas
remainder
The

group
It included

alter their condition

the Italian
when

of

in

dependent

the greater part of the island.

completed in 227
every year a praetor2to govern
and judicial.He commanded
law between

government

it.

All the states

in the
state

began

to

send

out

mainlymilitary
and settled
province,
were

had

its own

laws

and

popular assembly,and

the affairs of the states, even

greater

placed the
of perpetualsubjection.
the provinceof Sicily.
of the
The organization
Rome

own

far

courts

for

customs, its

usuallyfree

was

the part of the governor.

In fact,the Roman
have a sufficient number
of officialsfor managing

on

did not

takingchargeof

its

government

His duties

It retained

council,and
magistrates,
interference

B.C., when

the army
Romans.
Each

the trial of its citizens.

from

constituted

states

provincewas

disputesat

of the

condition

pleasure. This

her

at

federal system.

act

an

of the states1

of these

guaranty for the continuance

no

such

local matters

here referred to

if it had
did not

wished, and
occur

to

Rome

the idea of
tilllong

in fact,nearlyall the states of the Roman

empire
Every province was a group of such states.
2 The
in 367 B.C. (" 392). In 227 B.C. there were
praetorshipwas instituted at Rome
four praetors. Two
attended
to judicialbusiness at Rome,
and two were
to
sent out
the new*
provincesorganized in that year.
govern
were

littlecity-states
; "

18.

"

"

The

378

Expansion of the

Sicily(227 B.C.).

government

Gaius

the

Flaminius;

majorityof

Roman

about

was

the

though

same,

to the inhabitants.

less favorable

somewhat
421.

Its

Power

Roman

citizens

Gallic
not

were

War

(225-222 B.C.).
"

satisfied with

the

new

The
vincial
pro-

They were disappointedto receive no assignments

whereas
the nobles seemed
to them
of land in Sicily,
to be bent upon
in the new
enrichingthemselves by trade and speculation
provinces.
of dissatisfaction that largetracts of land reIt was
a further
cause
cently
and along the Umbrian
acquiredby the state in Picenum
reserved by the nobles,to be
coast were
occupied 1 by themselves
the citizens.
instead of being distributed among
This selfish policy
was
Against its wishes Gaius Fla-min'i-us,
upheld by the senate.
tribune of the plebsin 232 B.C., carried through the assembly a law
the citizens. In the new
for distributing
these publiclands among
settlements immediatelyestablished there under this law the Gauls
of the Po valley2 saw
to their own
a
menace
possessions.They
in 225 B.C.
Two
Rome, therefore,
began war
upon
years later
Flaminius
consul conducted
the decisive campaign. The battle
as
was
planned and waged
fought with them in their own
territory
with extraordinary
in a completevictory.
daringand skill,
resulting
In the following
extended
was
B.C., the authorityof Rome
year, 222
the Po basin was
to the foot of the Alps. Gallia Cis-al-pi'na,
as
now
a province.3
called,eventuallybecame
system.

"

422.

The

Flaminian

country the Romans

new

the banks

of the Po.

and

Way

the

"

Flaminian

Circus.

"

In

began immediately to plant colonies

Elected

for

censor

220

B.C., Flaminius

this
on

nected
con-

cityto Ar-im'i-num,
named
after him the Flaminian
value for
Way.4 It was of priceless
the protectionand development of the new
and for supplyterritory,
ing
the armies, and in time of scarcity
the inhabitants of Rome,
with provisionsfrom the marvellouslyfertile valley of the Po.5
it with

Rome

by

great road from

of

In theorythe rents of this land went

fact,the occupiersgenerallyfailed to
2

"" 360, 398.

When

sometimes

boundaries"
Gaul

came

it

to

pay

support of the government,

but in

point

anything for its use.

thus

authorities. The expression

organized is disputed by modern
"the extension of Italy to its natural
designatethis Gallic war
that is,to the Alps
is incorrect ; it was
not till42 B.C. that Cisalpine
4 Cf.
5
be included in Italy.
" 409.
" 351.

was

used
"

to the

the

to

"

"

IllyrianWar
the

At

opened
expansion,of

northward

for

it

time

same

379

the

up to
which

Romans

they

had

great outlook
hitherto

not

even

dreamed.
The

Capitolinehill and
from

earliest time

or

ancestor

an

the
and

Martius.1

the

Flaminian

Tiber,were
belonged to

Flaminian

the censor's

Circus

popular exhibitions.
played, and tradesmen

From

use

of the

beginning

which

meadows,

Either

family.
and

In its arcades
their

he

There

government.

for horse

held

the gate,

Below

chariot

races

citizens

walked,

The

building

fairs.

of citizens.

masses

Flaminius

end

to

to the

estate

for other

for the

the gate at the foot of the

from

Campus

presentedthis

built the

censor

children
was

had

had

the

crossed

of the

direction

in the

started

mentioned

here

road

worked

the

for
chiefly

terests
in-

the foundation
of Rome's
ness.
greatproprietors,
of territory
outside
the acquisition
With
Italy a class of
felt
was
capitalists
alreadygrowing up in Rome, and Flaminius
that capitalism
would ruin the peasantry. In this respecthe proved
himself a far-sighted
statesman.
time
War
with
the Illyrians (229-228 B.C.). For
some
423.
Italian merchants, trading with
Greece, had been plundered by
Illyrian
pirates. Some had been murdered, and others taken captive
of the peasant

"

and
had

held for
before

come

After

ransom.

the Roman

many

complaints of

government,

the senate

these outrages
sent

sion
commis-

members
to investigate.The
were
mistreated,
Il-lyr'i-a,
and
killed.
made
one
was
war
against
Thereupon the Romans
the offendingcountry.
In a brief naval campaign they chastised
the piratical
them
and made
inhabitants,
promise to pay tribute.
Corcyra and one or two other Greek states became allies of Rome to
for the future.
Roman
secure
protectionfrom the Illyrians
envoys
2
then went
the conto the Achaean
and Aetolian
duct
leagues to justify
of their cityin the war.
The
federal authorities expressed
their gratitudeto the friendly
had chastised the pirates.
state which
These
Rome's
first diplomaticrelations with Greece.3
were
to

" 380.
Ten

years

likewise

were

organized

afterward

as

there

was

successful.

provinceunder

the

second

Illyrianwar

Illyriathen became
name

(219 B.C.),in

dependent

Illyricumtill some

on

unknown

" 338 f.

which

Rome, but

the
was

time after 167

mans
Ronot
B.C.

gainingthese

in

successes

arisingin Spain

was

as

fatherland

began

to

think

in

create

by

as

how

Rome

a power
Illyria,

her

and

the

indignantover

force and

existence.

Rome

Corsica.

was

His

treachery

soul burned

had

fraud

thage
Car-

robbed

his

possessions.He
Italyand attack
mercenaries,he planned
supply both troops and

and its fairest

supremacy
into
he might lead an army

depend upon
provincewhich should

he could

Spain a

in

between

the peace

city,which

While

threaten

to

soon

was

of its naval

But

Rome.

which

in relation to Sardinia and

of the

hatred

"

makeshift,grew

temporary

of the Romans
with

(237-229 B.C.).
the north of Italyand

looked upon

had

Hamilcar, who

Power

the Roman

Spain

in

Hamilcar

424.

to

Expansion of

The

380

not

for another
war.
provisions
Spain,he is said to have led

When
his

son

him
years, to the altar and made
Hannibal
with his father,and
went

he

about

was

set

to

then a boy
Han'ni-bal,
swear
undying enmity to
was

true

for

out

of nine
Rome.

to his oath.

Spain Hamilcar occupiednine years in forming a Carthaginian

he taught the native
provincemore
by diplomacy than by war;
tribes to live togetherin peace under his rule and to develop the
he died in a manner
of their country.
Then
resources
worthy of
In

"

his great achievements

; for he

lost his life in

battle in which

he

conspicuousand even reckless bravery. As his successor,

1
the Carthaginians
appointed his son-in-law Has'dru-bal."
the wise policy of his
Hasdrubal
continued
425. Hannibal.
the tribes and
skill in gaining over
predecessor with wonderful
in adding them
after eight years of such
to his empire. When
service he was
murdered
by a Celt,the soldiers with loud 'enthusiasm
carried Hannibal
mander
comto the general's
tent and proclaimedhim
the
(221 B.C.). As they looked upon this young man,
veterans
imaginedthat Hamilcar in his youth was restored to them ;
animation in his
they noticed the same
vigor in his frame, the same
His courage
of the face.
features and expression
eyes, the same
in meeting dangers and his prudence in the midst of them
were
his
subdue
extreme.
Toil could
his body nor
neither
exhaust
mind, and he could endure hunger and cold alike. He ate and drank
showed

"

"

no

more

than

nature

demanded.

thoughtof sleeponlywhen

there
1

was

Working day and night, he

nothing else to do ; then,wrap-

Polybius,ii. i.

with

War

ping himself

in his

the watchers

and

as

Hannibal

militarycloak,he
the outposts of

his
plainofficer,

and

arms

III.

THE

would

381
lie on

the

army.
his horses were

SECOND
2I8-2OI

PUNIC

the

ground among
Though he dressed
l
splendid."

WAR

B.C.

felt himself
(218 B.C.). When Hannibal
prepared,he attacked Sa-gun'tum,a cityof Spain in alliance with
This act gave the
Rome, and took it after a siegeof eightmonths.
But while they were
Romans
a pretext for war.
preparingto invade
of fifty
both Spain and Libya, Hannibal, with a well-trained army
of
number
thousand
a
infantry,nine thousand
cavalry,and
crossed the Pyrenees and marched
rapidlythrough Gaul.
elephants,
had conquered the Celts of northern Italy.2
Recently the Romans
of injuries
As this whole nation was
indignantwith Rome on account
in his march
received,they eagerlysupported Hannibal
through
their country.
It was
that he
not till the crossingof the Rhone
with oppositionfrom
gan
met
the natives.
When, however, he beof the Alps the real difficultiesof his journey apthe ascent
peared
for
the
the
and
and
mountaineers
was
narrow
rough,
;
way
attacked
him.
the higherground, which
From
secured their own
safety,they rolled stones and hurled missiles upon the troops and
and many
Many soldiers fell,
upon the long train of pack animals.
beasts of burden
either disabled or lost,so that the army
fered
sufwere
for want
of provisions.At lengthwith great toil and peril
Hannibal
reached the summit, where he rested his men
and cheered
of Italy

426. Invasion

"

them

with

some

such

words

as

these

"

Here

on

the summit

of the

Alps,we hold the citadel of Italy; below us on the south are our
friends,the Gauls, who will supply us with provisionsfrom their
bountiful lands and will help us againsttheir foes ; and yonder in
the distance
But
army

when

he reached

with

which

were

worn

!"

lies Rome

Livy, xxi.

he had
out
4.

with

the

plainbelow, he had less than

set out from
Spain. And those
fatigue,
hunger,and exposure to
2

"

half the
who

421.

vived
sur-

the cold.

The

382
Their horses

lame, their

were

than
like savages
had come
to attack
of

men

Expansion of the

clothes in tatters ;

nation

militaryage.

which

And

numbered

yet it

was

they seemed

With

well-disciplined
troops.
a

Power

Roman

such

seven

to be

no

more

forces

hundred
one-sided

he

sand
thoutest.
con-

of their great
spirit
bal
commander, opposed a raw militia. A born genius for war, Hanniunder his illustrious father; as
had served an
apprenticeship
generalhe had subdued fierce tribes of Spaniardsand Gauls and had
the Alps themselves.
overcome
Compared with him, though he
the ablest Roman
stillyoung,
was
generalswere tyros.
(218 B.C.).
427. The Battle of the Ticinus and of the Trebia
astonished
The Romans, who had been dreaming of conquests, were
in the valleyof the Po.
made
He soon
to hear that Hannibal
was
and their
them
feel that the strugglewas
to be for their homes
a
tributary
country. In a lightcavalry battle on the Ti-ci'nus,
the consul Scip'i-o.
of the Po, he easily
routed
Discoveringthat
far superiorto his own,
the Punic horsemen
were
Scipiowithdrew
of the hills
of the Po, and sought the protection
to the south bank
the Treb'i-a River.
his colleague,
with
Here
near
Sem-pro'ni-us,
another
for Scipio
joined him and took chief command;
army,
An

army

of trained

full
soldiers,

of the

had

been

One

wounded

in the battle.

stormy morning in December, Hannibal, after giving his

good breakfast and plentyof oil for their bodies,sent out a

band of cavalryto tempt the enemy
the river.
across
Sempronius,
who was
for
t
hat
he
for
himself
the gloryof
win
battle,
might
eager
before breakfast
out
victory,readilyled his army
through the
swollen Trebia.
with cold,the Romans
were
Hungry and numbed
doomed
The
to defeat.
Carthaginianhorse routed their wings,
while Hannibal's
brother Mago, an
impetuous fighter,assailed
from
them
ambush
in the rear.
The
an
though long,
struggle,
ended in the completeoverthrow
of the Romans.
Ten thousand of
their best infantry
foughttheir way through the enemy and escaped.
Nearly all the rest were killed or captured,and Hannibal held their
This great success
led the Gauls,who had hitherto wavered,
camp.
men

to cast

News
the

their lot with

the victor.

of the misfortune

citizens could

talk

depressedRome.
of nothing but

Throughout
evil

omens.

the winter

Meanwhile

Trasimene

383

preparingto resist the invader. One of the

consuls,Gaius Flaminius, a great favorite of the people and an
of the senate,1
posted himself with an army at Ar-re'ti-um
enemy
the patricianconsul, took
in Etruria.
command
of
Ser-viri-us,
Thus
another
Ariminum.
the consuls
at
lay, each with
army
his army,
guarding the two principalroads which connected the
Po valleywith central Italy.
the government

428. The

B.C.).

Battle

was

of Lake

Hannibal

Trasimene;

Hannibal

and

Fabius

surprisedthem

(217

by taking an unusual route

the Apennines far to the west.
In crossing
the marshes
north
over
of the Ar'nus River,his troops suffered terrible hardships. For four
days and three nightsthey waded continuallythrough mud and
reached
When
at length Hannibal
water.
dry ground in Etruria
and found Flaminius
stillguardingArretium, he passed the enemy
without
noticinghim, and took the highway for Rome, plundering
he went.
Flaminius
could but follow ; for he felt he must
as
gain a
to his political
victoryto bringsuccess
party in its conflict with the
where he
senate.
Unwarily he fellinto a trap at Lake Tras'i-mene,
killed and his army
annihilated.
of this calamity
When
was
news
reached Rome, and the praetor announced
have
to the people, We
been beaten in a great battle,"the Romans, long unused
tune,
to misforand alarm.
With the advice of the
gave way to unmanly grief
dictator;
senate, however, they elected Quintus Fabius Maximus
for the surviving
consul was
make
the
too far away
to
appointment,
accordingto custom.
Instead of attackingRome, Hannibal
crossed the peninsulato the
Adriatic
and
moved
coast
gradually southward, gathering vast
booty from the country through which he passed. Fabius would
risk a battle,but dogged the footsteps
of the invader, cut off
not
to face the enemy
in
men
foragingparties,and trained his own
of campaigning Fabius
Because
of this method
lightengagements.
the Cunc-ta'tor (" Delayer "). As his policy
to be named
came
did not prevent the Carthaginiansfrom
marching and plundering
wherever
they pleased,it proved extremelyunpopular and brought
the severest
criticism upon
the dictator.
his persistencein
Yet
another
for the year from
defeat.
avoiding battle saved Rome
"

But

"

""

421

f.

Expansion of the

The

384
The

429.

made

"

train troops for the

levy and

to

(216 B.C.).

Cannae

of

Battle

Power

Roman

Unusual

efforts

followingsummer.

The

were
new

than eighty
consuls,Ae-nuTi-us and Var'ro,led a force of more
This was
the
thousand
includingallies,
againstHannibal.
men,
had
while the
ever
largestsinglearmy Rome
put into the field,
force of the enemy
met

at

Can'nae

thousand.
fifty

about

numbered

the Au'fi-dus River

on

in

The

armies

two

Apulia. Varro, who

held

day of battle,massed his maniples in a heavy

line,in the hope of overcoming by sheer weight. While the superior
cavalryof the enemy routed his wings, his centre, a solid phalanx,
drove
in the opposing Iberians
and Celts,but then found itself
chief command

assailed

on

the

on

all

"

wind

driving clouds
flanks,and in the rear
rank

or

the

even

knives

and

Gauls

sides,

of dust

in the

thousand

household

mourned

their

lives.

It

face,veteran

Libyans
crowded

violent
both

on

to

keep

their weapons,
fell like sheep under
the Romans
use
of butchers.
Seven-eighthsof their army, including

of this defeat

own

front,with

to

scarcelyten
News

in

tempest of cavalry. Too

Aemilius,eightysenators, and
Varro, who survived,collected
to

Iberians

its

eminent

perished.

men,

of the army,

amounting

men.

brought intense agony

dead, while all feared

the

But

other
many
the remnants

senate

the

met

Rome.

to

for the

crisis in

the

Every

cityand for
manly spirit.
city,and did

people,posted guards about the

everythingpossibleto save the state.
On the evening after the battle Ma-har'bal,leader of the Punic
with the
Send me
in advance
horsemen, said to his commander,
cavalry,follow with the army, and five days hence we shall dine in
encouraged

"

Rome

!"

Hannibal

could

take

Rome

neither

revolt of the allies he

430.

Changed

knew, however, that

by storm
hoped to cause

Character

the character of the

with

by siege;

nor

present force he

his

the ruin of the

of the War.

"

With

through the
capital.

but

nae
the battle of Can-

changed. Nearly all the allies of Rome

in southern Italy,
includingthe great cities of Capua and Tarentum,
revolted.
On
the death
of Hieron,2 king of Syracuse, Sicilyalso
forsook Rome.
PhilipV,3king of Macedon, who watched jealously
the interference of the senate
in the Greek peninsula,
allied himself
1

" 408.

war

"

4I5.

"

""

3^

433

f.

Expansion of

The

386

commander, though stillin

Power

twenties,showed

geniusfor war.
captured New
Carthage,
in Spain. Hasdrubal,

surprisedand

he

after his arrival

Soon

his

the Roman

real

city and arsenal of the enemy

and abundant
eluded him, and with a largearmy
however, skilfully
treasures
set out by land for Italyto reenforce his brother.
chief

the

crisis of the

The

Alps and

the

from

southward

rians,marched
; for her

country

exhausted
colonies,
armies

to

by

desolate

was

the

bore to Hannibal
consul Gaius

news

little

could have
from

end

two

hope

great
for victory

end ; her faithful

to

beginningto refuse aid ; her last

who
Fortunatelyfor her,the messengers
taken by the
of his brother's coming were
of the

Nero, commander

Claudius

If the

were

war,

in the field.

were

Hannibal.

meet

unite,she

should

of Rome

enemies

in 207 B.C., when

ing
Hasdrubal, descenddrawing in his train a host of Gauls and Ligucame

war

in southern

army

dius
hurryingto the north,ClauStealthily
Liv'i-us
with that of his colleague,
Marcus
bal
consuls surprised
and destroyedHasdrutwo

Hannibal.

opposed to
Italy,

his army
Sa-li-na'tor; and the
united

As Claudius returned
the Me-tau'rus River.
with his army
on
southward
he carried with him the head of the defeated Carthaginian,
which
inform

to

he directed to be thrown

into the camp

him

In

of his misfortune.

brother, Hannibal
After

this

read

his

battle,while

Italy,Publius
campaign abounds

southern
this

acts

in the romantic

for the kindness

of
brilliancy

and

himself

still maintained

adventures

The

and

in

story of

the chivalrous

mire
admay
generosityof his character and for

the first Roman

"

"

ghastlyfeatures of his
of his city.
the doom

ScipioreconqueredSpain.

of the commander

both
the

Hannibal

Hannibal,

the

fate and

own

of

whom

we

his mind.

(202 B.C.); the End of the War (201

sul
B.C.). Master of Spain,Scipioreturned to Rome, whence as conhe invaded
Africa and threatened
Carthage. Hannibal quitted
Italyin obedience to his country'scall ; and adding raw recruits to
his small veteran
distance from Za'ma,
force,he met Scipioat some
a town
nearlysouth of Carthage. Here was fought the last battle
of the long war.
By a happy inspiration,
Scipioplacedthe maniples
The

432.

Battle

of Zama

"

of the second
columns

and

with

third divisions behind

open

lanes

those of the

thus
first,

between, through which

the

ing
form-

enemy's

Philip V
elephantscould

make

their way

387

without

the ranks.1
For
disturbing
the first time Hannibal
suffered defeat in a pitchedbattle
feat
dea
which
made
further resistance hopeless.
By the terms of the treaty which followed,
render
Carthage agreed to sur2
and
Rome
to
two hundred
talents of silver a year
Spain,
pay
for fifty
all her warships
years ; to give up all her elephantsand
outside of Libya,and in Libya
except ten triremes ; to wage no war
without the consent
of Rome.
none
With sorrow
the Queen of the
her great fleet sink in flames.
Waters
Even
saw
more
gallingwas
the clause of the treaty which
forbade her waging war
in Libya ;
for it left her helplessagainst Rome's
ally,Mas-i-nis'sa,
king of
of
to the extent
Numidia, who plundered Carthaginianterritory
his pleasure. Such was
Rome's
policytoward a fallen enemy.
The
First Macedonian
War
(215-205 B.C.). Before the
433.
had taken a few
openingof the conflict with Hannibal, the Romans
"

"

cities into their alliance.3

Greek
Greece

this time

At

the

great power

in

Some
of the Greek
he
states
PhilipV of Macedon.
actuallyconquered; others submitted to his alliance through fear,
with difficulty
maintained
their independence. Philipresented
or
Roman
fore,
meddling within his own
sphereof influence. When, therewas

with

of Hannibal's

came

news

the

victor,and prepared a

in Italy. Foiled in
army
had to giveup his ambitious
himself

againstthe

from

men

known

great

the

as

some

First Macedonian

all his

alliance

an

landingan
home, he
in defending

resources

sand
by a few thouten years of defensive campaigning,
War, Philip sought and obtained
entered into alliance with Aetolia,

then
(205 B.C.) Rome
Athens, and other important states
peace

made

of
fleet for the purpose
minor
operationsnear

plan and to use

Greeks, who were

After

Rome.

he

success,

aided

of Greece.

Suggestive Questions

as

and

of this chapter like that

summary
defender
of Italy,264 B.C., with
position as

Write

i.

Rome's

of America

defender

Carthage
1
2

"
"

after 1823.

sufficient
On

404.
213,

n.

2.

reason

for

on

p.

285.

2.

Compare

that of the United

States

Rome
Explain the latter date.
3. Had
other?
each
making war
4. Does
upon

the usual arrangement

of the

maniples,see

" 408.
3

"

423.

or

is

of

illustration

the

the

of

battle

of

history?
the

location

of

bria.

10.

the

did

Why

welfare

of

Sketch

the

of

the

I.

Carthage.

Carthage,
II.

ch.

III.

114-126;
IV.
Roman

Hamilcar.

Hannibal,
Hannibal's

Morris,
Treaties

History,

Why

battles
to

as

Describe

9.

the

Syracuse,

Mylae,

Picenum,

and

Um-

countries,

and

Cannae.

Topics

Rome,

i.

ch.

xix;

Smith,

Rome

and

i.

Botsford,

"

Morris,

war.

may
6.

question

Mediterranean

to

of

History

Duruy,

"

the

this

decisive

great

islands,

western

Note-book

Ercte

Messana,

Aegatian

Spain

from

in

Sardinia,

Eryx,

outlines

Hannibal

of

was

Corsica,

the

able
favor-

as

what

375,

p.

Mount

Debate

8.

stake

at

omens

facing
on

among

fail?

Mount

Ercte,

counted

the

represent

position

Hannibal

Europe

Libya,

Carthage,

route

often

Power

illustration

Hamilcar's

Metaurus

Mount

Ecnomus,

draw

the

7.

whether

5.

Roman

374,

p.

the

From

of

strength

the

to

as

the

of

chickens,

sacred

the

unfavorable?

as

infer

we

Expansion

The

388

Story

of

Rome,

to

Italy.

110-113;

Smith,

84-108;

69-98.
March

from

Spain

"

Botsford,

114-1

19

Smith,

99-116.
between

89-91.

Rome

and

Carthage.

"

Munro,

Source

Book

of

XXXIV

CHAPTER

OF

EXPANSION

THE

ROMAN

THE

TAURUS

POWER

THE

TO

Second

The

humiliation
the

of

of the

overthrow

the

At
found

in

each

conflict

came

mainly

for

recovering

he

assailed

had

senators

long

and

Hannibal,

that

beneath

his feet

Romans

in

through
in

behalf

would
were

centuriate

of

the

army

twenty-five

number,

same

world

phalanx.

On

level
but

legion, on
with

the

view

to

thousand
his
in

""

troops

the

conflict
the

the

among

were

in

the

part of

him.

They

putting

Greece
the

Italy. Though
the

peace,
of

led

forced

senate

against Philip

war

and

was

fighting

the

mountaineers

Heads

"), a

low

389

strong
the

whole

civilized

the

legion

and

the

was

conquerable,
un-

body,

easily broken.

The

flexible,developed especially
of central
range

Italy.

of hills in

431.

about

The

massive
be

him

had

Philip

between

hills it could

light

against

boys.

phalanx,

contrary,

343,

for

Though

men.

ground

os-ceph'a-lae(" Dogs'

taken

chastise

attack

commander,

Roman

interested

was

had

The

help.

allies.

of

most

to

declaration

for

tempts
at-

spatched
de-

thereupon

succeed

to

anxious

assembly

Greek

should

hesitate

now
2

Philip

Rome

these

In

Greece.

appeals

urgent

first

with

peace

cession.
suc-

merely

Her

war.

allies, who

that

king

not

in

opportunity

an

if this ambitious
he

with

indignant
of

lost

had

his

used

rapid
but

view,

further

for

Rome's

of

glad

Flam-i-ni'nus, the
of

he

senate

been

not

in

end

to

energy

in

states

this

occasion

what

the

general

the

had

The

"

all her

devote

to

Philip1

some

were

felt,too,

she

an

B.C.).

Mediterranean

Macedon.

to

envoys

free

remaining

conquest
with

War

left Rome

beginning

(200-196

B.C.

Macedonian

Carthage

MOUNT

ATLANTIC

201-133

434.

FROM

" 380.

At

Cyn-

Thessaly,

the

Expansion of the

The

390

Power

Roman

the legion
victorious (197
was
sharpstruggle
due to her militaryorganization,
of Rome
was
B.C.). The success
to the poor
qualityof the opposing troops, and above all,to the
Aetolian cavalryin her service.
superior
The king was
to
compelledto cede his various Greek possessions
armies met, and

the victor.

after

But

the Roman

as

the East, the

empire to

the Isthmian

senate

disliked to extend

commons

decided

to

be

their

ingly,
Accord-

generous.

festival of the

tion
followingspring,
by the direcof Flamininus
and his colleagues,
who were
ers,
peace commissionherald proclaimed to the assembly the freedom
of all the
a
After the games
Greeks who had been ruled by Philip.
were
over,
in the extravagance of their joy,they nearlykilled Flamininus
by
the exhibition of their gratitude. Some
to look him in the
wanted
at

"

face and

call him

their preserver ; others were

eager to touch his
hand.
Most
threw garlandsand filletsupon him ; and among
them
1
wished
they nearlycrushed him to death."
Though Flamininus
well for the
could

Greeks, his giftof

freedom

was

They

only guaranty of
their freedom.
was
stantly
conpeacemaker,Rome
invited to settle their disputes
this interference was
; and
destined soon
to destroytheir liberty.
to have
(192-189B.C.). Rome was soon
435. The Asiatic War
trouble with the Seleucid Empire.2 This state had once
included
nearlyall of Alexander's dominion in Asia,but had greatlydeclined.
Its satrapies
east of Persia proper
now
belonged to the Parthian
Antioleft it in Asia Minor.
empire; and few possessions
were
chus III, an
aggressiveSeleucid,took advantage of the Second
keep

not

themselves

fair delusion.

peace
among
As their protector and

the

"

"

Macedonian
After
chus
game

the

west

to

the Romans
with

had

Minor

declared the Greeks

and

an

the hands

in his

of Mount

left the states

under

her
1

protectorate.

Polybius,xviii. 46.

from

Europe,

at

war,

Rome

AntioPhilip,
turn
played the

Driven

result of this unsuccessful

Taurus.

Thrace.

Mag-ne'sia,in Asia
of Africanus
(190B.C.).
his
all
possessions
gave up

overwhelming defeat
of Lucius Scipio,
brother
he

invade

to

free from

small

king suffered
a

all Asia

overrun

entered Greece, and

army
of freeingthat country from
Rome.

Minor, at
As

War

of Asia

Antiochus

was
2

" 334.

Minor

stoned

pendent
inde-

to death

Third

Macedonian

War

391

people; and his great empire rapidlydwindled

petty kingdom of Syria.1
his

by

436.

to the

own

The

167 B.C.).
"

another

Condition

the states

Meantime

before

; the Third

of Greece

of Greece

senate, and

the Roman

Macedonian

(171-

War

accused
constantly

constantlyinvited

that

one

body

of the
quarrels.Accordinglywe find one committee
after another
senate
coming to Greece to arbitrate disputesand to
had the Greeks been
look after the interests of the republic. Even
able to unite their strengthwith the Macedonians
under one
ernment,
govperior
they could not have hoped long to resist the vastlysuand of
of Rome.
But their love of personalfreedom
power
It not
completeindependencefor their cities was as strong as ever.
terests,
inonly prevented them from unitingin defence of their common
strife among
the
but frequentlystirred up jealousyand
states.
Though their geniuswas not nearlyso brilliant as in the
degenerateeither morallyor
they were by no means
age of Pericles,
mentally. In fact,they continued to furnish the brain and skill for
The
all the higheractivities of life throughout the civilized world.
of independence,
which
had always been their noblest trait,
spirit
for their political
ruin.
The
was
Romans, at
largelyresponsible
first their protectors, began after the second war
with Philipto pose
to

settle their

as

their masters.

them

Their

respect for Greek

from

culture

did not

from
disunion
fostering
the growth of political
factions subservient
Rome.
to
themselves
of a troublesome
Hellenic
patriot,these
"

Greece

Such
his

"

sometimes

was

the state

resorted

even

of affairs when

prevent

encouraging in all the states

to

To
"

rid

lovers of

assassination.

Philipdied

and

was

succeeded

who cherished the noble ambition

of championPer'seus,
ing
Hellas againstbarbarian
His clever diplomacy and the
Rome.
desire of the Greeks
for independencewere
rapidlybringingthem
into touch
with
Rome, to prevent this dreaded
Macedon, when
union, declared war
againstPerseus (171 B.C.).
The principal
side was
commander
the Roman
Lucius Aemilius
on
of rare
a man
Pau'lus,2
honestyand ability.He met and conquered
Perseus
at Pyd'na, a cityof Macedon
(168 B.C.). Aemilius had
never
seen
a
phalanx tillhe saw it in the army of Perseus on this

by

son

"

" 476.

Son of Aemilius,who

died at Cannae

(" 429).

Expansion of the

The

3Q2

he often admitted

; and

occasion

Power

Roman

to his friends

at Rome

afterward

alarmingand terrible ; and

yet he, as often as any man, had been not only a spectator,but an
but was
taken later,
and
battles. 1 The kingescaped,
actor in many
with his young
after following,
children,in the triumphalprocession
either by his own
he died in prison,
hand
of the conqueror,
or
the Romans
divided into
by the crueltyof the jailer.Macedon
which
four republics,
theyprohibitedfrom all intercourse with one
Thus
another.
a great state
perished. The cities yieldedto the
of furniture,
victor shiploads
preciousmetals,and works of art.
becomes
Province
Macedon
a
(146 B.C.). For Greece
437.
there was
Those
freedom.
who sympathized with
to be no more
that he had

beheld

never

anythingmore

' '

"

Perseus

in the

thousand

war

men

the statesman

from

the Achaean

and

historian.

detained

they were
The

influence of

who

then

When

for trial.

to Rome

sent

were

Among

them

were

Po-lyb'i-us,
League alone,including
Far from
ever,
howa
being given trial,

sixteen years among

Polybiusprocured the

the towns

of Etruria.

release of the three hundred

remained.
these exiles returned

home, they excited their whole nation

againstthe citywhich had treated them so unjustly. About the

time Sparta,a member
of the Achaean
same
League, seceded,and
the Achaeans
attempted to force it back into the union. Rome not
of certain
only took the side of Sparta,but also decreed the separation
other states from the union.
Thereupon the Achaeans prepared
for war
with Rome.
Meanwhile
Macedon
revolted againstRome.
An army
under
Me-tel'lus easily
suppressedthe revolt. Metellus
then united the four republics
in the province of Mac-e-do'ni-a.
This was
the end of a kingdom which had once
been the strongest
in the world.

438. The
in

was

End

Macedon,

Spartanswho
from

Rome

the Achaeans
who
most

had

of Greek

chanced

men

to

be

"

broke

war

present

out

in Corinth.

murdered,

were

and

some

The
voys
en-

narrowlyescapedwith their lives. In two battles

consul Mum'mi-us,
beaten.
The
were
irretrievably

succeeded

of the

the Achaean

lus
Metel-

While

(146 B.C.).

Freedom

he

to

the

command,

found,and
1

then

enslaved

Polybius, xxix.

entered

Corinth, killed

the remainder
17.

of the popu-

The

394

giveup
too, of

Power

Roman

leaguesand their democracies.

and placedunder
their independence,

They

their

The

439.

Expansion of the

of

Kingdom

Pergamum

and

deprived,

were

the governor

of Macedonia.1

(189-

of Asia

the Province

acquiredover Asia
B.C.). The protectorate which Rome
continued
Minor
through
by treaty with Antiochus (189 B.C.),2
The
and Achaean
the period of the Macedonian
wars.
country
of native kingdoms and Greek
number
contained
a
city-states.
of
that
The
most
Pergamum, which
important kingdom was
far from
the Aegean
not
centred in a city of the same
name
and was
It had adopted the Hellenic civilization,
coast.
only less
129

had

"

than Alexandria

famous

as

seat

in

of culture

of art and

general.3

The rulingfamilyhad
kingswere steadfast friends of Rome.
greatlydegenerated; and the last king,Attalus III,was a weakling.
he bequeathed his kingdom and treasure
to
At his death (133B.C.)
the Romans
Rome.
When
attempted to take possessionof their
their claim was
resisted by a pretenderto the throne.
inheritance,
In 129 B.C. he was
put down, whereupon the kingdom, with some
became
the Roman
neighboringterritory,
provinceof Asia.
The Third Punic War
(149-146B.C.). In the year 146 B.C.
440.
the Romans
destroyedCarthage. For the beginningof the trouble
The

"

which

led to this event

Punic

War.

The

we

go back

must

treaty with Hannibal

to

the close of the Second

Carthage,
attack.
Rome, to defend
against,
Taking advantage of this condition,
Masinissa,4
king of Numidia,
of
an
of Carthage
ally Rome, continually
plundered the territory
and seized some
of her best lands.
In answer
to her complaints
Rome
sent out various commissioners,
structed
inwho
in every case
were
to give secret
to the plunderer. As
a
encouragement
member
of such a commission,Cato, a narrow-minded
of
statesman,
whom
shall
hear
we
a startling
more, brought home
report of the
wealth and prosperity
of Carthage. In his opinionthe cityof Hannibal
without

the

stillmenaced

speech in
1

It

under
2

was

the

" 435-

not
name

of

consent

Rome.

B.C.

forbidden

herself

Indeed, he is said

the senate, whatever

tillabout 27
Achaia.

had

the

to

with
subject,

have
the

that all Greece south of Macedonia

2

" 346

ended

words,
became

"

" 432

every
"

Car-

province

Destruction

thagemust

be

wished

for

majorityof

with

"

destroyed!
monopoly of
the senate.

immense

an

army.
concession.

ready for every

children as hostages. The
the little ones

with

the officers who

He

of Carthage

convinced
easily

the world's

avoid
First

the

the

they handed

who

formed

sailed for U'ti-ca

consuls

war

who
capitalists,

and

commerce,

Accordinglythe
To

395

Carthaginians were
over

three hundred

"
clung to
gave them
up,
seized hold of the shipsand of

mothers, who

frantic cries and

takingthem

"If

desire
sincerely
peace," said the consuls on their arrival at Utica, why do you
After vain protests,the people
them!"
need
arms?
Surrender
We congratulate
you on your promptness,"
gave up their armor.
the consuls continued
ever
yieldCarthage to us, and settle wher; "now
land, ten miles from the sea ; for we
you like within your own
resolved to destroyyour city."
are
with grief;but finally
At first the people were
overcome
they
of
the
last
blood.
As
defend
their
resolved to
they had
cityto
drop
shops,
to make
new
they converted even the templesinto workweapons,
and the women
lantly
gave their hair for bowstrings. They galrepulsedthe attacks of the consuls,and for three years
themselves
like heroes.
defended
At last ScipioAe-mil-i-a'nus2
soldiers massacred
His
forced a passage
through the walls.
the inhabitants,then
the
city. After
plundered and burned
they had destroyed this innocent
people, the authorities of
which
Rome
cursed the ground on
the city stood, that it might
into the
be
rebuilt.
The
never
territoryit ruled they made
province of Africa.
were

away."

you

"

"

441.

Ligurian and

Gallic Wars.

"

The

story of the conquest of

Carthage,justtold,illustrates the character of Roman

nibal.
warfare duringthe half-century
which followed the peace with HanThrough a great part of this time war was ragingin northern
Italy. Incited to rebellion by Hannibal, the Gauls continued to fight
had faded away.
They
longafter he had fallen and all hope of success
were
desperatelybrave, preferringdeath to slavery. In alliance
with them
the hardy Ligurians,who
were
peopled the mountains
Greece

and

Appian, Foreign Wars,

viii. 77.

Son of Aemilius

(" 436), but adopted into the family of Scipio,the

of Hannibal.

The

Paulus
name

Aemilianus

indicates his birth in the Aemilian

gens.

conqueror

Expansion of the

The

396

Power

Roman

after year consuls

in conflicts with these tribes.
soldiers slaughtered
on

border.

their western

Year

baffled and

were

Before

the middle

completed. The spiritof these

Thousands
of Ligurianswere
crushed.
ported
transbrave
people was
To hold the rest in check, the Aurelian
to Samnium.
Way,
a military
road, was built from Rome
along the west coast of Etruria to the Apennines.
The
with
Spanish Wars
(197-133 B.C.). In the war
442.
Rome
had wrested from
Hannibal
Carthage her entire Spanish
Hither and Farther
In 197 B.C. two provinces
dominion.
Spain
and two praetors were
made
of this territory,
sent
out to
were
of the

century, the task

was

"

"

"

them.

govern

the

But
Rome

natives

resisted.

The

bloodiest

and

most

waged now
began. The mountaineers
almost
were
unconquerable. It was no uncommon
thingfor them
Roman
the Romans
succeeded in
to slaughter
a
; and when
army
taking a stronghold,
nothingwas gainedbut barren rocks. Women
as
foughtalong with the men
ready
; to prevent capture they were
desperatewar

as

the

them
In

to

men

carried

178

B.C.

years later

kill their children

poison,to

violated

take in

then

and

themselves.

they fellinto

case

the

Most

of

enemy's hands.

made.
Fifteen
to the natives,was
peace, favorable
fresh revolt broke out, and the work of conquest began

Failingin

anew.

ever

and massacred
treaties,
The

agreement.

resorted

the Romans

arms,

resistance

troops who

to

had

treachery. They
surrendered

centred in the little town

under

of Nu-man'-

Spaniardsheld out against

the power
of the besiegersthronged with
camp
of disreputable
fortune-tellers,
quacks,and all manner
persons, who
led the common
soldiers into the vilest life. The
generalswere
base, treacherous,and incapable; and the senate, which directed
the operations,
in dealingwith
lack of principle
showed
utter
an
ti-a.

Through

these

brave

many
of Rome.

many

camp,

enemies.

Roman

Aemilianus
and

years
The

took

few

heroic

general had

had been
army
disgraced himself in the

command.

He

reduced

After

many

banished

the town, he found

his

All

mountainous

siege,Scipio

all vile persons

the soldiers to strict discipline.

When

gained possessionof

triumphalcar.

beaten, and

an

Spain was

now

district in the northwest.

from

the

at last he

survivors,to follow
fifty
conqueredexceptinga small
but

Summary

of Acquisitions

397

plantedin Spain by Rome, but during these

thousands
of soldiers from
wars
Italy,dischargedat the end of
campaigns or desertingthe army, settled in the country, marrying
Spanishwives and minglingwith the natives. To these settlers is
due the rapidextension of the Latin language and civilization
chiefly
over
Spain. Less than two centuries after the fall of Numantia, we
find the peninsulathoroughly Romanized.
Few

colonies

443.

Summary

were

of

Acquisitions: the Provinces

and the

Dependent

133 B.C.).
ruled most
the
Romans
reviewing

(241 to about

At

the close of the

periodwe have
of the territory
been
from Mount
Taurus
to the Atlantic.
They had seven, possiblynine,provinces
under governors
in the
sent out from the capital. These
provinces,
order of their acquisition,
dinia
were
(i)Sicily,
acquiredin 241 ; (2)Sarand organizedin the same
and Corsica,seized soon
afterward
and
Farther
Spain,acquiredin
year as Sicily,
227 ; (3,4) Hither
the Second
Punic
and organizedin 197 ; (5)CisalpineGaul,
War
known
unreconqueredearlyin the second century and organized at some
1
time afterward ; (6) Illyricum,
donian
acquiredin the third Macewar
(167),the date of organizationbeing unknown;
(7)
Macedonia, organizedin 146 ; (8)Africa,acquiredand organizedin
the same
(9)Asia, acquiredin 133 and organizedfour years
year;
Allies

"

later.
the

all
often called client states,2
were
dependent allies,
those of Asia Minor
outside
In Africa,
the province of Asia.
and Egypt, with Libya,were
In Asia the
in this condition.
Numidia
kingdom of Syriapossessedmore
freedom, but was alreadysinking
into clientship.

Among

It

less than

was

century and

policyof expansion beyond the

period of equal lengthshe was
include
these

all the countries

two

changesin

cyclesof conquest
the character

borders
to

were

of her

of

round

surround

which

embarked

half since Rome

to

out

her

another

Within

Italy.

her

on

empire

so

the Mediterranean.

bring with them

government

and

to

as

But

momentous

in the condition

of

her citizens.
later than

Not

So-called because

client toward

81 B.C.
a

state

his patron ;

of the kind

"370.

stood

toward

Rome

in

some

such

relation as

The

398

the

of

Expansion

Suggestive

i.

Why

for

peace?

cid

Empire

Give

2.

Asia

acquisitions?
4.

the
6.

and

cleitus

the

Compare

8.

did

How

7.

Lysippus

all

294).

293,

Note-book

The

88-91

of

Organization
;

Greenidge,

Administration,

chs.

i,

ii.

of

of

their

appreciation

(p.

with

393)
more

Rome?

to

5.
the
in

acquired

it

over

those

merate
Enu-

ranean.
Mediterthe

period

of

nearly

these

to

Greece.

conquest

does

Seleu-

of

Greek

Poly-

resemble?

Topic

Province.
"

Public

Roman

sea

Which

the

system

serviceable
fall

provinces

the

of

anxious

protectorate

more

and

show
in

history

provincial

Roman

the

Romans
found

statue

(pp.

of

the

the

to

location

the

early

the

decline

political

citizens

Roman

establish

provinces

or

contributed

Describe

B.C.

241-133

causes

which

causes

the

and

senate

applying

allies

of

the

the

were

origin

the

did
of

subject

Were
the

Enumerate

art?

3.

period

of

Why

instead

Minor

Questions

this

of

account

an

xxvii).

(ch.

and

Greece

beginning

the

at

Power

Roman

Life,

Abbott,
ch.

Roman
viii

Arnold,

Political
Roman

Institutions,
Provincial

CHAPTER

XXXV

GROWTH

THE

OF

PLUTOCRACY1
B.C.

241-133

POLITICAL

I.

remained

Rome,

and

assembly
well.

the

of

injury

the

her

became

Rome

civilized
and

of

spite
In

happy.

horde

from

of

the

misery.

of

Government

" 406

f.

farther

in their

citizens

who

interest

this

to

the

reason

and

unjust

more

the

worked

own

For

away.

the

the

limits,

government

Italy

was

the

on

the

to

whole

oppressive

cities

of

in

fair.2

from

provinces

The

peace.

advantages,

regulating

trade

subjects.

local

In

all the

the

favoreU
of native

place

provinces

peasants

by the wealthy
two

Review

carefully "

Roman

citizens

sections

The

the

less

customs

anything

was

her

citizens

own

merchants

; and

and

and

from

for the

should

reduced

now

the

their

wealthy
be

the

accordingly
traders

their

while

at

but

citizenship4
of

most

people

farms, these

poured
the

erty
prop-

debt

to

and

speculators

" 446.

carefully reviewed.

419.

provinces enjoyed

in the

provincials, and

retained

affairs.

adopting

vantages
ad-

rule.3

province

condition

their

Rome

subject countries,

These

Some

Roman

greedy money-lenders, speculators, and

the

attend

masters.

these

Driving

city-state,like

could

protected them, they unjustly acquired

in the

by

these

self-government

capital over

Rome

at

and

their

of the

expense

as

citizens

subjects, too, profited greatly by

ideas

In

the

in

likewise

laws

own

the

outgrew

acquired,

they enjoyed

Usually

all

long

public affairs,the government

were

supremacy

came

their

who

As

"

government.

early

Her

state

managed

those

territory

more

in

part

hand

that

small

take

at

near

Rule.

Roman

so

when

But

were

of

Character

444.

CONDITIONS

SOCIAL

AND

it

was

399

privileges and

many

generally impossible

to

punish

them

right?
for

not

possessed

wrong-doing.

of Plutocracy

Growth

The

400

built up vast estates worked

followed of letting
out
Rome

by

The

slaves.

the collection

system, too, which

of taxes

to contractors

whose
wealth enabled them to take
knights,2
times their
to pay many
these contracts, compelledthe provincials
find a governor, like Cato, who was
due.
we
perfectly
Occasionally
check
these
to
and
who
and
wrongs.3 But
attempted
just
upright
himself
cruel and
was
oppressive.Not
generallythe governor
with the wealth of his subjects,
a greedy ruler seized their
content
of the gods they worshipped,and
the statues
works of art, including
into slavery. The rapidchange of officers
freemen
sold many
even
increased the evil. In his short term the governor expectedto make
three fortunes
his way
on

in

The

full of evil.

was

to power

his return

luxuryfor

second

to

the remainder

he had

the debts

the first to pay

to

his judgesin
satisfy

; and

Rome

of his

contracted

third to enable

days. Though

established for the trial of extortion

committed

in bribing

of cution
prosehim
to live

case

court4 was
special
in the provinces,
it
a

of like mind
with the
accomplishedno good ; for the judges were
culprits.Thieves and plundererssat in judgment on thieves and
the role of the two parties.
reverse
plunderers
; a year or two would
the provincials
from injustice.To them
Thus
found no protection
the
meant
slavery,
decay,and death.
peace of Rome
"

"

The

445.

Decline

of

and

Italy: Commercial

Agrarian Conditions.

experiencea similar decline. As long as Rome

treated the Italians justly,
satisfied with her rule. At
they were
first they sided with her againstHannibal,but after the battle of
Cannae
in the south of the peninsula deserted to him.5
many
When
Rome
men,
reconqueredthem, she treated them not as erringkinsbut as subjectsand slaves.
She seized large tracts of their
of them
from the condition
of allies to
.land ; she degraded many
Italy was

"

that of state

to

serfs.

By monopolizingthe trade
the prosperity
of the towns.
and Tarentum
disappeared;
Greek

towns

The
1

which

of
The

" 419.
" 459.

merchants

equallywith
2

great

capitalists
destroyed

commercial

in the streets

stillremained

farmingclass suffered

ItalyRoman

of the

cities of
once

prosperous

gave placeto
the traders ; for

"" 380, 446.

beggars.

" 43".

Rome

as

3
6

Capua

"

449.

The

402

Growth

of Plutocracy
Punic

the Second

War,

the

nobles,
rapidlydecliningin character and in ability.They
op-ti-ma'tes,
of a few great houses,and
became
a
hereditarycaste, consisting
circle. They kept all
to their privileged
men
rarelyadmitted new
the higher offices for themselves, and
passed them in rotation
From

of

end

the

we

see

of their families.
the members
among
A young
noble,after service as an officerin the army, and
after enrichinghimself as a provincial
quaestor, secured

perhaps
election

it was
his duty to entertain
In this position
aedileship.1
the people with
costly religiousfestivals and shows, chiefly
at his own
expense ; in this way he gainedtheir favor and their votes
for the higheroffices. With this legaland pious system of corruption,
Thence
he
he had little need of resorting
to open
bribery.
and to the consulship. As praetor,
to the praetorship
advanced
where he glutted
he governed a province,
propraetor, or proconsul,2
him haughty
himself with spoil,
and where irresponsible
power made
of honors,the people
and brutal.
If he won
distinction in this career
him to the censorship the
their appreciation
showed
by electing
of gloryof the nobility.To complete our
crown
understandingof
the nobles of this period,it is necessary
that they
to bear in mind
who sought office not merely for honor, but also
were
capitalists,
of absorbingthe riches of the world.
The nobility
of
as
a means
merit became
a
self-seeking
plutocracy. In other words,
narrow,
the empire now
had a government by the wealthy and for the
wealthy.
The nobles and other wealthy men
filled the eighteencenturies of
of means
in the comitia centuriata.
Stillother men
knights,eq'ui-tes,
who might be required
horses for service in the
to furnish their own
also called knights. The
class so named, originally
cavalrywere
the capitalists,
took government
who
includingthe senators, were
for collecting
contracts
and for buildingpublic works, and
taxes
who had in hand most
of the commerce
and industryof the Roman
to

curule

"

world.
447.
-The

The

Government

government

magistrates,and
1

" 392.

still

the

Senate, Magistrates,and Assemblies.

time, of senate,
senate, however, had gained

consisted,as

assemblies.

The

in earlier

" 419.

Constitution

power

the expense

at

of both

403

magistratesand

assemblies.

It

was

who
had filled offices at home, had comof men
manded
composed chiefly
to foreignstates.
armies, and had served on embassies
trained executives,
The leadingmembers
generals,
were, therefore,
been
enrolled
the
and diplomatists
on
senate list
; and having once
by the censors, they usuallyheld their positionsfor life. It is
natural that in a periodof conquest the senate, composed of such
The magistrates,
who
should become
were
already
supreme.
men,
forward
enrolment
in
that
to
senators
or
were
looking
body, were
its
commands.
The
with rare
exceptionsobedient to
highermagistrates
in the paragraph above in the order of
have been named
their rank.
all
Constitutionally

citizens with

full

rightswere

permitted to
the assemblies.
In fact,these bodies were
attend
composed of
the city,
those who lived in and near
distance preventedmost
of
as
the city population,which
the citizens from
attending. Hence
fast becoming a rabble,alone exercised the right to vote.
was
of an assembly could not propose a law or a candidate
Again,a member
for office,
or
speak on any subject; he could merely vote for
offered by the presiding
or
againstthe candidates and the measures
who
officer,
rarelyfailed to enforce his will upon the comitia. In
other words, the magistrates
controlled the assemblies.
In this period,as earlier,
there were
two
principalassemblies,
the tribal and the centuriate.
The
tribal assembly elected the
and
tribunes ; it ratified treaties of peace ; it
quaestors, aediles,
received appeals from the judicial
decisions of magistrates
in cases
The
involvingfines ; and it was the chief legislative
turiate
cenpower.
elected
the
it
ratified
tions
declaraassembly
highermagistrates
;
of war
it
acted
the
of
as
cases
highestcourt
appealin capital
;
;
and
it passed a law.
The
assemblies
differed
two
occasionally
merely in organization.
II.

PROMINENT

worthy

character
of attention

"

We

CIVILIZATION

helped to an appreciationof
by a study of prominent men.
Especially
is ScipioAfricanus.
The
conquest of Spain

448. Scipio Africanus.

Roman

ROMANS;
are

The

404

and

the

victoryat

fifteen years he
It
and censor.

Zama

was
was

of Plutocracy

Growth

should

he

of

need

the

that

saw

not

organize
them

hold

should

provinces,but

For

consul twice,

was

his firm conviction that Rome

dependent allies;for

in Rome.

greatest man
senate; he

of the

foreman

the conquered countries into

as

the

him

made

the
garrisoning

exhaust
the
provinceswould soon
strengthof Italy. In keepingwith
he planted in Italy
this principle,
several colonies whose
military
strengthwas to be reserved for the
of the peninsula. Thus
defence
the

chief of the nobles

the

colonial
he had

But

the

field,at

his

in

command
he

Rome

used

He

king.

customed
Ac-

enemies.

many

on

Flaminius.1

policyof
absolute

to

carried

the

acted

fluence
in-

immense

ment
advancepolitical
family,and trampled

for the
of his
upon
from

the law

to

trial

for

protect

brother

embezzlement.

Finallythe tribunes of the plebs

prosecutedhim on the ground that
he

had

he had

bribes, and

received
been

extravagant and

Without
PUBLIUS

CORNELIUS

SCIPIO AFRICANUS

(Made third century A.D., doubtless from

an earlyoriginal
; National Museum, Naples)

charges,he
as

follows

people,and
good fortune

is said
"

you,

that

rannica
ty-

replyingto the
to have
spoken

Tribunes

Romans,

of

the

on

the

of this day, with

and success, I fought
anniversary
and the Carthaginians.
Hannibal
a pitchedbattle in Africa,with
it is but decent that a stop be put for this day to
As, therefore,
there
I will immediatelygo to the Capitol,
wranglingand litigation,
to return
acknowledgments to Jupiter,supremely good and
my
the Capitol
over
great, to Juno, Minerva, and other deities presiding
and Citadel ; and will givethem
thanks for having,on this day and
'"421.

Cato

at

other

many

times,endowed

me

405

both

with the will and

with the

services to the state.

to perform extraordinary
Such of you
ability
with me
and beseech the gods that
also, Romans, as it suits,come
commanders
like myself. l
have
The
whole assembly
you
may
followed him with enthusiasm.
But though he was
of culture,
a
man
fond of literature and of luxury,his talents were
military.
chiefly
Unable
to cope with his political
enemies,he retired into the
country to privatelife.
Marcus
Porcius
Cato.
Porcius
Cato, his chief
449. Marcus
was
but strictly
antagonist,
unsympathetic,and close-fisted,
narrow,
';

"

moral

model

"

by birth,and
Manius

Curius

"

sit at

the

Roman

virtue.

He

was

modest

cottage
with

with

his

stood

peasant

of the

his father's farm.

near

slaves,in

the memories

Dentatus,2the great peasant-statesman

in
sleeves,

meals

older

of his life from

inspiration

he worked

without

coat
to

drew

time, whose

old

of the

winter

nothingbut
them, eatingthe same

wearing a

of

good

cordingly
Accoarse

his tunic ; and he used

loaf and drinkingthe

summer

wine."3

same

the patronage of

rich

and honesty,
neighbor,but more
by ability
this thrifty
to the highestoffices of the state.
peasant rose
he was
of Sardinia,where
former
rulers had
When
governor
been
in the habit of charging their tents, bedding,and wearing
for
and likewise making it pay largesums
apparelto the province,
that of their friends,he introduced
their entertainment
and
an
unheard-of
He charged nothing to the provsystem of economy.
ince,
foot and
and visited the various cities without a carriage,
on
alone,attended by one publicservant, who carried his robe of state
he
all this,
and the vessel for making libations at a sacrifice. With
his rule,so
showed
himself so affable and simple to those under
and so
and
of justice,
inexorable in the administration
severe
executed,that
vigilantand careful in seeingthat his orders were

By

"

the

government

in Sardinia than

of Rome
when

was

never

feared

more

or

more

he ruled that island."

In his home
the

loved

policyhe assailed with untiringenergy the luxury,

refinement,and the culture representedby the Scipios
; it was
1
3

Livy, xxxviii. 51.

Plutarch,M. Cato, 3.

"

Plutarch,M. Cato, 6.

403.

Growth

The

406

of Plutocracy

"

rebuked

man," who

new

powerful family. The

red-haired,gray-eyed,savage-tusked

the

hated

and

feared

nobles

this

overthrew

influence which

his
chiefly

their follies and

their sins.

Chosen

he expelledfrom
the senate
spiteof their opposition,
of disreputable
number
members, taxed luxuries unmercifully,
a
and let out the public contracts
the publicworks
administered
in

censor

favoritism.

without

Civilization

450.

became

periodeducation
the children of the
slaves owned

Greek

privateschools

Literature, Religion, and

general. As

more

wealthystudied under
by the family. For

in the

In

"

this

precedingage,

the instruction

of educated

the poorer classes,

however,
in which
small fees were
charged

established

were

Morals.

erature
taught. A Latin litpose
was
now
coming into existence. The Romans
began to comfirst historyof Rome
and oratory. The
in
poetry, history,
written by Cato.
This work no longerexists. We have
Latin was
remaining a few comedies of Plau'tus and Ter'ence,who lived
in this period,and
mere
fragments of the remaining Roman
for instruction.

Greek

Both

and

Latin

were

literature.1
The

Romans

Their

attracted to the useful

were

more

than to the beautiful.

roads,and aqueducts,
bridges,
the best in the world.
were
They produced little sculptureand
but preferred
of art as plunder from
to import shiploads
painting,
the cities of Sicilyand Greece.
of real
With
little appreciation
beauty,the nobles took pleasurein adorningtheir houses and villas
with

publicworks, as

sewers,

stolen statues.
with

Along

the ideas,the religion,

and
the
foreignart came
morals of strangers. They began to worshipthe Greek Di-o-ny'sus,
or
and the
Bac'chus,god of the vine and of life,
includingfuture life,
of the Gods, whom
Phrygian Cyb'e-le,Mother
noisy processions
honored
in the streets with drums, trumpets, and cymbals. As
the native worship was
cold and formal, the Romans
faction
found satisin the excitement
of these Eastern
religions.
1
was

The

of Rome

was

history

on

come

famous

most

Fabius

down

poets

written
the

and

are

very

The

of the senate

the

Roman

valuable.

power.

Considerable

historian

earliestRoman

during the war with Hannibal.

of the age,
Polybius,a Greek statesman

in Greek.

expansion of

to us,

Nae'vi-us and En'ni-us.

were

Pictor,a member

His Annals
wrote

parts of his work

an

able
have

Civilization

407

corruptedby Eastern influence.

little beauty in Greek
The
saw
unimaginativeRoman
mythology
the baser pleasuresof an
and art, but welcomed
advanced
zation.
civilix
time Greek scepticism
At the same
unsettled his religious
It is not to be assumed
faith,the foundation of his moral conduct.
vicious. The peasant who escaped
that all the Romans
were
now
were
Morals, alreadydeclining,

economic

ruin

was

stillsound

at heart

; and

the circle of aristocrats

even

and the noble,

produced the pure-minded ScipioAemilianus
of the two Grac'chi,
who were
to be the leaders
self-sacrificing
spirit
of the coming age of revolution.
But in the citycorruptionwas
Crowds
of beggar clients attended
almost
universal.
the noble,
for the loaves he doled out to them, or
and voted for him in return
2
of buffoons,beasts,and gladiators
for the shows
with which
he
The rendingof flesh and the flow
them
from time to time.
amused
of blood gave this rabble its keenest delight. As to the higherranks,
and the insolence of the noble,already
the greed of the capitalist
while
described,were surpassedonly by the impurityof their lives,
all classes in the state and empire mutual
fear and
hatred
among
of affairs called loudlyfor reform.
This condition
lurked.
of Plutocracy.
of the Growth
(i)The political
451. Summary
the whole fair and
rule was
of Italyunder Roman
on
organization
just,as it assured to the allied states protectionand local selfthe other hand, were
on
subjects.
(2)The provincials,
government.
the
more
protectedfrom foreignenemies, and
They were generally
with
benefited by contact
them
barbarous
were
peoples among
civilization. But they were
Roman
oppressedby restrictions on
traders and speculators,
their commerce,
by the taxby Roman
and by rapaciousgovernors.
(3) Because of the procollectors,
vincial
began to oppress the
system Italy,too, declined. Rome
allies. They could not compete in trade with the Roman
ists,
capitalin the provinces.
estates
with the slave-worked
or in agriculture
the
suffered in the same
citizens of Rome
as
(4)The common
way
but to a greater extent.
(5) The only persons benefited
Italians,
who
few great capitalists,
a
monopolized its
by the empire were
conditions
business
held its lucrative offices. (6) These
new
or
changed the old aristocratic republicinto a plutocracy. (7)Mean"

Cf. " 274.

"

473.

Hellenic

while

of

(8)

vice.

and

of

symptoms

its

did

Why

United

morals
"

6.

nobles

and

5.

privileges

What

classes

city

and

II.

Scipio

Aemilianus.

what

of

various

to

Institutions,

63-80;

ii.

ch.

Rome

of

during

Greenidge,

Religion
xxxv.

end

other

of

Roman
and

optimates,"

this

of

tem?
sys-

England

period
In

did

influence

nobles,

what

were

way

Topics

of

Story

Rome,

see

144-150;

Numa,

Punic

Botsford,

Wars.
"

47-52;
Public

Roman

and

of

the

History,

Roman

Morals,

Carter,

93-100;
xx

Book

Manners,

III.

ch.

of

Source

of

that

political

of

Italians

each

provincial

the

"

territory

also

dices
in-

histories.

Government

Munro,

the
and

all

deterioration

the

degree

Latins,

Botsford,

"

the

show

to

to

with

populares,"

toward

attached

of

power
was

"

policy

defects

the
Roman

Define

plebs,

poor

federal

extent

enjoy

country

the

the

Note-book

I.

scepticism

beginning

was

their
were

of
what

To

4.

conquest?

plebs,

city

knights,

What

2.

expansion

following

the

of

Italy?
the

to

equites."

fostering

and

Questions

extend

Romans

States.

due

each

the

of

Compare

3.

the

of

or

the

not

outside

acquired

ment
develop-

Gracchi

decay.

Suggestive

i.

the

of

was

empire

the

parts

those

side

the

aiding

was

like
other

the

on

all

In

Rome,

characters

noble

Aemilianus,

Scipio
and

and

great

into

coming

culture,

Plutocracy

of

Growth

The

408

Religion.
104-145;

"

Abbott,

Life,
Botsford,
Duruy,

chs.

127-136

Political

Roman
iii-vi.

Munro,

136-140;
History

of

Rome,

i.

againstthe

enemy

a
singleclod
possessing

earth without
without

men

property

Agrarian

The
to

became

of Tiberius

the wealth

title of lords of the

call their own."

Gracchus

(133 B.C.).
"

solving
Re-

of the poor, Tiberius

With the ap133 B.C.
proval

plebsfor the year

the most
consul Mu'ci-us Scaev'o-la,
proposed to reenact the AgrarianLaw

eminent

jurist
2

of Licinius

as

"

added
:

maintain

temples
family

improvement

(1) No one shall have the use

the publicland.
(2)No one shall pasture more
sheep on the publicland.
He

to

tribune of the

of the age, he

has

one

homeless.1

and

do all he could for the

of the

follows

Law

and

Strictly
forbidden
militaryservice;but we
in fact armies had recentlycome
to

speech that
largelycomposed of the poor

454.

of

were

this

from

learn

no

they fightto
tomb,
others,and they die with the

luxury of

and

many

so

tombs

Romans

but

ancestral

an

or

of

; for out

lie in their mouths

their

the soldiers in battle to defend

exhort

altar

with

while their commanders

children,

wives and

be

Revolution

The

410

as

third clause

of

more

than

law

than

hundred

five hundred

cattle

passed after

or

acres

dred
five hun-

the time

of Licinius

"

(3)Of

the

laborers

on

any

farm,

certain

proportionshall

be

freemen.
To

these clauses he

:
joinedthe following
The
of
not
(4)
sons
exceedingtwo
present occupiersmay
each hold two hundred
and fifty
of publicland.
acres
(5) A committee of three,elected by the tribal assembly,shall
divide the surplusamong
the needy in lots of thirtyacres
each.
His plan was
from idleness
to rescue
families as possible
as
many
and poverty, and to fillthe country with thrifty
peasants in placeof
slaves.
a
By giving the poor an opportunityto earn
living,he
hoped to make them honest,useful citizens. An equallyimportant
aim was
of citizens
the number
to strengthenthe army
by increasing
for generations
But the rich,who
to serve.
legallyqualified
had bought,sold,and bequeathed the publicland,like privateprop"

"

Before

" 391.

the time of Marius

"

armies thus

composed

were

exceptional;" 462.

Longitude

10"

Longitude

THE

EXPANSION
CXFXHE

POWER

ROMAN
FROM

THE

GRACCHI

to the

133

Death

B. C. to 14

of AUGUSTUS
A. D.
Power

Roman
100

50

100

200

Acquired
Allies

133 B. C.

133 B. C.-

of Rome,

14 A.

14 A.

D.

D.

40"

Greenwich

50"

0. W. Botifari,Del.

40"

Tiberius
his bill a scheme

erty, declared

Gracchus

411

of

he
robbery. When accordingly
brought it before the assembly,they induced Octavius,a tribune,
to veto it,and thus they prevented it from
passing.
With the advice of Tiberius,the assemblydeposed the obstinate
The
then passed without
tribune.
agrarianmeasure
opposition.
It

well carried

so

was

showed

increase

an

military service.
add

to

and

so

many

out

of

that

after four

nearly eighty

To

stop the

useful

citizens

decline
was

the

years
thousand

the

of

the

work

of

roll

census

citizens

fit for

population and
a
great patriot

statesman.

455.

The

Legality of

the

Acts

of Tiberius.

"

The

depositionof

As
no
requiresfurther examination.
magistrate had
been deposed before,this act involved a sweeping departure
ever
from
custom.
long-established
Nearly all the powers
acquired
in
however, had been won
by the assemblies during the republic,
In other words, an assemblygaineda new
a similar way.
function,
and connot through a law, but merely by assuming that function
tinuing
exercise
it.
the
to
was
a
Constitutionally government
If it wished
duce
to introdemocracy and the assembly was supreme.
it had the right. But
the custom
of deposingmagistrates,
it had allowed the senate
since the tribunate of Flaminius,232 B.C.,1
under
Tiberius
to take the lead in everything. When, therefore,
the senators
it attempted to resume
its supremacy,
rally
natuGracchus
declared its conduct unconstitutional.
unwilling
They were
what
to admit in practice
they had long acceptedin theory. Not
find the senate acceptingthe
many
years afterward,however, we
that a magistrate could be put out of office.2 Soon
new
principle
offered himself
after the enactment
of the agrarianlaw Tiberius
for reelection to the tribunate
another
departurefrom custom.
The same
considerations
tinuance
to legality
as
apply to this act. His con-

Octavius

"

in office seemed
for the enforcement
other

his friends to be necessary

agrarianlaw and for the institution of

to himself

of the

and

reforms.

'"421.
" 468.

instructor

For
may

Assemblies, ^

further

consult

consideration of this question,the advanced

Greenidge, History of Rome,

i. 125-127;

pupil and

the

Botsford, Roman

The

412

456.

The

Death

Revolution

of Tiberius

(133 B.C.). On election

their harvests;and when

Gracchus

"

day his peasant supporters were busy with

and other opponents of the
the voting began, a crowd of senators
of the tribunes,
reformer
turning
dispersedthe assembly. Two
Three
hundred
clubs.
of
his
with
followers
killed
Tiberius
traitor,
thrown into
murdered
along with him, and their bodies were
were
the Tiber.
Many times duringthe previoushistoryof the republic
had heartily
acts of which the senate
the assemblyhad committed
disapproved. Its policyhad been to resist by all constitutional
of
the adoptionof such a measure,
to yieldwhen
means
legalmeans
of the moment
had
and then when the excitement
failed,
opposition
quietly.In the present case this
passedaway, to annul the measure
most
advised by Scaevola,who as a jurist
course
was
was
competent
did
to pointout the constitutional procedure. But his moderation
the senators.
The men
who had voted the destruction of
not satisfy
Corinth and Carthage,and had followed a policyof treacheryand
of foreignenemies,naturallyresorted to
crueltyin the treatment
the first
violence for puttingdown
foe.
mob
This was
a political
time blood was
shed in a political
at Rome, and the leaders
struggle
of the mob

were

senators.

Added

to

all the other

of lar
popudred
to last a hun-

causes

it provoked a revolution,
which was
discontent,
The
aim of the revolutionary
party, opposed to the
years.
nobles,was to substitute the assembly for the senate, democracy
for oligarchy,
in fact as well as in theory. Contrary to expectations,
the revolution was
of the republic.
to end in the overthrow
The

457.

Democratic

Outlook.

"

Some

time

after the murder

of

Tiberius,
ScipioAemilianus,the destroyerof Carthage,put a stop
to the distributions of land, and brought reform
to a standstill.
gained
reThough depressedfor a time, the democratic leaders soon
l
the
One
of them proposed to give the Italians
courage.
in order to have them
citizenship
as
supporters of the land law.
This offer the Italians would
gladlyhave accepted,had not the
senate
Another
leader passed a law
put a stop to the measure.
dates.
permittingthe peopleto reelect a tribune in case of a lack of candiMore
Gaius Gracchus
important still,
was
coming to the
1

These

suffered

the allieswhose political

relation to Rome
were
greatlythrough the growth of the empire; " 445.

is described in

" 406, and

who

Revolution

The

414

Gaius

then

appliedhimself to
the economic
improvement of the empire. Renewing his brother's
agrarianlaw, he planned to distribute the remainingpubliclands
the poor.
He adopted,too, the policyof establishing
mercial
comamong
and manufacturingcolonies at Tarentum, Capua, and other
placesalong the Italian coasts, to restore to Italythe prosperity
which Roman
capitalismhad destroyed. Passing beyond Italy,
he attempted to plant a colony near
the site of Carthage. The
the provinceswith Roman
citizens was
idea of colonizing
altogether
of
the
became
which
the
kind
centre
from
a
new.
Every colony
.Latin language and civilization extended
In the
to the natives.
of centuries this process led to the grant of Roman
course
citizenship
For the immediate
future the whole colonial
to the provincials.
the restoration of commercial
policyof Gaius, so far as carried out, meant
and industrial prosperity
to Italyand the empire,and the
the rural districts and the
dispersionof the Roman
poor among
small towns, where they could find an opportunityto earn
a living.
lished
Shortlybefore the tribunate of Gaius,courts began to be estabfor the trial of specialclasses of crimes.1
for
One was
the trial of cases
of extortion committed
by officials in Italyand
the provinces
for the trial of murder.
These courts
was
; another
consisted of a praetor as judge and a largejury of senators.
In
459.

Other

of

cases

therefore

of Gaius.

Reforms

extortion

the

accused

"

officials were

senators, and

were

guiltyor not, by the jury.

To put an end to this abuse Gaius had a law passedwhich required
the
that the jurors should be knights.2Through these courts
knightsexercised authorityover the senate itself. In a few years
they,too, began to abuse their power, and became
perhaps even
generallyacquitted,whether

corrupt than

more

did
therefore,

Gaius

attended

"

" 446.

not

senate

prove
built roads3 in

to be stored

He

the

as

been.

beneficial

as

This

of

measure

Gaius,

hoped.
in which
granaries,
peopleat a reduced

he had

Italy,and erected
the publicgrainfor sale to the
personallyto all these undertakings.

His

house

was

rate.

be-

444-

Those

only

were

who
eligible

equestrian centuries of the comitia

'*

had

Their location is unknown.

had

centuriata.

public horses and voted

in the

eighteen

Aims

looked with
of

crowds

at the

amazement

empire.
himself,seeinghim

man

"

The

people
attended
by

artisans,
ambassadors, magistrates,
building-contractors,

and learned
soldiers,
While

415

for the

of administration

the bureau

came

of the Gracchi

his behavior

to

he
dignity,

his

he maintained

all of whom

to

men,

was

efficient administrator

well

as

as

easy of access.
affable to all,
and adapted

great

was

he

Thus

individual."1

every

he

showed
and

orator

himself

an

reformer.

to the
citizenship
Lastly Gaius proposed to give the full Roman
Latins, and the Latin rightsto the Italians. The inhabitants of
for their excluof citizenship
sive
Rome, who wanted all the privileges
enjoyment, would have nothing to do with this measure.
Angered by the proposal,they turned againsthim and defeated
the senate
When
him in his candidacyfor a third time as tribune.
from
tried to prevent him
plantinga colony at Carthage, both
consul O-pim'i-us,
The
armed
by the
partiesresorted to violence.
the popular party, and
absolute
with
senate
power,2 overthrew

killed
these

with

Gracchus
with

men,

put

460. Estimate

of

carried

and

of his

thousand

mob

Gaius, perishedby

and

condemned

three

the

great

one

death

to

violence;
without

by Opimius

Gracchi.

measure

"

Tiberius

of reform.

of

supporters. Some
others

trial.

Gracchus

The

were

aim

proposed

of Gaius

was

of society. He wished to equalizethe Italians as

regeneration
nearly as possiblewith the Romans, and to found agricultural
colonies in Italyand the provincesin order to provide all the needy
with homes
and with the means
of earningan honest living. In his
the

commercial
lifewhich
to these

colonies he wished
Rome

had

ends.

His

to reestablish

from
the corn
Rome, made
away
and rendered
slavery,
Italyprosperous.

bringabout

Plutarch, Gaius

In the Second

after the Gracchi

time

martial
see

that the

law;
state

that of dictator.
;

these reforms

Gracchus,
Punic

of economic

sources

destroyed. All his other measures

reforms,if completed,would have
laws

poor

To

the

War

he wished

were

means

drawn

the

limited

unnecessary,

of the tribunate

to make

6.

the

by Sulla.

had
dictatorship
Meanwhile

fallen into disuse,to be revived

the senate

found

new

way

of

some

ing
proclaim-

by passing the resolution,"Let the consuls (and other magistrates)

suffer no harm," it conferred upon
the magistrates a power
equal to

Opimius

was

the first to receive this absolute

Cicero also held it in the conspiracyof Catiline

"

477.

authorityfrom

the

ate
sen-

Revolution

The

4i 6

the office of

ministry,like
The

ministers

should

the

name

in the time

Athens

general at

candidates

of Pericles.1

for the

higher

and, with the advice of the senate, should superviseperoffices,

sonally
of the empire. In brief,the
the whole
administration
tribunes
have

to

long

vast

the

as

of the

to

were

power,

is due

support

statesmanlike
other

which

people in

Gracchi

relied for

the head

become

their tribal
to

ignorantand

to

were

from

assembly

the fact that the

too

were

to

year

willed.

citizens

were

year

The

so

failure

whom

they
uphold broad,
vote
cheap grain and
againstGaius when
on

selfish to

ready

themselves, but

They

government.

continue

to

was

policy. They

advantages

of the

to

turned

they found him attemptingalso to benefit others.

Unappreciatedand betrayed,the two brothers became in death
the saints and martyrs of the popularparty.
The people,though
humbled
and depressed
for a time,soon
showed
how deeplythey felt
the loss of the Gracchi.
For they had statues
of the two brothers
made
and set up in publicplaces,
and the spots on which they fell
declared sacred ground, to which
the peoplebrought all the
were
first fruits of the seasons, and offered sacrifices there and worshipped
justas at the templesof the gods."2 They were rightin enshrining
the sons
of Cornelia as the noblest characters the historyof their
country had brought to light.
"

II. THE

RESTORED

SUPREMACY
121-87

461. Gaius
death

Marius;

of Gaius

the

Gracchus

OF

SENATE

B.C.

Jugurthine War
restored

THE

the

(111-105B.C.).

misrule

"

of the

senate.

The
For

the

safetyand happinessof the empire it was necessary that this

and a juster,abler
corrupt nobilitybe permanently overthrown
set up in its place. Although Gaius saw
government
clearlywhat
should be done, no political
The
party would support his reforms.
work
of establishing
in the army
for the new
a solid foundation
remained

government
This

man

moderate
1

"

was

born

to

his

among
circumstances.
As

225.

Gaius Ma'ri-us.
successor,
the hills of Latium
in a family of
a

boy

he
2

learned

not

only to

plutarch,Gaius Gracchus,

18.

work

War

hard, but

to

sober

be

and

with

Jugurtha

obedient.

At

an

417

earlyage he entered
the plebs,and afterward

tribune of
militaryofficer,
propraetor of Farther Spain,he showed himself honest and
from Spain he married
able.
On his return
Julia,of the patrician
Soon
afterward he found employment for
family of the Caesars.
his militarygeniusin Numidia.
Ju-gur'tha,grandson of Masinissa,1 after killingthe rightful
heirs,had himself usurped the throne of Numidia.
Though the
senate
after another.
intervened,he bought off its embassies
one
made
Rome
When
war
him, he bribed the first commander
upon
from Africa ; and by corruptingthe officers of the secto withdraw
ond,
of the army
he compelledthe surrender
and sent it under the
he had visited Rome
his conduct
fore
beto justify
yoke. Meanwhile
there he brought about the murder
the senate.
While he was
who might have contested his rightto the Numidian
throne.
of a man
he could no longerremain
in Rome.
parting
While deAfter the murder
he is said to have exclaimed, A cityfor sale and doomed
the state
!"
Such was
to speedy ruin,if only a purchaserappears
of energy, took command
of affairs when
(109B.C.).
Metellus,a man
Marius
lieutenant.
With the help of Marius,
him
went
With
as
Then
he occupied a
the dissolute soldiers to order.
he reduced
whole
Jugurtha by force or to
year in a vain attempt to conquer
lus
take him captiveby stratagem (108 B.C.). The next year Meteldefeated him; but he soon
forces,and seemed
gathered new
Metellus
Then Marius, elected consul,superseded
stronger than ever.
in the command.
He rapidlybesiegedand
hold
captured one strongof the enemy
after another, and defeated Jugurtha twice in
battle.
FinallyLucius Cor-ne'li-us Sulla,a young aristocrat who
was
quaestor under him, capturedJugurtha by treachery. After
gracingthe triumph of Marius, the African king died in prison.
remained
With diminished
Numidia
a dependentkingdom.
territory,
The war, with the events
which
preceded it,showed clearlythe
incompetenceand the moral degradationof the senate.
and the Teutones
with the Cimbri
(ii3-ioi'B.c.).
462. The War
of territory
The Romans
had acquireda strip
along the southern
of Gaul, and had made a provinceof it under the nameNar-bocoast
the

army.

As

"

"

432.

The

4i 8

Revolution

provincelived the Celts,

divided into many
were
independent tribes.
a warlike people who
not only Gaul, but also a narrow
At that time the Celts inhabited
southern Germany to
north of the Alps from Gaul across
territory
the

valleyof

tribe,invaded
consul
Rome

the Danube.

JugurthineWar began,the Cimbri,a German

the
north of the Alps. When
Celtic territory

the

the time

About

of this

B.C.). North

nen'sis (about 121

the

hastened to defend
army
defeated by the
he was
in that region,
Carbo

with

some

an

Celtic allies of

invaders,and barely

years later the Cimbri

escaped with his army (113 B.C.). Two
the native tribes of Gaul, and
crossed the Rhine, made
war
upon

threatened

them

With

Narbonensis.

were

the
authorities,
According to some
Celts. When
according to others they were
tones.

associated the Teu-

now

latter

Germans;

were

the Romans

came

to

consular armies in
four more
overthrew
the rescue, these barbarians
succession.
They threatened to invade Italy,but a delay of three
years gave the Romans
busied
after year, Marius

When
at
army.
into Italy,
he met

time

himself

lengththe
them

to

at

Reflected
prepare.
with reorganizing
and

Teutones

were

ready to

Aq'uae Sex'ti-ae in

consul

year
the
training

cross

southern

the

Alps
Gaul, and

he and his
(102 B.C.). In like manner
Catulus in the following
the Cimbri
at
colleague
year slaughtered
in northern
Ver-cel'lae,
Italy,after they had succeeded in crossing
the Alps.
The army which gainedthese great victories had a new
character.
Before the time of Marius
it was
who waged
a
militia; the men
Rome's
had lands and families at home, and thought of themselves
wars
annihilated

as

their great host

citizens.

the economic

But

this middle

class of citizens had

died out in

Italy,and the attempt of the Gracchi to

it had been
restore
undone
the state
by the nobles. To save
from
invasion Marius
found
it necessary,
therefore,to make
who
owned
What
no
chieflyof men
up his army
property.
had been illegal
and exceptional
he thus converted
into a custom.
By keepinghis men
long in the service and under careful training,
he made
them
soldiers.
Such persons placed all their
professional
hopes in their commander, and were
ready to follow him in every
even
undertaking,
againstthe government.
Although Marius was
decline of

Rule
himself

Nobility

had

been
reality
have

saved

the army
it clear that

to

419

overthrow

the

republic.

policyof the Gracchi

the middle class they
conservative
; by restoring
the republic. But the undoing of their reforms

considerations

would

the

used
later generals
loyal,

These
in

of

make

the

lacked
the
the creation of a soldier class which
necessary
aided the establishment of
loyaltyof the citizens and which willingly

made

militarygovernment
The

463.
senate

and

Rule

held

in

placeof

the

republic.
sat in
Nobility. The nobles,who
had resorted to violence
higheroffices,

of the
all the

"

the
and

of the Gracchi.
After
stoppingthe reform movement
the murder
of Gaius, they proceededto undo
the good work he had
accomplishedthrough the foundingof colonies and the distribution
of lands.
They repealedhis law for the colonization of Carthage,
it possiblefor the
and
then the agrarianlaw; and
they made
wealthy,by purchaseor by force,to gatherup into their hands the
The dissmall farms held by the peasants under the agrarianlaw.
tributio
of cheap grain,
however, which Gaius had introduced as a
of
they continued,and they used it as a means
temporary expedient,
The respect in which the senate
maintainingthemselves in power.
had once
been held was
now
nearlygone ; it could keep its position
of the state in no other way
than by cateringto the mob.
as head
In the Jugurthinewar
worthless
themselves
the nobles had shown
and corrupt ; afterward
from the common
the rise of a man
people

bloodshed

for

had

saved

alone

the country from

the supremacy

barbarian

of the nobles

seemed

revolutionaryundercurrent,in Rome
was
Italians,
rapidlygainingvolume
itself.
the senate and the republic

invasion.
to

be

wardly
out-

fullyrestored,a
the Latins

and

among
in
time
it
;

While

was

and

to overwhelm

(100 B.C.). In his

sixth consulship
(100B.C.)Marius allied himself with Sat-ur-ni'nus,
and Glau'ci-a,
colonies
a tribune,
a praetor, to pass a law for planting
of his veterans
in the provinces. These two men,
though violent in
their methods, were
aiming to carry out the reforms of the Gracchi ;
the peasants in oppositionto the cityrabble,which
they represented
With their armed
followers Saturninus
now
supportedthe senate.
and
Glaucia
forced the measure
through the assembly of tribes.
464. Marius,

Soon

afterward

Saturninus, and

another

riot broke

Glaucia

out

between

"

the rabble

and

the

Revolution

The

420

knightscalled upon Marius as

the sedition.
Reluctantlyhe armed
of his forces to defend the constitution againstSaturninus and
some
time they surrendered ;
Glaucia,his former associates. After some
their death, he placedthem
demanded
and though their enemies
them
in a more
in the senate-house with the intention of treating
this a mere
considered
mob
The
pretext. It tore
legalmanner.
the tilesoff the roof and stoned them to death,including
a quaestor,
still wearing their insignia
of
were
a praetor, who
a tribune,and
and the

peasants. Then the senators

chief magistrateto put down

"

office."x
In
than

lot with

castinghis
with

his

nobles,who

were

the reformers,Marius
friends,

better would

Far

the

it have

been

his

made

enemies, rather

grave

mistake.

had

he seized

world

for the Roman

opportunityto make himself master of the state and to use his

forms.
militarypower, if necessary, in carryingout the most needful retion.
But lackingpolitical
wisdom, he failed to grasp the situaIn fact,
too great success
was
undermining his hardy peasant
his destiny; and the fate of Rome
character.
He missed
passed
the

into other hands.

465. Drusus

by
or
on

enemies

(91B.C.). The senate

the mob, and
the knights,
"

hostile. At the
secretly
the point of rebellion.

time

same

found

now

all openly

the peasants were

the

oppressedItalians

conditions

These

itselfsurrounded

led

of the

some

were
more

winning the support of the Italians

The
leader of this movement,
by granting them the citizenship.
of great wealth and illustrious
Marcus
Livius Dru'sus,a young
man
for the
His proposal
became
of the plebsin 91 B.C.
a 'tribune
family,
enfranchisement
of the Italians passed the assembly,but was
nulled
anA
by the senate ; and soon afterward Drusus was murdered.
law was
then passed which
threatened with prosecutionany one
who dared aid the Italians in acquiring
the citizenship.
and
"The
death of Drusus
466. The Social War
(90-88 B.C.).
the passingof this act deprivedthe Italians of their last hope of
that they
It was
not
obtainingtheir rightsby peaceablemeans.
liberal aristocrats

to

wished

Rome

the

to

vote

exercise

at

of that

think

of

; for most

function.
1

But

of them

they

Appian, Civil Wars, i. 32.

lived too

needed

far away

the

for

protection

Revolution

The

422
tor of the

The

Jugurthinewar.

latter,
patrician
though poor,

was

diplomacy,and politics.
His eyes were
an
piercingblue,which the
it was
as
color of his face rendered stillmore
terrible,
spottedwith
a
mulberry
rough, red blotches interspersedwith white,
l
with meal."
Success as a generalin the Social War
besprinkled
in 88 B.C.
brought him the consulship
for Rome
to send an army
In this year it was
against
necessary
who
the powerfulking of Pontus,
was
Mith-ri-da'tes,2
threatening
in the East.
Rome's
mand
possessions
Ordinarilyso important a comwas
givenby the senate to a consul,who, after the expiration
in duty under the title of proconsul. In this
of the year, continued
with

endowed

talent for war,

uncommonly pure and

remarkable

"

...

case

the conduct

of the

war

intrusted

was

to Sulla as

consul.

A vote

of the

In a conto Marius.
flict
assembly,however,gave the command
of this kind the assembly,embodying the sovereignty
of the
people,had the superiorconstitutional right. But Sulla led his
settled the questionwith the sword.
Marius
to Rome, and
army
escapedto Africa. This was the first time the army appeared in
in the history,
of the republic. We are
politics a critical moment
that the revolution begun by the Gracchi stillwent
to bear in mind
on
no
longer tribunes,but generals.
; its leaders,however, were
After restoring
the authorityof the senate
and givingit complete
the tribunes,
Sulla proceededwith his army
to the war
over
power
againstMithridates.
"

III.

THE

OVERTHROW

RESTORATION

AND

87-79

468. The Revolution

B.C.).
"

out

No

between

sooner

the

had

(87B.C.); the
left Italythan an

consuls,Octavius

the Italians in the old tribes.

RULE

B.C.

of Marius
Sulla

SENATORIAL

OF

and

Rule

of Cinna

armed

Cinna, over

(87-84

conflict broke

the enrolment

this

of

struggleten thousand men

lost their lives. Octavius,leader of the aristocracy,
drove Cinna,
from the city. The
senate
champion of the Italians,
deposed the
popular leader from the consulship.But Cinna quicklygathered
recalled Marius from banishment, and following
an
army of Italians,
1

Plutarch,Sulla,2.

In

" 469.

Democratic
the

example

from

an

of

Sulla,marched

exile which

had

been

Rule

423
Marius

againstRome.
to

him

returned

series of adventures

and

of

escapes.1In his old age, the greatness of his character

had changed to rabid fury againstthe aristocrats.
Filthy and
he marched
through the towns, presentinga pitiable
long-haired,
his victories over
the Cimon
descantingon his battles,
appearance,
2
bri,and his six consulships,"and with grim determination
promised
the Italians their rights. The two revolutionary
leaders entered the
and runaway
slaves.
citywith their bands of Italians,foreigners,
They killed Octavius and all the eminent aristocrats ; for five days
they hunted down their opponents, massacred them, and plundered
their property. They gave the Italians their rights. Marius
ceived
rehis seventh
but died soon
afterward.
consulship,
of Marius, we should not forget
While condemning the bloodypolicy
that the nobles,by murdering the followers of the Gracchi,by
opposingevery peacefulattempt at reform,and by their greed and
tyranny, brought this terrible punishment upon themselves.
The revolution,
the senate, and
here described,again overthrew
Its
placed the democratic
party at the head of the government.
leader,Cinna, reflected to the consulship
year after year, continued
in power
till 84 B.C.
In all this time he attempted no reform, but
showed
himself as incompetent as the nobles had been.
Finally,
while preparingto oppose the return
killed
of Sulla from Asia,he was
of his soldiers in a mutiny.
by some
War
(88-84 B.C.). At the close of
469. The First Mithridatic
the Asiatic War
in 189 B.C., as has been explained
tablished
esabove,3Rome
Asia Minor.
a protectorate over
doms
Among the small kingthus
with
into dependent alliance
Rome
was
Pontus, a
coming
hairbreadth

"

"

country

on

the senate

when
Pontus

came

enemy
Great.
He
and

the

to

south

be filled by

was

This

Some

Appian,

of his adventures

was

with

man

the time

About

Jugurtha,the

who

Mithridates

throne

to prove

was

VI,

are

Civil Wars, i. 67.

many

related in

heroic

gerous
dan-

styledthe
personality,
tion,
educa-

traits,
cunning,unscrupu-

Botsford,Story of Rome,

of

often

attractive
giganticstrength,
genuineOriental polishedby Greek

genius. A
remained, in spiteof

young

Sea.

of

man

brilliant
he

Black

trouble

have

began to

to Rome.

of the

shore

p. 177 f.
*

" 435.

The

424

Revolution

Taking advantage of Rome's troubles with JuMithridates

rapidlyextended
gurtha,and afterward with her allies,
First he brought under
his power through conquests and alliances.
Sea.
When,
his control nearlyall the north coast of the Black
of
Asia Minor,
the other kingdoms
however, he began to annex
war
began (88 B.C.).
Rome, their protector, intervened, and
of Asia Minor, including
himself
made
master
Mithridates
soon
the Roman
provinceof Asia. In this province,by an order of the
and
to the
children,
women,
king, all the Italian residents,men,
massacred
of perhaps a hundred
an
on
number
thousand, were
appointed day. Afterward he crossed with an army to Greece,
lous, and brutal.

this time

At
her

Rome

as

the whole

body

deliverer from

threatened

was

of the Adriatic.

east
possessions

in Asia roused

him

welcomed

inhabitants

whose

the

But

Roman

of Italians

massacre

of her citizens to the

pression
op-

the loss of all

with

of
necessity

mediate
im-

action.

On

Sulla hastened

takingcommand,

The

five

Greece with

to

legions.

the enemy
two
victoriesover
Asia
from Europe.
Meanwhile

and
siege,

capture of Athens

by
in battle,drove the king'sforces
forced to
Minor
disaffected by the king'scruelties.
He
was
was
make
at the
peace and to give up all the conquests he had made
and her allies,
includingthe kingdoms of Bithynia
expense of Rome
and Cap-pa-do'ci-a.But no one
break
could doubt that he would
the treaty as soon
as
an
opportunityoffered itself.
First Civil War
(84-82 B.C.). After patchingup this
470. The
hastytreaty,Sulla returned to Italywith a victorious army devoted
The
to him.
in power,
resisted his return, and a
democrats,now
civil war
broke
them
and
Their
between
Sulla.
out
principal
"

leaders

Carbo

were

Marius.

These

Lucanians,who
submitted.
The
In

fierce

had

taken

details

crushed

in this battle

his

men

need

war

fought outside

was

struggleSulla

When

latter

was

of the famous

son

part in the Social War

of the

alreadyfled to Africa.

neste.

The

supported chiefly
by the Samnites

were

decisive battle
a

Marius.

men

The

taken
had

and

were

were

not

massacred

forced

had
to

be

had

at

Thousands

in cold

the

not

yet

here.

described

the Col'line Gate

his enemies.

Marius

and

and

Rome.
of

long been besiegedat

yield,Marius

died

by

oners
pris-

Carbo

blood.

Prae-

his

own

Sulla's

Legislation

425

massacred.
Soon
all Italy
hand, and the survivinggarrison was
The
brave
Samnites
lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror.
were
nearlyexterminated.
By the wholesale destruction of property
and life,
the Social and Civil wars
the
ruin
of
nearlycompleted
Italy,which had long been decliningin wealth and population.
When
(82-79 B.C.); his Constitution.
471. Sulla in Power
of the government, he proceededwith
Sulla had made himself master
reckless butchery to destroythe opponents of his party. Day by
day he posted a list of his victims (" the proscribed"),whom
any
and
receive
therefor
The
of
the
one
a reward.
might slay
goods
scribed
pro"

confiscated,and

were

number

thus

of persons

their

murdered

disfranchised.

children

at Rome

amounted

The

nearlyfive

to

and knights. Many were

the victims
thousand, includingsenators
of privatehatred, and many
killed for the sake of their
more
were
wealth.
At the same
time,murder and confiscation were carried on
dared
shelter a victim, not even
all Italy. No
children
one
over
their parents. This Satanic law, while brandingkindness and affection
as
criminal,placeda premium upon malice,greed,and murder.
After a time Sulla assumed
the dictatorship,
office longdisused,
an

and put his hand

to the work

(i) As many senators

permittedthe tribes
whole

number

normal

number
law

the aristocratic constitution,

restoring
had perishedthroughwar
and proscription,
he
members
from his partisans.The
to elect new

of senators
till it

ordered

of

further

was

that

the consent

of the Hortensian

law of

(3) Next

he enacted

should
others of
of Rome

be

back

that

to

the

years earlier. These

His other
changes

senate

who

one

had

held

before

any

statute, a repeal
the

enjoyed during the

the

trol
completeconearlyrepublic.
nate
plebeiantribu-

-it was

condition

in

more

than

two

hundred

however, lasted only ten years.

lasting.
useful,and hence more

arrangements,
were

more

(4) He

increased the number

office

to
regularstepping-stone

This

of the senate.

it had
no

brought

the

other
(2) An-

Caesar.

by
be

remained

and
higheroffice. By these measures,
character,Sulla attempted to set the government

to
eligible

similar

should

287 B.C.,1
gave the

which
legislation

This

increased

measure

no

assembly without
of

to be six hundred.

was

quaestors to twenty, and made

of

the senate.
"

393-

Eight

were

to be

this
em-

Revolution

The

426

and twelve in the financial administration of the

ployed in Rome
provinces. (5) Instead of six praetors,there were now to be eight.
to providejudges for the criminal
The objectof this increase was
of these courts, each charged
to be seven
courts.1 (6) There were
court
with jurisdiction
a
over
particularclass of crimes. Each
continued to be made
up of a praetor as judge and a largebody of
jurors. Gaius Gracchus had enacted that knightsonly could be
of senators
jurors2 ; but Sulla repealedhis law and composed the juries
only,justas they had been before Gaius. After ten years this
had to be a quaestor before he
amended.
was
(7) A man
measure

praetor before

could be praetor, and

in

not

was

mitted
per-

(8) The praeaccept

years.
tors
in
and the consuls could hold militarycommands
only
tional
exceptheir
limited
to
was
cases
authority,
whollycivil,
Italysouth
;
of their office,
came
the Rubicon.
(9) But on the expiration
they bewith military
authorityfor an additional year
promagistrates
the provinces. These
laws, with the exceptionsmentioned,
the

to

of

he

consul,and

When

life.

Soon

splendorsuch

as

he

afterward
nations

died,and

buried

was

his

when

with

kings.

to totter.3

began

government

and

pomp

of their

in honor

rarelydisplayeven

yet in his grave

not

was

ten

permanent part of the constitution.

he had completed these arrangements, he retired into private

remained

He

office within

same

Suggestive Questions
i.

prevented

What

which

Licinius

and

Gracchi

the

tribunes

other

justifythe methods
begin

trie

Gracchi

revolution?

of the
what

3. In

conservative?

4.

adopting

from

of earlier time
Gracchi?

respect

Throughout

the

the government
tended
become
to
xxxvn,
Gracchi
contribute
this
end
What
did
?
to.
causes

of discontent

had

had
Did

2.

What

or

stances
circum-

the senate

agrarianpolicy of the
by chs. xxxvi,
period
monarchical.

Marius

illiberal in

did

What

contribute?
Italians
Are

better

there
state

is your
estimate
of the character
and
7. What
did he contribute
to the growth of monarchy
(cf 4) ?

the

5. What
the time

from

bestowing

aliens?

on

Did

used ?
Tiberius

covered

the
growing among
leadership to their revolt ?
founded

of reform

the

was

been

under
Roman
they came
for believing that they would
have
did Rome
6. Why
and more
more
grow

methods

the

any

reasons

than

Rome?

the

citizenship

policyof Sulla?

"" 444,
3

459.

For

summary

of this

periodwith

that of the

see
following,
"

492.

"

4S9"

Constitutional

Changes

Note-book

I.
The

first
of

means

II.

Heitland,
III.

on

i.

Plutarch,

Marius,

and

etc.),

of

Tiberius

various

the

and

the

Gracchus.

histories
second

of

part

Rome
will

be

Gracchus.

Story

ch.

the

Rome,

ch.

Statesmen,
view

of

f., 167-171;

159

Greenidge

iii

tarch,
Plu-

Greenidge,

with

that

of

xxxviii.

Botsford,

Marius;

Sulla,

of

Roman

Compare
ii.

Law

the
in

Land,

Seven

iv.

of Rome,

History
Marius.

Gracchi,

ch.

and
studied

Agrarian,

Oman,

Gracchus;

Rome,

to

be

Botsford,

"

of

is

Tiberius

Gracchus.

"

Beesly,

topic

Topics

Romans

the

(see

chapters

Gaius
Gains

History

of

this

Indices

the

the

in

found

of

part

"

by

Lands

Public

The

427

chs.

iv-x.

Story

of

Rome,

ch.

vii;

XXXVII

CHAPTER

(II)

REVOLUTION:

THE

MILITARY

THE

WITH

THE

POMPEY,

CICERO,

Pompey

will upon

(to

the state

70

by

B.C.).

the

of

CAESAR

AND

Sulla

"

means

the

was

hands

the

fell
of the

the

Among
heir

of

young

war

the

After

the

of the

rebellion

in
to

had

good

Spain,
Sulla's

POMPEY

THE

(National Museum,

GREAT

Naples)

to

champion

been

find

able

no

Pompey,

ernment.
gov-

was

now

senate,

cording
ac-

should

proconsul
consul.
person

man

But

with

as

this

gave

the

proconsulship

had

not

filled

who

office of quaestor.
428

the

down
the

against

and

already

it
qualification,
"

patron, Pompey

general

as

had

Great."

arrangements,

thither

sent

it could

"

and

the

as

of his

the civil

nobilityby helping put

needed

who

"

still

officer that

an

still further

have

While

joined in

able

him

death

democratic

into

fitted to be

democrats,

proved himself

litical
po-

of the army

policy.

so

hailed

the

more

most

was

he had

himself

Sulla

and

risingofficers

man

shown

time

his

generals.

Sulla's

upon

enforce

to

his

more

Pom'pey

Gnaeus
the

first

After

army.
power

CONFLICT

B.C.

79-44

472.

IN

B.C.

79-31

I.

POWER

REPUBLIC

even

the

his

made

of

persons

command

under

an

Slaves, criminals,and

Vesuvius.

Mount

to

escape

discontented
had

Revolution

The

43"

class

every

of

army

more

flocked
than

to

his

hundred

armies
years he defeated Roman
Licinius
the praetor Marcus

side

till he

thousand

led

by praetors and
with eight
Cras'sus,
consuls. Then
At the
defeated and killed him and dispersedhis army.
legions,
aided by Pompey, who had just
Crassus
last moment
was
slightly
returned from Spain.
Consul
as
(70 B.C.); as Commander
against the
474. Pompey
ship
Pirates
(67 B.C.). These two generalswere
eager for the consulthe ground that Pompey had
; and as the senate hesitated on
not
yet been' quaestor or praetor, they turned for support to the
people,promisingthem the repealof Sulla's laws. Elected consuls
of the tribunes and took from the
in 70 B.C., they restored the power
the aristocratic
the authoritySulla had given it. Thus
senate
overthrown
by the
government, after standingbut ten years, was
had
its founder
This was
man
a
styled the Great."
victory,
of the democracy as of the army
when
tribunes
not so much
for
the
;
restored began to attach themselves to the service of the great military
For two

men.

"

"

leaders.
For

had
years pirates
Sea.
They seized

been

terranean
swarming over the whole Medicities,
nobles,whom
capturedRoman
ened
theyheld for ransom, and by cuttingoff the grainsupplythey threatwith
Rome
As
famine.
the senate
seemed
powerless to
check the evil,Ga-bin'i-us,
for
a tribune,proposed to give Pompey
three years absolute command
of the Mediterranean, togetherwith
of its coast, fifty
miles wide, as far as the Roman
a strip
empire
extended.
He was
to have a vast
and a
of shipsand men
number
large-sum of money.
Though the senate opposed the law because
it gave

some

so

much

Within

cleared the
made

The

successor

man,

fortydays
of pirates.He

sea

country

Second

"After
63 B.C.).
his

one

the

people carried

after his armament

of that

475.

to

power

to

and

the

destroyedtheir
province.

Roman
Third

Sulla had

was

Wars

made

command
1

with

it with enthusiasm.

ready,Pompey

hive in Cilicia and

Mithridates

(83-82,74-

84 B.C.,
peace with Mithridates,1
in the East provoked the king of
" 469.

Mithridates
Pontus

to

second

war.

Peace

was

431

soon

restored

by

order of

Sulla.
While

Rome

fightingSertorius

in

Spain,Mithridates made
He allied himself with the powerfulking of
war.
ready for a new
tribes along the
to his support the barbarian
Armenia, and won
northern
of the Black Sea.
coast
In 74 B.C., the king of Bithynia
It was
made
at once
died,leavinghis realm as a legacyto Rome.
a
This
the
event
of
he
Pontus
to
province.
provoked
king
war, as
himself coveted that territory.Mithridates
commanded
a powerful
but
fleet and
him
the
consul
Lucius
Luwas
opposed to
army,
a
cul'lus,
remarkably skilful general,at the head of five legions.
first expelled the enemy's forces from
Lucullus
the provincesof
Asia and Bithynia,and then invaded
Pontus.
With little fighting
he drove Mithridates from his kingdom. The fugitive
took refuge
with his son-in-law Ti-gra'nes,
king of Armenia.
marched
and
With a few troops Lucullus
boldly into Armenia
force of Tigranes. He might have condefeated a greatlysuperior
quered
the kingdom; but his troops mutinied
and compelled him
Mithridates
returned
to
to retreat.
Pontus, and Lucullus lost
he had gained (66 B.C.).
nearlyall the territory
476. Pompey in the East (66-62B.C.); End of the Third War with
Had
the Romans
Mithridates.
supported Lvcullus, he would
doubtless
have overthrown
Mithridates.
But many
soon
thought
this great enemy.
The
able to conquer
Pompey the only man
tribune Manilius, accordingly,
carried a law which gave the command
he already
in the East to Pompey in addition to the power
had.
He
easilydrove the king from Pontus, the most of which
he joinedto the new
ward
provinceof Bithynia. Mithridates was afterkilled,at his own
request, by a Gallic mercenary.
of
received
the submission
and
Pompey then invaded Armenia
Tigranes. The latter had conquered Syria and other neighboring
now
countries,but was
obligedto give up everythingoutside his
native kingdom. In 64 B.C.
Pompey entered Syria and jnade a
provinceof it. This was the end of the Seleucid Empire. As the
Jews were
unwillingto submit, he besiegedJerusalem, and after
three months
took it while the inhabitants
bath.
were
keeping the Sabwithin the "Holy of Holies,"a
In the temple he intruded
was

"

Revolution

The

432
shrine which

but

none

the

high priestcould

But

enter.

he

left

he respectedthe native
and in other ways
temple unpillaged,
religion.Jerusalem retained its self-governmentunder a high
priestwho was friendlyto Rome.
of the East.
to the organization
Pompey attended conscientiously
The new
Cilicia,
provincesthus far mentioned were
Bithynia,and
a
province. A few small kingdoms
Syria. Crete, too, became
remained in and about Asia Minor; their rulers,
though allies
in name,
were
reallyvassals of Rome.
With the great Parthian empirebeyond
the Euphrates he made
a
treaty of
friendship.These arrangements were
all admirable.
her dependent
With
her provinces,Rome
allies and
now
occupied the entire circuit of the
the

Mediterranean.

B.C.).
"

Conspiracy of Catiline (63

The

477.

In the absence
events

Rome.
(Vatican Museum,

portant
Pompey imtaking place at

Cic'e-ro became

consul

in 6^
?

Rome)

Though

B.C.

cipium* and

were

of

man

of moderate

means,

he

was

his brilliant

from

muni-

ministra
oratory and ad-

offices at Rome.
In his
for him the highest
won
ability
time had been formingon a
which for some
a conspiracy,
consulship
The
vast
leader,
scale,threatened to destroy the government.
but
Lucius Cat'i-line,
of highbirth and of splendid
a man
was
talents,
vicious and depraved. He
drew to himself the most
desperate
in
of
civil
and
renewal
men
war
Italy,includingall who wished a
well as debtors,gamblers,and assassins. While the
as
massacres,
head of the conspiracy
extended throughat Rome, its members
was
out
the peninsula. When
these anarchists had their plans well
the
laid for killing
the magistratesand the nobles and for seizing
consul discovered their plotand denounced
government, the vigilant
Catiline before the senate.
The arch-conspirator
fled to the army
he had been preparingin Etruria,where
he was
afterward
soon
1

"

405.

Though

the members

of the capitalusuallylooked upon

of
them

municipia were
as

inferior.

Roman

the inhabitants
citizens,

The

eminent

him

their leader.

as

form

thoughhe

and

of

He

of Catiline's chief
condemned

were

Cicero

for

people saluted

in fact had

ciates
asso-

by

the

man,"

new

Father

the senators

recognized

the

to

republican

him

to

the condition

of his

were

whelming.
over-

publicaffairs
dwarfed
and
that the statesman, however
grand,appears strangely
had come;
the only
out of place; for the age of generals
theywere
It was- in
and managed the politicians
as their puppets.
strong men
that Cicero hoped to make
vain,therefore,
Pompey a defender of
the republican
constitution.
Such

478.

The

First

(60B.C.).

All

"

the East.
feared he

by

both

nobles

of his army,
alone would

means

led him

citizen.

He

to disband

and

Sulla had

bring him
his army

always distrusted him, hesitated to

The great generalfound
the East.
Marius

as

It

aid.
The

and

him,

make

himself

done.

honor

and

to Rome

tator
dic-

power

as

he

private

senate, which

had

arrangements in

his

sanction
himself

some

his belief that

But

come

from

Pompey

claimed
and

all the

Crassus

in politics
helpless

as

had been.

happened,however,that
One
other

democrats

bitterly
disappointed.The

was

and

of

return

the government
as

of

Caesar, Pompey,

"

anxiouslyawaitingthe

might overthrow

his influence
needed

Triumvirate

were

While

become

time the most

him

stronglyattached
the forces opposed

was

But

government.

made

"

was

433

to death.1

state

The

in Rome.

man

Country ;

saving the

in

success

few

city. They

put them

the consul

senate, and
His

in the

remained

who

Triumvirate

Cicero arrested

killed.

defeated and

First

Crassus, whose

was
was

was
patrician,

Gaius

needed
politicians

eminent

great wealth

gave

Cae'sar.
Ju'li-us

leader

Crassus,desired

two

of

the

This young
democratic
party.

his

him

influence.

man,

though a

He, as well as
which Pompey had

like that
command
military
held. SeeingPompey cast off by the senate, they came
to him with
a proposalthat
they three should act togetherfor their common
is called
interests. This union of the three men, though unofficial,
1

Cicero had

received

from

("459, n. 2), but preferredto

the senate
make

absolute

the senate

popular party, however, denied the right of the

and

asserted
2

accordinglythat Cicero

" 392.
2F

had

to

power

deal with

for
responsible
senate

put these

men

to
to

act

the

conspirators

their punishment.

as

death

court

without

in such
a

trial.

The
case,

Revolution

The

434

Pompey contributed to it his military

fame, Crassus the influence of his wealth,and Caesar his popularity
and his commanding intelligence.According to agreement, Caesar
First Tri-um'vi-rate.

the

peoplethe

consulshipin 59 B.C., and in

ratification of Pompey's Eastern

tool of the

triumvirs,or

received the

Clo'di-us carried

recalled

peoplesoon

put

from

the

As the

arrangements.
the
protection,

tribune

of Cicero

ground

their

decree for the banishment

he had
consulship

that in his
The

at least under

secured

return

citizens to death

him, however, and

the

on

without

restored

of Gaul
Proconsul
(58-50 B.C.).
479. Caesar
his term
Caesar as proconsulreceived for five years
"

trial.1

him

to honor.

At

the

the

government

close of

held the
CisalpineGaul, Narbonensis, and Illyricum. He now
for which he had long been striving
kind of position
give
; it would
make
himself
he
the greatest
him an
might
through which
army
Before the end of his periodof government the
power in the state.
of

Caesar

their alliance..

renewed

triumvirs

to

was

have

five

more

in Gaul ; Pompey and Crassus were

to be consuls
years of command
in 55 B.C. and afterward
of the best provinces
to take chargeof some
in the
Roman

this way

In

empire.

these

men

divided

among

them

the

world.

480. The
Roman

Condition

provinceof

of the free Gauls

of Gaul.

Narbonensis

north

has been

Mention

"

on

the southern

made

of the

of Gaul

coast

and

of the

province.2 Gaul was a great fertile

ilization
country, which supporteda dense population. Most of their civthey got from the Greek cityof Massilia 3 on the coast.
in culture,they made
their living
Though inferior to the Romans
chieflyby farming,and they had many
stronglyfortified towns.
The
divisions were
the Aq-ui-ta'ni-ans
in the south,an
principal
4
Iberian
mixture
of Celts,the purer Celts in
people with a slight
the centre, and

with

in the

Germans..

The

north

the

Belgians,who

Aquitanianswere

the

"

"462.

"

modern
4

477,

n.

form

Of the

of

these

three

i.

The

130.

the
civilized,

most

the most
and warlike.
barbarous
Each
Bel'gi-ans
comprised several independenttribes.
groups
2

Celts mixed

were

Greek

form

of the

name

is Massalia, the Latin

form

Marseilles.

same

race

as

the natives of Spain (ancientname,

Iberia).

Massilia,and the

Gaul
of the Rhine

East
A

crisis in Rome's
like that

at

hand,

powerful German

crossed

the Rhine

movement

the

tribe

under

barbarous,half-nomadic Germans.
relation with these Northern
peoples was now
with which
Marius
had successfully
grappled.

and

but

was

if unchecked

were

would

435

had

the

the

seized

thrown

ROMAN

lands of the Gauls.

some

beginningof

have

chieftain A-ri-o-vis'tus had

Gaul

SOLDIERS

This

German

migration,which
commotion, and might

into

MARCHING

(From Schreiber,Atlas of Classical Antiquities)

have

brought both German and Celtic hordes into Narbonensis,and

from
the
into Italy. A more
direct menace
came
to Rome
even
were
a great Celtic tribe of the Alps, who
abandoning
Hel-ve'ti-ans,
their home
of southern

481.
time

The

had

in the mountains

fertile lands

more

Gaul.

Conquest
had

confronted

by

with

which

he

as

great

and

for the broader

little
enormous
overcame

master

(58-50 B.C.). Caesar,

of Gaul

"

experiencein command, thus

difficulties and
dangers.

everythingin

of the art

of

war.

his way marked

With
wonderful

who

found
But
him

at

this

himself
the
at

ease
once

rapidityhe

Revolution

The

436

legions,and
gatheredhis widely scattered forces,enrolled new
recruits with the courage and devotion of veterans.
his raw
inspired
immediately defeated

He

In the

summer

same

Helvetians

of their host

the remnant

drove

and

the

he

won

back

with
to

great slaughter,

their former
the

great victoryover

home.

Germans,

and

In the followingyear, as
the Rhine.
compelled them to recross
the Belgiansthreatened to give him trouble,he resolved to subdue
little opposition
In the invasion of their country he met
them.
warlike and the most powerthe most
ful
tillhe came
to the Ner'vi-i,
of the Belgictribes. These peoplewould have nothingof Roman
for they wished to keep their
traders in wine and other luxuries,

proachin
strengthintact and their martial fire alive. While Caesar was apform
that he could neither
they fell upon him so fiercely
left to his own
Each soldier was
his line nor give orders.
judgment.
of the comand the heroism
mander
But the cool courage of the legionaries
As
Nervii survived.
a
the desperatefight. Few
won
Next
Gaul submitted.
result of the campaign all northern
year
coast.
who occupieda stripof the western
he attacked the Ven'e-ti,
A maritime
people,they built their towns on headlands protectedon
selves
all sides by tide-waters too shallow for Roman
ships. They themput to sea in clumsy flat-bottomed boats with leathern sails.
till his small,lightfleet
Caesar made
little progress againstthem
A happy thought occurred
their bulky navy in the open sea.
met
With scythesfastened to long polesthey cut the
to the Romans.
enemy's tackle so as to disable his ships. Victorywas then easy ;
the Veneti
In the

horde

with

of his command

remainingyears

of Germans

country.

As

aid of their

them

their allies submitted.

; to

check

their inroads

the

Britons,who were
in Gaul, Caesar
kinsmen

in their

own

home

Caesar drove back another

in order

he

twice

largelyCeltic,came
found

to make

their

invaded
to

the

it necessary
to attack
them
stop sending aid

Crossing the Channel in 55 B.C., he landed in

Britain.
He found no
of natives ;
in defeatingan army
difficulty
but with his small force he could accomplishnothing more.
Next
and
marched
into the interior,
year he landed with a largerarmy,
to

his enemies.

received
poor

and

the

submission

the

booty scant.

of several
The

tribes.

Britons gave

But

the

country

was

hostagesand promised

senate

from

Revolution

The

438

The nobles now

looked to him for
preserve order.
of Gaul, who representedthe
the mighty governor

These

Caesar

ordered

senate

ceased

leaders

two

to

friends.

be

in 49

Then,

his command

to lay down

protection
people.

on

B.C., the
pain of being

the tribunes,
When
Mark
publicenemy.
Antony and
Quintus Cassius,vetoed this decree,they were harshlytreated,and
The mistreatment
of the tribunes
fled thereuponto Caesar's camp.
to Rome
to protect the
gave him a pretext for bringinghis army
declared

sacred office.1

484. Second
at

hesitated

like
crossing,
to

enemy

hurried

over

to follow.

he

while

discussed

with

The

his friends

invader,into Italyand

an

his

"

country;

then

of thus

and with a trumpet

river,
Although the anecdote may not
was

of his country ; for

the law, he began a

the

Italy,Caesar

crisis in the life of Caesar

himself

die is cast!"
his

summoned
be

of

consequences

making

exclaiming,"The

the

of the Rubicon

story is told that

separatedhis province from

Rubicon, which

the

(49-45 B.C.).

Civil War

true, the
and

in the

by bringinghis army into Italyin

war
upon the republic.

an

he

troops

crossing
history

violation of

Pompey, with the consuls and many senators, retired to the East,
where
he expected his great influence to bring him abundance
of
for war.
Caesar immediately secured
supporters and of resources
control of Italyand Spain. His gentleness
to opponents and his
moderation
in relieving
distressed debtors
and in protectingproperty
made
the hearts of all quiet citizens,
and
won
even
many
followers of Pompey suspect that they had taken the wrong
side.
After setting
up a government at Rome, Caesar crossed to Greece
and met his rival at Phar-sa'lus,
in Thessaly. Although in appearance
issue
the
the
real
at
was
Pompey championed
senate,
question
which

of the two

commanders

should

rule the Roman

world.

Pom-

of
the enemy
resources
pey'sarmy outnumbered
; but the mental
Caesar,together with the superiormanliness of the troops from
the day. Pompey fled to Egypt ; and when
western
Europe, won
Caesar reached Alexandria
in pursuit,a would-be
friend brought
him the head of his murdered
rival. It was
welcome
no
giftto
the noble victor.
1

" 382.

The

World

Roman

439

But
Egypt King Ptolemy had deposed his sister Cle-o-pa'tra.
Caesar, siding with the charming queen, established her as sole
monarch.
while passing through Syria and Asia Minor
Then
he
battle crushed Phar'and in one
settled the affairs of the provinces,
of Mithridates,thus puttingan end to a
and successor
son
na-ces,
After the victoryhe sent
this brief
to Rome
dangerous enemy.
(Icame, I saw, I conquered). Another
despatch, Veni,vidi,mci
the senatorial army
One
at Thap'sus in Africa.
year he defeated
in that region was
of the aristocratic commanders
Tionest,
Cato,
and stubborn,yet narrow-minded
been his great-grandas had
father,
loyal,
censor.1 In despairof the republiche killed
the famous
himself.
the victoryat Mun'da
in Spain destroyed
Soon afterward
the last oppositionto Caesar
(45 B.C.).
In

"

"

"

485. The
the Roman
and

Condition

of the Roman

empire extended
included

the

all the countries

It consisted
from

from

of

World.

In the time of Caesar

Euphrates River

which

multitude

"

bordered
of

on

to

tic,
the Atlan-

the Mediterranean.

states, whose

condition

through every grade of

nationalities
were
dependent alliance. Within this territory
many
and languages, and many
varieties and
degrees of civilization.
but a loose group
of states, held together in peace by no
It was
interests or sympathies,
but only by the superiorpower
common
of Rome.
We
speak of it as an empire,but it had no thorough
organizationlike the empires of the present day. The governing
state was
a
republic. Because of its positionas the head of an
call it an
empire, we
imperial republic. In fact, though not
in theory, the chief
element
of the
republican government
the
It
had
created
the empire, and
senate.
was
was
now
attempting to protect and rule it. The history of the century
preceding Caesar's victoryover
Pompey, however, proves that
the senate
had failed to protect the empire from
mies
foreign eneand
to suppress
still more
the needs of
to satisfy
rebellions,
the subjects. In fact,notwithstandingmany
good intentions of
the senate
and of individual members, its government was
as a whole
an
sult
organizedsystem of robberyand oppression. As a reessentially
the empire alreadyshowed
of decay. The problem
symptoms
ranged

complete subjectionupward

"

449-

Revolution

The

440

givethe

should have been to

of the reformer

Roman

world

better

to protect it better from foreignand domestic

enemies,
organization,
institutions
and
t
o
create
to redress wrongs,
through which
finally

all the inhabitants

well

as

could

in that of their

part in the central government

take

communities.

own

inquirewhat
"^J^H

It is necessary

Caesar

as

to

now

accomplishedin

these

directions.

486. Caesar's Government

(49-44B.C.).
"

time

the

He

held at

offices of

one

consul

and

Reforms

and

the

and

same

dictator,

for
grantedhim for longperiodsand finally
he was
life. As pontifexmaximus
head of
him
the state religion.These officesmade

received,too, for
lifethe title Im-pe-ra'tor
("general"),from
king in

which

all but

He

name.

the word
Caesar

is derived.

emperor
wished

make

to

dently
Evi-

his power

nearer
hereditary
heirs,
; and as he had no
he adopted as a son his grandnephew Octalent.
tavius,a youth of remarkable

Caesar

allowed

the

little

assemblies

JULIUS CAESAR
the senate
power, and made
council.
Sulla had doubled

(Now believed to be a modern

study, though a very successful
one
; British Museum)

senators

; Caesar

by admittingnot only knights,but

and

even

to make

In

some

half-barbarous

it represent the whole

a mere

advisory

the number

of

dred
increased it to nine huninferior

also many

wished

Probably he
empire.

Gauls.

the

citizens,
in time

provincesthe evils of aristocratic rule,described in an

earlier chapter,1
at their height. By abolishing
the system
were
now
of leasingthe direct taxes, Caesar
from
prevented the capitalists
plundering the subject countries. He appointed able, honest
he
The officerswhom
to account.
governors, and held them strictly
the legions,
under
the governor,
and the
appointedto command
who
his own
revenue
and freedmen,2 saw
were
servants
officials,
that his will should everywherebe enforced.
The
estates of the
Roman
people,"as the provinceshad been called,were to be culti"

JCh.

xxxv.

"

444.

"

519.

Caesar's
vated

and

Achievements

441

improved, no

longerpillaged.He gave citizenship

to
the Gauls, and it was
his wish that as rapidlyas possibleall the
should become
Romans.
At the same
time he greatly
provincials
and Italy.
improved the condition of Rome
envious
487. Caesar's Death
(44 B.C.). The nobles were
of
and
of misrulingthe world.
Caesar,
longed to regain the privilege
While
they forced upon him honors such as belonged only to the
Chief among
the conspirators
gods, they began to plothis murder.
the
lean and
were
hungry" Cassius,and Marcus
Brutus, a
scholar and strong republican,
but unpractical.All togetherthere
about sixtyin the plot. Pretendingto
were
of one
urge a petition
of their number, they gathered about him in the senate
and assailed
him with daggers. He
stabbed
with
fell,
twenty- three wounds.
The
senate
dispersed.Mark
An'to-ny,Caesar's colleaguein the
delivered the funeral oration and read the will,which,
consulship,
stirred them againstthe murderers.
to the citizens,
by its generosity
of
the possibleexception of
Caesar.
With
488. Estimate
Hannibal, Caesar was the most brilliant militarygenius the world
had thus far produced. He was, too, a master
of simpleprose, an
of great clearness and force,and an
incessant
orator
builder of
useful public works.
His character was
many-sided,his capacity
boundless.
mild to the conquered; and when political
He was
mies
enehim
their arms, they found
factor.
benehad laid down
a friend and
his campaigns he
In the brief intervals of peace between
displayeda statesmanshipequal to his abilityin the field. The
most
to secure
grievouswrongs he righted; and by taking measures
the responsibility
of the provincial
governors, he doubtless believed
that he had provided for the future welfare of his subjects. The
thus made
inhabitants of the empire were
happierby his rule. The
of his policy,however, requireda strong executive
continuance
absolute
his plan of establishingan
perpetually in office. Had
monarchy succeeded,it would have been but a partialsolution of
have only
the problem of reform.
For the evils of absolute rule we
to look to the Oriental nations,and to the Roman
empire itself,
"

"

"

when

three centuries after Caesar

character.
to have

Neither

entertained

Caesar

nor

the idea of

the government
any

other

Roman

came

to have

statesman

creatinginstitutions by

that
seems

means

of

Revolution

The

442

which

empire, dispensingwith

the

of

inhabitants

the

paternal

interests.
The
grant of
despotism,could safeguard their own
of representatives
and the admission
to the provincials
citizenship
would
have been a great benefit ; yet
of the provincesto the senate
of this kind might not have prevented the ultimate
a measure
even
decline of the empire.
have accomplished,had he lived,
Caesar would
be
What
cannot
known.
His murder
was
a
mistake, as it plunged
great political
the world again into desolating
In this strugglethe question
war.
of government
at issue was
to be adopted ; it
not as to the form
what generalshould succeed to the power
of Caesar.1
was

II. THE

STRUGGLE

FOR

B.C.

44-31

(44 B.C.); Caesar's Heir.

ators,"
liberor
enraged populace,the chief conspirators,
as
they called themselves,fled from
Rome.
Cicero,who approved the murder,
though he had no hand in it, sailed for
driven back by a storm.
Greece, but was
to take
Thereupon he returned to Rome
the lead of the senate
againstthe consul
Mark
Antony, who was actingthe tyrant.

489. Beginning of the Third

Fearingthe

SUCCESSION

THE

Civil War

"

In

the

few

next

against him
known

as

months

Cicero

series of

the

powerful speeches,
semblance
Philippicsfrom their re-

the orations of Demosthenes

to

againstPhilipof Macedon.2
had

ceased

Henceforth

delivered

to

be

issues

a
were

But

force
to

in
be

eloquence
the

world.

decided

by

armies.
OCTAVIANUS
(At
The

Octavius

about

years

bust is modern.

Museum, Rome)
1

On

"

of

Vatican

Illyricumwhen
uncle's death.

the character of
307-

pursuing

was

his

studies

in

age

Caesar, see

news

He

came

sailed at

Botsford,Story of Rome,

of
once

his
for

ch. viii.

great-

Italy,

Octavianus

takingthe

and

Gaius

name

443
he came
Oc-ta-vi-a'nus,

JuliusCaesar

Rome, into the midst of enemies.

gained friends. By promising the people all their
their hearts ; and
bequeathed them, he readilywon
alone

almost

sided

the

with

Cicero
simplicity,
for the republic. In

frank
all

for any

enthusiasm

at

Second

The

490.

declared

for

by

time

he

his show

of

the young
Octavianus
was
fact this youth of nineteen years had no

cunning he
capital.

(43);

Triumvirate

Philippi (42 B.C.). With

outmatched

Overthrow

even

the

of the Liberators

he had raised,Octavianus
army
Antony. The senate, now feeling
secure,

"

helpedwin

soon

late ruler had

that

; in cool

cause

of the

veterans
political

Deceived

againstAntony.

senate

he

But

to

an

victoryover
cast off the boy. Immediately he came
to an
understandingwith
Caesar's master
of horse,who
Antony, his rival,and with Lep'i-dus,
These three men
stillheld an importantcommand.
made
of themselves
the State,"
Triumvirs
for Reestablishing
office they
an
to hold five years, with power
to disposeof all magistracies
were
a

"

"

at

will and

They

to

issue decrees

filled Rome

the hatred

Each

of the others.

the last great orator

should

their troops,and

with

of Sulla.1

which

have

Among

force of law.

the hideous

and

the victims of

of the ancient

the

renewed

sacrificed friends

"

kinsmen

even

Antony

was

scription
proto

Cicero,

world.

the
to meet
Antony and Octavianus led their armies to Macedonia
republicanforces which Cassius and Brutus had collected there.
which was
After the first,
battles were
Two
fought near Phi-lip'pi.
Cassius killed himself in despair. Brutus, beaten in the
indecisive,
second engagement, followed the example of his mate ; the republican
scholar

could

not

live under

the rule of iron.

(31 B.C.);End of the

for another five
their authority
The triumvirs renewed
Republic.
the incompetent Lepidusdropped from the board,
years ; and when
them.
the two
the empire between
divided
remaining members
the West.
the
To cement
Antony ruled the East, and Octavianus
in marriage to
the heir of Caesar gave his sister Octavia
alliance,
his colleague. But trouble soon
arose.
Though a clever orator, a
and no mean
general,Antony was fond of luxury and
diplomatist,
491.

War

between

Antony

and

Octavianus

"

" 471.

Cf.

Shakspere,Julius Caesar, Act IV,

Scene

i.

The

444

Revolution

Neglectinghis wife and the interests of the state,he spent

with
his time
Cleopatra in frivolous dissipation.The Italians
supposedhe intended to make her his queen and himself despot of
Oriental empire with Alexandria for his capital.They willingly
an
in a war
followed Octavianus,therefore,
againstthis national enemy.
of vice.

The

fleets of the rivals met

off Ac'ti-um

on

the west

coast

of Greece

the ships of
able general,commanded
an
(31 B.C.). A-grip'pa,
patra.
Octavianus
againstthe combined squadrons of Antony and CleoIn the earlypart of the fightthis infatuated
pair sailed
defeated
leaving their fleet to take care of itself. It was
away,
rendered.
and taken by Agrippa. After the battle,Antony's land force sursuicide in
he and Cleopatracommitted
At last,when
Alexandria,Octavianus was master of the empire.
tory
of the most
The battle of Actium
was
one
importantin ancient hisOriental influence ;
; it saved European civilization from undue
of Caesar ; and
it ended the longanarchy which followed the murder
it placedthe destinyof the empirein the hands of an able statesman.
of the Change from
(i)
Republic to Empire.
492. Summary
and wealth to a few of the
Conquest brought excessive power
"

Romans,

while

it reduced

the bulk

of the

citizens to

poverty and

of wealth,
these men
(2) The senate, representing
became
and weak ; it could neither maintain
corrupt, oppressive,
order in Rome
nor
protect the provinces. (3) Tiberius Gracchus
Gaius
began a reform, which the senate stopped by violence.
Gracchus
force,through
organizedthe citymob, a revolutionary
in the army,
But
of
which he set aside the authority the senate.
(4)
could find
reformed
afterward by Marius, an ambitious man
as
soon
for overthrowing the senate
reliable and effective weapon
a far more
and for making himself master
of the government.
(5) Sulla first
used this militaryinstrument
for political
(6) It was
purposes.
the work of Pompey in his war
and with Mithridates
with the pirates

wretchedness.

to

show

how

beneficial to

the

Roman

world

rule of

the

one

man

monarchy,
had too powerful enemies
to be lasting. (8) After his
death the senate
failed to recover
and the civil wars
its authority,
followingdecided that Octavianus,his heir,should be master of the
empire.
might be.
though it

(7) The

government

of Caesar

was

real

The

446

Revolution

equalitywith themselves.
intimatelythan
Through his writingswe know his character more
tell us that he was
words
His own
vain,
that of any other Roman.
he
these
in
but
was
often
respects
ably
proband in politics
wavering;
His
of
his
tastes were
than any
contemporaries.
no
worse
weaknesses
he could
and intellectual ; and in spiteof small
literary
always be found, in great issues,on the side he believed to be right.
like those of any political
His Orations,
speaker,must be critically
exclusive

ever, had

as

sifted in order

to

to admit

determine

him

what

to

an

statements

in them

be used
may
his Letters to

trustworthy are
In fact,
candidly of passing events.
edge
knowlthis correspondence
givesus a remarkably full and accurate
of the time.
conditions
of the social,moral, and political
His many
philosophicworks are a presentationof Greek ideas in
of his character and his desire
the Latin language. The soundness
evinced
standard
of the readingpublic are
to raise the moral
by
in
choice of the nobler ideals of philosophy
his constant
preference
In his Republiche suggestedthe
to the merely useful and material.
like the Roman
idea that a state,when
distracted by internal strife,
empire of his time,needed the paternalcare of its leadingcitizen
prin'ceps.The task of the princepswould be to hold the various
another
and
offices and powers
of the state in harmony with one
their several duties. It is
to requireall to perform effectively
of Augustus, which
remarkable
fact that the government
we
a
shall soon
But the greatness of
Cicero's idea.
examine,1embodied
artist of surpassCicero lies chiefly
in the fact that he was
a
literary
ing
for
sixteen
remained
"He
created
which
a
genius.
language
centuries that of the civilized world,and used that language to form
Before
a
stylewhich nineteen centuries have not replaced.
his time Latin prose was, from a wide point of view, but one
among
local
become
ancient
had
dialects.
left
his
it
a
As
it
hands,
many
universal language,one which had definitely
supersededall others,
Greek included,as the type of civilized expression."
work
On the
a poet of the age,
a
Lu-cre'ti-us,
composed in verse
Nature ofthe World, in which he tried by means
of science to dispel
from
from the mind all fear of death and of the gods,
to free men

Far
for historical purposes.
friends,in which he speaks

more

"

"

" 496.

Mackail, Latin Literature,62.

Education

superstition.It
at the

lived

of love

is

work

of remarkable

time,wrote
life,and some

same

and

447

who
genius. Ca-tul'lus,
beautiful lyrics
and elegies
on
subjects
bitter lampoons. On
the whole, the

poetry of this periodis less celebrated than

Education.

494.

he

in which

"

learned

After

boy

the

that

of the

following.
an
elementaryschool,
metic.
reading,writing,and arith-

first attended

rudiments

of

pleting
com-

he

this course,

higher
school,keptby a gramwho
mat'i-cus,
taught
entered

Greek

him

and

literature.
the

Latin
the

were

Naevius

the

Latin

Among
books

read

of
poems
and
Ennius,

comedies

Plautus,1and
translation

of
Latin

of Homer.

History,oratory, and
the

Laws

Twelve
also

of

the

Tables2
studied.

were

There

schools,too, for
girls,though less is
were

known
the

of them.

Often
A

wealthy educated

their

(Mosaic, Museum

children

at

Capua)

at

help of Greek slaves or

After the course
hired tutors.
in literature the youth who wished to
enter
public life studied the theoryand practiceof oratory under a
rhetorician.
done
in philosophy,
In this course
work
was
some
which
included
ethics and science.
Already we find a beginning
of the tendency to neglect the study of cause
and effect and the
deeper truths of science and historyfor a mere
skimming of the
surface of knowledge. In the pursuitof the useful the higherfacul-

home,

as

in the

SCHOOL

"

precedingperiod,with

450

and

n.

i.

the

" 387.

Revolution

The

448
ties of the mind

neglectedby
Doubtless

decay.

father

many

the

; but

wished

to

Rome

the

growth

of

their slave

the

were

teachers.

develop a strong
youth were no longer

son

MAXIMA

but showing Etruscan

(Later republic,

to

his

see

of
surroundings

CLOACA

favorable

children of the rich

The

pampered by

their parents and

character

moral

left to

were

the

influence.

From

photograph)

heroic virtues which

had

made

great.

495.

Public

in the

Works

art, as

ence
(to31 B.C.). Though the chief influin the literature of the Romans, was
Hellenic,
merely, but whatever
they learned of others

they did not copy

they adapted in their
the

works

Art

"

own

"

way

to their

of their hands

are

own

most

durability.These, too, were

needs.
famous

Next

ness
to useful-

grandeur and
character ; but they
for

of their
qualities
to achieve
their ideals partly because
of the excellent
were
buildingmaterial in and about Rome, and partlythrough the use of
able

the round
in
of

arch.

This

form

of architecture

bridges,and, with necessary

their temples. The
arched

they employed in sewers,

of some
in the domes
modifications,
coveringof the Cloaca Maxima,1

" 366.

Public
which

form

of

buildingat Rome
of
large,oblong structure, consisting

The
by galleries.
The

plan was

latter rested

adopted from

TOMB

OF

CAECILIA
From

times

modern

in

basilica at Rome
of the Forum
after him

and

the

was

Caesar

built

were

Julia.
used

the

Cato

by

erected

Basilica

basilicas

of

form

one

ME
a

paratively
com-

central hall surrounded

square pillars.
continued
down
into

or

has

TELL

republic.A

the ba-sil'i-ca. It

was

columns

on

Greece,and

(Appian Way.

Roman

449

stillexists,
belongsto the later part of the
new

was

Works

on

photograph)

Christian

church.

the Elder.

On

The

the south

largebuildingof

the

Its

still exist.

foundations

for mercantile

and

first
side

kind, named
The

banking business,

for the session of courts.

acquired great wealth began to esteem

The
than the state.
their individual members
more
highly even
found
increasingimportance of the great family and of its members
For miles beexpressionin the building of magnificenttombs.
The

families which

2G

had

Caesar, is the
While

we

not

must

we

Cae-ciri-a

of

That

to

appreciatethe progress of
lose sightof the fact that
Her

was

empire

Had

2.

what

In

have

Caesar

respect

resigned

happened

crossing the

him

to

Rubicon

and

3.

of

in

the

age

sound

had

morals

been

at

making

respect

given

way
the

shadow;

mere

by

barbarians.

Questions

war

the

the

as

order

upon

the

of

successor

of the

justified from

he

Was

intelligence,

other

nearly every

regard Pompey

his command
?

and

a
long
without
by anarchy,

we

may

in

once

Suggestive
i.

literature

had

within

threatened

was

Me-tel'la,built

sides of

impressive.

most

rapidlydecaying.
vice; republican freedom

Rome

line both

great tombs

of these

ruins

the

yond the city gate

the Appian Way.
of

Revolution

The

45"

senate,

what
of

point

any

senate?

Why

4.

Sulla?
would
view

was

in
the

world
than
oppressive to the Roman
is
torically
histhe aristocracy had
been?
far
Julius
Caesar
How
Shakspere's
5.
bias?
it
show
6.
true?
Does
What
a
partisan
provinces did
in what
Rome
acquire in the period of the revolution, 133-31
B.C., and
order
Describe
Basilica
?
the
of
the
structure
(map. p. 410)
Julia (opp.
7.
the
school
children
of the
8. Describe
pictured on
p. 449).
appearance
rule

p.

of

one

like

man,

What

447.

Metella

throw

is

Julius Caesar,

mosaic?

the

on

less

What

9.

character

pairs of gladiatorsrepresented

does

as

10.
family?
doing in the picture,p.

The

of Caecilia

tomb

the
What

Note-book

I.

light

of her

429

are

the

various

Topics

Conspiracy of Catiline.
Botsford, Story of Rome, 194-198 ; Saland
lust, Conspiracy of Catiline; How
Leigh, History of Rome, ch. xlvii ;
Sihler,Caesar, ch. v; Strachan-Davidson, Cicero, ch. v; Heitland, History
of Rome, iii. ch. li.
II.

"

Cicero

in

especially chs.
Cicero
III.
Roman
IV.

and

his

Cicero

Politics.

iv-viii ;

Friends, 22-78.
as

an

Literature,
Caesar's

Plutarch, Cicero; Strachan-Davidson,

Cicero,
Index
under
Cicero
Sihler, Caesar, see
; Boissier,
"

Orator.
159-174;

Government.

"

Mackail,
Duff,
"

Latin

Literature, 62-68

Literary History

Abbott,

Roman

of Rome,

Political

Cruttwell,
349-397.

Institutions,
CYcero, ch. xii;

133-138; Sihler, Caesar, chs. xvii-xxii; Strachan-Davidson,

Fowler, Caesar, ch. xviii; Pelham,
Outlines of Roman
History, 333-356.

The

452

on

him

Founding of

the

Principate;the
without

instead the tribunician power,

Julian

Princes

the office of tribune.

and marked
him as a chamhis person sacred,1
pion
made
authority
of the people. Through it also he had a share in the government
with
and
h
e
of Rome
took
undera colleague,
Italy. Sometimes,
and
when
the duties of the censor;
Lepidus, the pontifex
maximus, died,Augustus acceptedfor life an appointment to the
him head
of the state religion.Augustus
latter office. It made
also imperator. In his time the title still meant
General
was
;
after
his
did
than a century
death
it come
not tillmore
to signify
held by Augustus
Emperor." In estimatingthe positionfinally
the same
let us
notice that his military
that
as
authoritywas
of the President
of the United
far
States; his civil authoritywas
less. All the old republican
stillexisted,
and continued
magistrates
functions
gustus
Auto exercise the same
before.
as
Constitutionally
In honor and in personal
the consuls.
a level with
on
was
all the other officials. He
influence,however, he overshadowed
for the various
of candidates
was
alwaysconsulted on the suitability
offices and on
other matter;
and
his policy was
usually
every
This

"

"

"

carried out.

It is clear that most

but
magistrate,
with the
position
a

of his power
politicalboss." The
"

as

was

not
exercised,

Romans

as

his
dignified

"

title princeps,

leadingcitizen." The idea came

in part from Cicero's Republic.2We
translate this title by
may
its derivative, prince,"with the understanding that in Roman
actual
whose
historyit means
simply the most influential citizen,
boss
far exceeded
his constitutional
as
a
authority. In
power
this sense
a principate
a
was
republiccontrolled by such a prince.
The Roman
the
in fact a transitional stage between
was
principate
republicand the monarchy.3
The
Provinces.
border
497. The
provinces,and all others
which danger threatened,were
of the prince.
under the direct care
His lieutenants had chargeof their judicial
and militaryaffairs ; his
agents attended to finance.
Egypt was not called a province,but
a prefecture,
governed by a prefectappointedby Augustus. The
Egyptianslooked upon the princeas a king,and the prefectas his
viceroy. The older and more" peacefulprovincesstill belonged to
"

"

"

"

the senate, which

'"382.

appointed

annual
2

governors.

"493.

This

division of
"5I2.

Longitude

\Q"

ROHAN

THE

EMPIRE

.FROM:

AUGUSTUS

to
SCALE

OF

DIOCLETIAN
MILES

100

50

100

^^"^^^

Boundary

Beyond
Aurelius.

at Death

this the

.Italics,-Barbarian
appear

300

200

later

races

in the

400

of

500

Augustus;

additions.

which, after Marcus

places indicated..

Provinces

power
two

carried

was

exercised

powers

supervision

over

and

more

through

On

whole

certain control

the senate's

efficient.
of the

the

government.
the other.

over

Each
The

of the

prince's

provinces made

the other

princein two

453

hand,

the governors
juster
the senate
checked
the authority

(i) all the governors, excepting

that of Egypt, and all the higher officers of the army, had to be
senators; (2) the prince,like any other magistrate,gave to the
of his administration,and
senate
account
an
was
periodically
therefore responsible
to that body for all his acts.
a
Augustus followed the example of JuliusCaesar in insisting
on
just and vigorous government ; although he withheld the Roman
the provincials
still enjoyed a large degree of local
citizenship,
He
freedom.
encouraged trade and knit the empire togetherby
world.
buildingwell-pavedroads to the remotest parts of the Roman
the imperial
and
Thus
government brought the provincesprotection
happiness.
A study of the frontier must
take
498. The Eastern Frontier.
of the provincesand
the
account
dependent states on and near
of such countries was
border,as the management
closelyconnected
with the questionof frontier defence.
In the time of Augustus the
denselypopulated and
part of the empire east of the Adriatic was
rich,whereas Italyand the West had a relatively
sparse population
and little wealth.
In settlingthe affairs of the East, therefore,
tion.
Augustus had to proceedcautiouslyin order not to stir up opposiThe
small
In generalhe confirmed
Pompey's arrangements.1
left
were
kingdoms of Asia Minor, as Cappadocia and Ga-la'ti-a,2
undisturbed.
Judea,too, had become a kingdom, and was now ruled
This man,
the builder of a great temple to Jehovah in
by Herod.
But some
Jerusalem,was king at the time Jesus was born.
years
and
after Herod
was
the
was
abolished,
placed
Judea
died,
kingship
under the rule of an agent
proc-u-ra'torof Augustus. In general
the
the tendency was
to
convert
doms
dependent kinggradually
into provinces. The great frontier provinceof the East was
Syria. Three legionswere
quarteredin it for the defence of the
of
commander
of Syria was
As the governor
Euphrates border.
this force,he had to be a man
of militaryexperienceand ability.
ways

"

"

"

" 476.

Galatia,however,

was

converted

into

province in

25

B.C.

The

454

Founding of the Principate;the Julian

Princes

Beyond the EuphrateslayArmenia and Parthia. The latter was the

state outside the Roman
empire. The
only great, well-organized
Parthia should control Armenia
or
questionas to whether Rome
the

was

499.

source

The

of endless

trouble between

Frontier.

Southern

the

two

this

country held the key

to

commanded

who

person

with

Egypt suppliedRome

"

in wealth
during a third of the year. It abounded
of commerce,
still a great centre
Alexandria
was

intellectual life.1 The

great powers.

the

of every

the

grain
kind.

industry,and
of

resources

mastery of the empire. Hence

of it,always
Augustus cleverlyretained the direct management
the
personal friend among
appointed to its government some
to visit the Nile valley
knights,and permitted no senator even
One
without
his special
consent.
legionwas enough to guard its
southern border againstthe Nubians.
needed to protect the frontier
of Egypt stillfewer troops were
West
the district
from the sparse tribes of the desert.
Cy-re-na'i-ca,
Farther
to the provinceof Crete.
west of Egypt, had been annexed
west
was
Africa,which since the time of JuliusCaesar included
the former kingdom of Numidia.
West of Africa was
Mauretania,
which
still a dependent kingdom. In Africa the Phoenician
was
have
would
language still prevailedin everyday life,
yet Rome
nothingb.utLatin for officialuse.
Carthage had been restored by
JuliusCaesar,and was alreadya flourishing
city. From the province
of Africa,
Rome
drew a great part of her supply of grainand

fruit.
Northern
Frontier
500. The
The
protectionof the northern

(i) the

Danube

frontier

presentedthe

and

the

Alps.

most

"

cult
diffi-

problem with which the princehad to deal,for the country

with fierce,
Under
beyond still swarmed
aggressivebarbarians.
the principate
of Augustus the governor
extended
of Macedonia
the empire northward
to the lower Danube.
The
new
conquest
was
organized as' the province of Moe'si-a. Augustus himself
began

the

conquest

of the

country

west

of Moesia

and

north of

Illyricum.The inhabitants of this district,

however, were
libertyand
warlike.
loving
They frequentlyrebelled;and it was only
after hard
strugglesthat Tiberius,stepson of Augustus, finally
1

" 346.

456

The

Founding of the Principate;the Julian

hung their prisoners

tortured them to death
to trees and
(9 A.D.). Though Augustus
with
brave
broken
the
bear
news
a
was
heart,his spirit
appeared to
time to time he
by the misfortune he could not repair. From
would
Varus, Varus, giveme back my legions." Convinced
say,
that the strengthof the empire should not be further wasted upon
he established the Rhine
the boundary, and decided
such projects,
as
on
a policyof peace.
resolutely
The
chief reason
for this policy of peace
The
Army.
502.
the extreme
of obtainingsoldiers. The legionaries
was
difficulty
had
citizens. When
to be Roman
were
occasionally
provincials
enlisted in this class of troops, they had to be given the citizenship.
But Augustusopposed the bestowal of citizenship
for
on
provincials;
he believed that the unity and the protection
of the empire could
be maintained
most
of
effectively
by keeping up the militaryspirit
the Romans
and their pridein the superiority
of their race.
Since
the time of Marius
the legioncontained
from five thousand
to six
thousand
regulartroops. Augustus attached to each legionsome
auxiliaries from the provincials,
making the total number of soldiers
in each legionabout ten thousand.
At the close of his administration
there were
in all twenty-fivelegions. He
siderable
had, too, a conand its tributary
and on
seas
navy on the Mediterranean
the frontier rivers. For the protectionof his own
person he kept
in and about Rome
a body of soldiers called the pretorianguard.1
The
fire department and the policeof the capitalwere
likewise
organizedin militaryform. All these forces within and near
Rome
amounted
to about
Police duty in
twenty thousand men.
the provinceswas
performed by native militia.
A standingarmy
for the empire was
But
as
altogethernew.
organized by Augustus it was
remarkably small. Excluding the
provincialpolice,it could hardly have exceeded three hundred
thousand.
Besides the difficulty
of enlisting
troops, Augustus had
to reckon
with expense.
As the wealth
of the empire had been
wasted in the long civil
wars, he felt that the taxes could not justly
be increased. In order to
he devoted
a great
spare the provincials,
to

pieces. Varus

killed

himself;the

Princes

barbarians

"

"

From
the general's tent,
prae-to'ri-um,
the pretorianguard
from the guard which protected the general's
headquarters.
"

was

an

outgrowth

Works

Public

Arch

457

of Titus.

Temple

of the Capitoline
Trajau'8 Column.

For

details ofthu

and

Vicinity,
see
plan of

the Sacred

Forum

Wav.

MAP

part of his
to

own

immense

OF

IMPERIAL

fortune

to

ROME

the current

administration

and

publicimprovements.
503.

many

Public

colonies

Improvements
both

in

Italy and

THE

Augustus planted
provinces. His aim was

; Architecture.

SACRED

in the

WAY

"

The

458
not

Founding of the Principate;the

with farms, but also

furnish his retired veterans

only to

so as
districts,

vacant

to increase

Princes

Julian

the

of
prosperity

the

to

settle
re-

country.

self
He himbeginsthe great
tellsus of his publicworks :
The Capitol1 and the Pompeian theatre I have repairedat
of age,
Aqueducts which, by reason
enormous
expense.

With

architecture.

age of Roman

him

"

"

...

THE

(In the Augustan Forum.

The

TEMPLE

OF

MARS

THE

high wall borders this forum

AVENGER
on

the

From

nortii.

photograph)

and have
crumblingin many
places,I have restored
between
the
finished the JulianForum
and the basilica which
was
temple of Castor and the temple of Saturn,works begun and almost
basilica was
sumed
concompleted by my father 2 ; and when that same
scribing
I began its reconstruction
on
an
by fire,
enlargedscale,init with the names
of my sons.
If I do not live to complete
ance
it,I have givenorders that it be finished by my heirs. In accordwere

with
1
2

decree

of the

senate, while consul

Capitolinetemple of Jupiter.
I.e. JuliusCaesar, the adoptivefather of Augustus.

for the

sixth

time,

Julia,see

" 495.

The

On

the Basilica

Temples

459

which
two temples of*the gods,passingover
none
eightyI [re]
seventh consulship
at that time in need of repair. In my
was
built the Flaminian
Way to Ariminum, and all the bridgesexcept
I restored

and

Mulvian

the

the Minucian.

Upon privateground I have built with the spoilsof war the

The
temple of Mars the Avenger and the Augustan Forum."1
of this temple was
not to be the god of conquest; his function
Mars
rather
to
was
punish
which
turbed
disforeignpowers
"

peace of the
The
Pantheon,

the

empire.
which

divine,"
of

"

the

means

the

was

all-

work

Agrippa, the prince's

ablest

minister.

In

it

worshipped Mars
and Venus, the chief gods
of the Julianfamily. It
afterward rebuilt by
was
The
Hadrian.
activity
of Augustus wrought a
complete change in the
men

of Rome.

appearance
the close

pate
he

he could

had

of

his

of

princi-

boast

found

brick, but

At

the

that

city

left it of

marble.
One

of

the
works

age was
of Peace

spiritof

of

FLAMINES

markable
re-

the

(From the Altar of the Augustan Peace

Terme, Rome)

Museum

of the

great Altar

erected

disturbances

most

in

peace

the suppression
of
by the senate to commemorate
Spain and Gaul, and more
generallyto express the
for which

the

empire

now

stood.

It

was

richly

is an
of the achievements
of
account
Augustus, Deeds, xx, xxi. This document
It is preserved in an
Augustus, composed by himself.
to scholars
inscription known
the Monumentum
as
An-cy-ra'num, from Ancyra, the placewhere it was found.
1

"

The

460

adorned

Founding of the Principate;the

and
senators, magistrates,
The

reliefs of persons

are

GARLAND

the busts and

and

flowers

504.

known
and

are

beautiful

most

statues

aided

the

of the

chiselled with
art

Literature
as

OF

FRUIT

of the
and

Golden

men.
literary

only

AND

the Altar of the Augustan Peace

(From

Princes

the

imperialfamily,
but also plants and garlands.
priests,
real portraits,
influenced, like
doubtless

not
reliefs representing

with

Julian

FLOWERS

; Museum

of the Terme, Rome)

time, by Greek
wonderful

idealism.1

accuracy

and

fruit

The
taste

"

the

imperialage.

principateof Augustus is
He
literature.
encouraged
Age of Roman
he
aimed
to purify
their
works
Through
Religion.
"

"

The

345.

Literature

and

present by bringingit the life of the good and great

the

ennoble

Livy, the

past.

historyof

in

Rome

earlier writers

the

true

hundred

of prose in this age, wrote

a
In preparing
forty-twobooks.

and

He

of annals.1

the

vivid, and

and

of law

loved

story of Rome,

right. The

and

he

But

of Rome.

historian

truth,but

relied

lacking,too, in

was

knowledge of militaryaffairs

in that
to

author

eminent

most

he took littlepainsto discover

this work
on

461

what

which
he

essential

was

believed

he tells it,is

as

chiefly
depth and
be

to

always lively,

interesting.

the poet, resembled

posed
Ver'gil,
Livy. Both comin a loftystylewith
high moral aims.
Inspiredby the
and
greatness of Rome, both were
intenselypatriotic,
expressed
than
writers
other
the
ideals
of
their
nation.
more
perfectly
any
The poet'snarrative is as lively
and as dramatic
the historian's.
as
work
is an
Vergilis graceful,tender,and childlike. His principal
called the Ae-ne'ld.
In this story of the wanderings
epic poem
of Aeneas, he glorifies
the beginningsof Rome, and, at the same
time, the imperialfamily,which claimed descent from the hero
In

several

ways

of his poem.

Horace,

author

of Odes

the poet of contentment

"

Snatch
And

and

gayly

away

the

every

the future

Leave

and

to

the

wine,

in summer,
pleasant friends,and

life.

After

the

of

in
Epistles

sense, who

common

bade

verse,

was

his friends

"

shall bring,
joys which the moment
2
and perplexityfling."
care

shady nook

some

Satires and

gods,he taught. A comfortable villa,

and in winter a roaring
fireplace,
good
mind

free from

make

care

the world
stormy end of the republic,

ideal

an

needed

such

lesson.
In the later

morals.
which

republic,Roman

Augustus

restored

societyforgotthe gods and

the

ancient

had fallen into disuse,and

to the old

had

made

and

this
1

and
religion
the

to

450,

n.

i.

the

worship,
peopleback

attempted
who
simple life of the ancestors
Juliushad been deified after his death,

the pure,

citygreat.
followed
example was
"

of

ceremonies
to lead

lost its

in the

case

of many
2

other

princes.

Qdes, iii.8.

The

462

Founding of the Principate;the

Julian

Princes

they sacrificed to Augustus

the western
provincesthe freedmen
to a god. In Italy and
as
the worship
formed associations for his worship. Quite different was
the beginning the
of his Genius
or
guardian spirit.From
used to set up, at the crossingof country roads and
Romans
of streets in the city,images of La'res,protectingdeities of
of placing
adopted the custom
the adjoininglands.1
They now
built templesin
provincials

The

image

an

idea
as

the

Hence

to

was

of

of the Genius

Genius

Augustus

his Genius

make

of the father

willingnessto

which

among

the centre

was

sacrifice to

these

Lares.

The

of

publicworship,just
centre of the familyreligion.2
of the prince
guardian spirit

the

the

loyalty to the government. In fact,

the most
vital
the worship of the princeand his Genius became
world till the adoption'of
of the Roman
force in the religion
Christianity.
Augustus died
Principate of Tiberius (14-37A-D0505. The
had
in 14 A.D., after forty-five
years of rule. His wife Livia,who
secured to her son Tiberius the
been his strong support duringlife,
peacefulsuccession.3
and
Immediately after his accession the armies on the Danube
reward for a promthe Rhine mutinied,in the hope of gainingsome
ise
the
of devotion to the new
generalsproved
prince. Fortunately
The
outbreak.
with
the
and
prince's
suppressed
loyal,
difficulty
the Rhine, then led
who
commanded
on
nephew Ger-man'i-cus,
But
his army
the river,and avenged the defeat of Varus.
across
not to extend
as
Augustus in his will had advised his successors
the boundaries
of the empire,Tiberius recalled his nephew from
Germany.
No important war
voted
of his rule ; he dedisturbed the remainder
to administrative work, in which he showed
himself,
therefore,
marked
careful not
to distress the provinces
ability. He was
safe
by new burdens,and to see that in bearingthe old they were
from
the rapacityof their governors."4 By rebuildingtwelve
cities of Asia Minor
he
which had been destroyedby earthquakes,
in
that they had duties as well as privileges
taught the Romans
came

be

to

the

test

of

"

"

1
2

The

protectingdeity of
a
" 368.
" soo" n"

the house
Iw

also a Lar ; " 368.

Tacitus, Annals, iv. 6.

was
4

Tiberius

463

provinces. There is no wonder, then,that

the subjectnations respectedhim.
he fed them poorly and
But the populace disliked him because
providedno shows of gladiators.The nobles hated him stillmore.
that he began rigorously
became
to enso
common
force
Conspiracies
de-la'tors (informers]
and to encourage
the law of treason
to
Not
only the suspicioustemper of the prince,
bring accusations.
of society,
made the delations terrible.
but also the moral degradation
.Greed,hatred,enjoyment of bloodshed, in brief,all vicious and
the principate.
criminal
at their height under
passions, were
felt safe ; for each rightly
No
one
judged his neighborby himself ;
and the princecould hardly restrain the senate from condemning
their relations with the

"

"

trivial offences.

for the most

men

506. Capri;

the

Character

firsthalf of his administration

The

Cap'ri,a lovelyisland

in

and

off the

of Tiberius

Death

(37A.D.).
"

passedin Rome, the remainder

Bay of Naples. From this retreat
he

the government, while he left the direct management

toJSe-ja'nus,
prefectof the pretorianguard. This man,

he stillwatched

over

and suffered death

too, conspiredagainstthe prince,

and
grew more
mob.
Not that he

Tiberius

more

hateful

to

the

for his treason.

nobilityand

to the

cruel or vicious ; he seems

especially
whose
rather to have been a stern, unsympathetic man,
motives
the nobles did not wish to understand.
He was
unsocial,tactless,
would
have
made
and
which
economical, qualities
any prince
he was
tious
an
able,conscienunpopular. Notwithstandinghis.faults,
Roman

was

"

ruler.

Qaligula,son

of Germanicus

and

successor

to

Tiberius,seems

principate(37-41A.D.)is unimportant.
Octavius, afterward
Augustus, had been
adopted by JuUus
Caesar into the Julian gens.
Augustus had adopted Tiberius,
who
therefore by
adopted Caligula. The first three princeswere
adoption Julian. Having also been adopted into the family of
After Caligulathe principate
all called Caesar.
Caesar, they were
Caesar
was
passed to another gens and family,1but the name
to have

retained
1

The

In the

been

as

name

Julian gens

insane.

His

title.
JuliusCaesar, Juliusdesignatesthe
was

followed

by the Claudian.

gens

and

Caesar the family (" 368),

the

of

Founding

The

464

Write
words

own

principate

the

was

lost

of

Caesar.

the

of

temple

picture?

9.

Jupiter

of

10.

the

the

the

to

Guardian

with

Augustus.

translation

in

Firth,
II.

"

Augustus,

the

of

Book

Principate.

Greenidge,

Life,

the

on

in

that

of

Augustus?
Augustan

of

Jupiter

age

Capitoline
left

the

of

the

proportion.

143-148

especially

achievements

Rome,

Roman

Jones,

ch.

Empire,

Institutions,

of

Outlines

233-241

ix-xii.

chs.

Political

Pelham,

x;

of

Story

his

of

account

Botsford,

Roman

ch.

the

Parthenon

own

Augustus,

Abbott,

"

Public

Roman

History,

Shuckburgh,

Augustus;

The

(his

appendix)

Roman

with

the

Topics

Deeds

Shuckburgh,

Source

Munro,

i;

"

of

or

of

growth

under

art

tration
concen-

unmixed

Augustus

and

classes,

or

the

an

the

architecture

of

Note-book

I.

of

literature

former

be

survived

order

temple

the

Compare

try

government

the

is

What

4.

check

to

Can

your

respects

class,

individual

institutions

why

reasons

golden.

in

what

What

Give

2.

In

3.

gained

an

senate

the

republican

Princes

444.

p.

republic

of

the

not

Compare

6.

What

7.

did

on

classes

hands

the

that

principate."

the

on

What

in

Why

5.

Enumerate
called

republic
power

power?

prince's

is

of

political

good?

lasting

8.

fall

the

by

"

of

improvement

an

the

like

chapter

definition

clear

brief,

this

of

summary

Julian

Questions

Suggestive

i.

the

Principate;

266-288;

Roman

History,

398-469.

Vergil.

III.

of Rome,
IV.

Livy.
i.

V.

Early
Tiberius

Mackail,

"

432-495
"

Mackail,

Latin

Tyrrell,
pp.

Literature,
Latin

Poetry,

Duff,

145-155;

Duff,

91"105;
ch.

Literary

tory
His-

v.

Simcox,

625-663;

Latin

ature,
Liter-

384-415.

Tiberius.

the

Botsford,

"

Principate,

chs.

Tyrant.

viii-x;

241-253

Duruy,

Jones,

History

42-52

of Rome,

Allcroft
iv.

and

401-494;

Haydon,
Tarver,

XXXIX

CHAPTER

PRINCIPATE

FROM

MONARCHY

TO

FLAVIAN

it

had

have

would

the

nominee

Their

youth

had

he

in

Grotesque
find

him

.a

with

the

the

appointing
thank
burdens

duty
of his

of

Mingled

punishing

and
with

For

nearly

I
this

offenders

with

but

southern

of

he

history

these

he

Thus

new

fields.

was

erally
gen-

thank

and

the

Roman

the

process

"

with

and

wisdom,

and

the

me

ness
firm-

was

the

frontiers.

made

of it

One
Roman

remained

Britain

not

fulfil your

if you

you

Do

say,

share

to

in

And,

Rome.
to

protecting

years

era.

b^gan

used

Britain

bestowed

call you

hundred

in

early

of

surprised, therefore, to

are

generosity
in

From

balance, he

mental

he

prince.

new

study

works

Italy

shall

and

four

of

Augustus,

favor,

the

to

beginning

provinces,

no

you

shows

kindly temper

Thus

slaves

began

Nero

the

from

being

adopted
2H

the

rule

into

the

the
son

name

itself in

cruel

in Rome.

adopted

stepson

and

I do

well."

aged

Nero,

of

government;

famine
1

the

while

part

empire.

His
and

We

provincials.

generals conquered

of the

fool.

provinces equal

for

province.

in

policy

upon

of

in

principate

governors

me,

great

made

Caligula.

zeal

senate

line ; but

Julian

of

number

lacking

learned

making

making

published

the

uncle

with

himself

and

citizenship.
-freely
of

pretorians

manners

his

Breaking

the

Claudius,1

The

"

situation

had

considered

A.D.).

with

applied

science, and

and

(41-54

Claudius
end

was

THE

A.D.

principate

the

discussing

was

of

Principate

The

AND

PRINCES

41-96

507.

CLAUDIAN

THE

To
of the

of the

the

supply

gens.

family.

For

Nero.

465

in

city with

princes.
The

the

for
and

treatment,

Claudian

Claudian

law

There

father,

as

his
pure
but

were

well

convenience

as
we

of sick

protection

the

efforts

to

vent
pre-

water,

he

built

two,
son,

call the

Claudius
was

father

and

Claudius
Claudius

Principateto Monarchy

From

466

magnificentaqueducts,one of which was the famous Claudia.

tillall of them together
continued
to build aqueducts,
Later princes
fresh water
each day than the Tiber now
more
poured into Rome
emptiesinto the sea.
he would have no
Notwithstandingmany plotsagainsthis life,
to surround
himself with
informers or law of treason, but preferred
two

REMNANT

OF

CLAUDIAN

THE

(From

who
soldiers,

AQUEDUCT

photograph)

accompanied him into

the senate-house.
Distrustingthe nobles and the knights,he
freedmen l as helpers. His principal
secretaries,
employed his own
taken from this class,
became
the chief ministers of the empire. In
this way and in others he attempted to make
himself independent
even

of the senate.

waited

Thus

his

the balance

princewas
words, the principate
was

Principate of

for the first ten

years

between

of the latter.

In

other

"

more
years of age, and showed
for officialwork, the government

of his administration

Sen'e-ca,his tutor, and

and

the senate

developinginto a monarchy.
was
Nero
(54-68A.D.). His successor
A-grip-pi'na
by a former marriage. As

Nero, the son of his wife

the new
princewas only seventeen
taste for dancingand music
than

able

table,and

of power
turningdecidedlyin favor

the

508. The

on

was

in the hands

Bur'rus,pretorianprefect. Both

men.

"

519.

were

of

From

468
considered

them

sect

Principateto Monarchy
of

Jews, and despisedthem

belongedto the lowest

however, was
only a sudden
extend beyond the city.
then

at last his

But

society. Nero's
which
outburst
of ferocity

he

stood

begged,but

about

him.

"

Some

obeyed.
senate had declared him a publicenemy,
of approachinghorses.
Pity that such
no

The

one

.show

one

end

said,as he stabbed
The

509.

followed

Principate

by O'tho,and

of
governor
fled from the city,
freedman.

how

me

to

was

drawing near.

and

he heard

"

he

did not

Gal'ba,a

tyranny stirred up revolt.

Spain,was proclaimedimperator. Nero

took refugein a dingy cell provided by a

attendants

they
persecution,

class of

Hither
and

because

an

few

die,"
The

the

tramp

artist should

die ! "

himself.
of

(69-79 A-D0-

Vespasian

Otho

Vi-terii-us.

by
togetherruled
by violence in

was

three

about

and

He

their gens,

These

princes
a year.
perished
civil
a
war
concerningthe
Then
Ves-pa'si-anbecame

succession.

prince.

Galba

"

his

All

sons

are

after
called,

Flavian

princes. Though a
was
plebeianby
broad-minded,
able, and experiencedin public affairs.
difficulties he had to
Among the many
his accession,
the most
meet
serious
on
revolt of the Jews. His son
Titus
was
a
besiegedJerusalem,their stronglyfortified
capital.As they refused to accept any
offered them, no quarter was
after
thereterms
The
given. It was a war to death.
Jews believed that God would protect His
holy temple, and that at the critical
birth,he

VESPASIAN

(An excellent example of Roman

realism ;

Museum

Terme, Rome)

of

the

moment

His

the

Mes-si'ah

would

come

to

them
rulers
people from the oppressor and to make
world.
They fought therefore with fanatic zeal, and as
famine threatened they even
flesh. When
ate
human
after a
five months' siege,
the Romans
stormed
the cityand the temple,the
Jews killed their wives,their children,
and then one
another,as the
lot determined,so that the victors found
nothing but flames and
save

of

the

Vespasian
death.
not

than

More

of

million

thousand

hundred
arch

were

Titus, finished

469

destroyedduringthe siege;
taken captive (70A.D.). The triumphal
by Domitian, still stands as a monument
Jews

were

of this
As

the

victory.
nobles and knightswere

their ranks with

new

dying out, Vespasian recruited

Italyand the provinces, the

families from

STORMING

"

CITY

(From Schreiber,Atlas of Classical Antiquities)

loyalhe could find. Looking upon the prince

Hence
their patron, these provincials
as
generallysupportedhim.
and fewer conspirathe principate
became
established,
cies
more
solidly
threatened it. During the late republicand earlyprincipate
the societyof Rome
had
been vicious and depraved ; but the new
families brought to the capitalwholesome
ideas and better morals.
To repairthe fortifications and other publicworks, which had
long been neglected,Vespasian found it necessary to increa'se the

best and

taxes.

the most

But

with

for the

new

he

careful management

help of unfortunate
famous
buildings.The most

had

cities in the

of

his

cation,
left for edu-

money

and
provinces,

works

is

an

for

immense

From

47"

Principateto Monarchy

THE

(Ascending the Velia east

the

road, to

the

of the Forum.

right,is the Arch

ROMAN

(Carrying the

"

Seven

Golden

SACRED
Notice

of Titus.

SOLDIERS
Candlesticks

To

WAY

the
the

ancient

TRIUMPHAL

IN
"

and

pavement.

At

the

highestpoint of
Hill.)

rightof the arch rises the Palatine

other

PROCESSION

spoilsfrom Jerusalem ; Arch of Titus)

Titus

amphitheatre,usuallyknown as the Col-os-se'um. It could seat

about
thousand
forty-five
mous
spectators.1 Its oval form and enorin the illustration. Though in ruins,it resize may
be seen
mains
of
the
i
n
the
most
world.
In
to-dayone
impressivebuildings
it the Romans
of
the
combats
and of men
gatheredto see
gladiators

THE

COLOSSEUM

OR

(Present appearance

and
it

savage

beasts.

finished

was

by

As

AMPHITHEATRE

FLAVIAN
; from

photograph)

before

Vespasiandied

completingthe work,

Titus.

(79-81 A.D.). Titus succeeded

his father. His kindness toward citizens and subjectsalike made
the delightand the darling
him the most
popular of the emperors,
of mankind."
Once
at supper,
remembering that he had favored
no
one
during the day, he exclaimed, My friends,I have lost a
day !" As chief pontiffhe thought it his duty to keep his hands
condemn
after acceptingthat office he would
pure ; and accordingly
In fact he
to death,however
no
man
great might be the offence.
his successor's
too indulgentto be just; this easy temper made
was
The

510.

Principate of Titus

"

"

"

task

more

The

chief

suVi-us.
1

The

found

on

difficult.

For

statement

in his administration

event

ages this volcano

of

the ancients that

careful measurement

to

be

had

been

it could

seat

eruption.of Vethat the Camso

inactive,
was

an

eighty-seventhousand

great exaggeration.

people is

Principateto Monarchy

From

472

covered its sides with vineyards. But in

fearlessly
sand
a
buried Pom-pe'ii,
cityof twenty thou79 A.D. a fearful eruption
smaller places. After
and some
inhabitants,Her-cu-la'ne-um,
Its temples,
eighteen centuries Pompeii has been unearthed.
shops, and dwellings,with their statues, wall paintings,furni-

panians had

INTERIOR

(Showing combats

ture, and

tools,make

OF

with wild beasts

real to

COLOSSEUM

THE

us

restoration by C. Nispi-Landi)

the

civilization of the

life and

ancients.

(81-96 A.D.). After rulingbut

his
two
succeeded
died, and was
by Do-mi'ti-an,
years, Titus
brother.
Though the empire was
rarelyat peace, the
younger
ern
of Domitian
is especially
noted for wars
principate
along the northfrontier. A-gric'o-la,
able general,
the boundary
extended
an
of the province of Britain
land.
Scotthe modern
to
Cal-e-do'ni-a,
The
prince himself took the field against the Germans.
Still later the Da'ci-ans,
and who
who lived north of the Danube
fast adoptingRoman
were
invaded
the empire. In his
civilization,
with them
Domitian
with so little success
that he granted
war
met
511.

Principate of Domitian

"

Domitian
them

favorable
which

was

and
frontier,

of the

the

him.

under

of peace, and gave their chief valuable

ents,
presenemies
of the princemaliciously
termed
tribute.

terms

the

Domitian

473

An

firm

Able

ruler.

commanded

men

the

on

better ruled than

provinceswere
probably never
autocrat
by nature, he tried to gain entire control
and

government

put the

to

beneath

senate

him.

The

covery
dis-

in which
senators
conspiracy,
shared,inflamed
many
that time to his death he was
From
him againstthem.
terror
a
to the nobility.But at last a plotdevelopedin his own
household.
His wife Domitia, fearingfor her own
induced some
safety,
ants
servand pretorians
him.
to murder
Like
their god Janus, the Roman
have a double
emperors
face."
In estimatingtheir character we
bear in mind
that
must
the one
hateful to the nobility
often the most
most
was
justand
merciful
with
Domitian.
protector of the provinces. So it was
of

"

The

aristocratic historian
nations

could

has branded

him

ject
tyrant ; if the sub-

speak,they would

bless his memory.

from
Augustus to

Growth
of Monarchy
512. The
The
Augustan government was a

Domitian.

"

republicunder the patronage of

of overwhelming personaland familyinfluence.
This man,
a man
the prince,held a combination
of military,civil,
and religious
The government
still spoken of as a republic; the
was
powers.
senate
had stillan important part in the administration,
and far
more
independencethan it wished to maintain.
Although it was
in a positionto check the princeand to reduce his influence,
the
members
strove among
themselves for precedencein flattering
him
and in voting him
these circumstances
more
authority. Under
the princegraduallygainedpower
of the senate
at the expense
till,
in the second

century A.D., he

limited
commander
The

by

him

to make

above

people to

every

needed

On

word

real

aided

monarch,

in the

and

of the
him

the

ordinarymagistrates.
prince'sauthoritywas the
to

improvement, in

Tacitus,the historian here

of emperor.
worshipof the

sense

by religion. The

call upon

stillsomewhat

ing
meanimperator,originally

to be used

the senate

the

came

for the increase

reason

of
disposition
and

The

senate.

in war, then
of his power
was

growth
princeexalted
Another

the

to be

came

their wrongs
such way
the
as

rightall
some

referred to, see

" 528.

Principateto Monarchy

From

474

the United

and

inclined to

depend
either
the President.
Readily accepting such invitations,
upon
through interest in the publicwelfare or from love of popularity,
the prince generally accomplished the desired improvement to
he continually
the satisfaction of all. In this way
acquirednew

peopleof

duties and

new

States

are

more

more

power.

however
without a
able,can rule as a monarch
magistrate,
of trained,loyalhelpers. Augustus found no
one
large number
acquaintedwith the duties of administration outside the senate. The
knightscollected the tribute throughout the empire,and sat in the
All
juriesat Rome, but had no other part in the administration.
the highercivil and militaryoffices in Italyand the provincesfor
had to be filled as before by senators, who remained on
a long time
the whole loyalto the republic. Some
less important duties connected
share in the government Augustus intrusted
with the prince's
to his more
slaves,his freedmen, and his personalfriends
intelligent
the knights. In the course
of a few generations
there grew
among
and devoted to
up a class of knightswell trained in administration
the prince,as they depended on him alone for political
ment.
advanceMeantime
beginning under Claudius, the various public
duties
duties above mentioned
and new
were
developinginto offices,
cials
The
were
constantlyundertaken.
growth of this system of offito monarchy.
helpedchange the government from principate
Frontier
From
and
the Provinces.
Augustus to
513. The
Domitian
the frontier policyhad been one
of peace.
Generally
came
beMauretania
for
defence.
and
were
wars
waged merely
Judea
but no important change of boundary took place
provinces,
either on the east or on the south.
the Romans
Along the Danube
with difficulty
held their own.
On the upper Rhine they drove the
Germans
back from the rightbank and began to settle the district
thus made
It was
but became
vacant.
not organizedas a province,
under the name
Tithe Lands.
tributary
Along its eastern border
the princes began to build a line of strong fortifications,
which
No

"

"

when

finished extended
of Britain has been

Roman

civilization

from

"

the Rhine

mentioned.

began to take
thoroughlyRomanized
as
Spain or

to

In the south

root, but
southern

The

the Danube.

it

Gaul.

of that
never

quest
con-

province

became

so

Principateto Monarchy

Prom

476

alreadyhighlycivilized were
the

and

Europe

in western

As

of cities.

all these

In

country.

result of this

largecities. In other parts, as

Danube, people usuallylived in
encouraged the growth
places Rome
policymost of the states of the empire

many
along the

justas they alreadywere in the

city-states,
like those of Greece, or like Rome
These
were
East.
city-states
before she began to extend her power.
The
The populationof a cityconsisted of slaves and freemen.
could not be
either citizens or non-citizens.
latter were
Citizenship
bestowed as a gift All the
acquiredby residence but was occasionally
citizens had the rightto attend the assembly and vote in the election
Those onlywho possessed
and in the making of laws.
of magistrates
able
of property fixed by law, and who had an honora certain amount
chief
and occupation,
to offices. The
character
were
eligible
magistrateswere the du-o'm-ri (" board of two "),patternedafter
of their year of office all
At the expiration
consuls.
the Roman
life
the
important magistrates,including the duoviri, became
long
if they did not alreadybeof the cu'ri-a
members
citycouncil
in the West

to be

came

"

"

to
an

it.

Every fifth year the duoviri took

of their

assessment

magistratesto

As

community.

fillthe

curia

to

there

not

hundred, the duoviri suppliedthe deficiency

by enrollingamong
members

"

cu-ri-a'les
"

the

wealthy

more

and

made

tired
enough renumber, usuallya

were

its normal

and

census

the

vate
pridistinguished

brated
rich or celecommunity, and sometimes even
now
are
studying there was
strangers. In the period we
spirited
rivalryfor office. On the walls of Pompeii may be found
The barbers wish to
written in largeletters l such expressions
as,
have
fruit-sellers unanimously
The
Tre'bi-us as aedile
; and
citizens of the

"

"

"

support Hol-co'ni-us Pris'cus for duovir."

some

one

wrote,

516. Public

salary;

"

All the

in fact

nominate

sleepymen

Spiritin the Cities.

To

"

ridicule

Vatia

a
as

candidate

aedile."

magistrate received no
becoming a curialis he had

The

enteringoffice or on
for
to pay a fee fixed by law.
Public life gave him little opportunity
illegal
gains. On the contrary,the peopleexpectedhim, in addition
to the requiredpayment,
in entertaining
to expend his own
money
them
with feasts and shows
and in building or repairing
public
1

on

These

writingsare

called by the Italian term

Graffiti.

Public
works.
cities

It

tribute

whatever.

without

In

same

due

to

ancient

far toward

as
a
municipality
heavy debts, the

must

expenses,

world

interest

be

of the cities of the

The

people.

communities

state

IN
a

paid by

taxes

possessed a large capital

was

from

which

photograph)

in addition

on
can

empire and

motive

taxes

no

POMPEII

which,

on

most

all their

levied

defrayingexpenses, whereas a
rule has no productive
wealth,but

of this great contrast

account

for

that

Many a city
producing the

property, the income

STREET

(From

and

477

taxation.

endowment

Such

in rentable

or

to

an

Rome.

general the

in money

resort

source

mere

the Cities

partly by giftsfrom wealthy citizens

acquiredenough property to pay from the revenue

annual

went

in

was

necessary
expenses,
received
from the

either

Life

to

modern

state

is burdened
other

or

with

enormous

the citizens.
we

Only by taking
appreciatethe prosperity
patriotismof the wealthy

the generous
often unselfish ; but

sometimes

it Was

the

popularity. In any case the cityreceived the benefit ;

the
result was
as
a prosperitythroughout the empire such

desire of
the

had

not

seen

before.

We

read

of it in the books

written

at

Principateto Monarchy

From

proofof it in the extant ruins of excellent

and other
roads,bridges,aqueducts,theatres,temples,fortifications,
cluded
country then inpublicworks in every part of the Mediterranean
in the empire.
the time, and

517.

and

Life in Rome

Private

appearance

discover

we

the towns

much

were

the Towns

the

Dwelling.

In

"

alike,though they varied greatly

The

in size.

streets

than

narrower

those

are

times,and

modern

with

of

paved

were

like

stones

far

were

country

roads.
life

Private
from

both

on

with

no

floor.

(Mosaic from
Museum,

in

house

Naples

; from

Pompeii ; National
photograph)

little lodge,opened the

The

door.

the first

on

years
these

of

one

bule,
first to the vesti-

oaken

court

entrance

narrow

which

heavy

CANEM

who

Pompeii
plain walls

thousand

came

from
CAVE

windows

visitor at

than

of

sides

Two

ago a
houses

cluded
se-

traveller

the streets

walks
sees

more

publicview
The

is.

ours

was

hall led to
As

door.

the
the

visitor approached,the porter,

roused

from

in

nap

his

place of
represented
in

dog growled, or

the

livinganimal, the guest perhaps saw the creature

beware
in mosaic on the pavement, with the words,Cave canem
of the dog!''
The guest entered the a'tri-um (court),
where he found the lord
of the house ready to welcome
roofed over,
This room
him.
was
with the exception of an
opening in the centre, which admitted
the lightand through which
the rain poured into a square basin in
"

"

the floor.
fountain

Often

; and

this basin

the

with

beautiful

marble

richlydecorated with costly

purplehangings. On the floor were

entire atrium

and
pillars,
statues, paintings,
fine mosaics.

adorned

was

was

Dwelling

The

DINING

from
(Restoration

PERISTYLE

OF

ROOM

at Pompeii)
wall-painting

HOUSE

(House of the Vetti ; from

IN
a

POMPEII

photograph)

479

Adjoiningthe
Three

atrium

termed

dining rooms

sides of the

luxurious
A

Principateto Monarchy

From

480

board

Romans
on

and

in various

each containingat
tri-clin'i-a,
table were
occupiedby couches
reclined while

(From Pompeii

proprietor;and

works

least
on

eating their sumptuous

the fourth side held the

HOUSE

the

quarters of the house

costlyvases

and

were

table.

one

which

the

repasts.

curiosities of

FURNITURE

National Museum,

the whole

Naples

room

; from

was

photograph)

lavishlyadorned

with

of art.

The

inner court plantedwith trees and flowers,

was
an
per'i-style
surrounded
Round
this court were
the sleeping
by a colonnade.
and other privateapartments of the women,
whereas those of
rooms
the men
There were
also a kitchen,
were
groupedabout the atrium.
bathrooms,and sometimes
a
library. This description
appliesto
the firstfloor. The upper rooms
not so well known, and they
are
less attractive.
were
certainly
518. The Family and Morals.
We have alreadystudied the early
Roman
family,1
and, for the time of Cicero,the education of children
and

"

" 368.

Principateto Monarchy

From

482

Amusements.
520. Social Life and
like that of any noble,depended on

In the

men.

friends.

and
courtiers,
who
their clients,

the

In

if poor

the

dinner.

the

nobles

Candidates

rich man's

the streets
accordingly,

freed-

magistrates,senators,

manner

of the

ask for the favor

to

same

"

likewise

of slaves and

given their dailyallowance

were

as'ses, the equivalentof

five

prince'shousehold,

the labor

princereceived

the

morning

The

"

received

of

twenty-

for office came

influence.

thronged with

Every

these crowds

were
morning,
the master
afternoon
of a house entertained
of earlycallers. In the
his friends at dinner,or perhaps accepted an invitation to dine out.
The banquet of the Romans
resembled that of the Greeks, but was
far more
magnificentand expensive. Though the wealthy Romans

attended
the theatres,
occasionally
they preferredto spend their
time in the publicbaths,or at the races
in the Circus Maximus, or
at the gladiatorial
In the hot season
all
fightsin the Colosseum.
who could afford it forsook the city,
for their villas,
others for
some
the

seaside

in the

resorts, the

cities

like that

was

famous

most

of the

of which

Bai'ae.

was

capital,though

on

Life

smaller

scale.

Suggestive Questions
Write

i.

did the

humane

of
principate

Can

in this

give
period?

What

evidences

3.

growth.

you

of the Christians

supposed

of this

summary

make

Enumerate
of

the

all the

brutalitydo

persecution of

on

epoch

an

why

reasons

any

like that

chapter

Claudius

Romans

find?

you

their

you

growing

religion

pire?
emmore

find of such

can

Nero's

Was

4.
or

spects
re-

historyof the

were

evidence

what

In

2.

p. 444.

in the

punishment

ment
treat-

for

crime?

were
improvements in law and administration
5. What
adopted during Nero's principate
?
Would
whole
that
it
the
was
on
you
say
a
period of progress
the
or
view.
for your
opposite? Give
reasons
6. What
to the provinces under
improvements came
the
Claudian,

Julian,

and
a

Flavian

prince who

princes successively? Why did the nobles generallydislike

protected the provinces?
did the social and private
7. How

life of this age

Roman
means
9.

In the

of

that

they

are

the

travel, commerce,

Point

out

the

dressed and

describe the pavement.

with the " Sacred Way " ?
p. 470,

of

Way,

various
what

early republic?

and

illustration of the Sacred

buildings.
tell how

differ from

correspondence

facing p.

classes

they
How

our

best

Compare

with

476, describe

of persons

doing.

are

do

8.

10.

our

the

the
own.

ous
vari-

represented, and
illustration,

In the

country

roads

compare

Social

Life

Note-book

Rome

of

Burning

The

I.

Rome,

483

Topics

and

the

Christians.

Botsford,

"

The

Ramsay,

267-270;

Church

in

the

Roman

Story

ch.

Empire,

xi;

of

Duruy,

1-16.

v,

Botsford,

Vesuvius.
"

(Pliny,

275-278

Destruction

the

Empire,

Roman

Jones,

and

War

Jewish

The

f.;

273

of

Eruption

II.
III.

of

Capes,

106-111;

Letters),

Jerusalem.

Botsford,

"

152-156;

Duruy,

v.

108-

133-

ii

""

75
V.

f.

ii

Scene

Callus,

and

Guhl

Life

its

Pompeii,

Mau,

Schools

'Dodge,

Books.

and
and

Preston

Private

Koner,

Life

Pt.

Art,

Caesars,

Rome,

at

ch.

Callus,

ix;
Scene

ch.

vi;

Church,
iii,

and

Inge,

pp.

Roman

Excursus,

ii

of

the

Greeks

in

i-iii.

pp.

Thomas,
the

Days

the

ch.

Romans,
and

Romans,

Houses).

(Pompeian

172-178;
Life

Life

of

Dodge,

and

"

Life

Becker,

and

Preston
"

Becker,

Social
the

House.

The

IV.

58-66
Roman

of

Cicero,

Fowler,

Life
chs.

under

i, ii;

XL

CHAPTER

EMPERORS

GOOD

FIVE

THE

MONARCHY

LIMITED

THE

96-180

As
the
senate
as
soon
(96-98 A.D.).
of its
it appointed as prince one
of Domitian,
the death
about
named
Ner'va, who
was
sixty-fiveyears old, and

Nerva

521.

of

heard
members

have

had

speak

followed.

The

share

perator

The

title

became

reconciled

resulted

in

put
He

pretorians,

Tra'jan,
522.

then

followed

then

In

of

adopted

as

his

law

son

wars
1

should

now

example

freedom

word

"

The

emperors.

five successive
Domitian

which

himself
and

unable
the

successor

control

to

in

wrongs

to be

amiable

too

senate

concord

This

through

was

im-

general," 1

as

treason,

limited

the

as

was

just
the

general

able

in

Upper Germany.2
(98-117 A.D.) ; his

Emperor

he subdued

we

government.

of

he

found

his

self
him-

subjects to forget past

Titus,

he

as

lasted

He

born

was

In

in

contrast,

uniformly peaceful, Trajan

were

two

like

When

by Trajan.

the

to

advised

But,

first provincial
emperor.
who

form

new

end

an

commander

Trajan

princes

made

senate

well

as

emperor

good feelingwhich

happy present.
vigorous ruler.
he

"

had

became

but

used;

"

of the

the

to

therefore

still

was

the

succession

his

But

guaranteed

which

signify

speak
of

era

revived.

the
and

an

Nerva

reigns.
had

to

prince

him,

monarchy.

Emperors

of

Domitian

resembled

absolute

an

first

the

was

Emperors.

government,

henceforth

may

He

successors

Good

began

now

Good
his

of

the

in

monarchy.

blameless.

Had

to

and

"

the

as

monarch.

we

been

known

of rulers

not

Emperor

life had

whose

A.D.

Dacia,

Spain,

and

too, with
was

Nerva

"

therefore

was

the

ambitious

great country

"" 486, 496.

Wars.

north

earlier

the

princes,

for

conquest.

of the

Danube,

484

was

"

SQI.

Trajan
and

converted

The

work

it into

of settlement

Roman

485

provincea

followed

thousand

rapidlyupon

miles in circuit.

the conquest.

While

found land here for his veterans, other colonists poured

the emperor
various parts of the empire. Engineers,
into the province from

COLUMN

THE

(From

built
and workmen
architects,
iron and gold in the mountains.
Roman
as

memorial

in character.
of this

TRAJAN

OF

photograph)

roads

and

The

fortresses.

Miners

province soon

became

Trajan'scolumn

conquest.

stillstands

found
oughly
thor-

in Rome

The

486

Five

Good

Emperors

A few years afterward the emperor

attempted the conquest of the
western
a
One of his generalshad alreadymade
East.
province of northArabia.

set up

them

drove

He

thians.

Trajan

himself

from

vassal king. After

province,he
TigrisRiver.

he followed

Then

the

field

against the

Par-

Armenia, where they were

tryingto
convertingthe country into a Roman

through the

marched

took

Parthian
the river

far

empire as
the

to

the

as

Persian

Gulf.

provinces he had hastilyestablished about

Euphrates fell to pieces,and their population

the

Meantime

Tigrisand

him.

against
march,

in

His

which

the
rose

return

he

tended
pre-

the revolt,
suppress
in fact a disastrous

to
was

He

retreat.

his way

on

died

to Rome.

His

523.

We

"

in Cilicia

tion.
Administra-

shall

turn

now

to his administration.

Nerva's

lowing
Fol-

policy,he

treated the senators

as

his

equals. But though they

talked much, the emperor

granted

them

than

power

under

less actual

they had
Augustus.

joyed
en-

The

consuls,too, hatllost much

of their
term

reduced
PLOTINA, WIFE

OF

(Vatican Museum,

This

increasing
power

provinces,as

well

as

TRAJAN
Rome)

importance,as their
been
had
gradually
to

two

The

monarchy
growing at the

months.
was

still

of
expense
the republican institutions.

of the emperor
appeared in
in Rome.
When
the finances of

Italyand
a

town

in the

fellinto

disorder,
Trajan sent it an agent to control its accounts.
Such an
officer
imperial
graduallyusurped authority,
until,after a century
or
he
two,
deprivedthe town of self-government.In Trajan's

Hadrian

487

only helpful. To recruit the

time, however, the institution was
considerable
wasting populationof Italy,Trajan lent the towns
the security
of land,that they
to invest on
which they were
money,
might

the interest to

have

for the

avowed

the

Though

children.

poor
the

use

objectwas

armies,the institution was humane

moral improvement of mankind.

we

to

see

administration

in her husband's

was

had
;
no

of

soldiers for

rear

in it

and just. He
energetic
to punish evil-doers ; he repealed
oppressivetaxes
and
his public buildings,he laid
his wars
were
his people. His wife Plo-ti'na was
as
on
frugaland as thriftyas he. Like Livia,
she was
the emperor's able helper,and
when
he died, her tact brought to the
who
had
the man
stood highest
throne
His

education

support and

signof

the

the

strength
and, costlyas
new

burdens

favor.

(117-138 A.D.).
The heir was
Ha'dri-an,a generaland
of great ability,
and a
provincial
governor
of his reignhe spent
scholar. Two-thirds
in travelling
through the provinces. His
first objectwas
with
to cultivate friendship
524.

Hadrian

Emperor

the

border

without

nations.

the
increasing

necessary

maintain

To

to, abandon

army,
all his

conquests, exceptingDacia
Another

object was

peace
he found it
HADRIAN

predecessor's

and

(Vatican Museum,

Rome)

Arabia.

improve the armies and the frontier

defences.
He banished harmful
missed
pleasuresfrom the camps ; he diswho had received appointments throughfavoritism
boy officers,
in
his
restored
the
he
of Augusown
words,
; and,
discipline
tus."
to

"

Under
that

him

the

armies

were

so

well

exercised

and

trained

labors in marching and in

they
perform wonderful
is the sobuilding. Among his frontier defences the best known
called Wall of Hadrian, which extends across
northern
Britain from
the mouth
of the Tyne to Solway Firth.
near
In the following
rebuilt on
After this enlargement
a grander scale.
century it was
the line of defence consisted of two parallel
and walls,strengthmoats
could

The

488
ened

by

works

Good

Five

Emperors

series of turrets, castles, and

Equally important

still exist.

defences between

the

Rhine

and

the

HADRIAN'S

(From

was

Ruins
of these
camps.
his completion of the

Danube.

By such

fortinca-

WALL

photograph)

by his militaryreforms,he gave the empire new

the assaults of the barbarians.
strengthfor resisting
and aqueducts.
Throughout the empirehe built temples,theatres,
he showed
Finally,
by devotingso much of his time to the provinces,
than Rome
clearlythat he considered them more
important even
and Italy.
Among
Buildings at Rome
525. Hadrian's
; the Civil Service.
his buildings
the work of
at Rome
the Pantheon, originally
was
It is circular,
a hundred
Agrippa,1but reconstructed by Hadrian.
and forty-two
feet in diameter and the same
and is covered
in height,
In front is a great portico. The building
by a magnificentdome.
is still well preserved,and is used as a Christian
The
church.

tions,as

well

as

"

visitor who
emblem

stands

of the vast

within this rotunda

and

durable power
1

"

503-

cannot

of Rome.

fail to

The

see

in it

tomb

an

Ha-

The

49"

Five

and
justice
he
Especially
legislation.

ter, who

loved

Good

peace.

Emperors
reignis noted for humane
rightof the master to torture

His

limited the

PANTHEON

(Interior,
present

appearance

; from

photograph)

his slaves for the purpose

of extorting
evidence ; and he originated
the legalprinciple
which all trials are now
conducted
on
throughout
the

civilized

world, that an accused person should be considered

innocent tillproved guilty. Enlargingon the charitable policyof

Trajan,he set aside an

after
Faus-tin-i-a'nae,
by events, was

endowment

for

whom
he called
orphan girls,
his wife Faus-ti'na.
His
marked
long reign,unand happy.
prosperous
Marcus
Aurelius Emperor (161-180A.D.). When
527.
he died
the imperialpowers
his adopted
passed to Marcus
Au-re'li-us,
This emperor
son.
associated with himself as colleagueLucius
Ve'rus,his brother by adoption; so that Rome was ruled for a time
by two Augusti. Verus sought only pleasure; Aurelius was a Stoic
whose chief aim was
philosopher,
to do his duty toward
his fellowBut
he had little time
men.
to give to books
and meditation;
for the easy disposition
of his predecessorhad left him a great legacy
"

Marcus

and

northern
effeminate

his

On

of troubles.

eastern

to

resist

Aurelius

accession,he

found

brewing along the

frontiers.
The troops of Syriahad grown
too
the invadingParthians ; but fortunately
there

THE

TOMB

appearance

good generalsin the East, the ablest

A Syrian by birth,but of the old
Cassius.

were

put

the

licentious

and

troops

on

restored

war

HADRIAN

OF

(The Tiber in the foreground. Present

he

491

coarse

; from

of whom
Roman

photograph)

was

A-vid'i-us

type of severity,

obedient,
the disrations,burned
defeated the Parthians,overran

He
discipline.
their country, and compelled them
for peace.
to sue
Rome
retained a part of Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a.
Meantime
fearful pestilencewas
a
ragingin the East; and as
the troops returned
from the war, they spread the disease over
the
eastern

half of the

and

army;

in

in

some

empire
places,as

over

Italy itself.

Italy,it

carried

off

It weakened

the

perhaps half

the

population; and the efforts to relieve it so drained the treasury

that
the prince lacked
funds
for the defence
of the
empire.
The
enemies
of Rome
All
were
growing formidable.
Europe be-

yond

the

frontier

Good

Five

The

492

when

scarcelyover

tribes,which

full of restless

was

the civilized countries of the

was

Emperors

The

Mediterranean.

they

into

broke

the

Parthian

the

The

farthest

leaders

man'ni,

powerful

German

and

the

field,

in

Aurelius

the
tinued
con-

After

alone.

he
fighting,

honorable

an

engaged
revolt

the

the

died

of hard

peace, which,
broken
while he

however, was
a

their

gave

took

war

years

was

southern

war.

following year,

won

in

who

emperors
when
Verus

seven

Italy

Mar-co-

Both
and

tinuous
con-

limits of Dacia.

lived

to the

the

nation, who
name

war

northern

were

Germany,

in

empire

line from
to

threatened

East.

in

putting down

of Avidius
As

soon

in

Cassius
as

he

had

finished this war, he returned to

the Danube, and
reconquered
the Marcomanni.
CINERARY

to

URN

(Vatican Museum,

make

their

provincewhen

Rome)

He

was

about

country into
death

cut

short

his work.
'

528. The

Silver

of literature has been

commonly
a

described

decline set in.

of Literature.

Age

called
"

"

"

As

golden,"the

age

Augustan period
which

followed

is

of Augustus
principate
Most
a
writers,considering
simplestyleinsipid,
attention
by rhetorical bombast, far-fetched
as

silver."

the

After

the

sought to attract
metaphors,and other unnatural devices.
after
Seneca, the philosopher,
shared with his age the striving
in language. Nevertheless
of the
he gives evidence
brilliancy
broader,deeper thought which the provinces were
bringingRome.
A great improvement in this direction came
with
the Flavian
who
princes,
fresh life from
patronized literature and introduced

Literature

493

provinces.In this age Plin'ythe Elder wrote a Natural History

In addition
cludes
books.
to the natural
in thirty-seven
sciences,it ingeography,medicine, and art. What Pliny did for science
His Training
of Spain,achieved for rhetoric.
a native
Quin-til'i-an,
in rhetoric,
of the Orator,in twelve books, givesa complete course
beginningwith the boy and ending with the well-equippedpublic
speaker. The work is valuable,not only for the famous author's
but also for his opinionsof the leading Greek
of rhetoric,
principles
the

and

Latin

The

good emperors produced the last great writers of

tories
Latin, Tac'i-tus and Ju've-nal.The Annals and the Histhe periodfrom the death of Augustus to
of Tacitus covered
of the

age

classic
1

the

writers.

death

brief treatise
of

on

Britain,and
of

institutions

militaryand

Lifeand

he

wrote

Character

statesman

gave
He

events.
political

him
was

understanding of
conscientious,
too, and we
a

of all facts which

his statement

trust

may

larger works,

the conqueror
of Agricola,
and
the character
on
another, the Ger-ma'ni-a,
His experienceas
of his time.
the Germans
an
the

officer and

army

these

Besides

of Domitian.

clear

known

were

the

to

happening. His styleis exceedingly

however,
rapid,vivid,and energetic. His excellences as a historian,
He
balanced
are
belonged to the
by serious defects.
the

publicat

strictest
from

Tiberius

Nero

and
if we

Lives
Of

powerfuland

about

of the
we

study

torian,
his-

dramatic.

In

Caesars
have

Bks.

the

the manners,

customs, and morals

nephew

of the elder

Pliny,

times,but show a decline in style.

Juliusto Domitian, by Sue-.to'ni-us,

of the

from

i-iv,parts of

of this last group

the first half of v.
end

to

Pliny the Younger,

for the

the Annals

beginning and
and

he

as

of information

valuable

princes

under
societyof Rome
Domitian, to discover in it nothing but hideous vice.
shall find his writings
allow for his gross exaggeration,
we

of the age.
The
Letters of

The

all the

upon

and
tyrants. Hence
usurpers
Like the
motives
of these rulers.

Domitian

in

storehouse

are

looked

judging the
Juvenal,author of Satires,was
he looked back
of Tacitus
spirit

the

to

their

who
aristocrats,

circle of

unfair

was

But

of

time

of books

and

vi, and

xi-xvi, with

; of the Histories

gaps

there remain

at

Bks.

the

i-iv

Five

The

494

secretary, is

Hadrian's

of useful facts and

Aurelius

of Marcus

is

foolish

of the best and

one

ripestfruit

the

It contains

of books.

noblest

Emperors

chaotic mixture

Meditations

gossip. The

Good

of

Greco-Roman

philosophy.
authors
A revival of Hellenic literature in this age produced some
of unusual merit.
Ap'pi-anof Alexandria wrote a narrative History

of Rome, which we find very useful. In this age, too, Pausanias

compiledhis Tour of Greece,which describes the classic monuments
"

of that country.

perhaps the
author

wrote

widely and permanently

most

known

all Plutarch

Above

the world."

to

the

While

neglect science.

literature,
they did not
Marcus
Aurelius,wrote

works

his immortal

attractive

the earth
for
of

the centre

as

and

than

more

on

of the universe.

thousand

His

years, tillthey were

Co-per'ni-cus
(1473-1543A.D.).
From
the time of Augustus
529. Art.
"

centre

of the world.

of Greece
the

of the

of

he

views

medicine.

represented

accepted
superseded by those

Rome

were

was

the artistic

and painters
greatest architects,
sculptors,

gathered there,to

princeor

power

The

book

by one
Greeks were
producing
a
Galen,
physicianof

anatomy
Ptol'e-mypublisheda system of astronomy, in which
many

Lives,

find

wealthy citizens.

princes it

was

in the

employment
With

natural

service

the increase in wealth

that

of

and

their

palaces,temples,
should be planned on

aqueducts,baths,and other public works

a
grander scale. Examples are the Claudian aqueduct and the
Pantheon, alreadymentioned.2. Such works requireda thorough
acquaintance with practicalscience for their planning,and great
care

and

skill in their execution.

artistic value

From

the time

of Hadrian

the

of

buildings
rapidlydeclined.
In the column
of Trajan we find a new
idea in sculpture. Around
it from base to summit
winds a spiralband of reliefs,3
ing
representthe successive events
in his Dacian
his marches,
campaigns
t
he
battles,
sieges, buildingof camps, the burning of towns, and
the care
of the wounded.
of these
account
Though Trajan'sown
has
been
wars
lost,this chiselled picture-book givesus valuable
knowledge,not only of the campaigns,but of the militaryhabits of
"

"

Murray,

Ancient

Greek
3

On

Literature,
395 f.
the meaning of the

"

word

see

"

175.

"

5O7"

535.

Sculpture
the Romans
reliefs

are

and
cut

remarkable

is similar to that of

(Reliefon Trajan's Column

forms

Greek
"

the

; from

taste.

of his German

DACIAN

The

these

column

campaigns,

in artistic merit.

TOWN

Schreiber,Atlas of Classical Antiquities)

periodwere

active,too,

in

making statues.
copiesof .the great

other ideal persons were

Nearly all ideal statues stillin existence

of deities and

masters.

figuresin

are

such

originality,
however, in
copies." The period showed
portraitbusts and statues of the princesand their kinsfolk

Roman

its

of
sculptors

and

Trajan,though inferior

BURNING

The

accuracy

Aurelius,in commemoration

of Marcus

The

neighbors. The

of their northern

with

495

The

Five

Good

Emperors

This form of sculpture

reached the height
privatepersons.
in the Flavian age ; for the marble portraits
of that
of its perfection
1
time are most
natural and living. That of Vespasian is a good
Greek idealism gained momentarily
example. In the time of Hadrian
is
in
his portrait.2Thereafter we
the upper hand, as
seen
and

of

discover

530. Condition
this period the

Euphrates the
and

decline in this form

marked

north

of

of the

empire

Romans

the

of art

as

Empire in the Second

reached

BRIDGE

(Builtby Trajan

for

they

AT

retained

ALCANTARA,

; from

time

as

in all others.

Century,

its greatest extent.

continued

Danube

well

to hold

Dacia.

A.D.

East

"

of

In

the

Mesopotamia,
profound

The

SPAIN

Duruy, History of Rome)

scarcelydisturbed by wars
the distant frontiers or
on
by occasional tumults in the capital. The emperor, lookingupon
himself as the father of the
made
their welfare his
provincials,
chief object. As many
had received the Latin rights3 or the full
Roman
the political
citizenship,
distinction between Italyand the
provincesnearlydisappeared.
peace

was

1P'468.

"p.487.

3"4o6.

that

declined

so

Five

The

498

Good

Emperors

for the defence

gladiators
too, the policyof employing

slaves and

PROCESS

(Relieffrom the Tomb

militaryservice.1
had
But

OF

compelled to

enlist

frontier.

duced,
intro-

been

had

Aurelius

Marcus

of the
Germans

on

He

in

largescale

BUILDING

of the Haterii ; Lateran

Museum,

Rome)

he
preciousmetals were
disappearing,
to debase
the silver coinagewith thirtyper cent of copper.
these symptoms
of decay passed unnoticed at the time.
As

the

Suggestive Questions
i.

Write

of all the

summary

of this

chapter

important acquisitionsof

giving date

and

location of each

like that

Rome

on

(cf.the maps).
1

" 556.

p. 444.

between

241
3.

B.C.

What

2.

Make

and

117

countries

list

A.D.,
were

Decline

civilized

before

they

What

kind

What

4.

Why

5.

Italy?

and

What

7.

of

with

these

art

two

more

in
with

Vespasian

History,

under

of

of

this

age?
an's
Hadri-

Compare

reference

Antonines.

the

to

ism
real-

of

degree

ch.

Ixxiv.

Botsford,

"

Capes,

179-185;

of

of

the

of

of

Duruy

or

Rome,

295-299

Antonines,

55-62;

Roman
i.

Empire,

Gibbon

Story

Book

Roman
examination

either

of

Age

the

careful

A
than

Source

Munro,

Fall

and

prosperity

less

Travels.

Empire,

Roman

period?

Rome

Topics

Decline
vi.

Rome,

existence

Hadrian's

II.

the

Gibbon,

History
the

in

"

"

217-237

Duruy,
shows

in

types.

Provinces

The

(96-180)

than

appearing

this

ans?
barbari-

period

provinces

were

introduced

this

of

the

decline

Note-book

I.

in

barous?
bar-

were

conquered

the

feeling

good

of

was

of

that

the

countries

What

give

Rome

interest

evidences

form

new

did
of

causes

take

What

6.

portrait
in

the

were

rule?

Roman

civilization

of

Hadrian

did

under

came

499

ii;

ch.

conditions

supposed.
Jones,

Duruy,

v.

344-390.

ix

Architecture.

Roman

III.

"

ix-xiii

Sturgis,

ch.

Sculpture

Topics

xiii

from
III,

Gardner,

are

of

to
not

and

Greece

i.
and

Marquand

"

Augustus
IV

of

Architecture,

Handbook

of

History

Architecture

of

History
Sculpture.

Roman

IV.

Spiers,

and

Anderson

Hamlin,

bk.

v.

chs.

to

special

viii,
chs.

iii-v.

History
ch.

Constantine.
restricted

chs.

especially

Rome,

Frothingham,
Sculpture,

Greek

Architecture,

period.

vi

Strong,

of Sculpture,
Roman

CHAPTER

XLI

CENTURY

OF

REVOLUTION

SOLDIER

THE

EMPERORS

180-284

Commodus;

531.

A.D.). Com'mo-dus,
"

the

Rule

the

A.D.

the

of

and

son

of

successor

weak-minded

the

empire visibly

disciplinealong

for

their

of the

mercy

under

longer

no

of

weak

and

their
lost
and

they
ROMAN

(Relief

on

Trajan's

Schreiber, Atlas

Column;

of Classical

was

They

of

into

Gradually

at

once

their

troops

haughty
the

overawed

Rome;

murdered

the vacant
1

"

502.

500

his successor,

and

office to the

ate;
sen-

the
pered
Pam-

mercy.

and

the

ing
discover-

these

became

tablished
es-

large

especiallyby Commodus,

from

ties)
Antiqui-

at

security

terrorized

was

emperor

LEGIONARY

twelve

Commodus

grown

discipline,and
violent.

were

After

importance,

own

at

pretorian guard,

now

army.

were

capital was

pretorians,who

the

for

standing

the

government,

The

prince,1 had

respect

provinces

savage,

murdered.

the

soldiers

their

control.

such

years

fought

The

with

The

and

misgoverned,

he

amphitheatre,

lost

the

and

declined.

ruler.

While

pleasures

in

beasts

was

led
easilymis-

man,

companions.

base

pursued
wild

Aurelius,

young

vile

by

(180-193

Guard

Pretorian

then

they
sold

highest bidder.

Septimius Severus
reached
the
event
the soldiers on
disgraceful
them
it made
indignant,for the emperor was their general,
frontier,
the primary source
of his power.
and they were
Accordinglythe
the Danube, and in Britain
nominated
their
armies in Syria,on

When

of this

news

commanders

own

the

to

each

and

office of emperor,

prepared to enforce its will

Sep-tim'i-us
by arms.
the
commander
on
Seve'rus,
and

Danube

Rome,

the

won

prize.

Septimius

532.

to

nearest

Severus

(193-211);Caracalla (211was
a,
217 A.D.). Severus
who
firm,clear-headed man
"

knew

empire.
in

the

well

He

restored

order

conquered

Rome,

killed

of the

needs

his

rivals

throne,and

for

and
the

humbled

foreign
enemies.
As his authority
the armies,he
rested upon
the
did not hesitate to slight
fore,
Under him, theresenate.
SEVERUS
SEPTIMIUS
of
this body lost much
Rome)
(CapitolineMuseum,
the influence it had enjoyed
in the precedingperiod; in fact,his reign marks
an_iniportant
His
policy was
monarchy.
step in the direction of absolute
supported by the lawyers who formed his council. Pa-pin'i-an,
lived at this time,and held the office of
the ablest of Roman
jurists,
Through
scarcelyless eminent.
pretorianprefect. Ul'pi-anwas
velopment
reached
law
the
associates
Roman
them
their
and
height of deThe
for

benefited
of these great jurists
legislation
before

even

Roman
aimed

the death

place the

most

of the

empire ;
were
provincials

This emperor
of Roman
law.
protection
provinceson a level with Italy. JuliusCaesar

citizens under
to

of Severus

the whole

the

502
had

Century of Revolution

freelyto the provincials;

begun the policyof grantingthe citizenship
and though Augustus preferredto keep the provinces

inferior to

zealouslyfollowed

Italy,Claudius

TRIUMPHAL

ARCH

(From

SEPTIMIUS

OF
a

in the

footstepsof

SEVERUS

photograph)

policytill,
of Severus, few non-citizens remained.
at the death
Car-a-cal'la,
and successor
of Severus,completed the work
of centuries by
son
1
making all the freemen of good standingin the empire Romans
(212 A.D.). Under Severus,however, militaryservice and special
taxes
citizens had grown
Carawhom
on
oppressive
; and the men
Julius. The

Those

rulers after Claudius

excluded from

the benefit

were

continued

his liberal

the inferior class termed

who consisted (i) of barbarians

who
in the empire,(2)of freedmen who had committed

rendered"),
dediticii (the "sur-

having surrendered
crime.

had

been

settled

Alexander
calla made

in
citizenship
the benefit
reform

had

Romans

addition
offset

was

cared

only

brutal.

He,

"Passing by

two

Severus,

those

an

themselves
upon
they had borne as

for his soldiers ; toward

murdered.
too, was

emperors
amiable

in his attention

He

was

weak, however,

too

was

defend

subjects. Thus
author

all others

also in his

he

of the

was

lessly
reck-

cation,
patronage of edu-

to the needs

Alexander
justice,

of

(222-235A.D.)5 the New Persian Empire.

L
of little importance,we come
ander
to AlexNot
youth and of excellent character.

only in his respect for the senate, but

and

the burdens

by disadvantages. In fact,the

Severus

Alexander

533.

503

take

to

to

Severus

of the poor, and

faint imitation of the

to maintain

in his mildness

good
discipline
among

emperors.
the soldiers

the

empire.
world arose
in the East.
reigna new danger to the Roman
the time of Trajan the Parthian
The
From
empire had declined.
Persians,still a vigorousrace, asserted their independence,and in
the Parthian
their king,overthrew
monarch
227 A.D. Ar-tax-erx'es,
and made
the empire Persian.
He was
eager for conquests, and
his talent for organization
a
militarypower which the
gave him
East had not possessedfor many
generations.Ordered to give up
Severus went
his Asiatic provincesto this haughty king, Alexander
Henceforth
the Persian embeaten.
to war, but was
pire
disgracefully
the northern
it compelled her to weaken
threatened Rome;
defences in order to mass
troops on the Euphrates,at a time when
the German
races
were
threateninginvasion.
took the field againstthe
After his conflict with Persia,Alexander
he was
murdered
There
the Rhine.
Germans
on
by his soldiers.
The pretorianguard had alreadykilled Ulpian,their prefect,
and
the government as well as the residents of Rome.
were
terrorizing
Thus a reign,
in some
respects happy, ended in failure, a pleasant
before a period of gloom.
twilight
534. Drifting into Anarchy (235-284 A.D.). During the halfor

to

In his

"

"

century which
suffered
Sometimes
more

followed

of

Alexander,

the

government

violence, as

rivals
frequently,
1

death

an"d fell.
rapidly rose
emperors
shared in harmony the imperialoffice ;
colleagues

continual
two

the

Ma-cri'nus

for the throne

involved

the

empire in

(217-218)and El-a-gab'a-lus
(218-222 B.C.\

civil

war

Century of Revolution

504
;

rarelydid

the middle

the

of confusion
of this .period

fragments; each
and these
highestoffice,
to

"

the

misnamed

purpledie

of the

wearer

death.

empire seemed

About

ing
to be fall-

its commander

nominated

army
rival

natural

to

the

and
pretenders,
wrongly numbered
world to
Thirty Tyrants," brought the Roman

anarchy.
civil war

While

wasted

the

empire and

the armies from

drew

the

with their first real success

in
met
the enemies of Rome
frontier,
On the north the Goths, a German
her.
dering
assailing
race, after plunand killed the emperor
Moe'si-a and Macedonia, defeated
time their western
(268A.D.). At nearlythe same
kinsmen,
the boundary and
the Franks on the lower Rhine, pushed across
the enerdesolated Gaul and Spain. Soon afterward,King Sa'por,
getic
of Artaxerxes,took the emperor
Va-le'ri-an captive. The
son
defenceless.
The Al-e-man'ni,
civilized world seemed
of Germanic
and in combination
with
Italy,
race, flungthemselves
upon northern
them a vast horde of Goths, including
and children,
crossed
women
the Danube
to seek homes
within the provinces. Fortunatelyat

Decius

this crisis Rome

found

an

(268-270A.D.),who drove
invadinghost of Goths.
535.

Aurelian

withdrew
li-an,

Emperor

able

ruler in Marcus

back

Aurelius

the Alemanni

(270-275A.D.).
"

the last

and

His

Claudius

destroyed the

successor, Au-re'which he gave over

from Dacia,
garrisons
to the Vis'i-goths and brought the boundary once
to the
more
Danube.
This was
the first territory
lost to the empire. As the
barbarians
he surrounded
it
began to threaten the capitalitself,
with a wall,which
is still standing, a magnificentwork, yet a
of the weakness
monument
and decay of Rome.
Two
ments
great fraghad recentlybroken from the empire : in the East, Queen
from
her splendid court
in Pal-my'ra, ruled Syria,
Ze-no'bi-a,
In the West, the senator
Egypt, and a largepart of Asia Minor.
Tet'ri-cus was
of Gaul, Britain,and northern Spain. Aurelian
emperor
and
conquered
destroyedPalmyra, and took Zenobia captive.
"

"

"

Afterward
the

unity

he received the surrender

of the
the

empire ;

Rhine

and

and

by

of Tetricus.
wars

the Danube
1

" 556.

with
as

the

Thus

the

Germans

northern

he restored
he

tablished
rees-

boundary,

506
The

assassin.

an

been

had

who

one

honored

people
ruler.

worthy

which

reigns,

short

several

and

army

Revolution

of

Century

require

him

His

death

special

no

after

his

death

as

followed

was

notice

by

here.

Summary
hidden

The

(i)

imperial

office, together

brought

the

German

invasions.

and

the

(2)

(4)

Aurelian

What

i.

from

the

earliest

this

period?
with

the

tendencies,

Describe

8.

Compare

to

the

period

the

the

the

the

or

Wall

the

confusion

in

unity

the

period

store
re-

of
the

the

army,

increased

was

the

to

weakness

barbarians

Good

from
of

of

the

of

the

by

empire,

each.

Aurelian

Septimius

(p. 505)

from

Severus

legionary

Roman

with

of

the

in

this

of

this

that

of

the
tions
rela-

to

relian.
Au-

Hadrian.

period

so-called

in

ter
chap-

the

Augustus

with
of

r^al

explaining

account

an

this

be

to

came

treated

senate

the

was

principate,

to

by

citizenship

What
What

Give

5.
the

covered

Roman

3.

revolution

republic

and

of

of

Emperors?

of

century

in

extension

Caracalla.

of

the

portrait

of

the

emperor,

equipment

the

of

results

and

of

edict

the

prince,

Compare

The

added

were

of revolution

century

of

but

to

came

attempted

Questions

history

times

methods,

6.

brief

Compare

4.

between

7.

in

Rome

at

power

Write

decline

of

causes

new

2.

(3)

reestablished

Suggestive

chapter?

Aurelius

Severus

reform.

to

way

army

enlistment

the

Marcus

Septimius

the

anarchy.

(5)

under

empire

son.

with

into

empire

pointed

the

strengthening

chiefly by

order

his

of

reign

the

light during

of

weakness

(p. 500).

Servian

Wall

(P- 354).
Note-book

I.

Septimius

Decline

476-S77J
II.

and

Severus.

Fall
see

Zenobia.

of

the

Indices
"

Roman
of

See

"

other

Indices

Jones,
Empire,

Topics
Roman
i. ch.

Empire,
v

236-254;

Duruy,

History

histories.
of

the

larger

histories

of

Rome.

Gibbon,
of Rome,

vi.

THE

CHAPTER

XLII

ABSOLUTE

MONARCHY

284-375
I.

Di-o-cle'ti-an

"

full of martial
as

genius

and

For

purposes

the

Roman

as

of

before
the

head

of the

We

army

office

by
was

the

spiritof

each

though

past

had

to

exposed

most

four

Later

the

of

be

and

whole

frontier

and

any^general intrusted
was

emperor
he

was

an

emperor

far

to

sure

already
by

and

aids

had

posts

extended
with

become

colleague
causes

or

one

at

rival

and

heir.
violence

or

"

527-

507

enemy

In

the

of the

real
Con-

Augusti.
assigned
Each

of

lieutenant.
first
to

distance

Furthermore,
had

and

were

as

had

as

the

frontier.

commander

great army

an

they

is clear.

for

on

empire,

one

of the

heirs

the

meant

act

Augustus,

pretorian prefect

arrangement

too

natural

as

difficult

most

this

remained

experienced generals, as

the

was

Diocletian

and

East

Caesars, Ga-le'ri-us

two

appointed

the title

bore

Aurelius,1

magistrates

great

object

colleague

the

but

was

divided

they

that

suppose

soldier.

able

taking

There

empires.

Marcus

Chlo'rus, were

to

but

defence

military

not

are

separate

government.

Caesars

The

the

achievement

rough

Diocletian

them,

West.

under

case

stan'ti-us

these

province

imperial

the

empire

Pretorian

entered

his great

of the

and

between

of two

; and

been

the

way

statesman

administration

world

creation

The

he
the

to

colleague Max-im'i-an,

as

colleague the

the

As

Dalmatia,

freedman,

his

organization

new

first chose

He

of

of

and

of revolution.

century

his

native

made

of will.

force
in

HISTORY

son

soldier, and

embody

to

was

The

spirit.

common

POLITICAL

(284-305 A.D.); August!, Caesars,

536. Diocletian
Prefects.

A.D.

place,

defend;
from

the

latter,unless
the

death

of

frequently plunged

The

508
the

the

Under

kill

world

Roman

Monarchy

civil

among

war

without

an

emperor

legalheirs to the throne.

was
greatlydiminished.

Provinces, Dioceses, and

The

rivals for the

arrangement the empire could

new

or

537.

into

Absolute

be

never

Thus

the

throne.

left headless

temptation to

Augustus had
or
greater provincesinto two
Prefectures.

"

policy of dividing the

the power
in part to cut down
The objectwas
smaller ones.
more
of the great governors.
Diocletian,and after him Constantine,
than a hundred
continued the process tillthe empire consisted of more
whose
portant.
unimsmall provinces,
were
correspondingly
governors
little districts were
These
grouped in thirteen large
dioceses.
to be rulei by the four
territories termed
They were
but one
cese,
diopretorianprefects.As a prefectcould govern directly
who ruled in the
the remaining nine were
assignedto vi-ca'ri-i,
who
had the
placeof the prefects.1The few provincial
governors
and were
title proconsul,
superiorto the rest in importance,were
under the emperor
obeyed the head
directly
; every other governor
whether
of his diocese,
a vicarius or
a prefect. Though the vicarius
inferior in dignityto the prefect,
he was
subordinate
was
only to
the Augustus. These
intricate relations among
the high officials

begun

the

served

as

check

538. The

on

their power.

Bureaucratic

System.

"

The

civil service,
brought to

cletian
high degreeof perfection
by Hadrian,2 continued to expand. Dioand Constantine
of offices. Every
multipliedthe number
from the lowest provincial
had
to the emperor,
magistrate,
governor
his body of officials,
who
another
in dignityand
differed from one
rank.
The
of an Augustus comprised a great host of such
court
officers. He needed, too, an army
of imperialagents to keep the
central power

in touch

with

of many
system, consisting
to

another, is

worked

smoothly,even
emperor

made

all the local authorities.

classes and

""

507,

525.

of

intricate

one
officers,

ordinate
sub-

chinery
bureaucracy. This official mawell that the government
so
on
generallywent
under
weak
vicious emperors.
or
Through it the
himself absolute
independentof all other powers

called

"

Some
time after the death of Constantine
four prefectures,
each governed by a prefect.
2

ranks

An

the dioceses

were

grouped in
definitely

THE

DIOCLETIAN

ROMAN

EMPIRE

and
SCALE

OF

CONSTANTINE
MILES

The

510

Monarchy

Absolute

of the retired emperor

guardsin the city. Two
son

Maximian,
three

or

created

Augustus by the
gether
Augusti arose, and alto-

was

other

fellinto dire confusion.

the government

In 312

overthrew his army

Bridge outside Rome.

againstMaxentius, and

marched

Maxentius

leaving

at the Milvian

In

drowned

was

Constantine

Constantine

the battle

in the

Tiber,
of

master

the

Galerius had

West.

died,and in 3 13 a
became
sole Augustus

certain Licinius
in the

East.

Constantine

few

went

to

afterward

years
war

against his

defeated him (323),

colleague,
put him
and
thus became
to death,
sole emperor.
His

reignwas

marked

by two
publicrecognition

the
importantevents
of Christianity,
and the selection
of Byzantium as
the capitalof the
empire. The growth of Christianity
from its originto the death of Constantine
"

will be reviewed
section of this

chapter.

During the frontier

century, Rome

CONSTANTINE
(Lateran Museum,

to be

the

Byzantium

after himself.
was

much

It

was

than Rome

nearer

as

had

wars

of the third

ceased
practically

the emperors
the frontier.

as
capital,

Rome)

to live in camp

chose

in the second

on

his

abode, and named

admirablysituated for

stantine
Con-

it Constantinople
commerce,

the frontiers of the Danube

to

had

and

and the

Euphrates,which especially
needed defence.
The Latin West and
the Hellenic East were
drifting
apart. The eastern half of the
empire was still richer and more
denselypeopled than the other.
The change of capital
looked to the preservation
of the East at the
expense

of the West.

540. From

the Death

(337-375
A-D.).
~

of Constantine

Constantine

though Christian in
massacred
nearlyall

name,

followed

was

were

to the Death

by

treacherous

their kinsmen

to

of Valentinian

his three sons,

and
savage.

rid themselves

of

who,

They
possible

of Constantine

Successors

and then turned againstone

rivals,
hand

brother's

; another

to

invaded

Athens, took

studies at

another.

One

killed

was

by

usurper ; and while the third devoted

Persians,the Franks, and the Alemanhi

by

theology,the
the empire. His

himself

511

Ju'li-an,
leavinghis philosophic

cousin

and
injGaul,

command

routed

the Alemanni

Strass'burg.He drove the barbarians from the

The philosopher,
and strengthened
the frontier defences.
province,
sole emperor
the
who thus proved his ability
to rule,became
on
death of his cousin.
Disgustedwith the character of his Christian
and strove to suppress Christianity.
a pagan,
kinsmen, he became

in

great battle

this

For

at

he

reason

is called

however,
failed.

old world

campaign

his mild

He

the

the year after

Ferocious
emperor.
In

adapted to

in temper,

command

the

the

Through the
hard-pressedfrontiers

the

Rhine
most

to

killed

an

made

of the

arrow

Val-en-tin'i-an

just,he
of whom

most

brilliant

defender.

and

yet strong and

gods

secution,
perof the

well

was

were

now

eleven

years of his reignhe maintained

crossed
of Britain and
Gaul, and even

chastise the

of his time

by

from

after

when,

man

imperialtroops,

the

restore

empire lost an able ruler

Julian'sdeath, the army

barbarians.

spent

efforts to

still a young
was
againstthe Persians,he was

In him

enemy.

and

refrained

apostate. He

an

Alemanni

in the

West,

his brother

Va'lens,a

Valentinian

lived,the empire

man

in their
whereas

of little worth.
remained

own

the East
As

intact.

He

country.
was

ruled

long,however,
After

his death

by
as

its

historyis chieflyconcerned with the invasions and settlements of

Before
barbarians.
sary
coming to this subject,however, it is necesof Christianity,
to consider (i)the earlyhistory
(2)the general
of the decline of the empire.
causes

II. HISTORY

541.
of

OF

Origin and

CHRISTIANITY

Character

is to be learned
Christianity

TO

of

DEATH

OF

Christianity.
"

from

The

book

THE

the books

The
of the

Gospelsnarrate the life and teachingsof

entitled Acts of the Apostlesgivesan account
of
X"s8.

CONSTANTINE

earlyhistory
New
Christ.

ment.1
TestaThe

the lives and

those

teachingsof
him, and

of the

letters written

appointedto

he

whom

originof

by

Monarchy

Absolute

The

512

after

Epistlesare
churches

to

and
explainChristianity

to

others to the various

and

St. Paul

The

earliest churches.

the

his work

continue

the

to

up

accept it

to

men

encourage
and
live

the

Everywhere
classes welcomed
which
the

lower

religion

the

esteemed

slave

faith.

equal

of

soul
that

to

of

ther
the emperor.
It taughtfurthat in Christ man
was
united

so

God

with

and

wisdom

him

receive from

strengthfor meeting

become

MARY

(About

200

Child.

AND
A.D.

"

INFANT

THE

earliest

Isaiah pointingto the

of St. Priscilla;
pen

new

Madonna
star.

drawing by

and

Catacombs

Miss

Katherine

Fuertes)

During the

gods
reason
more

peace

as

to
Christianity

firstcentury of

littleattention.
of all

of

The

our

the

and
were

and

eternal

Persecutions.

of Christ attracted

ship
protectedthe publicworof their
empire and adopted many

powerful,it was

with

the

century,

felt to be

Jews.
as

that

For

the sect grew

disturbance

to

the

tians
Chris-

happinessof society. Unlike

the

intolerant of all other forms

and exceedingly
religion,

aggressivein making converts;

bringthe whole world

were
religious,
they could

to

Empire

its own, included the Christians

it tolerated them.
In the second

numerous

to

which

government,

peopleswithin

the

the followers

era

heir

had

the world.

upon
542. Relation

he

were

happiness. In giving this

of pardon
assurance
positive
and
immortality, Christianity satisfied a spiritual
had
come
craving which

JESUS

known

an

his sins
that

forgiven and

every
liever
be-

The

of life.

emergency
felt that

to

as

for

of

they

into their faith.

not

were

As

associate with

the

Romans,
under

command

all social festivities

others in such

pleas-

Causes

of

Persecution

513

they had to keep themselves free from idolatry.Hence

haters of mankind."
In like manto be thought of as
ner
they came
their refusal to worshipthe Genius 1 of the emperor
was
naturally
The
construed
picious
as
government, always susimpiety and treason.
of secret meetings,could see
nothing but danger to the
whose
in fact
Church
was
publicpeace in those of the Christians,
with branches
in every city and
becoming a great secret society,
that they
Their pagan
town.
on
mere
neighborsinsisted,
rumor,
This
were
guiltyof gross immorality and feasted on children!
and
hatred excited the belief that famine, pestilence,
superstitious
other calamities were
at the
sent by the gods in their indignation
accused before
Christians.
They were assailed by mobs and falsely
less
the officials. Some
of the princes,
lookingupon them as vile,lawwretches,ordered the officials to punish with imprisonment,
torture, and death those who refused to give up their faith. In
is termed
Church historythe execution of these commands
cution.
persefor
Marcus
The
conscientious
most
example,
emperors,
the
often
active
most
were
Aurelius,were
persecutors. There
periodsof persecutionbroken by intervals of comparativequiet.
the end of the third and in the
toward
most
severe
They were
beginningof the fourth century. Through all these tribulations
and strength. The world had
in numbers
the Church grew rapidly
of which the founder of the new
a want
long been without ideals
and moral force of his persupplied. It was the spiritual
religion
sonality
and a new
which gave energy to the Church
to
vitality
for

ures,

"

"

the world.

Organization of the Church.

543.

only
the

in

state.

elders
and

but
spirit,

or

who

"

The

Church

was

strong

not

organization
; in this feature it imitated
dependen
inIn the beginningeach societyof worshipperswas
cared for the poor ;
It had its officers : deacons,who
instructed the congregation
in religion,
who
presbyters,
also in

in council

looked

after its interests ; and

an

overseer

or

bishopwho was chief of the presbyters.In time, as the Church of

a
citysent out branches to neighboringtowns and rural districts,
the bishop of the parent community came
to have
authorityover
of congregations.In various other ways
a
a
largechurch
group
1

2L

"

504-

Absolute

The

5 14

Monarchy

small

ones.

the age

some

differences

of many
of Constantine

the bishopsof
among
of rank and of influence

Again,

gained control

The bishopsof the provincial

capitalsacquired
began to appear.
while those of
those of the less important cities,
authorityover
Jerusalem,and one or two other great cities
Rome, Constantinople,
Those
in authorityover
held in stillhigherhonor.
provinces
were
the
still
whereas
higherofficials
were
archbishopsor metropolitans,
the term
were
generallycalled patriarchs.For the one at Rome
*
in
to be preferred.The
came
government of the Church
pope
the time

of Constantine

unity under
qualityhere
monarchy.

Official

544.

to

freemen

After

Recognition of Christianity.
"

several

the

years
edict of complete toleration for the

request for their prayers

of

an

in that

and

even

the

extending through
issued

democratic

highestoffices. It was alreadytendingto

one
head; and though never
losingthe democratic
in time a stronglycentralized
mentioned, it became

might rise

slaves

was

severe

persecution
Galerius

emperor

containing
Christians,
(311). In some
parts

in his behalf

the

Constantius
empire, however, persecutionscontinued.
Chlorus,though a pagan, had treated the Christians under his rule
with great mildness,
and his son
Constantine
was
equallyfavorable
to them.
In fact,Christian ideas were
creepinginto Constantine's
and minglingwith his paganism.
religion
Faith in the supernaturalhad greatlyincreased since the time of
Augustus. In the fourth century all people,whether pagan or
believed in the direct interference of supernatural
Christian,
powers
in human

affairs. Constantine

noticed

that

the

Christians

had

prospered through all their tribulations,

and

that their persecutors

had suffered in various
Thus he concluded
that Christ was
ways.
a
mightierpower to aid than any combination
of pagan
gods.
This consideration induced him, before the battle at the Milvian

Bridge,2to put
soldiers. It
The
and

to

word
common

was

the monogram
a

pieceof magic

"

539-

to

secure

"g

on

the

the

shields

help of

the

of his

mighty

(Latin papa, father)was

for a time appliedto other bishops as well,
priests. It was
tillthe eleventh century that the title came
not
to be

pope

restricted to the bishop of Rome.

2

of Christ

The

The

of the Christians.

God

hope.

To

became

himself

assure

on

Nicaea

of the

experimentsurpassedall

from

victor

future,the

aid for the

same

after the battle

of his first acts

churches

515

taxation

and

to

to

was

grant them

port
supthis
he
In
ity
Christianplaced
imperialtreasury.
way
other
of
forms
level with the
worship recognizedby the
the

bring about

To

state.

of

result of the

One

Christian.

free the Christian

from

Council

the

edict of Galerius.1

only necessary to enforce the

and
stantine acceptedChristianity

was

he stillbelieved

of the Christians

toleration
practical

in the existence

favored

it

of the old

While

than

more

it

Con-

paganism,

continued

gods,and

to

through divination.
of Nicaea
Council
a Christian
(325A.D.). Meantime
545. The
theologywas growing up. The teachingsof Christ are simple,as
will find who
reads the Gospels. They contain no creed.
every one
For a time after his death his followers thought and spoke mainly
their Saviour.
Not
of the personal tie which
them
to
bound
satisfied merely with believing,
of them
some
attempted to explainconsult

them

"

the relation of

of their belief and

the nature

part of it

one

to

other.
an-

who had
philosophers
accepted the faith. In their effort to explain and systematize
Christianity
they brought their philosophyinto it. Many ideas,
law.
introduced from Roman
They graduallybuilt upon
too, were
tions
the original
simple faith an intricate theology,full of fine distincThis

which

is

none

view

own

who

those
the

to

differed

time

and

be the

was

Ath-an-a'si-us

Scholars
at

now
a

edict

was
was

no

"

that

by

under

sect

one

two

of

he

was

nature

believed

of God.

chief

officials of Egypt

church

the

the Son

of

Christ.

Arius

tained
main-

nature

of

God,

necessary.

inferior to the Father.

Athanabeen
as

to

strongly of the opinion,further,that

to the Christians;in fact,no
toleration
new
granting

Christianity. Scholars
of Milan"

In

theologies
The

another.

before the battle to have

believe the story of Constantine's dream
trifle; there can
be no doubt
This, however, is a mere

"Edict

his

salvation,whereas

the wrath

and

concerning

later time.

his experiment with

there

was

Each

already elaborate

were

between

A-ri'us

admitted

that the Son

there

between

that
and

both

Although

invented

heretics and

were

Differingfrom

understand.

only truth,the only way

differences

controversy

Greek

opposing doctrines.

created

of Constantine

wide

could

themselves

but

another, they

one

of the

true
especially

are

order

In

Father.

and

Son

council of

a
Ni-cae'a,
cityin

and
the

Asia

down

come

the

to

the East

widespreadin

first

entire Christian

world.

was

to meet

Church

The

in its

readilyaccepted

and

Church
but

in this

and

demanded,
conflict with paganism.

of

continued

The

council

of

professedto represent

the

institution
added

manner

to most

Arianism

the Germans.

among

occasion

as

to-day;

at

orthodox, whereas

West

called;

gatheringwhich

the

Nicaea

of

and

it

Catholic

Roman

denominations

the Protestant

is

meet

disputes
By adopting

accept.

The

heresy.

to

settle the

to

made

council

the

this decision

as

Minor,

all should

which

creed

Creed,

the Nicene
it has

northwestern

opponent became

that of his

parts of the world

all

Athanasius,

of

view

as

bishopsfrom

decide upon

to

to

this

uniformityof belief on
called

equalitybetween the
strengthenthe Church by securing
well as on other points,Constantine

hand, asserted absolute

other

the

sius,on

Monarchy

Absolute

The

5i 6

of such

general council,

greatlyto the power

of the

Suggestive Questions
i.
2.

Write

summaries

Give four

five

of the two

parts of this chapter like that

why
it,was too simple to meet the needs
of Diocletian's despotism?
justification
or

the government

reasons

found
in

the

disadvantages of
the

real

bureaucracy?

St. Peter
the
8.

and

Roman

Why

had

St. Paul?

Who

Empire

favored

the

Christians

Were

the

what

respects did

Christians

the

blameworthy
the

Christians

and
Christianity

the

the

and

system,

new

violate

or

Semites?

than
the

and

advantages

7. What
acceptance of

in this respect,

be said

can

of his officials?

religious tolerance

Note-book
I.

are

What

the

Apostles?

extension

less

3.

the

among

the

were

4.

What

on
p. 444.
Diocletian

empire, as

of the time.

5. Under
the mercy

ruler,
at
was
emperor
other religions,
besides Christianity,
arose
he

or

of the

the

was

6. What
Who

were

conditions

in

Christianity?
the

Romans?

contrary?

9.

In

long-establishedcustom?

Topics

Empire.

Botsford, Story of Rome, 294 f ; Munro,

History, 163-178; Robinson, Readings, i. 21-27;
Allen,Christian Institutions,
ch. ii (Apostles,Prophets, Teachers)
; Sohm,
Outlines of Church
History,ch. i (Persecutions)
Empire, ch.
; Davis, Roman
iv; Duruy, Historyof Rome, v. ch. Ixxxvii. " 6 vi. ch. xc
;
; vii. 472-520.
II. Constantine.
Selections
Gwatkin,
from the Early Christian Writers,
171-177;
Jones, Roman
Empire, 362-396; Duruy, vii. chs. ci,cii; Firth,
"

Source-Book

of Roman

"

Constantine.

Causes

518

of the Decline of the Empire

those of the country, that the populationof a citytends to

recruited from the country.1 Generally
die out unless it is constantly
comforts
and luxuries
that
citypeople,too, insist on more

than

"

is,they have

higherstandard

of

than

living
"

of the

try.
coun-

and at
children,
an
early age they are put to work, so that they actuallybecome
the citythe cost of bringingthem
up is far
profitable
; whereas in
For
greater, and there is little opportunityfor them to work.
these reasons
citypeopleare less inclined to marry and to bringup
largefamilies than those of the country. To the inhabitants of
destructive
than
the Roman
even
empire this cause proved more
pestilence.
hastened by slavery. During the great
The depopulationwas
sold as slaves,so that they came
to be
conquests captiveswere
and knightsbought up vast
of land
tracts
very cheap. Senators
"broad
estates
"),which they worked by slave
(Latinlat-i-fund'i-a,
The
labor.
unable to compete, sold their
peasant proprietors,
ing
small farms or were
forcibly
ejectedby wealthy neighbors. Comthese country people could find littlework, for
into the cities,
carried on mostly by slaves.
The
the skilled industries,
too, were
mercantile
and other business was
largelyin the hands of knights
and
freedmen.
Being,therefore,without a livelihood,the poor
could not support families to supply the state with soldiers and
citizens. In the later empire,as we shall soon
learn in more
detail,
to misery and
oppressive taxation reduced the masses
despair.

Again

There

in the

is evidence

country it

little to

those

costs

that in the first

two

centuries of

fell off more

populationof the cityof Rome
for the empire as a whole the decrease

548.
there

The

Collapse of

the

Money

rear

System.

than
was
"

one

our

half.

era

the

less
Doubt-

considerably
greater.
Under
the principate

littlemining of

of
preciousmetals, so that the amount
gold and silver in the empire was
not
materiallyincreased. On
the other hand the preciousmetals were
constantlybeing used in
the arts, stored up as offerings
in temples,and hoarded by private
A greater drain on the
caused by the conpersons.
stant
was
currency
of
to Arabia,India, and
exportation vast sums
China in exwas

^ Through

recent

this law of decay.

sanitaryimprovements,however, citiesare

now

generallyfree

from

Economic

Causes
other luxuries.

spices,
perfumes,and
change for silks,
gold and silver sent to the Far East
of

coins

and
lighter,

of

with

that metal.

The

that

in the middle

once

been

cents

baser

value

lower

piecewhich

to

came

that

of the third
were

metal,when
than

circulation ; for

of

allows

was

that the issue of

not

use

It is

cent.

one

in unlimited

coined

market,

will not

pay

drives
debt

well-known

of this want
is still more

of money
on
remarkable.

Diocletian

all other
in

We

Diocletian

increase

in the

as

it had

number

been

notice

must

had

become

under

of soldiers

and

from

metals

The

the
result

circulation of

of

one

The

"

will

cent

effect

throughit on society,
first that
many

Augustus:
and

at

good gold when

Constantine.

the government,

maintaining the government

under

and

fact

and
quantities,

cheap copper for the purpose.

pale-coppercoins stopped the

under

copper

rapidly

so

the

A.D.

silver money.
But coins of the value
suffice for the business of an empire.

Taxation

549.

the

making

increased

gold and
alone

The

year.

pieceswhich had
still so in name,
had come
to be nearly
in the time of Augustus was
worth forty

of the

man

law

all

the

that

result

piecesby mixing

alloywas

century

about

be worth

silver

of

amount

As

smaller every
than that of

remedy

debasing the

and
silver,

all copper.

other

no

Little of the

returned.

ever

in circulation became

of money
princescould think
the amount

519

in their

the

times

cost
as

(i)because
pay;

and

of

great
of

an

more

increase in the number

of
(2) because of the enormous
especially
gance
magistrates;and (3)because of the increased splendorand extravaof the emperors
and their higherofficials. But as the coinage
worthless.
the taxes in money
to be almost
came
depreciated,
The
grain,
government had to resort therefore to taxes in kind
meat, cloth,leather,iron,and other products. The heavy poll
and
couraged
distax, thereafter imposed on laborers,both men
women,
the poor from
rearingchildren. The unjust land tax
forced many
to give up their good fields and
peasant proprietors
settle on
sterile mountain
land in order to lightentheir burden.
the soil of the empire constantlybecame
Hence
less productive;
and this decline further hastened
the depopulation.
The great lord stillderived profitfrom his land, (i) because
his
tax was
(2)because he was powerfulenough
proportionately
lighter;
"

shirk the

to

of the

Decline

of taxes.

But

Causes

520

payment

than worthless to the

worse

organizedin

We

"

that in the late

was

Empire

the field of the

peasant became

are

in

now

positionto

empire societycame

system of hereditaryclasses,which

bodies of the multitude

and

minds

it

how

understand

the

owner.

Hereditary Social Classes.

550.

of

thus

and

to

enslaved

completed the

be

the
wreck

of the chief tasks of the government

of ancient civilization. One

afterward

Constantinopleas well,
The peoplewho attended
the
to this work were
with food.
chiefly
and swine-dealers.
bakers,cattle-dealers,
They
grain-merchants,
which were
to attract
as
were
given privileges
organizedin guilds,
as
plenty of merchants tillDiocletian
possible.There were
many
long been

had

to take

ordered them
of all

this

and

seemed

the state.

duty

to

than

such

an

For

similar

reasons

The

be

Nothing

The
to

made

The

the

as
curiales,

due

needs

of their

came
guildsbedo their

liberty

association

without

ing
shirk-

tyranny of guildrule

Civil Service.
of the

was

"

hereditarymust
above,1 were
wealthy

the

made

emperor

their

their

them

they
good
in providburden
ing
heavy enough.

city.
imposed,they had
But

the system

How

curia

stated

from

failed to collect any part of the tax

the deficiency
from their own
estates.
for the

it,

despoticking.

and

membership

amount

in

to

of the

that he bore

insure the collection of taxes

for
responsible

all the

destructive

more

see

that of the most

Curiales; Military

continue

to

jealouseyes

burden.

explained.The

To

be

As

tried to forsake

might be compelledto

could

member

common

than
galling
of taxation

men.

them

their members

each

always upon

551.

next

ordered

arrangement.

his part of the

more

he

tion
transporta-

in kind.

taxes

bear, many

to

great

after them.

sons

that
hereditary

were

too

the

pay

property, includingthe

whereupon
occupation,
their

without

themselves

upon

government

burden

new

their

supply Rome,

to

In

case

to make

community was
this additional load was
When, therefore,
placedon their shoulders,
wished to retire into privatelife. The
then made
many
emperor
the positionhereditary,
and requiredall who owned
above
twentyfive acres
to accept and
retain the place for life. If a man
went
to another city,
he was
liable to curial service in both.
The office
own

"I.sis-

Social Classes

521

made
to the character or
as
inquirywas now
had
once
a
man
occupation of proposed members; and when
entered,nothing short of bankruptcy could relieve his family of
The condition
load.
of the curiales was
the oppressive
even
more
lost all

honor, for

unenviable

than

no

of the tradesmen.

that

engaged in the militaryor civil service of the

free from liability
the curiales.
to enrollment
were
emperor
among
Their
declared that
sons
were
liable,however, till Constantine
This edict made
had a rightto the offices of their fathers.
sons
for no
the civil and
selfone
was
so
militaryposts hereditary,
to exchange an
as
peror
place under the emsacrificing
easy, honorable
for a life of drudgery as a curialis. The
consideration
same
Naturally

induced
552.
let

us

the

those

Freeholders, Tenants, and

consider

the vocations

of soldiers to follow

sons

how

the

condition

Slaves

Serfs.

become

and

of tenants

of their fathers.
"

Lastly

of peasant

prietors
pro-

hereditaryby law, and how these two classes,

togetherwith the rural slaves,were
merged in one great class of
the populationdwindled, the more
serfs. The
more
important it
became
that every one, slave or free,should
do his part in supporting
made

was

the
watched

government.

Hence

it

that

was

the

government

each individual.
It had
over
carefully
often happened that slaves escaped taxation by being sold from
That the government might keep a stricter
estate
to another.
one
of rural slaves,
account
ordered that they should not
Constantine
be sold off the estate on which they were
born or given their liberty.
By this act they ceased to be slaves and became serfs,so attached
to the soil as to be bought and sold along with it. The
tenants
co-lo'ni
about
free to move
as
were
once
they wished, and to
land of any
rent
lord with whom
satisfactory
they could make
But
when
terms.
heavy taxes rendered their lot hard, many
deserted the farms they had taken in rental,either to seek more
into the cities. To put a stop to this
indulgentlords or to swarm
Constantine
evil,which would soon haye destroyedthe population,
more

and

more

"

"

bound
the

the

tenant

and

his descendants

tenants, too, became

findingtheir
they also

with

taxes

serfs.
too

their descendants

In

forever
like

manner

heavy, tried
were

bound

to

the

soil. Thus

the small

holders,
free-

escape, whereupon
forever to the soil by

to

Causes

522

of the Decline of the Empire

The

order of the emperor.

the rural laborers to serfs

553.

The

Large

of

work

thus

was

Landowners

convertingthe greater part

completed.
Beginning of Feudalism.

the

Most
largelandowners.
Though many were
throughoutthe empire were senators.
few ever
sat in
actual duty or retired,
on
civil officers,
or
word senator
either at Rome
or at Constantinople.The
to

denote

rather than

no

to
obligation

in addition to the tax

post

their lands and

on

in

but

also to

screen

from

his tenants

the senate
had

had

come

few burdens
The

field laborers.
of his

shirk much

military

of the class

Men

and
curiales,

become

positionnot only to

was

function.

or

duty

to

lord

the state,

sometimes

and
injustice,

of them

of the

made

rank

under

were

been

has

Mention

of

even

discovered that the tenant's

justobligations.It was soon
condition was
happier,therefore,than that of the freeholder.
haste to give up their lands
Many freeholders accordinglymade
his procondition of receiving
his tenants
to a lord,and become
on
tection.
The
lord was
as
a rule glad to receive such
persons, as
of his dependents gave him greater
every increase in the number
power to defy the tax collectors and other imperialofficials. Those
that they would
who thus sought his favor were
requiredto swear
always remain faithful. The act of putting one's self under the
tion.
commendaof another with a vow
of fidelity
is termed
protection
The
himself
candidate
for protectioncommended
to his
future lord. As there was
much
land lyingeverywhereidle through
lack of cultivators,
the noble was
ready to grant a field to any one
who was
Such
it and to make
of fidelity.
the vow
to work
willing
a
i-um)
grant of land is called a benefit or benefice (Latinben-e-fic'
from

The

government

bestowal

of benefices.

extensive
of

Middle

as

to

to

Through

powerful,tillthey were

more
so

tried in vain

check

them

almost

commendations

the lords became

which
feudalism,

was

to reach

This

its full

and

more

rulingover
sovereigns,

like little kingdoms.

seem

the

and

estates

the

was

ning
begin-

development in

the

Ages.
Suggestive Questions

Write

of this chapter like that on

summary
city-statesof the ancient world decline?
3. Why
i.

offer less encouragement

to

mental

and

p. 444.

did

the

artistic effort than

2.

Why

empire

Roman
had

did the

the

Greek

Beginnings

city-states?

Which

4.

life

agricultural

probably

world
Would

6.

7.

Would

were

empire?

extent

land
for
the

was

of

Causes

Decline.

Davis,

"

viii.

Rome,

Empire,

Western
of

the

Middle

Dill,

364-377;
bk.

iii

Ages

Bury,

usually

if

all

evil

their

prevented

or

in

any

of

far

late

the

control?

to

power

way

How

10.

condition

been

Topic

Roman

Later

wretched

cient
an-

empire?

one

were

uncultivated?

beyond

Empire,

Roman

begin

which

the

had

retarded

decline

lying
the

in

inhabitants

the

ance,
endur-

of

united

have
of

Note-book

of

become

not

declined

causes

responsible

what

it

and

strength
civilization

the

government
the

much

so

Would

5.

had

523

physical

greater

have

all

was

emperors
To

declined,

probably

Why

9.

the

life?

Mention

8.

economic.

the

factory

representative

decline?

the

produces

have

empire

the

free?

or

Feudalism

of

Roman
with

the

study

Last
i.

Empire,
a

Duruy,

142-150;
in

Society

of

the

ch.

History

Century
iii.

decline.

The

of

the

ries
histo-

XLIV

CHAPTER

INVASIONS

GERMANIC

THE

376-476
I.

Europe,

of the

east

CHARACTER

AND

People.

and

Country

554.

with

LIFE

Rhine

forests, interrupted

The

who

The

describes

inhabited

here

and

GERMAN

historian

Roman
the

under

country
the

and

influence

of the
there

the

in

Rome

and

of

growth

Tacitus, in his Germania,

of

by

bristled

Danube,

damp,

as

they

in

unwholesome

were

in

severe

civilization.

climate

The

mans,
Ger-

huts, usually grouped

composed

Christianity.
524

and

surface

region, lived

its inhabitants

upper

central

empire

of the

time

VILLAGE

rude

to

this

the

north

was

altogether unfavorable

"

come

country

In

"

GERMANS

THE

or

and

marshes.1

A.D.

at

that

about

100

A.D.

time, before

in

(" 528),
they

had

with

556. Early Relations

in the

all continue

nations

or

the Romans.

build

to

the Romans.

Germans

stage of civilization. While

same

did not
those

far

as
ever, the tribes
empire remained as barbarous
along the border rapidlylearned to imitate the life of
extensively,
They began to cultivate the fields more

comfortable

more

homes,

dress

to

better,and

Christian

efficient tools and

more

The

"

the

from

away

Invasions

Germanic

The

526

weapons.
tribe known

make

to

missionaries

carried

Vis'i-goths
(West Goths),
from Bishop UTS-las,
north of the Danube, acceptedChristianity
who translated the Bible into their speech. In Christian doctrine
follower of Arius,whose
Arian
form of belief
Ulfilas was
a
an
The Goths therefore
was
explainedin the chapteron Christianity.1
became
tianity
Arians,as did all other barbarians who acceptedChrisbefore invading the empire. This fact was
to have
an
importanteffect on history.2
As the Romans
continuallyweaker, while the Germans
grew
and other northern
tribes increased in numbers
and
strength,it
the

them

Gospel.

The

as

the

"

inevitable

was

that the barbarians

should become

to the

menace

in the time of the

empire. The first great horde of invaders came
beaten
and destroyedby Marius
about
100
republic.They were
B.C.3 Augustus tried in vain to conquer
Germany.4 Thereafter
the northerners continued to grow more
dangerous. Marcus Aure-

lius,161-180 B.C., spent the best years of his administration

strugglesfor maintaining-the frontiers against their
Their

breaking through

nations

nearest

to

tribes on
them

should

only

the frontier

their

want

was

to

outer

were

question of
harassed by

border,it was

settle within

the

grand

scale.

The

depopulation.
It

these

was

to weaken

that many

barbarians
and

of
vast

Aurelius

Marcus

the enemy

barous
bar-

more

to

on

check

to watch
necessary for the government
carefullyover
settlers. In assigning
them to vacant
lands it forbade

was
new

"

"" 569, 579" 462.

'

effect

the

the

As

as
empire,especially

layidle throughlack of cultivators.6

policyof colonizingthe empire with

began

assaults.5

time.

but natural

tracts of land

the

in hard

545-

"
5

"
"
"

501.

527.
547.

The
them

Visigoths

527

leave their

holdings. They were

requiredto pay rents
and to do militaryduty when
needed.
Apart from their bondage
free and on
to the soil,
an
they were
equalitywith the Romans.
As a rule these colonists remained
selves
quietlyat home, exertingthemthrow
off
all trace of their own
to
and to become
nationality
in customs
Roman
and language.
In the third century A.D., as stated above,1the Germans
made
raids into the empire,and Aurelian
had been compelled to
many
yieldDacia to the Visigoths.
to

II. THE
The

557.

Invasion

INVASIONS

Visigoths (376 A.D.). For

of the

century the Visigothslived quietlyin Dacia

Roman

and

more

Goths
Dacia

With

people.

the

Os'tro-goths

"

"

by
savages,

who

River.

the Don

and

lived north

Suddenly

this

life,
they became

kinsmen, the

faces.

East

Sea, between

peaceful life
dark, dwarfish

of the Huns, a
appearance
little eyes and scarred,beardless

the allies of the

of the Black

the

with

as

of settled
progress
distinct from their less civilized

more

about

"

On

was
race

turbed
disof

horseback

they swept the country like a tempest, plunderingand destroying

the women
and the children
whatever
even
they found, and killing
without
they chose to spare
pity. Those of their enemies whom
Asiatic race.
like
Untheir slaves or subjects.They were
became
an
wish to settle in the conquered
the Germans, they had no
with roving,and remained
content
lands,but were
They
savage.
conquered the East Goths, and overthrew the West Gothic king,
who lived in Dacia.
arch,
Thereupon the warriors of the defeated monwith

their wives

and

children,about
of the

two

hundred
and

Danube,

thousand

implored
for safetyfrom their frightful
the Romans
to let them
cross
suers.
purhave alreadyheard,2
The weak-minded
we
Valens, of whom
render
granted their petitionon the understandingthat they should surtheir arms
and give their children as hostages. These were
needless conditions; for with their arms
they would, in grateful
have helped him defend the empire.
loyalty,
in

all,gathered on

""

534

".

the north bank

"

540.

The

528

Invasions

Germanic

shipswere conveying the multitude

days the Roman
the river (376A.D.). But while the officersin chargeof this
across
intent upon
work were
robbing the Goth's,the warriors retained
their arms, and passed into the empire,burning with rage at the
stantinopl
insults and the wrongs
they suffered from the government of Confamine and further mistreatment
When
goaded them
to rebellion,
they spread murder and desolation over Thrace and
at A-dri-a-no'ple,
and
Valens rashly assailed them
Macedonia.
(378A.D.). This was a grave
perishedwith two- thirds of his men
misfortune,for it taught the invadingbarbarians that they might
and slay emperors
in open fight: For some
time
defeat Romans
after the battle the Goths roamed
about at pleasure,
but could not
For

many

take the fortifiedcities.

558. The

dosius,the successor
Thrace, while those
settled

empire were
of the

and

Romans,

This

(379-395A.D.). From Theoof Valens, the Visigothsreceived homes

in
Ostrogothswho had followed them into the
in Phrygia. The barbarians became
the allies
Theodosius

of

Reign

Theodosius

"

remained

their firm friend.

ruler

himself by making Christianity

the sole
distinguished
of the state.
he ordered the pagan
When
religion
templesclosed,
those who
carried out his edict destroyedmany
of the buildings
and broke the images. Though the pagans
forbidden to worwere
ship
their gods,some
in their illegal
for
devotions
quietlypersisted
a
long time after his reign. Theodosius was equallyzealous for
uniformityof Christi n faith. By persecutingthe Arians and
other heretical sects, he hoped to establish the Nicene
Creed1
him orthodox
Under
came
thus bethroughoutthe East.
Christianity
intolerant of all other faiths. It was
this theological
chiefly
zeal which

there had
the

earned
been

for

two

him the titleof

or

Augusti.

more

throne,he associated his

; and

taken

into

After

"

the

When

another
Ho-no'ri-us,
partnership.
his

sons

continued

governed in the East and Honorius

it is to be noticed that the two

some

Theodosius

time
to

came

self
Ar-ca'di-us as Augustus with him-

son

afterward

his death

Great.'''
For

to

rule the

in the West.

Augusti were
1

"

son,

545.

was

in like

empire.

manner

Arcadius

In all such

supposed to

rule

cases

con-

jointlyover
merely for

the whole

Alaric and

Stilicho

empire,and

to

make

529
a

rough division

of it

convenience.

559. Alaric and Stilicho (395-408A.D.). Soon after the death

of Theodosius,the Visigoths,
needing more
land,hoisted one of the
"

a
Al'a-ric,
promising of their young nobles, named
upon
their custom
in electinga chieftain. Under
his
shield,as was
leadership
theyravaged Greece tillthe minister of Arcadius bought
his friendship,
givinghim an office in Illyricum.In this position
he suppliedhis men
with good arms;
that in a few years he
so
was
ready for a more
important undertaking, the invasion of
idea of the value of civilization ; and it was
Italy. He had some

most

"

his wish
It is

to find
a

country in which

remarkable

fact that not

to settle his followers.

only the

but
soldiers,

common

the best

mans.
Gergeneralsand ministers of the empire,were
now
Such was
fair and statelyVandal, who
had
a
Stil'i-cho,
married
a niece of Theodosius,and
at this time guardianand
was
chief general of the worthless
in the West.
Honorius, emperor
even

Stilicho and
men;

But

both

Alaric
were

Stilicho had

were

brave

well matched.

Both

born

were

leaders of

and

with equal geniusfor war.

energetic,
the advantage of Roman
organization.Hastily

gatheringtroops from various quarters,he defeated Alaric at Pollen'ti-ain northern Italy,

and compelledhim to return to Illyricum.
But Stilicho had a jealousenemy
who
ceased whisperingin
never
the ears of Honorius
his tale,
of the Vandal's plotting.
true or false,
The miserable emperor
his death.
at lengthgave way, and ordered
The
Roman
followed the example of their master
legionaries
by
the
the
and
the
children
of
in
the
wives
Germans
murdering
army.
The
thousand
off
to the
enraged barbarians,thirty
strong,went
of Alaric,and besought him to take vengeance
by invading
camp
Italy.
560. Siege and Capture of Rome
(410 A.D.). Alaric again
into Italywith his army,
but hesitated to use
force.
His
came
character was
not that of a destroyer;he merely wanted
a high
"

office for himself

tried

and

lands

for his followers.

For

two

years he
to obtain

threats,and various other means

by negotiations,
his object. When
all these attempts failed,
he besiegedRome, and
murder
and pillaging,
some
capturedit by surprise.There were
2 M

The

530
but

probablyno great damage

and

as

Christian he

Alaric

done.

was

respectedRome,

spared the property

of the Church.

mankind

; for all had

astonished

capture of Rome

The

Invasions

Germanic

supposed

they thought they saw the ruin

It discouragedthe Christians
of the law and order of the world.
throughoutthe empire,that so many holy shrines,so godly a city,
To
should be profanedby those whom
they considered pagans.
his City of God, to prove that
wrote
console them, St. Au-gus'tine
the community of the Most
High would last forever,even though
who
were
the greatest city of earth had fallen. As the pagans,
the misfortune
blamed
on
stillinfluential,
Christianity,
Augustine
retorted that the event proved the old gods incompetent to protect
the city.
the

and
cityinviolable,

St.

Augustine,the

in 354

After

A.D.

Manichaeans,

in her fall

of the

famous

most

life he

years of
later

many

wayward
accepted the

somewhat

and

born in Africa

Christian Fathers, was

heretical

joined the

orthodox

Christian

of

sect

faith.

pointed
Ap-

Carthage, he devoted the rest of his life to

againstboth heresyand
speaking and writingin defence of orthodox Christianity
voluminous
works
of
his
on
theology he did much
paganism. By means
toward reducingthe teachingsof Christians to a consistent philosophicsystem.
He died in Hippo in the seventy-sixth
were
year of his age, while the Vandals
that city; cf. " 562.
besieging

bishopof Hippo,

The

Goths

his followers

to

labors he died
before he could

561. The

"

but

as

rich

saw

southward.
for

country.

from the fever-laden

may
suppose
find a home
for his people.

him.

This

of existence and

his followers

life,he recognizedthe

in

Spain.
had

man

once

to substitute

slow

value

in

"

wished

the Goths

for order

of these

climate

"

brother-in-law,

His

to

blot

in their

adapting themselves

of Rome

At

transporting

In the midst

we

Visigothic Kingdom

out

he

city and marched

preparationof a fleet

began the
Africa,still a

Ataulf, succeeded
Romans

citynear

left the

soon

Alaric

Rhegium

and

the

place;

to settled

civilization.

Accordinglyhe became her champion; and taking with him the

Gal'la Pla-cid'i-a,
whom
he hoped to make
his
emperor's sister,
he
led his nation
from
bride,
Italy to Gaul and Spain. These
countries had
already been plundered by Vandals, Sueves, and
the Goths had to subdue
A'lans,whom
in order to found their new

The

Vandals

531

heighttheir kingdom extended from the Loire

of Spain. Tou-louse' was
River in Gaul over
their capital.
most
The
seized the Gallic
continued unimpaired till the Franks
state
l
internal discord graduallyweakened
part of it (507). Thereafter
the Goths of Spain. After two centuries of decay the Mo-ham'methem
and destroyedtheir kingdom.
dans swept over
the
The Visigoths
as
are
interesting
pioneersof the
especially
When

state.

at

its

"

German

invasion
their

lengthon

for that

; and

wanderingsand

on

of the other barbarian

movements

562. The
another

"

Vandals

in the

we

reason

have

dwelt

their relations with

races

we

shall follow

at

Rome.
more

Empire (335-435A.D.). The

"

some

The

rapidly.
Van'dals,

permissionfrom Constantine the

Great to settle in Pan-no'ni-a,
Here
a
provinceon the Danube.
under the influence of Rome, and of Christianity
in its Arian form,
they made progress in orderlylife. But in the time of Stilicho
and Alaric they abandoned
their settlements
and wandered
to the
northwest,in the direction of the Rhine, joiningto themselves on
the wray the Germanic
Asiatic people
Sueves and the Alans, an
the garrisonsfrom
the
(406 A.D.). As Stilicho had withdrawn
Rhine, to use againstAlaric,they crossed to Gaul and ravaged
their way into Spain. Here, as we have seen, the Visigoths
under
Ataulf found
The
them.
Sueves
were
graduallypressedby the
into the northwestern
of the peninsula,
where
newcomers
corner
they established a small kingdom. The other two tribes retired
German

race,

received

southward.
Thus

far the Vandals

had been

driven about

from

placeto place.
under whom
Now, however,they found their hero-kingin Gai'ser-ic,
they,too, were to appear as a conqueringnation. In contrast with
the majestictype of the German
short and
leader,Gaiseric was
limping. He had, however, a cunning,nimble mind, and he was
and bold.
In addition
to his desire to find
grasping,persistent,
lands for his men
and a kingdom for himself,he sought to humble
church.
Rome, and, as an Arian Christian,to destroythe Orthodox
The Vandal
chief found his opportunity in a quarrelbetween
two
Roman

dia

A-e'ti-us
officers,
was

and

regent of the West.

1

" 579.

Bon'i-face.

At this time

She allowed Aetius

Galla Placi-

to work
2

" 561.

upon

her

53

Invasions

Germanic

The

Boniface, the

feelingsagainst his rival,Count1

Africa.
count

on

for revenge
his provinces. The

turned

as

the

to Rome

Ordered

of his

remnant

the

to

in

of treason, the
groundlesssuspicion
invited

Vandals, and

barbarians

Gaiseric became

as

soon

commander

accepted the

them

offer.

chief,he crossed

to

vade
in-

ingly,
Accord-

to Africa

with

nation, numbering perhaps eighty thousand

face
penitentBonito be swayed
not the man
tried to send him back ; Gaiseric was
Africa was
him
officers. To
a
tempting prize. Its
by Roman
with
fertile estates worked
by serfs had long suppliedRome
large,
grain. The richest of its many cities was Carthage. The Vandals
desolated the fields and took the fortifiedplacesby siegeor treachery.
Rome
Meantime
a treaty with
recognizedtheir kingdom in Africa.
when
few invading
have been the Roman
weak must
How
so
army
barbarians
could seize the fairest provincesof the empire !
Sack of Rome
(455A.D.). But Gaiseric's
563. Vandalism
; The
followers were
No
had
not so peacefulas those of Alaric.
sooner
they gained the seaports than they built shipsand took to piracy.
Thus they harassed Italyand all the neighboring
shores.
Whither
shall we
sail?
the pilotis said to have asked
his chief at the
beginningof one of these expeditions. To the dwellingsof those
God
is angry," Gaiseric replied. From
with whom
their piracy,
of the Orthodox
but more
from their pillage
churches,wherever they
found them, the word vandalism, derived from the name
of their
destruction
of
to signifythe aimless,wanton
tribe,has come
persons,

and

women
including

In vain

children.

the

"

"

"

"

property.
Rome
Deprived of her food supplyby these pirates,
and
to see the destroyers
was
in her own
soon
famine,
emperor

at this time

throne and
become

had

was

forced

his wife.

certain

Maximus,

the
Eu-dox'i-a,

She then

widow

requested Gaiseric

who

suffered from
streets.

The

usurped the
to
predecessor,2

had

of his

to avenge

her wrong

The Vandals
by plunderingRome.
gladlyacceptedthe invitation.
For a fortnight
the cityand stored their vessels with
they pillaged
valuable property. Their
leader,however, had promised Leo,
bishop of Rome, to refrain from bloodshed and from burning the
1

A count

Valentinian III.

was

high militaryor civilofficer ; " 538.

brought the

of his wrath

storm

his

ruined cities marked

happy

of

for the future

omen

Attila at

path.

to

swelled

and

Theodoric

Europe.

to

which

the brook

torrent

from

the blood

told that

are

the

fell,but

Theodoric

field of battle.

Aetius

met

fiercest

flicts
con-

With

vast.

the thousands

through the

flowed

Hun

was

routed.

was

Had

to
taken years, possiblycenturies,
which he,
desolation and the barbarism

gainedthe day, it might have

he

Europe from the

as
victor,would have spread over
importance of this battle.1
redeem

in

country

common

of the
in one
Cha-lons',
history(451 A.D.). The slaughterwas

we
poeticexaggeration

of wounds

of their

distance from

some

known

Wasted
fields and
Gaul.
upon
At this tryingtime, the union of

in defence

Romans

and

Germans

Invasions

Germanic

The

Though

Attila withdrew

Italyon

his errand

and

sword.

refugeesfrom
the Adriatic

other
shore.

Attila's

came

their wretched

In time

to

was

Turks.

he

year

cluster of islands

along

became

settlement

threatened

Huns

persuadedhim

to their chief and

is the story; and

Such, at least,

next

the

help defend Europe against

the

As

the

was

appeared
visited Aq-ui-lei'a
with fire
the population,
joinedby

ruined towns, fled to

kinsmen, the

BishopLeo

of

remnant

cityof Venice, which

famous

the

He

of destruction.

miserable

The

Gaul,

from

Such

continent.

the

it is difficultto

the

to spare

city.2

else induced

what

see

Rome,

the savage to withdraw

after his departure,
from Italy. Attila died soon
and with his death the Hunnish
empire broke into pieces.

566. Relation

of

understandingthe
must

the

take

the

relation

into account

method

German

of

Invaders
the

"

the

to

invaders

"

great change which

Empire.

to

the

had

come

For

"

empire
about

we

in

of

The
supportingthe armies.
system of taxes in
kind3 had proved too costlyand cumbersome, and had broken
down
by its own
weight. Especiallythe roads had fallen out of
in ruins,and wagons
and beasts of burden
repair,the bridgeswere
failed through the general impoverishment of the Romans.
It
was

necessary
1

Three

years

great commander

in time

of peace

to

bring

the

soldiers

near

to

the

afterward Valentinian III, jealousof the fame of Aetius, invited the

into the imperialpalace, and killed him there with his own
hand.

2 This
three years
was
before Gaiseric's plunder of Rome,
tried to prevent, but could only soften.

"

which
*

the

"

549"

same

Leo

German

The
of

source

Soldiers

supply. They

The

first

province or

other

of

the

Emperor

quartered accordinglyon

were

step in this process

district.

The

assignan

to

was

soldiers

then

were

535
the inhabitants.
army

to

distributed

and in each cityamong

the cities,
the proprietors
of land.
among
Each
lord had to give a third,or other specified
part, of his shelter
and
soldiers,

to

this

in war;

the

in the

Each

empire.

the
"

soldier

included

was
"

quartered

essaries
nec-

on

the

habitan
in-

time

before.

as

applied to

now

was

nations

Germanic

family of

all

cities retained

their civil authorities

system

for

but

provinces and

This

and
food, clothing,

thus
army,
its officers and commander

had

the

with

The

arrangement.
as

The

his estate.

from
in

provide them

to

which
was

settled
an

army
ing
differ-

in the service of the emperor,

littlefrom other Roman
armies.
The

soldiers

German

the

of

owners

did

not

come
be-

land; they

simply the guests of the proprietor,

with a rightto shelter and
support. It was
by bearing this
burden
that he performed his duty
were

to

the

state

of

payment
was
were

"

substitute

often

they were

The

system

German

soldiers

taxes.

oppressive
; the
violent
neither

for the

and

brutal ; but
enemies
nor
querors.
con-

Their

once

commander was at
cording
"king" of his followers,acto their native

GERMAN

(With Roman
from

custom, and

SOLDIER

equipment, 6th-i2th century;

Kleinpaul,Mittelalter)

the weakness
Such was
of
now
militaryofficer of the emperor.
the imperialgovernment, however, that these German
kingsfinally
the
districts
in
civil
their
addition
to 'their
over
acquired
power
Taking possessionof the public lands, they
militarycommands.
and assignedthe rest to their favorites
use
kept a part for their own

and

followers.

Private

land

remained

in

the

hands

of former

ence,
stronglyinclined to independtheir sovereign,
and
as
emperor
in his cause.
at criticaltimes to fight
stillwilling
were
Races.
Pursuing our study
Blending of the Two

Though these chiefs were

they continued to regardthe

owners.

of them

some

567.

The

"

Germans,

the

reduced

or

support

or

reference

their property

considered

slavery,

to

stillfurther,

Romans

deprived of

not

were

alike,without

All
other

natives

the

find that

and

Germans

the

relations between

of the
we

Invasions

Germanic

The

536

to

in any

paid

race,

taxes

the state, accordingto the amount

to

way
or

by
ferior.
in-

gave

of their land.

and eligible
to office. In fact,
militaryservice,
for a time unable
to read or write,and were
were
as the Germans
king filled his civil offices
ignorantof administration,the German
All

liable to

were

with

of

side

by

into

blended

side for the two

German

one.

Forgettingtheir own
of
The
religion
speak Latin.
that

was

the church

of

the invaders

Catholic,as
Germans

added

in these
centuries
whom
a

the natives

at

also

prevailed. It

Catholic

Roman

"

whereas

"

the

the
t

or

confusion,violence,and

decay
it

me

brought

brutality

the

of civilization and

new-

"

into
vitality

reignof

and
family life,

better

armies"

by

the

the

of the Germans
For

long

presence

time

here

under

consideration

were

^lifecontinued almost
come
we
foreigners.When
life emerging from the
a new

Roman

of these

to the

old ;

former

gave way
learned
language,the Germans

Rome

greatlyto

handful.

untouched

existed

laws

Roman

two

influence
more
population. Much
directions was
exercised,however, by those who had for
been coming quietlyinto the empire,in comparison with

the

mere

the

and

came
pagans ; but all eventuallybeThe
explainedbelow.
coming of the

will be

of the time ; it hastened

ignorance. At the same
infused

of

either Arians

were

and

tillthe
respectively,

races

to the latter.
to

ness
of the busi-

positionsmanaged most
were
Intermarriages
common,

government.

soon

races

in these

who

Romans,

reignof Charlemagne,we find

the Roman
world had passed away,

the mediaeval

world

was

hand.

568. Dissolution

of the

Empire

in

the

West.

"

In

the

half of the fifth century most

of the provincesin the West
fallen into the hands of the barbarians.
Though in name
chiefs recognized
the

of
sovereignty

the emperor,

they were

latter

had
their

inreally

The

dependent,and
was
therefore,

these

Such

it

master

was

patrician.This
officer of highestrank.
whom
"

little

him

drove

Orestes

title

submission

After

Nepos

the death

end,

alone

over

fell

"

of

and

in

all.

No

in that

the East

bore

the office to his

gave

own

son

ulus,
Rom-

accordinglynicknamed
Augustulus
under
the boy had ruled a few months
latter was
killed by the soldiers in a mutiny.
"

of these

But

rebellious

troops, ousted

ulus
Rom-

not

Nepos

Nepos

theory

assassinated

was

in

exile,and

the line of emperors

in the West
came
the Augustus at Constantinopleruled

for law

In

year.2 Indeed, the

as

of her

in

the

part of

of

events

the

empire

of the emperors
in
had
left in
Rome

which

central
and

saw

fact, no

want

well

as

time

continuance

degree a

some

of the barbarians

longingfor

the

livingat

one

satisfied in

the hearts

stand

troops and

appliedto a militaryand civil

time Nepos was
in Italy,
emperor

476 anything worthy of notice.

"

his puppets.

as

the

make

Italyunder the nominal sovereigntyof the

at
his German
Constantinople-He rewarded
troops
support by quarteringthem on the lands of Italy.1

emperor
for their

an

and

them

Under

ruler of

was

With

soldiers,

his (476),
and offered
rightfully
at Constantinople.While
granting
of Italy,
Zeno insisted on recognizing
patrician

Augustus.

as

Odoacer

to

to

now

this

which was
office,
Zeno, emperor

the title of

Odoacer

At

out

his father's regency, the

leader
O-do-a'cer,
the

of his

Italy,

soldiers

the

emperor."

from

than

more

commander,
to
easy for the general-in-chief

the title

but

537

German.

were

of the emperors,
and to treat
who
commanded
was
O-res'tes,

master

the West

file up to the

circumstances

himself

in

Emperor

gave him almost no support. Little

left to the Augustus at Rome.
Most
and

the rank

from

Last

native

which, in the midst

power
order throughoutthe world.

of

citizens, a
chaos, should
"

Accordingly,most
in the West, whatever
their race
men
or
condition,thought of the
Eastern
their own.
The German
as
kings respectedhim,
emperor
and gladlyreceived the offices and honors he bestowed.
But they
limited their obedience
interests and pleasures. The
by their own
*"
2

The

579.

The

importance of the

year

dissolution of the western

substitution

of

one

emperor

476 has been greatly exaggerated by modern

half of the

for two

was

historians.

empire had alreadybeen accomplished,and

by

no

means

strange event.

the

fact

had

cessation

This

Italy ceased
the

became

West,

succeeded

pope

the

Suggestive
Write

i.

(i) with

Germany
with

improvement?
the

7.

Give

376

A.D.

of

it necessary

colonists

as

bad

history

the

and

effects, if

to

had

any,

10.

Were

the

11.

What

is the

German

German

in

which
the

of

Life

Duruy,

History

Middle
II.

of the

Ages,
Sack

Destruction
ch.

ch.
of

xxxi

323-3""
Gibbon

and
;

of Rome,
v

(German

Rome

by

of Rome,

iv.

Goths

Germans.
vi.

see

(by

5-7;

chs.

the

the

of

entered

Robinson,

vi ;

have

greater

the

to

into

year

the

why?

9.

by

barbarians?

pire
em-

What

really

invaders?

Name

them.

nations?

Topics
Tacitus,

"

xcv.

xxxvi

Decline

(by
her

exaggerated
39-46.

the

455

410,

Fall

and

Vandals),

Invaders,

the

Civilization

5-27

the

during

civilization).

Vandals,

Gibbon,

especially

Germania,

Adams,

;
to

and

Italy and

Readings,

empire

of

barbarians?

Marius

so,

tion
civiliza-

the

the

empire

the

in

Germans
If

the

Romance

"

Goths

Goths),

Hodgkin,

Hodgkin

armies?

for

capacity

was

of

of

the

Germans

government

Which

time

Contrast

early

the

6.

admit

contributions

the
v,

ch.

the

Augusti.

progress

hostility

to

her

term

Primitive

slower

from

Note-book

I.

Rome
in

2.

444.

greater

Compare

the

colonization

hordes

of

the

the

the

Greeks.
or

Rome

them

the

meaning

early

wars

for

enlist

5.

p.

Compare

make

Germans

decay

on

showed

Romans?

of the

that

8.

Was

the

the

that
3.

Which

internal

empire,

the

to

did
and

with

Germans

early

danger

Greeks

like

Greece.

Indians.

Why

4.

the

than

of

As

Questions

chapter

(2) with

Egypt,

American

North

the

this

of

summary

complished
ac-

empire.

person

throne

vacant

an

Church.

bishop

influential

most

the

to

the

to

of the

the

upon

emperors,

and

respected

most

the

"

of

home

the

be

to

half

western

effect

important

an

therefore

Italy points
of the

dissolution

the

"

in

Augusti

of

line

the

of

cessation

Invasions

Germanic

The

538

i.

of

A.D.

the

Bury's

792-803;

destructiveness

Lanciani,

"

Roman

pire,
Em-

edition,
ii.

iii.

283-286.

especially

of

the

CHAPTER

THE

NEW

XLV

GERMAN

STATES

476-774

569. The
the

line

of

the

and

Gaul

touched
who

by

of

only

not

were

life.

Italy,
his

quartered

as

each

"

against Roman,

the

various
one

religion,and

Extending

along the ancient

the border.

the

shore

farther
Fris'i-ans,

along the Danube

beyond
before
their

share
p.

Slavs.

showing

were

"All
a

frontier

the

other, German

Arian

of their

Sea

heels

olic.
Cath-

against

order, and

to

way

in

ization,
civil-

one

and

tribes,like
to

Rhine

the

and

and

crossed

Elbe

brethren

press

west

and

Oman,

were

Eastward

Alemanni.

their

empire."

empire,

had
the

Gep'i-dae

"

the

who

kinsmen

the

between

general tendency

plunder of the dismembered

in the

stances
circum-

in confusion

was

gave

ways

these

north, just outside

the

on

Thu-rin'gi-ans
these

Roman

finallyharmonized

Ru'gi-ans, Lombards,

the

and

to

yet

till Odoacer

the

against

have

empire.

one

the

West

gradually

of the North

south

were

the

were

them,

Under

race

chaos

pressed upon

races

On

her

conflictingforces

line of barbarous

the

how

of

little

Sax'ons,

the

we

Roman

all the

barous,
bar-

more

and

whom

land.

life and

still pagan,

continued

against Christian,

see

now

settled

were

of

especially

more

An'gles

and

when

still in

was

remained

Franks

why

invading

pagan

shall

We

on

understand

to

and

Africa

time

West

wholly ignorant

seen,

soldiers

the

toward

The

but

have

German

conflict,

how

the

of Rome.

pagans,

we

it is easy
and

of

already invading Britain,

were

hear,

Gaul

civilization

entire

progress

Vandals

in Northern

the

the

Burgundians,

some

The

orderly government.
while

the

making

At

"

Italy ceased,

Spain

Visigoths, were

(476 A.D.).

Europe

in

emperors

In

chaps.

of

Condition

A.D.

in

order, and

who

had

gone

south, and

take

European

tory,
His-

6.

570.

The

Ostrogoths;

The

first of the

was

the

East-

great

Gothic

Theodoric

forces
nation.

which

When
539

the

Great

helped bring
Attila

(476-526 A.D.).
-

about

died,

this

it threw

change
off

the

The

540

CHURCH

OF

SAN

States

German

New

APOLLINARE

Nuovo,

RAVENNA

(Builtby Theodoric)

Hunnish

yoke,1and settled in Moesia as an

these barbarians
Constantinople.Between

was

much
The

trouble,which

ended

leader of the movement

1

and

migration to Italy.
the great,
as
Theodoric, known

in their
was

at
the emperor
there
the emperor

allyof

"" 557, 565.

The

542

to reduce

him

the orthodox

Italywas

she had

than

an
civilization;

this way
to order and
the various classes of his subjects

Arian,he tolerated
Under

and

law

of Roman

the value
yet appreciated

he

States

German

New

been

from

secure

for centuries.

In

Catholics.

invasion,and
The

more

great cities could

he aimed

harmony.
prosperous

repair
king's

now

Among the
decayedpublicworks and erect new ones.
beautiful church in the
his capital,
a
was
inJRa-ven'na,
buildings
which is still standing.
styleof a basilica,
felt outside of Italy: on the one
tinued
His influence was
hand, he conin Constantinople
the
to the emperor
; on
subjectin name
other,he connected himself by marriagesof his relatives with most
he brought the
of the German
By such means
kingsof the West.
degree of friendly
warring races of the broken empire into some
the present state-system of
which crudelyforeshadowed
relation,
their

Europe.
In his later years, however, there were
to rid
intrigues
the emperor.
and
the Goths
to bring the country under
led Theodoric

death

Italyof
This

charge of conspiracy
eminent
the renowned
the two most
of his court,
men
Bo-e'thi-us,
scholar.
and Sym'ma-chus,also a noted
Suspecting
philosopher,
where
he soon
the pope of disloyalty,
the king threw him into prison,
Thus
died.
Theodoric
himself did not long survive his victims.
a
gloriousreignended in sadness; and no one after Theodoric was
trouble

to

put

to

on

"

able to carry

his

great work.

Justinian (527-565 A.D.); his Wars.

571.

Theodoric's

Though
to

on

death

"

became
Jus-tin'i-an

his ancestors

were

rude

emperor
peasants, he

the best education

great natural ability,

In the year
at

after

Constantinople.

received,in addition

which

the Eastern

capital

afforded.
His

ambition

"

"

the

grandeur of the empire by

legislation,
by great publicworks, and especially
by conqueringthe
German
He had the rare
ing
kingdoms of the West.
facultyof choosthe most

was

for

restore

person for each

found
commander
a

competent

i-sa'ri-us the emperor

well

to

specialservice.
of remarkable

In

Bel-

genius,
dued
qualifiedto lead in the work of conquest. This general subthe Vandals of Africa in one
short campaign (533-534A.D.);
after the death of Gaiseric they had declined,and the Romans

Justinian

country welcomed

of that

the army

543

of the East

as

deliverer from

oppression.
Next

Belisarius attacked

the

Ostrogothickingdom, which
well as Italy. He met with little opposition
included Sicily
as
till
he had entered Rome.
There the Goths besiegedhim for a year ;
their king, cut off the water
meantime
Wit'i-gis,
supply,so that
lacked pure water
Rome
tillsome
of the aqueducts were
restored a
thousand
When
the siegewas
at length raised,
years afterward.
his
found
it difficultto take the strong cities of
on
Belisarius,
part,
northern
Italy. By negotiation,
however, he finallysecured possession
of the king and of the entire country. As the Roman
rule
the Goths immediatelyrevolted ; but after a long,
was
oppressive,
fierce struggle(540-553 A.D.)the remnant
of their number
bade
farewell to Italy and dispersedamong
various
barbarian
tribes.
The peninsulacame
wholly under the emperor, and was governed
for him by an
officer termed
whose
ex'arch,
capitalwas Ravenna.
Still later,
Justiniangained a foothold in southeastern
Spain,but
failed to conquer the entire West-Gothic
kingdom.
While
the emperor
he was
to prowas
subduing Italy,
struggling
tect
the empire from
the Persians,who were
as
as
ever.
mighty
More
than once
he had to purchasepeace by the payment of tribute.
It was
well for Europe, however, that he was
able to accomplish
that ; and we
lose sightof the fact that the Gershould never
even
man
nations were
free to work out the destinyof the continent only
because the empire formed
their bulwark
againstthe powers of
year

Asia.

Justinian's Internal

572.
Roman

and

"

Like

a
great builder
Justinianwas
The
aqueducts, and other publicworks.

emperors,

his many
now

Improvements.

churches

was

the dome-covered

cathedral

the

earlier

of

cations,
roads, fortifi-

most

splendidof
St. Sophia

of

"

Mohammedan

aries
In his reigntwo Christian missionmosque.
from China
to Constantinople,
brought eggs of the silkworm
merce,
taught the Europeans the culture of silk. Agriculture,com-

and

the skilled industries still flourished

pire
throughoutthe emto support the oppressiveChurch, State,
; but the producewent
and army.
Justinianis most noted, however, as the emperor who
codified the Roman
law. Under his authority
finally
Tri-bo'ni-an,
an

aided by
jurist,

eminent

containingtwelve
the

summarized

legaldecisions

they added
of law
principles

up first the Code,

which
the Digest,

drew
several associates,
of statutes, and

books

these

States

German

New

The

544

second

of all the most

learned

lawyers.

treatise
a
third work, the Institutes,

for the

of students.

use

To
the

on

writingstogether

These

ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE

(From

form

the Civil Law, the

most

photograph)

preciousgiftof

Rome

to

the modern

world.
In
order

for law and

Justinianwe find another factor which made
throughout the world.
Especiallyhis conquests brought

the Western
and

too,

further

The

Lombards

in the
in

the minds

with
of the

Roman

Germans

civilization,
that

they,

empire.
Italy (568-774A.D.). The
"

rule of

the

dured
too burdensome
to be long enhowever,was financially
For
twelve years after its conquest the peninsula
Italy.
provemen
whose
governed by Nar'ses,an ambitious
public imman,
came
weighed heavily upon the taxpayers. Then

emperors,
in
was

into closer contact

impressedupon

included

were

573.

nations

Lombards

545

the invasion of the Lombards.

Though warlike,they seem to have

succeeded
in conqueringthe whole
been few, so that they never
Pavia; and the district they held in
country. Their capitalwas
of Lombardy.
In addition,
the Po Valley still bears the name
in central Italynortheast of Rome, and
they occupieda territory
another in the south of the peninsula.
vided
disoon
Lacking a strong central government, the Lombards
of duchies, whose
dukes
into a number
were
constantly
againstone another,against the king, when they had
fighting
Italians
and againstthe still unconquered districts. The
one,
harsher and more
barbarous
feared and hated them, for they were
but slowly that they
had been ; in fact,it was
than the Goths
refinement.
degreeof Roman
gained some
their occupationof Italy had a far-reaching
effect
Meantime
and of Europe. Their possessions
of the peninsula
upon the history
cut up into
as to leave the unconqueredterritory
were
so distributed
of communication
with scarcely
duchies of varyingsize,
any means
with one
another.
peror
Though these duchies still looked to the emof them were
their sovereign,
most
as
independent.
practically
invasion destroyedthe unity of Italy. It is
Thus
the Lombard
onlyin recent years that Italyhas againbecome completelyunited.
Anglo-Saxons in Britain (beginning449 A.D.). It
574. The
the conquest of Britain by
is now
necessary to learn something of
tianity
civilizationand Christhe Angles and the Saxons.
Though Roman
the yoke of Rome
had
took no deep hold upon this island,
and unwarlike.
the Celtic populationweak
made
Hence, when
the inhabitants
Honorius
recalled his troops from Britain (411A.D.),
could not defend
of that part which
had been subjectto Rome
themselves
againstthe barbarians who assailed them on every side.
Scots from Ireland,Picts from Scotland,and Jute and Saxon
rates
piin
to
distressed them, and threatened, fact, overrun
grievously
man
the whole country,
At lengththey called upon the Jutes,a Gertribe,to help them againstthe Picts. The defenders became
"

"

"

; and

conquerors

kinsmen,

their

the

example

Angles and

and

settled all the

Romanized

who

survived

pushed

2N

were

was

followed

the

Saxons, who

back

by

their

in time

part of the island.

or

reduced

to

more

The

ous
numer-

subdued
Britons

serfdom, so

that

littletrace

of them

conquest;

on

Celtic. The

England

which

resulted from

hand, Wales, Scotland, and

leaders of the

invadingbands

subdued.

district he had

small

of the

is left in the

the other

States

German

New

The

546

Ireland

arose

mained
re-

kings,each

became

In time

the

states,

seven

united in one
Heptarchy, which finally
kingdom.
As the Angles and the Saxons, before the conquest, had lived in
from the empire,they knew
northern Germany, far away
nothing
of Roman
civilization. Under
of Christianity
or
them, therefore,
barbarous
and pagan.
The invaders brought
Britain againbecame
the so-called

"

their

to

institutions which

from

fatherland,and

which
ancl

been

had

English people of
law, little influenced by
the

of the Anglo-Saxon conquerors,

the case
religion
aries,
quitedifferent. Pope Gregory the Great sent them missionfrom
and others came
to them
Ireland,which had already
to the

As

been

Christianized.

Irish and

there

As

so

the

acknowledging

pope
little gain to the

no

Britain

her

as

cause

forever broken

was

was

difference

some

churches,strife ensued, in which

that England became
subjectto the

Roman

triumphed;
was

and

manners

derived their government

to-dayhave
was

the

home

new

theirs in the

Rome.

"

the

between

Rome

at

Roman

length
church,

authority. It
spiritual

supreme

of peace and civilization that when

reunited it
from
the empire,religion

to Rome.

Suggestive Questions
i.

Write

other

is the

were

of this

summary

made

was

progress
3. What

Why

not

by

the

the

barbarians

to the time

Germans?

assimilated

State

what

to

the

natives

of

Britain,as

in

and
elements
of Roman
government
5. What
introduced
of Charlemagne, and what
elements
were
What

in mediaeval

is the

relative

importance

of these

two

life?

Note-book
Year

2.

p. 444.

of order and system.

period in the reestablishment
of
the
importance
Anglo-Saxon conquest of Britain?
4.

classes of elements

The

on

in this

parts of the empire?

societysurvived

chapter like that

Topic

476 A.D.
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire,
(near end) ; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle
Ages, ch. vi. " i ;
Oman, Europe, 476-918, ch. i; Bury, Later Roman
Empire, bk. iii.ch. v.
Earlier writers,as Gibbon, attach
greater importance to the date than is
warranted
by the scholarshipof to-day.

xxxvi

"

CHAPTER

OF

GROWTH

THE

XLVI

POWER

PAPAL

THE

OF

AND

FRANKISH

THE

POWER
To

and

Saints

575.

the

creed.1

After

his

One

of

change.
rapid growth,
the

God
grew

the saints

lives, were

pure

Images
set

that

saints

in

up

the

of such

use

hold

on

churches,

simple
people

Christian

from

the

hermits
them

formed

possessing
passed
was

called

in
a

lives

monastery.
nuns,

and

the

the

and

all

in

this

to

attain

such

East

other
way
who

great organizer of monasteries

monks,

adopted

institution

was

in
'""

in

in

property
were

the

543-545.

547

separate

the

was

prayers.
were

the

By

themselves

lived

as

of

number

large building, and

Men

who

their

community

form

of life were

same

nunnery

West

common.

and

help

essential.

often

however,

Sometimes,

pecially
es-

life of holiness

persons

of

retain

seemed

to

to

living together

Women
their

effort

the

mother

get and

to

There

lived

prayed.

symbol

it necessary

desert.

community,

land

their

In

able

outward

their

his

faithful

was

their

to

and

Christ

finite
in-

the

intercession

through

was

answer

the

Church

thought

world.

It

its
In

directly.

the

for

other
an-

for

felt that
to

pray

an

of

them

some

In

God.

and

to

the

"

men

alone

and

whom

576. Monasteries.
some

saints

means

to

to

receive

to

form
uni-

mankind.

of

pagans

distant

with

now

of the

statues

or

of

good Christians, who, having

hoped

men

growth

reason

needs

the

to

practice of praying

great and

certain

"

viewed
re-

establish

to

and

merits,

converted
too

the

Church,

have

we

Christianity undergoing

find

adaptability
many

chapter

attempt

its greatest

the

accordingly

Christian

we

great and

too

earlier

an

the

time

faith

new

was

up

of the

its

was

A.D.

Constantine's

belief,and

in

In

"

of

organization

differences

accepting

Images.

814

or

convent.

The

St. Benedict, who

and

of the Papal

Growth

The

548

laid down

He

lived earlyin the sixth century.

the Prankish

Powers

for the monks

the

and obedience.
poverty,chastity,

Although the societyto

they belonged might acquiregreat wealth, the individual

rules of
which

members

had to continue poor.

of chastityrecommand
quired

The

them

remain

to

that

compelledthem

of

abbot.

The

this rule

obedience

to submit

to the

married;
un-

reservedly
un-

will of their

belief

underlying

that

the sion
possesof property, marriageand
was

and independfamilyrelations,
ence
of thought or action were
sinful.
were

and
the

Members

expectednot only to pray

read,but also to labor on
estate.
common
Many

monasteries
rule

of the order

of the Benedictine

established

were

western

affordinga

throughout
Europe. While
refuge from the

barbarism

of the age, the institution

preserved the little

ST. PETER

which remained in the

learning
West, taught by example the
dignityof labor,and held up a
which, though far from ideal,
life,
religious

(Bronze statue, sixth century A.D.; Basilica of St

Peter,Rome)

standard
was

of moral

superiorto that
577. Beginnings of
between

on

and

the East

In
Christianity.

thoughtand

of the
the

the West

East

deeplythe influence

"

The

exercised

there

discussion in the Greek

felt more

world.

Papal Power.

and
the

outside

difference in civilization
a

continued

profound influence
to

be

much

whereas
Western
spirit,
of law, impressedupon

free

gians
theolothem

by
to differ from
as it came
that of the East,
doctrine,
less subtle,
was
but more
simple,systematic,and reasonable.
They
taught that God had aided the growth of the empireas a preparation
Rome.

Their

The

550

Growth

of

the

Papal

and

the Prankish

Powers

The only power

that
unity and peace.
of the weak
that of the
was
for order,law, and the protection
made
acted not simplyas a spiritual
leader,
Gregory, accordingly,
pope.
to give the Italians all the protection
but as a governor, who aimed
conditions.
The
office
and justice
possibleunder the unfortunate
he held had alreadyacquiredmany
great estates throughoutItaly
which
enabled him to support confrom
the revenues
and Sicily,
siderable
This
which
call
we
civil and
military power.
power,
time
had for some
worldlyor temporal,in contrast with spiritual,
been growing,and was
now
greatlystrengthenedby Gregory in

strong enough

the way

establish

to

here described.

Gregory did not limit his influence to Italy. The rulers and
Europe consulted him by letter on their own
bishopsof western
their reverence
and his wise, helpfuladvice increased
for
affairs,
the papal office. Himself a monk,1 Gregory encouraged the growth
of that class of the clergy. Many
of them
he employed as missionaries.
Thus the conversion
of Britain to Catholic Christianity
due chiefly
to him.2
was
In addition to letters,
Gregory wrote Dialoguesand other works
all on
and
moral
religious
subjects. He believed that miracles
were
that the souls of those
constantlybeing wrought by saints,
who had died in sin could be saved by the saying of masses,
and
that the best kind of life was
In his time, and
that of the monk.
Catholic Church became
partlythroughhim, the Roman
a powerful,
ter
independentorganization. Only by takingupon itself this characcould it accomplishthe work
for which
it was
created.
That
But

"

work

was

the

to save

for better times from

the wreck

of ancient

Christian

tion
civiliza-

of the ideas and

some
some
religion,
learning,
industryand of order and obedience.
: Clovis
579- The Franks
(481-511A.D.). The papal power was
further increased through the aid of the Franks.
the end
Toward
of the fifth century A.D., when the Franks
about to begin their
were
political
and lower
career, they occupied both banks of the middle
Rhine.
Not given to wandering,as were
the other Germans, they
had contented
themselves with graduallyextendingtheir territory.
We
find them divided into a number
of tribes,
each under a chief.
habits of

"

'"576.

"574.

Clovis
One

of these

him

Near

Gaul ;

Clo'vis.

was
petty sovereigns

founding of a
togetherwith

Frankish

united
a

part

were

the

who

Romans,
dwelt

His

life-work

kingdom, embracing
Germany.

of western

to the southeast

551

stillheld

of

most

the

was

Gaul,

district in northern

the

Burgundians,and to the south the

whose
included not only a largeportionof Gaul,
territory
Visigoths,
of Spain. The Vandals
but most
held Africa ; and Theodoric the
to conquer
Ostrogothwas soon
Italy. Such was the condition of
southwestern

Europe

at

this time.

Clovis conqueredhis Roman

(Swas-son'}
neighbors(486A.D.). He then defeated the Burgundians and made
them
tributary. In another war he brought under his rule most of
the Visigoths
who
lived in Gaul.
Many years he was engaged in
Meantime
he was
these conquests.
plottingagainstthe chiefs of
the other Frankish
tribes.
By having them murdered, one after
united in his own
hands the authorityof all.
another,he finally
Thus
throughwar and intriguehe did much to weld Celts,Romans,
In

and

battle at Soissons

Germans

In

the Roman

himself

of his warriors

orthodox

throne

was

and
future

barbarian

he remained
as

had

the maker

win

helped him

baptizedinto her faith.

conqueredthe Bugundians

It

were

This

was

was

arid the

have

to

history.
; though nominally converted
and

persuaded
and

close alliance between

church

the orthodox

treacherous
of

later,he
battle,he

somewhat

when,

heretical Arians.

were

effect upon
Clovis

; and

Catholic that he

who
Visigoths,
the Frankish

church

that her God

three thousand
an

nation.

beginningof his reign he and his subjectswere

pagan.
who chanced
married
the Burgundian princess
to
Clo-til'da,

belong to

as

great Frankish

the
he

But

into the

cruel to the end.

strong, influential nation,he did

an

to

portant
im-

tianity,
Chris-

less,
Neverthea

priceless

service to civilization.

580. The

Merovingians

to the Death

of

Dagobert (511-638A.D.).

descendants,who ruled for nearlytwo and a half centuries

after him, carried on his work.
They are called Mer-o-vin'gi-ans,
of
For a time the members
from Mer'o-vig,
grandfatherof Clovis.
the dynasty were
able and energetic. The kingdom of the Franks
-

His

prospered,and

several

German

nations

submitted

to

them.

Then

The

552
their

Growth

conquests ceased

rival heirs to the throne

waste

to

the

the Prankish

of the Papal and

Powers

the great kingdom,

consolidating
began to murder one another and

of

; instead

of Clovis

country in civil

war.

Their

crueltyfills nearly a

history. Sometimes the heirs divided the

century of their country's
provincesamong themselves, and again a strong ruler would reunite
tendency was to a division into three loosely
which
was
connected states,
Aus-tra'si-a,
thoroughly German ;
whose
ment
elepopulationcontained an influential Roman
Neus'tri-a,
last importantMerovingian king was
; and Burgundy. The
Dag'o-bert,whose reign ended in 638. Thereafter the rulers of
weak and worthless as to earn
the title of dothis dynasty were
so
nothingkings.
the

kingdom.

The
"

581. Charles
the
feeble,

Martel.

steward

As

these

rulers

grew
termed
of the royalhousehold,
"

Mayor

and

more

of the Palace,

publicaffairs into his own

hands and became
In Austria
the positioncame
prime minister.
in a powerfulfamilyknown
to be hereditary
to history
as Car-o-lin'The
gi-an,from Charles the Great, its most illustrious member.
of the earlyCarolingians
achievement
to reunite the Frankish
was
nation.
This work
was
completed by Mayor Charles,afterward
surnamed
Mar-tel'.
It was
fortunate
an
especially
event, for the
Franks
needed
their combined
strengthagainstthe Mohammedans,
who
had recentlyconquered Spain and were
now
threateningall
Europe.
582. The Mohammedans;
the Battle of Tours
Poitiers (732
or
followers of Mo-ham'med, who
A.D.). The Mohammedans
were
born in 571 A.D., in Mec'ca, the holy cityof Arabia.
was
Before
his time the Arabs were
but he presentedhimself to them
idolaters,
the prophetof the one
as
God.
and
With a marvellous
personality
a deep knowledge of the religious
and moral
needs of his people,
he spoke and taught as one
written
inspired.His sayingswere
down by his followers,
and after his death collected in a book called
the Ko'ran.
It was
to his people what
the Bible is to Christians.
It taught the unity and
of
almighty power of God, the torments
and
the
hell,
pleasuresof heaven ; and it prescribedrules of life for
the faithful. As his followers increased,he ordered
that their
should be forced upon
religion
unbelievers.
Before his death he
graduallytook

"

the management

of

more

The

had

the satisfaction of

in zeal for

his

Under
soon

successors

faith

new

the

"

Asia.

in

Roman

empire in

them.

On

the

of the seventh

course

of Gi-brartar.

when

the

of believers
army
farther eastward
and

they

tried

the

conquer

Constantinoplewithstood
Mediterranean, however, they
and

They conquered Egypt,

century the entire African

Fierce

to

walls of

of the

little resistance.

with

united

and
idolatry

called.

was

Persia,and

But

shore

south

free from

"

East, the

the

553

Caliphs

spread their religionover

northeastward

met

seeingall Arabia
the

Is'lam,as

Mohammedans

enthusiasm
religious

to

coast

in

the

the Strait

swept them

impatiently
on.
Early in the eighthcentury they crossed to Spain,and readily
Their empire now
the decayed kingdom of the Visigoths.1
overran
in a stupendouscrescent, whose
horns
lay along the Mediterranean
threatened
Christian Europe east and west.
tianity
When
they invaded France, at firstwith their usual success, Chrisseemed
2

Saracens

had

but
doomed;
not reckoned,

fresh,manly

the

"

with

existed

power

which

nation

the

of Franks

At his call,thousands
of
Mayor Charles.
hosts met
in
stalwart warriors gathered to repel the danger. The
All day the lightcavalry
Poitiers (Pwa-te-a/)
in 73 2. 3
battle near
ranks
of
of the invaders
dashed in vain againstthe immovable

latelyunited

under

infantry. The

Frankish

their

Mohammedans

commander.

able

lost great

They

saw

at

that

once

cluding
in-

numbers,

they had

and desertingtheir camp

ward.
they retreated southsuperiors,
The
Europe from conquest by the
victorysaved western
still able to annoy,
Mohammedans
they were
; though they were
no
longer dangerous. To Charles,the victor,after ages gave the
met

name

their

Martel

crushed

"

the Hammer

in remembrance

"

of his blows

which

all enemies.

583. Pippin (741-768 A.D.).

"

succeeded
methods

by

his

son

Pip'pin.

Charles

Father

and

died
son

in

741,

and

pursued

the

was
same

the power
of the Franks
need not
; and we
here.
Outlying provinces which had revolted

of-buildingup

separate their work

they reduced to submission

authorityby engaging the

they further strengthenedthe central

nobles in their service ; they brought the
;

" 561.

It is also called the battle of Tours,

"

I.e. the Mohammedans.

another

cityin

the

vicinity.

into

of the realm

churches

they

of the Papal

Growth

The

554

subordinate

held

to

one

the Prankish

and

Powers

religious
system, which, however,
with

the State; and

the

aid of

religion

upliftthe morals of their people.

to his death ; but Pippindeposed
Charles remained simplymayor
himself
became
the royal Merovingian puppet, and
king by a
him
in
their
the
elected
Franks
own
double
fashion,
ceremony:
oil
him
with
biblical
to
anointed
and the Church
holy
according
they strove

to

of the pope.
Thus he ascended the throne with the consent
usage.
the papal see and the Prankish
throne
In fact,the relations between

had

been

the

from
friendly

Charles

close alliance.

days of Clovis,and

Martel

had

been

asked

now

for

ripenedinto a
helpagainstthe

another
When
besiegingthe pope in Rome.
by the Lombards, he called on Pippin
pope found himself threatened
for aid.
Thereupon the king of the Franks twice invaded Italy,

Lombards,

took from

they had
the

to

who

were

the Lombards
wrested

by

country about

from

rightful
owner,

lands,henceforth

the

the emperor,
he placedit under

and

"

known

as

the

"

Ravenna,
instead

"

of

territory

it
restoring

t*herule of the pope.

States

of the

Church,"

These
grew

in

later

It was
their ruler that the pope
as
acquisitions.
became
a great temporalprince.1
and
584. Charlemagne
(768-814 A.D.). The
son
successor
of Pippinwas
Charles the Great,or, as he is more
commonly called,
3
He
is
his
described
Charlemagne.2
Large
by
secretary as
and robust,of commanding stature
excellent
for
and
proportions,
it appears that he measured
times the lengthof his own
foot.
seven
The top of his head was
round, his eyes were
largeand animated,
and his nose
somewhat
was
long. He had a fine head of gray hair,
and his face was
brightand pleasant; so that whether standingor
he showed great presence and dignity." Majesticin form
sitting,
and tireless in action,
beneficent statesman,
a great general and
a
he left an enduringimpressionof himself
all western
Europe.
upon
Most of his long reign(768-814),
he occupiedin conquests and
in puttingdown
revolts.
The
kingdom of the Franks had grown
extent

"

"

"

1
2

For

the

beginningof this temporal power, see "" 577, 583.

Charlemagne is the French for Car'o-lus Mag'nus, the Latin equivalentfor

the Great.

It must

be borne

in mind, however, that he

was

not

Charles

French, but German

speech.

"Einhard, Life of Charlemagne,quoted by Robinson, Readings, i. p.

126.

in

Growth

The

556

of the Papal and the Prankish

the third to the fifth century there had

From

Powers

been
regularly

a
dition
conruling simultaneouslyin the East and West
renewed.
Charlemagne regarded himself accordingly
now
Like the emperors
of Augustus and Constantine.
successor
and defender
head of the Church
Constantine, he was a Christian,
a German, and
of the faith. Unlike them, however, he was
"

emperors

as

since

two

than half German.

He completed
empire which was more
of
the
earlier
Frankish
the task,begun by
kings, reconciling
to the empire and its institutions and
Germans
religion.Within

he ruled

an

one.

to

the two

domain

the limits of the old Roman

had

races

Lastly it must be noticed that his empire once

united in
the worlclthe idea of all Christendom

State,and
586.

His

went

into

presented

more

Church

one

and

the realization of that idea.

far toward
and

Assemblies

blended

Councils.

Once

"

of his

or

The

twice each

year
in
gathering the

people.
generalassembly
called
Maifeld
(Mayfield).Not only the
May was
had the
and abbots,but even
freemen
the common
counts, bishops,
of attending. It was
continuation
of the old German
a
privilege
assemblymentioned in an earlier chapter.1 If the subjectof a new
to be brought up, the fighting
war
men
was
were
requiredto come
armed
to begin the campaign immediately after the adjournso as
ment
of the meeting. Such
assemblies also discussed questions
In that case
and the Church.
to religion
posed
relating
they were commainly or wholy of clergymen,and may therefore be termed
councils.
But Charlemagne always presided. Several times their
decisions of religious
questionsdiffered widely from the judgments
of the popes.
He also considered
it a part of his work to appoint
From
these facts
bishops,leaving their consecration to the pope.
he

held

of

month

we

may
Church

It is

to

the

infer that

government

he

considered
and

clear,however, that

approve
As

of

this

the pope

in the

even

the

inferior to

of
interpretation

authorities of the

interference,
though they

were

Church
at

the

himself

in

doctrine.
did not
time

able
un-

resist it.

many

of the

clergyhad

Io9senessof the Church

should be
every parishpriest

independentbecause of
that
organization,Charlemagne saw
subjectto a neighboringbishop,and
become

"

555.

too

Education

557

bishop to an archbishop. The abbots he left outside this

organization,
probably that he might use them as a check on the
bishops.
We cannot
587. Education.
appreciatehis character as a man
and
ruler without
understanding what he did for education.
every

"

CATHEDRAL

(Only

the

part covered

by the

OF

dome

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE

belongs to

the time

Through the late centuries of the Roman

greatlydeclined,and in western Europe had

of

Charlemagne)

empire learning had

almost

ceased.

None

the Prankish

and

of the Papal

Growth

The

558

clergy enjoyed any education,and

ignorant. Many a priest understood

the

but
were

classics

in

ones

the

as

word

Greek

class

of
or

the

Latin

books

new

were

mainly religious
the late Prankish
kings,
magne
Charlemade; and now
were

use

literaryor scientific. Under

than

not

lost; scarcelyany

old

few

the

they

even

of

Most

repeat.

to

destroyed or

were

written; and
rather

had

he

services

Latin

Powers

improvement had been

then be
had what would
undertook
to revive learning. He
called a good education,as he possessedsome
knowledge of Greek
he devoted
With great earnestness
himself
and could speak Latin.
He
and rhetoric.
not
to astronomy
only set a good example to
others,but founded schools and encouragedhis bishopsand abbots
that the clergymight have a respectable
to do likewise,
education,

however,

some

of the

that the children

and

might

learn

dared

not

All the books

read.

to

the

favor

growth

of

Other
in

German

spiteof his native

In like

course.

had

statesmen

Romanism

could

not

idolatry,
Christianity,

meant

government.

Charlemagne

hesitate to follow the

buildingand

of the churches
From

arts.
at

these

have

once

had
sciences,

encouraged architecture and the

beginnings western
Europe would
of progress
intact.

entered

era

a
new
upon
his empire remained

588. General

Summary.

"

have

We

world

seen

the

drawn

firstgreat cultural

we

into the civilized area.

may

and

millennium

and

later

Greece,were
period,which

B.C.
Oriental,reached its heightin Crete, 2200-1500
came
stagnation,decay, and weakness, which exposed

civilized world

year 1000
Then

doubtless

term

Afterward
the

The

decorative

civilization of the

5000
Asia

Minor

same

tation
ornamen-

in the arts

beginning in Egypt about

Babylon, Syria,and Crete, then

B.C.

The

meant

the latter ; and

his attention to the

manner

literature.

strong central

chosen

sympathy

German

Germanism

was

of the serfs

even

Latin, for Charlemagne

were

native

clearlybefore his mind

barbarism, disunion,and chaos ;
and good order under
civilization,

issue

and

freemen

common

to

find

barbarian

invasions.

When

we

reach

the

great relapsein the direction of barbarism.

began the second or Greco-Roman
period. Much of the
B.C.,

old culture

was

we

saved, and

the

new

rapid,reachingits heightin Athens

development was exceedingly

in the Age of Pericles.
There-

after

improvements

made

were

The

civilization declined.
into

introduced

Periods

Great

Three

of Culture

but in others
directions,
Oriental
was
institution,
the Great, and
wards
afterwas

in certain

empire, an

Europe by

559

Alexander

to include nearlythe whole

as
by the Romans
civilized world.
Though it brought important advantages, in the
repressionof freedom, in the destruction of competition,and in

extended

so

other

various
Christian
energy,

also
religion,

but

proved an

it

was

potent
from

society

as

A.D.

"

cause

The

of decline.

the

Orient,contained
and
then constituted,
When

of decline.

cause

centuries

as

introduced

hostile to

additional

seventh

and

it acted

ways

the border

we

come

field between

great
hence

to the sixth

ancient

and

relapse of
completed the second
and
nearly the whole civilized world into ignorance,superstition,
this condition humanity has slowlyrecovered,
From
barbarism.
in its third cultural period.
and is now
History proves that there is no law of progress which compels
will and effort. In our
to improve againstits own
the human
race
the conditions
study thus far we have learned unmistakably that among
mediaeval

history
"

which

find

we

contribute

most

to

the deterioration of mankind

are

community,
the injuryof rural
excessive government, the growth
life,neglect of the cultivation of the nobler mental faculties by
of literature,
means
art, pure science,patriotism,righteousness,
and the
of the mind
and lastlythe commercialization
and religion,
narrowing of the objectsof life to the pursuitof wealth, comfort,
and
Upon the ceaseless effort of individuals
self-gratification.
in resistance to these destructive forces,and
and of communities
in cultivation of the physical,
mental, and moral health of humanity
depends the future progress of the world.
the loss of freedom

of the individual

and

of the local

of cities to

Suggestive Questions
do the
When
2.
chapter like that on p. 444.
it
date?
Is
exact
set
right to
an
Middle
possible to
3.
Ages begin?
benefits did Islam
bring to the
call Mohammed
an
impostor?
4. What
successful
in war?
Mohammedans
the
so
Arabia?
were
5. Why
people of
in
at
Italy?
Constantinople to territory
6. What
right had the emperor
wanted
should
have
to be
not
there
Charlemagne
Is
reason
why
any
7.
i.

Write

summary

of this

Is it

crowned
of

of

the

by

emperor
"

Romans?

the

did

Why

pope

was

Saracen

Civilization.
"

Poole,

S.

Source

Book
"

III.
i68ff.

of

Art

Charles
Education

of

the

the

Charlemagne

II.

under

Lane,

When

Saracens

History,

while

called

Roman?
did
the

chs.

Saracens,

in

Man.

Powers

"

emperor
9.

the

Why

decline

West

had

begin?
into

sank

barism?
bar-

Topics

Gilman,

"

Mediaeval

empire

civilization,

its

Prankish

Charlemagne

was

his

Note-book

I.

the

Charlemagne?

retain

East

Why

8.

respects

before

the

and

Papal

the

what

In

declined

education

10.

Growth

The

560

xxxvi,

xxxvii,

xli

Egypt.

Robinson,

Readings,
Davis,

108-114;

i.

126-128;

Charlemagne,

Ogg,
see

Index

Great."

the
in

Charlemagne's

Time.
"

Robinson,

i.

144-146

Davis,

CHIEF

(The

great

EVENTS

periods

in italics.

IN

are

Most

dates

ORIENT

THE

HISTORY

ANCIENT

before

1000

B.C.

are

more

GREECE

B.C.

or

less approximate.)

ROME

B.C.

B.C.

Early

5000-3400

ization.
civil-

Egyptian

3500-1917

City-King-

doms
lonia.
Babyof

3400-2100

Old

dom
King-

in

Egypt.

Early

3500-2200

zation.
civili-

Aegean

2500

of

Migrations
Hellenes
Great

2200-1500

Middle

2160-1788

age

of Crete.

Kingdom

in

Egypt.
2000

Indo-Europeans
invade

2000

First

1917-1250

of

supremacy

Babylon.
1580-945

New

dom
Kingtian
Egyp-

Empire.
1500-

Phoenician

col-

1250-606
1000

an

Israelites

Assyrian

Kingdom
Israel

20

Age;

period

in-

First

of Greek

colonization.

Palestine.

vade

Mycenae-

1500-1000

onization.
1400-

Indo-Europeans
invade

Iran.

supremacy.

of

1000-700

Epic Age.

lished.
estab-

561

Italy.

Events

562
ORIENT

THE

GREECE

ROME

B.C.

B.C.

945-

B.C.

under

Egypt

foreignrule.

776 First Olympiad.

753

(?) Founding

of

Rome.
.

753(?)-5Q9
722-536 Captivity
and
of

Second

750-550

of

restoration

riod
pe-

seven

zation.
coloni-

The

kings of

Rome.

Israel.

Draco.

621

606-550 Median
Empire.
606-538 Second

premacy
su-

of

Babylon.
604-562 Nebuchad-

nezzar.
5560-510
Cyrus.

Solon.

594

Tyranny

at

Athens.

153-529

head

Sparta

550

of

Peloponnese.
499-494

Ionic revolt.

5o8 Cleisthenes.

Great war
between
492-479
Battle of Marathon.
490

480

Battle

of

and

Rome

Persia.

becomes
in

supreme

Italy.

Thermopylae,of Artemisium, of

Salamis, and
479

Greece

509-264 First period

of the republic;

of Himera.

Battle of Plataea

and

Mycale.

of

47 7-454

acy
(?) Confederof

Delos.

cles.
461-431 Age of Peri-

(?) -404

454

nian
Athe-

Empire.
445

451-449

virs.
Decem-

Thirty Years'
Truce.

431-404

443

Peloponnesian War.

421

The

Peace

415-413

of Nicias.

Sicilian

pedition.
Ex-

First

censors.

Events

564

ROME

Samnite

Third

298-290
281-272

War

264-133

Second

264-241

First Punic

218-201

Second

War.

between

'

and

Rome

Tarentum.

period of the republic;the expansion of Rome

ofItalyand the growthofplutocracy.
War.

Punic

War.

Trasimene.

217

Battle of Lake

216

Battle of Cannae.

207

Battle

202

Battle of Zama.

201

Peace

of the Metaurus.

between

and

Rome

GREECE

Carthage.
AND

ROME

Battle of

Cynoscephalae.
Magnesia.
Battle of Pydna.
The Romans
destroyCarthage and Corinth.

197

Battle

189
1

outside

68

146

of

ROME

J33~27

Third

133

Tiberius Gracchus

123-122

Gaius

90-88
82-79
63
58-50

The

48

Battle

31

Battle of Actium.

27 B.C.

period of the republic; the revolution from republic to

principate.
Gracchus

tribune of the

tribune of the

plebs.
plebs.

Social War.

Sulla dictator.

Cicero consul ; the

Conquest of Gaul.

-41

27 B.C.-I4

A.D.
A.D.

conspiracyof Catiline.

of Pharsalus.

Julian

princes; foundingof the principate.

Principateof Augustus.

A.D.

9
J4~37

41-96
41-54

54-68

Overthrow

of Varus

by
Principateof Tiberius.
The

Claudian

the Germans.

and Flavian

Principateof Claudius.
Principateof Nero.

to monarchy.
princes; from principate

Events

79

Principateof Vespasian.
Eruption of Vesuvius.

96-180

The Good

69-79

Trajan

98-1 1 7
117-138
138-161

Antoninus

161-180

Marcus

180-284

From

212

Edict

limited

Emperors;

monarchy.

emperor.

Hadrian

emperor.

Pius

emperor.

Aurelius

Antoninus

Commodus

Aurelian; growth of absolute monarchy.

to

of Caracalla

emperor.

freemen

most

of the

empire become

Roman

citizens.

Constantine; absolute monarchy.

284-337

Diocletian

and

284-305
306-337

Diocletian emperor
Constantine emperor.

325

The

council of Nicaea.

337-476

The

invasions

of the barbarians; the dissolution of the empire

in the West.

376

The

410

Alaric

429

The

Vandals

449

The

Saxons

45i

Attila the Hun

476

Romulus

Visigothscross the Danube.

besiegesand plunders Rome.
invade
invade

Africa.
Britain.

invades

"Augustulus"

Gaul ; battle of Chalons.

deposed; end of the emperors

in

the

West.

nations to the founding of the

476-800

The

493-453

496
527-565
568

Ostrogothickingdom in Italy.
Clovis accepts Christianity.
JustinianI emperor.
invade Italy.
The Lombards

622

Mohammed

711

The

732

Battle

768-800

Charles

800

Charles the Great

The

date

Mohammedans

German

new

flees from

Mohammedans
of Poitiers

of the
reckon

the Great

Hegira
time.

"

Mecca

invade

to

Medina

magne.
empire of Charle-

(theHegira1).

Spain.

(Tours).
king of the Franks.
crowned

of the Romans.

emperor

flight of Mohammed

"

is the

point

from

which

the

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INDEX
(The
Ab'a-cus,

numbers

refer

548,

41

Ab'sa-lom,

43.

395

f.

Ag-a-mem'non,

A'gis,

A-car-na'ni-a,

A-chae'a,

64

ally of Athens,

conquered

379;

A-chai'a,

Achaean

with

by Rome,

in myth,

A-chae'ans,

192

relations

300-4;

A-grip'pa,

392-4.

Ac'ra-gas

A'lans,

(Ag-ri-gen'tum),

f. ;

107

stroyed,
deAl'ba

93

Pisistratus,

of,

shows,

Sea,

15,

19;
;

area,

48,

of

Athens,
battle

of,

Ae'qui-ans,

Aes-cu-la'

A-e'ti-us,

myth,

in Delian

352

Aes'chy-lus,

sides

with
191

237.

(son)

f.

391

213

91.

confederacy,

62

Aetolian

Rome,

Writing.

379.

299

Augustus,

198

oracle,

16;

council,

89

381.

281.
;

decree

of,

273-

Am-phip'o-lis,
A-mu'li-us,

300,

88

Am-phic'ty-on-y,

304,
302

387,

393

relations

An-ab'a-sis,

An'cus

569

223

f., 103.
seized

324.

286.

255,

An-ax-ag'o-ras,

215.

Mar'ti-us,

454;

f.

by Hannibal,

crossed

temple,

Am-phic'ty-on-ic

184.

f.

ally of Rome,

League,

in Attica,

Alphabet,
312

estimate,

ff

307-9.

age,

see

511.

population,

under

of the, 354.

Am'mon,

f., 534.

531

229;

307-9;

f. ;

f. ;

283

296

Al'li-a, battle

f.

176,

ian
Sicil-

279-83;

conquests,

281

Aliens, resident

Julian,

with

war

279;

Alexandrian

f.

pi-us, 368.

Ae-to'li-a,

504;

successors,

culture,

324.

in

deserts,

f., 191.

128

Al-ex-an'dri-a,

Alps,

Ae-o'li-ans, 81

f ;

284

u,

geography,

57;

by Athens,

(father), 384;

Ae-ne'as,

Egypt,

133;

conquered

f. ; in

224

227-9;

imperial organization,
with

civilization, 68-80.

Ae-gos-pot'a-mi,

with

Al-e-man'ni,

give

375.

cultural

Persia, 163

Ae'o-lis,

curule, 348;

342;

region,

career,

recalled, 233-6.

of, 528.

contact

Ae-mil'i-us

317.

Al-ex-an'der,

Ae-gi'na, rival

stroyed,
de-

324;

154.

Alc-me-on'i-dae,

islands,

early

459.

founded,

317;

expedition,

402.

Ae-ge'an

Mt.,

Al-cae'us,

312.

plebs,

Ae-ga'ti-an

65

in

135;

Periclean

444.

A-dri-a-no'ple, battle
Ae'diles, of

Pantheon,

f.

529

Al-ci-bi'a-des, early

battle

Ad-ri-at'ic

builds

Lon'ga,

Alban

by Cylon,

seized

207-12.

Ac'ti-um,

414.

325.

A-crop'o-lisof Athens,

age,

Gracchus,

f.

530

Al'a-"ic,

f.

by

Gracchus,

f ; Licin-

Ti.

472.

444

246.

128;

378

Ag-rip-pi'na, 466.

91.

304.

A-chil'les, 95

of Sp. Cassius, 342

f. ; C.

410

454.

f., 260.

f ; Flaminius,

Ag-ric'o-la,

Rome,

ince,
prov-

95.

255

Law,

ius, 347

League,

ff ; Roman

Numidia,

230.

Agrarian

62.

24.

in, 6

includes

A-ges-i-la'us,

288.

Ac'cad,

pages.)

557.

A'bra-ham,

Academy,

the

Af'ri-ca, civilization

146.

Abbots,

to

325.

by Philip, 269.

Index

570
An'dro-cles,233 f
An'gles,539, 545 *"
.

An'i-o R., 317 f.

An-tal'ci-das,
256 f.
An-ti'o-chus III, 298, 390 f
An-to-ni'nus Pius,489 f.
An'to-ny, Mark, tribune,438 ; consul,441
tyrannical,
442 ; triumvir,443 f.
.

Ar'go-lis,country, 64; heroes,91 f.

Ar'go-nauts, 94 f.
with
101
Ar'gos,important city-state,
; war
favors
Persia,163; allyof
Sparta, 121;
Athens, 191.
A-ri-ad'ne,94.
A-rim'i-num, 378.

A-ri-o-vis'tus,
435.

160 f.
Ar-is-tag'o-ras,
with
identified
Venus, Ar-is-tei'des,
171 ; generalat Plataea, 178 ;
acy,
at Byzantium,
184; organizes confeder333f.
184
A'pis,50.
150.
87; oracle,87 f.; ancestral,98, A-ris'ti-on,
A-pol'lo,
nian,
Ar-is-toc'ra-cy,
Greek, 101 f ; LacedaemoDelian, 185; Belvedere, 307;
100, 200;
f.
Athenian, 125
117;
; Roman,
Sibylof,326 ; in Rome, 333.

Ap'en-nines,
312
87;
Aph-ro-di'te,

f.

Ap'pi-an,494.
Appian acqueduct,367 ;
A-pu'li-a,
315.

339

f
"

Ar-is-to-gei'ton,
137.
Ar-is-toph'a-nes,227, 241.
battle of,418.
Ar'is-tot-le,
289 f.
Aq'uae Sex'ti-ae,
Aqueduct, Athenian, 136; Appian, 367; A-ri'us,515 f.
Ar-me'ni-a, traversed by Ten Thousand,
Claudian,466.
in time of
Aq-ui-lei'a,
254 f. ; allyof Pontus, 431;
534.
Roman
Augustus, 454 ;
province,486.
province,437.
Aq-ui-ta'ni-a,
434 ; Roman
of Semites, 23 ; Roman
Ar-min'i-us,455 f.
A-ra'bi-a,home
Assyrian, 26;
Army, Egyptian, n,
province,486; accepts Islam,552 f.
15;
A-ra'tus,300 f.,303.
Mycenaean, 78, 115 ; Spartan, 115 f.,
143 ;
defective, 256; early Athenian,
Ar-be'la,battle of, 281 f.
proves
Ar-ca'di-a,60, 64.
Hellenic,
125 f.; after Cleisthenes,143;
colonize
allies
of
Arcadians,
Cyprus, 82;
164; training for, at Athens, 204 f. ;
early
Sparta, 119 f.; form league,263 f.
Theban, 260; Macedonian, 273;
Ar-ca'di-us,emperor, 528.
Servian, 336 f.; Italian,
Roman, 330;
Ar-chi-da'mus, 188.
363 f ; from phalanx to legion,365 f ;
of Hannibal, 381 f. ; Marian
reform,
Ar-chi-me'des,385.
Architecture,Egyptian,16-8; Babylonian,
418 f.,456; Augustan, 456; mutiny of,
Persian, 52-4;
Cretan, 70-2;
33-5;
462 ; under Hadrian, 488 ; Diocletian,
Mycenaean, 74-6; early Greek, 144-9;
invasions,534 f
509 ; in German
Peri clean, 207-13 ; fourth century, 290Ar'nus R., 383.
f.; Roman
republican, Art, Egyptian, 16-8; Babylonian, 33-5;
2; Etruscan, 320
448-50 ; Augustan, 458 f ; under Good
Persian,51-4 ; Cretan, 70"2 ; Mycenaean,
Emperors, 488 f.,494, 497;
Periclean,
early Greek, 144-50;
Justinian, 74-7;
during Pelop. war,
543 ; Charlemagne, 558.
;
239-41
;
207-13
in fourth
Ar'chi-trave,
147.
century, 290-5 ; Hellenistic,
lican,
repubAr'chons,125, 127 ; in Solon's system, 132 ;
Etruscan, 320 f.; Roman
305-7;
in Cleisthenean,
appointed by lot,
139;
448-50 ; Augustan, 458-60; under
Good
196.
170; decline,
Emperors, 494-6.
council of, Ar-ta-pher'nes,167.
A-re-op'a-gus,
situation,124;
timocracy,127; court of Ar-tax-erx'es,253 f.,256 f 265 ; (inthird
124 f ; under
homicide, 129; in Solonian system, 132;
century A.D.),503.
in Cleisthenean,
Ar'te-mis,87.
139 ; deprived of power,
189, n. i, 195.
Ar-te-mis'i-um,battle of,173 f.
A'res,87.
Aryan, see Indo-European.
battle of, 236 f.
Ar-gi-nu'sae,
As (Roman coin),366, 482.
367.

way,

.,

Index

572

Car-o-lin'gi-ans,
552.
Bo-e'thi-us,
542.
with Greeks,
Car'thage, founded, 40; war
Bon'i-face,531 f.
Great
f.
Power, 297; empire, 370
179 f.;
Books, Athenian, 202
; Alexandrian, 308.
f ; first war
with Rome, 371-6; second,
Bras'i-das,223.
381-7 ; third, 394 f ; with mercenaries,
Brit/am, invaded by Caesar,436 f.; Roman
province,465 ; enlarged, 472 ; fortified, 371 f.; destroyed,395; restored,454; in
late empire,532 ; New, 386.
487 ; settled by Angles and Saxons, 545 f
Cas-san'der,
296 f.
Brotherhood, see Mess, Phratry.
f 352 ; the liberator,
Cas'si-us,
Spurius,
Brut'ti-um, 315.
342
f.
L.
A-vid'i-us,
Junius, 326; Marcus, 441, 443.
Bru'tus,
441, 443;
491
Cas'tor,temple of,458.
Bu-reau'cra-cy,508 f.
Bur-gun'di-ans,533 ; conquered by Clovis, Cat'a-na, 229.
f.
Cat'i-line,
432
55iM.
f.
Ca'to,
Bur'rus,466
Por'ci-us,
394 f.,405 f. ; builds
his
besieged,184;
basilica,
By-zan'ti-um, 109;
capital
great-grandson, 439.
449 ;
of empire, 510;
see
"a-tul'lus,447.
Constantinople.
league
colCat'u-lus,consul in Punic war, 375;
of Marius, 418.
Cad-me'a, 257.
Cau-cas'i-an race, 4.
Cad'mus, 93.
Cae-cil'i-a Me-tel'la,tomb of,450.
Cau'dine
Pass, 357 f.
Cae'li-an Mt., 318.
Cella, 148.
in
Cae're,357, 361.
Celts, habitation,
418; in Gaul, 434;
f
Gauls.
Cae'sar, Gaius Ju'li-us,
triumvir,433
Britain,436 ; see
;
Gaul, 434-7 ; war with Pompey,
Censors, 346; supervise morals, 368.
conquers
438 f.; government, 439-41
Census, Athenian, 126 f.,131 f ; Roman,
; estimate
of,441 f ; as writer,445 ; deified,
336 f 346.
461 ;
a title,
in army, 337 ; in assembly,340 f.
463, 507.
Centuries,
Ca-la'bri-a,
Ce-phis'sus,
315.
63.
.

.,

.,

Cal-e-do'ni-a,
472.
Calendar, Babylonian, 33.
Ca-lig'u-la,
463.

Chae-ro-ne'a,battle of,

Ca'liphs,553.

Chal-cid'i-ce,
colonized, 108

Cam-bu'ni-an

Mts.,

Cer'be-rus,86.
Ce'res,temple of, 497.
274

f.
f. ; in Delian

Confederacy, 184 ; Brasidas in,223 ; Chalcidic League, 257;

assailed by Philip,
f.
269, 270
; destroyed, 272.
Chal-de'ans, 25, n. i, 27.
; occupied by Etruscans, Cha-lons',battle of,534.
Roman, 356 f.
8.
Cham-pol'li-on,
59.

Cam-by'ses,13, 50 f.,159.
Ca-rmTlus, 353 f., 255; militaryreform,
366.

Cam-pa'ni-a,315
319;

becomes

Cam'pus Mar'ti-us,341.
Ca'naan,

37.

Can'nae, battle of, 384.

law of, 346.
Can-u-lei'us,
Capital of a column, 146.

Char-le-magne',554-8;
Charles Mar-tel',
552 f.
Cha'ron,

emperor,

555

f.

86.

160.
Cher-so-nese',
Chickens,sacred,374

f.

Cap'i-to-lineMt., 318; temple of Jupiter, Children, Egyptian, 15 f.; Athenian, 200

326, 336, 458; citadel,
f. ; Spartan, 113 f ; early Roman, 329;
335.
Cap-pa-do'ci-a,
late republican,447 f ; under principate,
424, 453.
Cap'ri,463.
480 f ; under Good Emperors, 487, 490,
Cap'u-a,355; revolts,
384; destroyed,
385,
497.
school in,429.
400 ; gladiatorial
Chi'os,65 ; revolts,232.
Car-a-cal'la,
502 f.
Christ,teachings of,511 f.,515.
Car'bo,424.
Christianity,growth from Judaism, 45 f ;
Car-du'chi-an Mts., 254.
earlyhistory,511-3;
organized,513 f.;
.

Index
recognizedby Constantine,

514

f ; theology,
.

of Goths, 526;
f ; conversion
of Germans, 536; of
of Vandals, 531;
515

comes
Anglo-Saxons, 546; of Franks, 551; beintolerant,528.
Christians,persecuted, 467 f., 512 f.
Church, Christian, organization, 513 f ;
first council of, 515 f ; Roman
Catholic,

573
Mycenaean, 74-8;

epic Greek, 83-5;

ff ; general Greek,
early Spartan, 112
144-56; Peri clean, 198-217; in Pelop.
.

war,

239-45

in fourth century, 286-95 ;

Hellenistic,305-9;
Etruscan, 319-21;
early Roman, 328-38; early republican,
366-9 ; in Spain, 397 ; in Punic wars,
gustan,
Au399-408; in late republic,445-50;
ff ;
Claudian
and Flavian,
536 ; centralized under
457-62;
pope,
547
under
States
of, 554;
Charlemagne,
Emperors, 492-8 ;
475-82 ; under Good
decline of ancient,517-21 ; great periods
556 f.
consul,43 2 f.; exiled
Cic'e-ro,M. Tul'li-us,
of,558 f.
and restored,434 ; killed,
man
Classes, census,
126, 131;
Roman, 336
443 ; as statesand writer,445 f.
f ; social, Egyptian, 14-6;
nian,
BabyloCi-li'ci-a,
28; Cretan, 72; Mycenaean, 78;
430.
Cim'bri,
epic Greek, 84; Lacedaemonian, 112-6;
410.
Ci-min'i-an Hill,354, 356.
Athenian, 125, 130, 138, 198 ff.; early
f. ; republican, 340
ff ;
Ci'mon, at Byzantium, 184 ; expands DeRoman,
330
lian league,186 f. ; ostracized,1 89 ; Cypin Punic wars, 401 f.; in time of Gracchi,
rian
f ; in towns
of empire,476 ; in late
expedition, 193 ; levels Acropolis,
409
empire, 520-2.
207.
Claudian
Cin-cin-na'tus,
aqueduct, 466.
353.
Cin'e-as,360.
Clau'di-us,Ap'pi-us,
decemvir, 343 f ; CaeC.
Cin'na, 422 f.
cus, 360, 367 ; Publius, 374 f ; Gaius
Circus, Flaminian, 379;
Maximus, 482;
Nero, 386; prince,465 f ; M. Aurelius,
.

Ci-thae'ron

Mt., 62.

5"4-

Citizens,Athenian, 198-200; Roman, 361- Cla-zom'e-nae, 256.

in empire, 399 ; classes of in Cleis'the-nes,
3 ; favored
137-41.
Punic war, 401 f.,403.
Cle-om'e-nes, early king, 137 f.; 160 f. ;
Citizenship, Roman,
early liberalityin
later,303.
granting, 337 ; changed policy, 401 ; Cle'on, 221-3.
proposal to give to Italians,412, 415, Cle-o-pa'tra,439, 444.
sar,
Clients,331 ; enslaved, 342; beggars, 407,
420;
421 ; given freelyby Caegranted,
withheld
482 ; support nobles,413.
by Augustus, 453;
441;
Claudius
liberal with, 465 ; extensively Clo-a'ca Max'i-ma, 327, 336, 448 f.
granted, 496; Caracalla's edict on, 502.
Clo'di-us,434.
City-States,Babylonian, 24 f. ; Phoenician, Clo-til'da,
551.
fluence
Clo'vis,550 f. ; successors, 552.
39 ; Greek, 98-104 ; denned, 99 f. ; intion,
on
Cni'dus, battle of, 256.
history,100 f., 517; evoluLaconian, 112; in war, 164; Cnos-sus, 69 ff.
101-3;
surpassed by federal union, 302 ; Rome,
Code, Babylonian, 25, 29 f ; Locrian, 107 ;
in Roman
Draconian, 129 f ; Solonian, 131 ff.;
318; of Latium, 317;
303,
under
of Twelve
Tables, 343-5 ; of Justinian,
empire, 376; limitation of, 399;
fff ; under
principate, 475
emperors,
543
486 f.
Co'drus, 123 f.
Civil service,489, 521.
Col'chis,1 09.
Civil war,
first Roman,
f.; second, Col-la-ti'nus Tar-quin'i-us,
326.^
424
Col'line Gate, battle of the, 424'.
438 f. ; third,442-4.
Civilization,
defined,i f. ; western
Co-lo'ni,521.
progress
of, 3 f ; Egyptian, 14-20;
Babylonian, Colonies,Phoenician, 39 f ; in Sicily,108 ;
22
early Greek, 39, 81 f. ; of second period,
f.,35; Hebrew, 45 f ; Persian, 51-6,
organization,106;
58; earlyAegean, 68 f,; Cretan, 69-73 ;
322;
105-11,
315,
.

Index

574

377.
Athenian, 141 f ; founded by Alexander, Cor'si-ca,
aristocracy,
Council, epic, 84 f ; creates
by Seleucus, 298; Latin, 357,
283;
of Areopagus, 125,
101
; Spartan, 117;
363; in Spain, 397;
363, 385; Roman,
fall of, 189, n. i, 195;
of
127, 132, 139;
of C. Gracchus, 414 f.; Augustan, 457.
Four
126
Hundred
and
Four
dred,
HunOne,
;
Col-os-se'um,471.
cen132, 234 f.; Five Hundred, 140, 196
Co-mi'ti-a,cu-ri-a'ta,
332, 341, 349;
f ; of Hellenes,173;
of Delian
f 348 ff 402, 403 ; trileague,
tu-ri-a'ta,
340
of
Pelop. league, 220;
185;
German,
bu'ta,343, 345, 348 ff.,403.
of Nicaea, 515 f ; under
magne,
Charle525;
Co-mi'ti-um, 336.
556; see Senate.
Ten, 42.
Commandments,
Count, 569.
Commendation, 522.
lonian, Courts, at Athens, 131, 132 ; under Pericles,
Commerce,
Egyptian, n, 12, 15; Babyat Rome, 400, 414 ; reguPhoenician, 39 f.,84; epic
!95~7 ,' special
lated
29;
by Sulla,426 ; assemblies as, 403.
Greek, 84; Ionian, 109, 157; Massalian,
with
Cras'sus,430; triumvir,433; killed,437 f.
Athenian, 184, 191, 199;
no;
with Egypt, 69 f ; enters
India, 283 ; after Alexander, 297 ; early Crete, contact
historical area, 48 ; civilization,
69-74 ,'
475.
Roman, 328, 338; under principate,
Roman
province, 432.
Com'mo-dus, 500.
Egyptian, 14 ff ; Babylonian, Cri-mi'sus R., battle of the,250.
Commons,
28 f.; Cretan, 72;
epic Greek, 84; in Crit'i-as,
252 f.
f. ; Croe'sus, 30, 157 f.
city-state,
101-3
; Lacedaemonian, 112
Cro'ton, 107.
Athenian, 125 ff.,130 ff.; Roman,
330;
with Rome, 326.
during Punic wars, 401, 407 ; in time of Cu'mae, 107; connected
Gracchi, 409 f 41 2-6 ; see Plebeians.
Cu-nax'a, battle of,254.
Co'mo, 497.
Cunc-ta'tor,383.
Cu'ne-i-form
Companionship (Com-i-ta'tus),525.
writing,23.
in cities of empire,476,
Confederacy of Delos, 184-7 ; changes to Cu'ri-a (council),
empire, 186 f.,194 f.; second Athenian,
520 f.
Curiae,329 f.; assembly of,332, 341.
259Co'non, 237, 256.
Cu-ri-a'les,
476; oppressed,520 f.
Con'stan-tine the Great, 509 f ; recognizes Cu'rule chair,331 f. ; magistrates, 339, n.
Christianity,
510, 514 f. ; taxation under,
2, 348.
of, 510 f.
Cyb'e-le,406.
519 f.; sons
Con-stan-ti-no'ple,
capitalof empire, 510;
Cyc'la-des,65.
.

.,

.,

.,

sole

capital,
537.

Con-stan'ti-us

Cy-clo'pes,
74.

Chlo'rus,507,

Cy'lon,

509.

128.

Government.
battle of,389 f.
Constitution,
see
Cyn-os-ceph'a-lae,
Consuls, early functions, 339;
regulated Cy-nu'ri-a,
121.
by Sulla,426; under Augustus, 451 f.; Cy'prus, contact with Babylon, 24;

Trajan, 486.
Co-pa'is,
L., 62.

Cor-cy'ra,120, 219.
Cor-fin'i-um,
421.
Cor'inth,city-state,
101

by Greeks,
Persia, 193.

82 ;

revolts

nized
colo-

against

120.
Cyp'se-lus,

to Crete, 454.
Cy-re-na'i-ca,annexed
quers
Cy'rus, the Great, 50; tomb of, 52; con120
at, 172 f. ; called by Philip,
; congress
Ionia,158 f.; the Younger, 235 f
with Athens, 191;
trouble
275 f. ; war
expedition of, 253 f.
with Coreyra, 219 f.; war
with Sparta, Cy-the'ra, 121.
25S-7;
destroyed,392 f ; Corinthian
Cyz'i-cus,battle of, 235.
;

under

tyranny,

war,

255-7.

Corinthian order of architecture,

146 f

Cor-ne'li-a,
409.
Cornice,147.

Da'ci-a,war with Rome, 472 f. ; conquered

by Trajan, 484 f 487, 496 ; abandoned,
.,

504-

Index

Drach'ma, value of, 134, n.

Dra'co, 129 f.
Drama, Attic, 213 f.,241;

Dag'o-bert,552.
Dal-ma'ti-a,507.
Danube
R., frontier,
454 f.
Scythians,
Da-ri'us,I, 51 ; attacks

51,

Ionic revolt,161 f ;
f.; suppresses
tries to conquer
Greece, 166 ff ; II, aids
159

575

i.

early Roman,

406.

Drep'a-na, battle of, 374 f.

Dru'sus, M. Livius,420 ; stepson of Augustus,

Sparta againstAthens, 235 f ; succession

455.
2 53 f ; III, conquered by Alexander, Du-o'vi-ri,
476.
.

to,
280

ff.

Dy'nas-ties,
Egyptian, 14.

Da'tis,167.
David, 43.
Dec'ar-chies,252.
Dec-e-le'a,230.
De-cem'virs, 343 f.
De'ci-us,emperor,
504.
De-la' tors, 463.
De'los, confederacyof, 184-7; changes to
empire, 186 f.,194 f.
Del'phi,oracle at, 62, 87 f.; plundered by
Gauls, 299.
Demes,

138 f.

E-chi'nus, 146.
Ec'no-mus, battle of,373.
Education, Egyptian, 15 f.; Spartan,
nian,
136 ; Athe113 f.; favored by Pisistratus,
early Roman, 368; more
200-5;
406 ; in Cicero's time, 447 f ;
common,
.

under

Charlemagne,

557

f.

6-20 ;
2 ; history,
E'gypt, earliest civilized,
geography, 6 f.; politicalevents, 8-14;
with Aegean
civilization,
14-20
; contact
area,
15, 69; revolts against Persia,
n,
under
IQ3 5 yields to Alexander, 281 ;
Ptolemies,298 f.,307-9;
allyof Rome,
364,397; prefecture,
452 ; suppliesRome
with grain, 454; under Mohammedans,

De-me'ter, 87 ; and Persephone, 151 f.

Democracy, develops from tyranny, 102 f ;
Cleisthenean, 138 f.; Periclean, 195-8;
overthrown, 233 ; restored,235 ; further
changes in,252 f ; in Boeotia, 258; sup553pressed
by Rome, 393 f.; in time of E'lam, 25, 49.
Gracchi, 412 f.
Elegy, Greek, 153.
De-mos'the-nes, the general,222 f.,231 f. ; Elephants in war, 359 f.,373, 381, 387.
the orator, 271 f., 274;
writer and
as
E-leu'sis,
63; mysteries,151 f.
of Athens,
f.
E'lis,
statue,
64; ally of Sparta, 120;
statesman, 287
; death, 299;
.

306.

224.

fluenced
Den-ta'tus, Manius
Curius, 358, 360; inEmperors, definition,440, 452, 473 ; the
lute,
Good, 484-99; "Soldier," 500-6; absoCato, 405.
ff
end
of
in
536-8.
Di-cas-te'ri-um,
West,
196, n. i.
507
;
Dic-ta'tor,
Empire, Egyptian, n f.; Accadian, 24;
339 ; example of,353 ; Sulla as,
Old Babylonian, 25-7 ; Second Babylonian,
425 ; Caesar, 440.
f.
f.
of
Digest
Justinian,
27
; Median, 49
; Lydian, 50,
544.
with
Di'o-ce-ses,
508.
157 f.; Persian, 50-6, 58; at war
with
f.
Athens, 232-9;
Greece, 158-78;
Di-o-cle'ti-an,
507-9 ; taxation under, 519
with Lacedaemon, 253-7 ; conquered by
Di-o-nys'i-us,
246-9; supports Sparta, 257.
in
Alexander, 279-84; Athenian, i86f.,194
Di-o-ny'sus,152; god of drama, 290;
f.; dissolved,238 f. ; Spartan (supremacy),
Rome, 406.
252-62 ; Macedonian, 279-84.
Divination,Babylonian, 31 ; Greek, 151 ;
Empire, Roman,
place in history,311 f ;
Etruscan, 321 ; Roman, 334.
influence
f.; first
Do-mi'ti-a,473.
geographical
on,
313
under
cracy,
plutoperiod of growth, 370-98;
Do-mi'ti-an,472 f.
Do'ri-ans,migration,74, 80, n. i ; situation,
399-408 ; from Gracchi to Caesar,
82 : in myth, 91 ; in Italy and Sicily,
;
409-39
; condition under Caesar, 439-42
under
condition,
108.
principate, 451-83;
Doric order of architecture,145 f.; Parthenon,
474-83 ; under Good Emperors, 484-99 ;
condition,496-8 ; in revolution to abso209.
.

Index

576

lutism, 500-6; under absolute rulers, Feudalism, in late empire, 522 ; effect of
companionship, 525.
of, 517507 ff.;decline,497 f ; causes
f.
of East, Fla'mi-nes,
333
23 ; dissolution in West, 536-8 ;
Flaminian
378, 459.
way,
537, 542-4, 556 ; of Charlemagne, 555-8.
Flam-i-ni'nus,389 f.
En'ni-us,406, n. i, 447.
Fla-min'i-us,Gaius, 378 f.,383.
tion,
Ep-am-in-on'das,258; in peace convenFla'vi-an princes,468-73 ; literatureunder,
259 f.; at Leuctra, 260 f. ; in Pelo492 f.
264 f.; as admiral, 265 ; at
ponnese,
Fo'rum, Roman, 336 ; Julian,458 ; Augustan,
Mantinea, 265 f ; estimate of,266 f
.

E-pei'rus,61 f.

459.

Eph'e-sus,battle near,
1 88 f.
Eph-i-al'tes,
Eph'ors, 117.
Epic, Babylonian,

Hundred, oligarchyof,234 f
Franks, 504 ; war with Huns, 533 f ; kingdom,
empire, 555-8.
550-5;
Freedmen, under Claudius,466 ; in society,
481.
Fren-ta'ni,315.
Frescoes,Cretan, 71.
Frieze,denned, 147 f.; of Parthenon,210 f.
Frontiers, under Augustus, 453-6; from
Augustus to Domitian, 474 f.; under
Hadrian, 487 f.; M. Aurelius,
491 f.
Frumentarian
(corn) law, 413.
Four

162.

Greek, 83;

32;

Age,

83-5.

Ep-i-dam'nus, 219.
Eq'ui-tes,see Knights.
Erc'te,Mt., 375.
E-rech-the'um, 239.
E-rech'theus,239.
161 ; destroyed,
E-re'tri-a,
167 f.
E'ryx, Mt., 375128.
Es'qui-line
Mt., 318.
Fu'ries,
Ethics, 242.'
cans
E-tru'ri-a,
in,316; EtrusGa-bin'i-us,law of,430.
315 ; Umbrians
invaded
in, 319-22;
by Gauls, Gai'se-ric,
531-3.
in "Roman state, 356 f.
Roman
Ga-la'ti-a,
province,453.
354;
300;
debt
to
E-trus'cans,319-22
Babylon, 35 ; Gal'ba, 468.
;
influence on Rome, 325 f.,332 ff 336 f ; Ga'len,494.
with Rome, 353 f.,358.
war
Ga-le'ri-us,
507, 509 ; edict of toleration,
Eu-boe'a, 61, 65.
514Eu-dox'i-a,532.
Gal'la Pla-cid'i-a,
530 f
Eu'pat-rids,125; in Periclean age, 191.
Gal'li-a Cis-al-pi'na,
province,
315 ; Roman
Eu-phra'tesR., basin of,21 ff.
378.
.,

Eu-rip'i-des,
241.
Eu-ro'pa, 93.
Eu-ro'tas R., 64.

Games, Greek national,

89 f.
pine,
TransalGaul, colonized by Greeks, no;
417 f ; conquered, 434-7
ized,
; organvaded
437,
455 ; Romanized,
437 ; inby Huns, 533 f.; Franks in, 550 f
Gauls, invade Thrace, 297 ; Greece, 299 ;
in Asia Minor, 300 ; subjectsof art, 306 f ;
invade Italy,322 f ; sack Rome, 354 f.;
tributary, 364; Cisalpine, conquered,
378; given citizenship,
441.
Ge-dro'si-an desert,283.
Ge'lon, 179.
Generals,Athenian, 139, 197 ; at Marathon,
168; gain power,
170; at Arginusae, 237;
federal,301 f.
Genius, of housefather,
328 f.; of princeps,
.

Eu-ry-bi'a-des,
173.
Eu-rym'e-don,battle
Evans'

excavations

of

in

the,186.
Crete,69.

Ex'arch,543.

Fa'bi-us,
383
Cunc-ta'tor,

f.

Factions,local in Attica,128, 135, 138.

Family, Egyptian, 14 ; Babylonian, 29 f.;
Hebrew, 46 ; epic Greek,83 f ; historical
.

Greek,98 ; Athenian,200 f 205 ; Roman,

early,328 f.; of empire, 480 f.
Faus-ti'na,
490.
Faus-tin-i-a'nae,
490.
Federal union, (leagues),
103, 301-4.
Federation,
Continental,
192 f.
.,

462.

Gens, Greek, 98; Roman,

329.

Index

577

Ge-nu'ci-an

law,348, n. 2.
Grae'ci-a,
Mag'na, 108, 315.
Geography, 307.
Gram-mat'i-cus, 447.
Gra-ni'cus R., battle of the, 279 f.
Ger-man'i-cus,462.
Germans, first invade empire, 418, 526; Greece, defined, 59;
geography, 59-67;
climate
threaten Gaul, 435 ; defeated by Caesar,
and
products, 60 f. ; effect
of country on
habitants
people, 66 f ; earliest in436; in time of Augustus, 455 f.,.526;
of Marcus
vice
Aurelius,491 f.,526; in ser69; settlement of, 73 f.; in
roads, Mycenaean
of empire, 498; third century inage, 74-80; condition about
504 ; in Illyricum,505 ; threaten
500 B.C., 142 f.; about 490 B.C., 163 f.;
sions
word
conquered by Rome, 303 f.; see
imperialoffice,509 ; life,5 24-7 ; invaand settlements,527-34;
relation
below.
to Romans,
534-8 ; New States,539-46 ; Greeks, in Egypt, 13, 20; debt to Babylonia,
Clovis
to
from
Charlemagne, 550-8;
35 ; influence Persian art, 52 ; first
see
Alemanni, Marcomanni,
Franks,
period of colonization,81 f ; second,
learn science of Egypt, no;
tellectua
inGoths, etc.
105-11;
awakening, 144-56; in Asia
Germany, invaded by Caesar, 436 ; Upper
and Lower, 455 ; in time of Augustus,
with Persia,
Minor, 157-62, 184 f.; war
166-78; with Carthage, 179 f ; from
455 f.; described,524 f.
Persian to Pelop.war, 182-218; inPelop.
Gi'zeh, 10.
with Rome, 429 f ;
Glad'i-a-tors,
407 ; war
J under Dionysiusand Timowar, 219-45
in army,
leon,246-51 ; under Spartan supremacy,
497.
during rise
Theban, 263-7;
Glau'ci-a,419 f.
252-62;
of Macedon,
Gods, see Religion.
268-78; in Alexander's
empire, 283 ; in Alexandria, 299, 307-9 ;
Gor'go, 161.
fluence
incontribution
to
civilization,
Gor'gons, 91.
309;
tions
Rome, 322, 326 f.,494, 496 ; relaGoths, invade empire,504 ; see Ostrogoths,
with Rome, 379, 390 ; conquered by
Visigoths.
brew,
Rome, 392 f.; welcome Mithridates,424.
Government, Egyptian,9 f.,15 f.,57; He42 f.; Oriental,57 ; Cretan, 72 f.; Gregory the Great, 546, 549 f
epic Greek, 84 f.; Lacedaemonian, 116 f.; Guilds in late empire,520.
tocracyGymnastics,Athenian, 203.
under
Athens
at
kings, 124 f ; arisand timocracy,125-7;
Solon's,
Cleisthenean
f.; tyranny, 135-8;
Ha'des, 86 f.; and Persephone, 151 f.
131
Periclean,
democracy, 138-41;
195-8; Ha'dri-an,487-9.
of Four Hundred, 234 f.; of Thirty, 252
Ha-mil'car,king,179 f.,246 ; Bar'ca,375 f.,
der's
f ; of early Macedon, 268 ; of Alexan380.
empire, 283 ; of federal leagues, Ham'ites, 4.
Ham-mu-ra'bi, 25, 29.
publican,
kings,331 f.; earlyre301-3
; of Roman
famous
general,
f.
in
Punic
; Han'ni-bal, king, 246;
;
wars,
339-51
402
f.
modified
380-7.
Gracchan, 415
by Sulla,
;
425 f.; of Caesar, 440-2 ; of Augustus, Har-mo'di-us, 137.
f.; Har'most, 252.
ff.; change to monarchy, 473
451
of
Hannibal,
f
Has'dru-bal,380 ; brother
of Good Emperors, 484, 486, 488
olution
; rev.

cletian, 385 fabsolutism, 500-6; of Dioin Egypt, 12;

history, 41-6;
of Church, 513 f.; of Hebrews,
507-9;
dria,
and
f.
literature,
religion
45 f.; in AlexanGermans, 525 ; of Charlemagne, 556
see
Jews.
Governor
of province,
299, 309 ;
376 f ; abuses office,
under Caesar, 440;
Helen, 95.
Cato as, 405;
400;
Hel-i-ae'a,131, 132.
under Augustus, 452 f.
Gracchi,409-16 ; character,408 f.; policy, Hel'las,defined,59 ; western, 108 ; extent,
unity, 155 f.; see Greece, Greeks.
Tiberius Gracchus, 409-12,
no;
415 f.,419;
Hel'len,59, 91.
415 f.; Gaius, 409, 412-6.
to

2P

Index

578

379,
migrations,73 f-J Il-lyr'i-cum,

Hel-le'nes,defined,59;
see

Greeks.

3, 397

n.

; furnishes

perors,
em-

505.

Hel-len'i-caof Xenophon, 286 f.

Hel-le-nis'ticAge, 296-310.
colonies near, 109 ; crossed by
Hel-les-pont,
Xerxes, 172 f.

He'lots,ii2f.
Hel-ve'ti-ans,
435 f.
He-phaes'tus,87.
Hep'tar-chy,546.
He'ra, 87.
Her-a-cle'a,battle of,359 f.
Her-a-clei'dae,
92.
Her'a-cles,Her'cu-les,92.
Her'mae, mutilation of, 228.
Her'mes, 87, 228; of Praxiteles,294.
Her'od, 453.
He-ro'des At'ti-cus,
497.
He-rod'o-tus,215, 242.
Heroes, defined,91.
Hes'i-od,90, 153.
Hes'ti-a (Vesta),87.

Im'bros,

257.

Im-pe-ra'tor,general,440,

becomes

452;

473, 484.
emperor,
Im-pe'ri-um, 331 ; sanctioned,341.
In'di-a,invaded by Alexander, 283.
vade
Indo-Europeans, 4 f ; defined,48 f ; inIran, 49; Greece, 73; Italy, 315.
Industry, Egyptian, 14 f.,16 f.,18; Babylonian,
.

29 ;

126,

133,

in late

Phoenician,38

f ;

Athenian,

198 f.; Italian,declines,

400;

empire,520.

Intellectual

awakening,

Greek,

lifein Periclean age, 207-17

144-56;

decline,
517.

In-ter-reg'num,In'ter-rex,
332.
I'on, 91.
82 ; conquered by Lydians, 157 f ;
I-o'ni-a,
in
by Cyrus, 158 f.; revolt, 160-2;
Delian Confederacy, 184 f.
Ionic order of architecture,
146 f.; best
.

example, 239.

Ip'sus,battle of,296.
I-ran',48-56.
Hi'e-ron,373, 384.
138.
Him'e-ra, battle of, 179 f ; destroyed,246. I-sag'o-ras,
Hi-mil'con,248.
I-soc'ra-tes,
287.
Hip-par'chus, 136 f.
Is'sus,battle of, 280.
Hip'pi-as, 136-8; plots return, 142, 161; Isth'mus, of Corinth, 63; fortified,
173.
guides Persians,168.
I-tal'i-ans,
315-8; allies of Rome, 363 f.;
8.
Hi'e-ro-glyphs,

160.
His-ti-ae'us,

win

Roman

f ; writing of, in
Periclean age, 215 ; in Pelop.war, 241 f.;
fourth century, 286 f.; in Rome, 406;

History, explained,

citizenship,
420

f ; 422

f.

Italy,colonized by Greeks, 106 f ; Dionysius in, 248 f ; receives culture from

Greece, 311;
geography, 312-5 ; population,
in late republic,445 ; under Augustus,
united by Rome, 357315-23;
461 ; under Good Emperors, 493 f
military
organized, 361-6, 399;
60;
Hitt'ites,
12.
strength,372, 382 ; Hannibal in, 381-6
Homer, 83, 153; Homeric
(epic)age, 83-5.
declines, 400 f.; in Roman
state, 421
Homicide, in epicage, 84 ; in Draco's code,
pestilencein,491 ; Ostrogoths in, 541 f.
Lombards
129.
in, 544 f. ; under Gregory
f.
the
Ho-no'ri-us,
528
Great, 549 f.
Horace, 461.
I-tho'me Mt., 65; fortified,
188; Messene
Ho-ra'ti-us and Valerius,
founded
345.
near, 264.
law of, 349;
Hor-ten'si-us,
repealed,425.
House, earlyRoman, 328; later,
478-80.
Mt., 325.
Ja-nic'u-lum,
Huns, 527, 533 f.
Ja'nus, 333.
Hyk'sos, ii.
Ja'son, 94 f.
Hy-met'tus Mt., 63.
Jerusalem, capitalof Israel,43 f.; taken by
Pompey, 431 f.; destroyed,468 f.
I-a-pyg'i-ans,
322.
Jews, well treated by Pompey, 431 ; revolt,
Il'i-ad,
83.
468 f ; see Hebrews.
Il-is'susR., 63.
Jordan R., 37.
2

Il-lyr'i-a,
313,

379;

Illyrian
wars,

379,

Jo-se'phus,46.

Index

580

Lyricpoetry, Greek, 154.

236 f 239 ; organizesSpartan
Ly-san'der,
256.
252; killed,
supremacy,
287.
Lys'i-as,
249,
296 f.
Ly-sim'a-chus,
294 f.
Ly-sip'pus,

Medicine,practiceof,308.
Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an

.,

united

3;

threatened

Me'don,

under

basin, field of history,

Rome, 311, 397, 432;

by barbarians,
492.

124.

Me-don'ti-dae,123

f.

Me-du'sa, 92; on metope, 150.

fluence
Meg'a-cles, 128.
Mac'e-don, Mac-e-do'ni-a, Chalcidic in264.
in,108 f ; submits to Persia,167 ; Meg-a-lop'o-lis,
Meg'a-ra, city,63 ; ally of Sparta,
country and people,268; rise,268-78;
grievance againstAthens, 220.
under
Alexander, 279-85 ; under Cassander, 296 f ; under Antipater, 299 ; Meg'a-ris,63.
under
Me'li-ans,slaughtered, 224 f.,238.
under PhilipV, 303 f.,387-90;
province,304, Mem'phis, 9-11.
Perseus, 391 f ; Roman
Macedonian
first, 387 ; Men-e-la'us, 95.
wars,
392 ;
Me'nes, 10.
second, 389 f.; third,391.
Mercenary War, 377.
Ma'gi, 54.
nian,
Mer-o-vin'gi-ans,
Magistrates (officials),
Egyptian,16; Athe551 f.
.

141 ;

in Periclean

127, 139;

age,

197

f. ;

province, 491,

Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a,Roman

f.,
f.; republican,
496.
339
Punic
in
f
Mess
(Brotherhood), Spartan, 114.
wars,
346
348,
349
;
342, 344,
under
f
tus,
Augus1
deposition
o
f,
Mes-sa'pi-ans,
;
322.
;
41
402
Mes-se'ne
(Peloponnese), 264 f.; Mes-sa'452.
battle of,298, 390 f
na
founded, 107 ; destroyed by
(Zan'cle),
Mag-ne'si-a,
Ma'go, 382.
Carthage, 248; seized by Mamertines,
Ma-har'bal, 384.
372 ; allyof Rome, 376.
Mam'er-tines, 372.
Mes-se'ni-a,65; conquered by Sparta, 118
f ; revolts, 188; gains freedom, 264;
Man'e-tho, 14.
188.
law of,431.
Messenian
Ma-nil'i-us,
1 18 f
wars,
Man'i-ples,366, 386.
Mes-si'ah,468.
second, Me^tau'rus, battle of the,386.
Man-ti-ne'a,first battle of, 224;
Me-tel'lus (earlier),conquers
Macedon,
265 f.
62
battle
Ma'ra-thon,
fightsJugurtha,417.
of, 168-70.
;
392 ; (later)
Mar-co-man'ni, 492.
Met'o-pe, 147; of Parthenon, 210.
Mar-do'ni-us, 166, 177 f.
Met-ro-po'li-tans,
514.
Ma'ri-us, Gaius, 416-20, 421-3;
(son) Mi-le'tus,82 ; colonizingstate, 109 ; under
424.
tyranny, 1 60 f.; destroyed, 162.
f.
Marriage, Athenian,205
Mil-ti'a-des,160, 162; at Marathon, 167328.
; Roman,
the
Mars, 324, 333;
Avenger, 459.
9; disgraced,170.
Mil' vi-an Bridge, battle at the, 510, 514.
Mas-i-nis'sa,
387, 394.
Mas-sa'li-a, Mas-sil'i-a (Marseilles),
Mi-ner'va, 333.
no;
civilizesnatives,434.
Mi'nos, 94.
with Rome,
Maturity of Greek mind, 286-95.
Mith-ri-da'tes,422 ; first war
and third,430 f
dependent kingdom, 454;
Mau-re-ta'ni-a,
423 f ; second
province,474.
Moe'si-a,Roman
province,454 ; Ostrogoths
Max-en'ti-us,emperor, 509 f
in, 540.
Max-im'i-an,507-9.
Mo-ham'med, Mo-ham'me-dans, 531, 552 f.
Mec'ca, 552.
Monarchy, growth from Augustus to Domition
Me-de'a, 95.
tian, 473 f ; limited, 484-99 ; revoluMedes, besiegeNineveh, 26 f.; origin,48
to absolutism, 500-6 ; absolute, 507
f. ; empire, 49 f.
ff ; see Kingship.
Media, situation,
48 ; empire,49 f.
Monasteries, 547 f.

earlyRoman,

331
.,

.,

Index
Money,

Spartan,

earliest Roman,

Athenian,

113;

366

133

f.;

imperial,debased,

581

Nip'pur, 23.
Nobles, Egyptian, 16; epic Greek, 84 f.;
f ; give way
acquire supremacy,
to
101
tyranny, 102 f.; Spartan, 117; Athenian,
f., 130;
f ;
early Roman,
125
330
"new," 348; motives to conquest, 371;

498; collapseof system, 518 f.

Monks, 547 f.
Morals, Egyptian, 18; Hebrew, 45 f ;
Persian,56 ; of Greek religion,87 ; of
in Punic wars, 402 f.; after Gracchi,419 ;
Delphic,88 ; of Athenian children,202 ;
hate Tiberius, 463 ; recruited by Vespacorrupted by sophists,215 ; earlyRoman,
sian,
Punic
in
in
328 f.,368 f. ;
wars,
469; under Diocletian, 509;
as
age
407 ;
under
of Cicero, 448, 450;
principate, landlords, 521 f ; see Classes,social,
Society.
461, 463 ; improve under Vespasian,469,
Nom'os, 196, n. 3.
481.
Moses, 42.
No-moth'e-tae,196.
Nor'i-cum, Roman
Mum'mi-us, 392 f.
province,455.
No'ti-um, battle of, 235 f.
Mun'da, battle of,439.
Mu-ni-cip'i-a,361 f.,421.
Nu'bi-a,n, 13.
Numa, 325, 333.
Museum, Alexandrian,308.
Music, Spartan, 116; Athenian, 203.
Nu-man'ti-a, besieged,396.
Myc'a-le, battle of, 178.
Nu-mid'i-a,387 ; allyof Rome, 397 ; under
tion,
annexed
to Africa,454.
My-ce'nae, 64; excavated, 68; civilizaJugurtha, 417;
Nu'mi-tor,324.
74-80.
My'lae, battle of,372 f.
Nuns, 547.
Mysteries, Orphic and Eleusinian,151 f.
Myths, Babylonian, 32 ; Greek, 90-7 ; Obelisk,7.
influence of,96 f.; Roman, 324-7.
Oc-ta'vi-a,
443.
81 ; revolts,
222.
Oc-taVi-us, tribune, 411;
Myt-i-le'ne,
consul,422 f.;
(Octavianus) grand-nephew of Caesar,
Nae'vi-us, 406, n. i, 447.
440,
442 f.; as triumvir,443 f.,451 ; as
Name, Greek and Roman, 329.
Augustus, 45 1-64 ; see Augustus.
Naples, 107 ; besieged by Rome, 357 ; ally O-de'um, of Pericles,212 f.; of Herodes
of Rome, 359.
Atticus,497.
Nar-bo-nen'sis,417 f.,434.
O-do-a'cer,537 ; conquered by Theodoric,
.

Nar'ses,544.

54i-

Nau'cra-ries,126.

O-dys'seus,96.

no.
Nau'cra-tis,

Od'ys-sey,83.
Oed'i-pus,93.
Oe-noph'y-ta, battle of,192.
f.;
Ol'i-garchs,conspire at Athens, 233
form decarchies,252;
moral inferiority,
253 ; protected by Alexander, 280.
Ol'i-gar-chy,denned, 102 ; supported by
Sparta, 120; of Four Hundred, 234 f.,

Nau-pac'tus, 192.
186.
Nax'os, 81 f.; revolts,
Ne-ar'chus, 283.
Negro race, 4.
Ne'me-a, games
at, 89.
Ne'pos, Cornelius,
445 ; emperor,
Nero, 466-8.
Ner'va, 484.
Ner'vi-i,
436.

Neus'tri-a,
552.

537.

253-

Olympia, games
at, 89 f.
O-lym'pi-ads, 90, n. 2.

New
O-lym'pi-as,277.
Learning, 239-45.
Ni-cae'a, council of, 515 f
O-lym'pus, Mt., 59 ; gods of, 87.
Nic'i-as,
negotiatespeace, 223 f. ; in Sicilian OlynthiacOrations,272.
O-lyn'thus, threatened
by Philip, 270
expedition, 228-32.
Ni'ke Ap'te-ros,212.
destroyed, 272.
Nile R., 6 f.
O-pim'i-us,415.

Nin'e-veh,27,

49.

Op-ti-ma'tes,
402

see

Nobles.

f.;

Index

582

Oracle, 151; Delphic, 62, 87 f ; influence

Sparta, 118,
colonization,106; on
on
of
ized
patron119;
prophecy,
example
137;
281.
by Croesus, 158; of Ammon,
ists,
Oratory, of Pericles,215 f.; taught by sophof Demosthenes,
271 f.,287 f.;
242;
.

Pa-sar'ga-dae,
52.
Patriarchal government,

42.

Patriarch,church

official,
514.
officialtitle,
Patrician,
537.
f ; in early republic,
Pa-tri'ci-ans,
330
340 ;
lose privileges,
348.
granted to new
citizens,
337.
of Lysias and Isocrates, 287 ; of Cicero, Patriciate,
Patrons,
f331.
445
Pa'trum
auc-tor'i-tas,
332.
patrician,
O-res'tes,
537.
Orient, history,6-56; cultural character, Paul, St.,512.
Pau'lus, L. Aemilius, 391 f.
of civilization,
20, 35, 46, 57
57 f.; source
at Plataea,178;
Pau-sa'ni-as,commander
f.
Alexander,
by
conquered
558
f.,3ii"
;
at Byzantium, 184; author, 494.
296-9, 307270-85 ; under his successors,
Peace, altar to Augustan, 459 f.
under Augustus, 453.
9;
Pediment, defined,148.
Os'sa Mt., 60.
Pei-rae'us,harbors, 163; fortified,184;
Os'ti-a,325.
alien residents in,199;
Os'tra-cism, 140 f.; of tyrannists,170;
prosperous,
219;
Macedonian
of
of Aristeides,
garrison
in,
Themistocles,
188;
299.
171 ;
of Cimon, 189.
Pe-las'gi-ans,
69; in Crete, 82.
frees Thebes, 257-9;
at LeucPe-lop'i-das,
Os'tra-kon,140.
261
266.
at
Susa,
killed,
Os'tro-goths,527, 539-43265
tra,
;
;
60 ; countries
Pel-o-pon-nese',
Pel-o-pon-ne'sus,
O'tho, prince,468.
with Athens, 191 f.,
of, 64 f.; war
202.
anarchy in, 263 f.; PeloponnePae-da'go-gos,
219"39;
sian
f ; aggressive, 141;
League, 120
Pae-o'ni-us,
241.
includes
f.
Hebrew, 43
Athens, 142 ; Great
Power,
Palace,Assyrian,33-35;
;
with
Persian, 52-4;
compared
Cretan, 70-2;
TirynPersia, 164;
143;
becomes
Athens
draws
withthian,74 f.
Hellenic,173;
f ;
from, 189; resources
of, 220
Pal-aes'tra,
203.
ff.
Pal'a-tine,
Mt., 318, 325, 335disrupted,263
Pal'es-tine,
Peloponnesian war, causes, 219 f.; to peace
37, 41-7.
Pal'las A-the'na, 87 ; see Athena.
of Nicias,219-24;
middle period,224 f.;
from
Sicilian expeditionto end, 226-39;
Pal-my'ra,504.
.

Pan-ath-e-na'ic

210.
festival,

terms

of peace,

238 f

Pan-gae'us Mt., 269.

Pe'lops,64.

Pan-no'ni-a,
455.
Pan'the-on,459, 488 f.
Papal power, growth of,547 "
Pa-pin'i-an,
501.
Pa-py'rus,19 ; in Athens, 202
Par'a-lus,
237.

Pe-na'tes,328.
Pe-ne'us R., 60.
Pen-tel'i-cus Mt., 61,

Par-me'ni-on, 282.
Par-nas'sus Mt., 60.
Par'nes Mt., 253.
Pa'ros,marble, 61 ; attacked

f.

Per'ga-mum,

empire,

; in time

390

300,

Per'i-cles,
age

; art

in,306.

of, 191-218;

imperialism,

195-8; law as to
government,
adorned
Athens, 207citizenship,
200;
character, 215-7;
troubles, 217 f.;
13;

by Miltiades,

in Pelop. war,
Per-i-oe'ci,
113,
;

394

191-5;

Par'the-non,207-12.
432

of, 207,

Per-i-an'der,120.

170.

Parthian

62 ; marble

209.

treaty with

Rome,

of Augustus, 454 ; Trajan

invades,486 ; declines,503.
defeat Crassus, 437;
Par'thi-ans,
Syria,491.

invade

Per'i-style,
149
Persecution

219-21.

116.
;

of Roman

Per-seph'o-ne,151 f.
Per-sep'o-lis,53 ; taken
282.

house, 480.

of Christians,467 f.,512

by

f.

Alexander,

Index
Per'seus, 91 f.; on temple metope, 150;
king of Macedon, 391 f.
Persians,Indo-Europeans, 5 ; country, 48 ;
empire, 50-6, 58; civilization,
51-6, 58;
Ionia, 158 f.; invade Europe,
conquer
quer
i5pf.; in Ionic revolt,160"5 ; try to conwith
Greece, 166-78; further war
help
Greece, 184-6, 193;
peace,
194;
Sparta against Athens, 232 ff ; civil

583

Pla-tae'a,
helps Athens

Marathon, 168;

at

battle of, 177 f.

Pla'to,288 f.
Plau'tus,406, 447.
Ple-be'ians,
f.,332 ; win rights,
330
339-51.
Plebs,330, n. 2 ; see word above.
Plin'y, the Elder, 493;
Younger, 493,
497-

Plo-ti'na,
487.
with LacedaePlu'tarch,494.
of conquering, Plu-toc'ra-cy,
399-408.
.

war

mon,

255"7

f ;

2^3

among,

war

Greek

idea

"

276 f.; conquered by Alexander, 279 ff.;

New

Persian

empire, 503

f ;
.

war

with

Po

R., 312
319;

valley colonized by Etruscans,

by Gauls, 354 ; conquered

invaded

with Justinian, 543.

Julian, 511;
by Rome, 378.
Peter,St.,549.
Poetry, Egyptian, 19;
Babylonian, 32;
Greek epic,83 f. ; lyric,
Pha'lanx, Spartan, 116; Athenian, 125 f ;
153 f.,213 f.,241 ;
Macedonian,273, 389, 391 f.; Etruscan,
dramatic, 213
f., 241 ; yields to prose,
286 ; Alexandrian, 305 ; early Roman,
Roman, 236 f.; change to legion,
320;
365 f.
406 ; late republican, 446 f ; Augustan,
Pha-le'rum, 163.
461 ; in Silver age, 493.
battle of,553.
Poi-tiers',
Pha'raohs, 9 f.,15 f.,18; of Memphis, 9at
168;
Pore-march,
Marathon,
1 1 ; of Thebes, 1 1 f ; of Sais,13.
125;
loses militaryfunction,170.
Phar'na-ces, 439.
battle of, 529.
Phar-sa'lus,battle of,438.
Pol-len'ti-a,
Po-lyb'i-us,392;
Phid'i-as,211, 217 f.
History,406, n. i.
168.
Pol-y-clei'tus,
Phi-dip'pi-des,
211, n. i, 294.
268-77 ; character, Pom-pe'ian theatre,458.
Philip of Macedon,
with Rome, 384, 387, Pom-pei'i,
war
472, 477 f.
272 f.;V, 303;
with Caesar, 437 f.
Pompey, 428-34; war
389 fPon'ti-fex Max'i-mus, 334 ; Caesar as, 440 ;
battles of,443.
Phi-lip'pi,
Augustus, 452.
Philippics,of Demosthenes, 272 ; of Cicero,
Pontiffs,334 f.
442.
Pon'ti-us,357.
Phi-lis'tines,
42 f.
Pon'tus, kingdom, 423, 431.
Philosophy, early Greek, 155 ; in Periclean
succeeds
to
Augustus, 538;
Pope, 514;
age, 215 ; in Pelop. war, 242-5
; in fourth
lemagne,
Chargrowth of power, 547 ff ; crowns
century, 288-90.
Phi-lox'e-nus,249.
555.
Pop-u-la'res,
401.
Pho-cae'ans, no.
Pho'cis, 62 ; sacred war
against, 270, Porch of Maidens, 239.
Po-sei'don,87 ; temple at Poseidonia, 149 ;
273 f.
in Parthenon
pediment, 209.
Phra'try (Brotherhood),98 f.,201.
Phoe-ni'ci-ans,
38-41 ; in Persian service, Pot-i-dae'a,108; revolts,220.
sieged,
Prae-nes'te,317;
allyof Rome, 357; be162, 172.
.

Phy'le, 253-

424.

Physiology,308.
Pi-ce'num, 315.
Picts,545.
Pi'la,365.
Pin'dar, 154.
Pip'pin, 553 f.
Pirates, Rome

at

376, 402 ;
Prae'tors,348 ; govern provinces,
increased
to
in
specialcourts, 414 ;
judge
regulated,426.
eight, 425;
Prax-it'e-les,
292-4.
466, 507 f
Prefect,of town, 362 ; pretorian,
after
Constantine,
508.
362 ;
Pre'fec-tures,
Prehistoric age, denned, 2.
Pre-to'ri-an guard, 456 ; abuses power, 500.
.

war

Pi-sis'tra-tus,
135

f.

with,430.

Index

5^4
Priests,Egyptian,
31,

335

Roman,

16

f. ;

333

f.

Babylonian, 28, Religion, Egyptian, 16-8;

becomes

Prin'ceps,Prince,446, 452;
473

arch,
mon-

f-

state, 100;

Principate, founded, 451-64; changes to

monarchy, 465-74.
tian,
Pro-con'suls,377, 385, 402 ; under Diocle508.
Proc-u-ra'tor,
453.
Pro-mag'is-trates,
377 ; regulatedby Sulla,
109.

Pro-py-lae'a,212.
Proscriptions,of Sulla,425

of Greek

colony,106;

120,

328 f. ; state, 332-5

402

political
objects,

Oriental

461 f

see

influence,406 ; Augustan,
Myth.
Christianity,

378 f. ; plutocratic,
399-408
;

under

136; deepening, 150 ff.;

undermined
by sophists,215 ; of Socrates,
Etruscan, 320 f.; of Roman
family,
244;
tyrants,

Re'mus, 324 f.
Republic, of Plato, 289; of Cicero, 446;
ment,
earlyRoman, 339-51 ; democratic move-

426.
colonies near,
Pro-pon'tis,
Pro-prae'tors,
377, 402.

Babylonian,

Hebrew, 45 f ; Persian, 54-6 ;

Mycenaean, 78 ; Greek, 86-97 ; of city-

30-2

of triumvirs,

443-

Persian, 51;
Provinces, Assyrian, 26;
of
Roman,
376 f.,394, 396; summary
early,397 ; misgoverned, 399 f ; under
rius,
Caesar, 440 f.; Augustus, 452-6; Tibe462 f ; Claudius,465 ; Nero, 467 ;
Vespasian,469; Domitian, 472 f.; Good
Emperors, 486-8, 496-8 ; Diocletian,508.
Pryt'a-nes,140.
Psam-met'i-chus, 13.
.

sition
; tran-

principate,
409-444.

to

Revolution, from republic to principate,

ff.; undercurrent, 422;
Marian,
412
422 ; from limited to absolute monarchy,
500-6.
Rex

sacrorum,

340.

Rhe'a, Vestal Virgin,324.

Rhe'gi-um, 107.
Rhetoric, 242.
Rhine R., frontier,
455.
Rhodes, 65.
man,
RoPse'phis-ma,196, n. 3.
Roads, Persian,51; Etruscan, 320;
Ptol-e-ma'ic system, 308.
Appian, 367; Flaminian, 378;
Ptol'e-mies,296, 298 f ; Alexandria under,
Aurelian, 396 ; under
Augustus, 453 ;
of repair,534.
under principate,
out
307-9 ; end of,439.
475 ;
Ptol'e-my, astronomer, 494.
Romanization, of Spain,397 ; of provinces,
Pub-lil'i-us Vo'le-ro,343.
of
of Gaul^437; of Britain,474;
399;
Punic
first,371-6; second, 381-7;
of
war,
empire,475;
Dacia, 485.
third,394 f.
ter,
Romans, rulers of Italy,311 ; earlycharacPyd'na, battle of,391 f.
Punic
f.
before
368 f. ;
328, 337
wars,
;
Py'los,222 f.
commercial
motives, 393 ; exploit provinces,
Pyramids, 10, 18.
f ; blending with Germans,
399
Pyr'rhus,war with Rome, 359 f ; in Sicily, 536; see word below.
370.
Greece,
Rome, city-state,
303;
conquers
Py-thag'o-ras,
155.
f.,392-4;
place in history,311 f ;
303
Pyth'i-a, 88.
culture
situation of hills,
318; Etruscan
in, 321 f ; sacked by Gauls, 322, 354 f ;
Quaes'tors,
339 ; election of,345 ; military,
founded, 324 f.,326; life under kings,
346 f.; increased to twenty, 425.
328-35; earlygrowth, 335-8 ; changes in
Quin'que-remes,247, 373.
constitution,339-51;
gains supremacy
Quir'i-nalHill,318.
in Italy,352-69 ; firstwar
with Carthage,
third, 394 f.;
371-6;
second, 381-7;
Races of mankind, 4 f.
with Macedon, 387-92 ; plutocratic,
wars
.

Rae'ti-a,
455.
Ra-me'ses,II, 12.
Ra-ven'na,542, 554;
Reg'u-lus,
373 f.
Relief,147, 149 f.

399"408
exarch

of,543.

in revolution

from

Gracchi

to

Sulla,409-27 ; from Sulla to Augustus,

under
principate, 451-83;
428-50;
fire in, 467 f ; under
Good
Emperors,
to
absolutism,
484-99; in revolution
.

Index
under

585

absolute

rulers, 507-16;
Scip'i-o,Publius (father),382, 385; (son)
f.; Gnae'us, 385 ; Lucius,
causes
captured by
385 f., 403
Goths, 529 f. ; by Vandals, 532 f ; end
Ae-mil-i-a'nus,
390;
395 f.,407, 412.
of emperors
in,537 f ; under Pope Gregory,
Sculpture, Egyptian, 17;
Babylonian,
f.; Charlemagne
crowned
in,
549
33-35 5 Persian, 53 f.; early Greek, 149
f.; of Parthenon, 209-12;
in Pelop.
555Rom'u-lus, 324 f ; a god, 327;
Auguswar,
230-41
; in fourth century, 292-5 ;
f.;
tulus, 537.
Hellenistic,305-7;
Etruscan, 320
Ro-set'ta stone, 7 f.,23.
Augustan, 459 f.; later,494-6.
Ru'bi-con
R., northern boundary of Ita"ly, Scy'ros,257.
attacked
Scyth'i-ans,49;
by Darius, 51,
360, 364, 421 ; crossed by Caesar, 438.
500-6;

of decline,517-23;

159 f-

Secession

Sa-bel'li-ans,
317.
Sa-bi'na,315; Sa'bines,
352.
Sacred Mount,

342,

344.

War, 89 ; againstPhocis, 270, 273 f.;

Philip kindles,274.
Sacred Way, Attic, 152; Roman, 353, 457,

Sacred

470.

Sa-gun'tum, 381.
Saints,547.
Sa'is,13.
Sal'a-mis,battle of, 175-7.
Sa'mos, 65; revolts,194;

n.

344.

later loyalty,

340, 345, 350

power

lessened

in Punic

wars,

by Gracchi,

415

402

f.;

f ;
.

stored,
re-

and restoration,
416-22 ; overthrow
; enlarged to six hundred, 425 ;
under Augustus,
to nine hundred, 440;
Claudius, 466 ; to Domitian, 473
451-3;
Good
f. ; under
Emperors, 484, 486;
in late empire,
loses power,
501, 505;
422-7

by Greeks, 161 f. ; satrap of,

233-

Sar'gon, of

plebs,342,

233-

Samuel, 42.
Sa'por, 504.
Sap'pho, 154.
Sar'dis,burned

of

Se-ges'ta,226 f.,246.
with
Se-leu'ci-dae,empire of, 298; war
Rome, 390 f.; end of,431.
Se-leu'cus,296, 298.
Se-li'nus,temple at, 150;
quarrels with
Segesta, 227 ; destroyed, 246.
Semites, 4; country, 21 f.; origin, 23;
of Babylonia, 23-5, 27 f ; of Assyria, 2528-35 ; of Syria,37-47.
7; civilization,
early republican,
Senate, early Roman,
332;

Accad,

24;

of

Assyria, 34,

522.

i.

Sen'e-ca,466 f.; as writer,492.

Sen-ti'num, battle of,358.

Sa-ron'ic Gulf, 64.

Sa'trap,51, 283.
Sa'tra-pies,Assyrian, 26; Persian,
under Alexander, 283.
Sat-ur-ni'nus,419 f.
Sam'ni-um, 317; Samnite wars, 355-9.
Saul, 42 f.
Sar-din'i-a,
377.
Savagery, i f.
Sax'ons, 539, 545 f.

Scaev'o-la,
410,

51;

Sep'tu-a-gint,
309.
Serfs in late empire, 521 f.
Ser-to'ri-us,
429.
383.
Ser-vil'i-us,
Ser'vi-us,Tul'li-us,325 f ; wall of, 326,
327 ; reforms, 336 f.,340.
Seven Hills of Rome, 318, 338.
Se-ve'rus,Sep-tim'i-us,
501 f.; Alexander.
.

503-

412.

Sib'yl,326.
excavations, 68.
Sic'els,
Scholarship,Alexandrian, 308 f
247.
Sicilianexpedition,
226-32.
Schools, Egyptian, 15 f.; Athenian, 202;
with Carthage, 179 f.;
Sicily,107 f. ; war
Roman, 406 ; in late republic,
447 f
thaginians,
invaded
by Athenians, 226-32; -by CarScience,Egyptian, 18 f.,no;
Babylonian,
under
Diony246-8, 250;
early Greek, no,
33;
154 f. ; in Perif.;
clean age, 215; in Pelop. War,
sius,246-9 ; Timoleon, 249 f ; Pyrrhus
242
man
in,371-6; Roin fourth century, 288-90; Hellenistic,
in, 360, 370; Punic war
f.
province,376
307-9.
Schlie'mann's

Index

586

Stoic philosophy,467.
in Achaean
Sic'y-cm,allyof Sparta, 120;
Sty'lus,202.
league,303.
Sue-to'ni-us,493 f.
Si'don,38.
Sueves, 530 f.
Si'nai,Mt., 42.
Babylonian, 28; Sul'la,L. Cornelius, 417, 421-6;
Slaves, Egyptian, 15;
425 f
for debt in Athens, 130 ; in Periclean age,
crease,
inSu-me'ri-ans,23.
treatment
of, 369 ;
198 f ; Roman
f.; as
Surgery, 308.
401 ; revolt in Italy,429
teachers, 447 f.; improved condition, Susa, 51 ; Alexander in,282.
toninus,
Syb'a-ris,
481 ; An107.
465, 467 ; under principate,

his

stitution,
con-

490;

in army,

497;

cline,Syb'o-ta,219,
de-

cause

n.

i.

Sym'ma-chus, 542.
518; become serfs,521.
with Carthage, 179
war
Syr-a-cuse',
107;
Smer'dis, 50 f.
f.
besieged by Athenians, 229-32;
Social War, Athenian, 269 ; Roman, 420.
;
under Dionysius,246-9; Timoleon, 249
Society,Egyptian,14-6 ; Babylonian,29 f ;
f. ; in firstPunic war, 370, 372 f. ; second,
Hebrew, 46; Cretan, 71 f.; Mycenaean,
nian,
384 f. ; allyof Rome, 376 ; sacked, 385.
76, 80 f.; Lacedaemonian, 112-6; Athe198-207 ; Alexandrian, 299 ; early Syr'i-a,trade with Egypt, 1 1 ; situation,
with Babylon, 24, 35;
contact
Roman,
328-31 ; under principate,
47621, 37;
82 ; in late empire, 520-2.
history,37-47 ; civilization,
39~4i,
45~7
kingdom, 298, 391 ; losingindependence,
by Xenophon,
Soc'ra-tes,243-5 ; Memoirs
.

',

286.

Roman

397;

Sog-di-a'na,283.
as
So'lon,130-5;
poet, 153.
Sophia,St.,cathedral,543.
Sophists,215, 242 f.
Soph'o-cles,214.
Spain, colonized by Phoenicians, 39 f 1 10 ;
by Greeks, no;
Carthaginian province,
380 f.; conquered by Rome, 385 f ; two
provinces, 396 f.; Seneca
from, 467;
Trajan from, 484 ; Visigothickingdom in,
Vandals
in, 531 ; Justinian
530 f.,553;
gains part of, 543 ; Saracens
conquer,
.,

553-

province,431;

under

gustus,
Au-

453.

Tac'i-tus,493.
Talent, Babylonian,
185, n.

value

33;

of Attic,

2.

Tal'mud, 46.
TanVgra, battle of,192.
with
Ta-ren'tum, 107 ; war
revolts,384.

Rome,

359

f ;
.

Tar-quin'i-i,
325.
Tar'quins, 325 f.; improve city,336 ; Tarquin the Proud," 326.
Pris'cus,Lucius, 325 f.
Tar-quin'i-us
"

Spar'ta,city,64 f. ; rules Laconia, 101, 112 ; Ta-yg'e-tusMt., 60, 61.

nian,
rise of,112-22
in,113 f. ; war
Taxes, Tribute, Assyrian, 26; early Athe; education
with Argos, 121 ; overthrows
Pisistratus, 136; of
126; under
tyranny at
under Cleon,
Athenian
Athens,137 f.; assails democracy, 141 f.;
allies,185, 220;
sends message
to Cyrus, 158 f. ; mistreats
province, 377; under
221
f.; in Roman
Persian
under
heralds, 167 ; earthquake at,
Augustus, 456;
Caesar, 440;
in cities of empire,
1 88; rupture with
under Vespasian, 469;
Athens, 189 ; restores
Boeotian
with Athens,
league,192; war
477 ; under Trajan, 487 ; Caracalla,
252-62; estimate of,
2I9~39;
supremacy,
502 f.; Diocletian, 519 f ; in Germanic
261
f ; treatment
of runaways,
invasions,534 f.
263 ;
second-rate
Cle264 f. ; under
Te'ge-a, 119.
power,
in Achaean
omenes,
Tem'pe, Vale of,61.
league, 392;
303;
allyof Rome, 393.
Temples, Egyptian, 16 f ; Babylonian,
Spar'ta-cus,
early Greek, 144-50;
429.
33-5 ; Hebrew, 44;
f.
222
Sphac-te'ri-a,
plan, 148; in Periclean Athens, 207-13;
Sta'di-um,291 f.
Etruscan, 321 ; Roman, 336, 339 ; under
Stil'i-cho,
529.
Augustus, 458 f.
.

Index

588

Tyr-rhe'ni-an
Tyr-tae'us,

Rome,

SIO.

312,

sea.

551

3*7"

315,

Vol'sci-ans,

Ur,

with

dans,
Mohamme-

by

468.

f.

352

41.

24,

U'ti-ca,

395-

Walls,
Va'lens,

Val-en-tin'i-an,

Va-le'ri-us,

and

Van'dals,

Wit'i-gis,

531-3

345.

conquered

by

Hebrew,

Belisarius,

76

542.

f.;

Spartan,
in

built,
re-

f.

Worship

436.

Writing

Age,

205

f. ;

29

Mycenaean,

71;

under

115;

Periclean

Roman,

455.
353

238;

Babylonian,

14;

Cretan,

46;

134;

Va'rus,

destroyed,

543.

Egyptian,

Women,

504.

Ho-ra'ti-us,

f.

193

256.

511.
emperor,

Long,

527

511,

emperor,

Va-le'ri-an,

Vei'i,

conquered

prince,

Vi-tel'li-us,

Um'bri-a,

543

553.

503.

501,

Spain,

in

Justinian,

Franks,

Ul'pi-an,

kingdom

with

war

f.

529

ture
530

iS3"

119,

Solon's

laws,

f., 218;

early

329.

of

dead,

86

Athens,

at

201
.

Ven'e-ti,
Ve-ne'ti-a,

315,

322.

22

Egyptian,
f

39

f.,

Phoenician,

19;

40

Babylonian,
f. ;

Greek,

41,

.,

Ven'ice,

534.

Ve'nus,

90;
333.

324,

Ver'gil,

461.

Ve'rus,

490,

Vestal

of

temple,
Mt.,

Xer'xes,

eruption

of,

345

general,

Athenian
373.
254

f.,

286

Yoke,

passing

under,

battle

of, 386

358.

508.

temple

Vim'i-nal

Vis'i-goths,

Hill,
take

526;

of,

212;

Paeonius,

of

241.

Dacia,

Za'ma,
Ze'no,

318.

invade

f.

172-8.

f.

471

504

empire,

accept
527-9;

tianity,
Chriscap-

537-

Ze-no'bi-a,
Zoology,

Roman,

Etruscan,

72;

148.

356;

f-

Vi-ca'ri-i,
Victory,

334.

324,

Ve-su'vi-us,
Veto,

326

Xen'o-phon,

Virgins,

152

504.

308.

319

f. ;

f.

Lacedaemonian,

333.

Vestibule

Cretan,

327;

Xan-thiprpus,

468-71.

of,

use

Roman,

492.

Ves-pa'si-an,
Ves'ta,

41,

of, 418.

battle

Ver-cel'lae,

increasing

f.

170,

191;

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has the conspicuousmerits which only a

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Historyof the Orient

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