FLOW MEASUREMENT

I. FLOW-OBSTRUCTION METHODS:
1. Pitot tube:
A pitot tube is a simple device used to measure fluid velocity at a
point in a flow as shown in a sketch below:
points 1 2
flow

h
pitot tube

The pitot tube is based on the Bernoulli equation (with the

assumption of constant density of the fluid between points 1 and 2)
as:
SI units:
British units:

V 12

V22 P2
+
+ g z1 =
+
+ g z2
2

V 12

P1

V22
P
g
g
+
+
+ 2+
z2
z1 =
2 gc gc
2 gc gc
P1

(1)
(1.b)

Where V1 is the velocity of the flow and V2 = 0 at the stagnation

point at the tip of the pitot tube. Points 1 and 2 are at the same
elevation. The Bernoulli equation can be simplified as:

CHE 215

page 1 of 20

H. Muhamad

V 12
2 gc
V1 =

( P2 P1 )

(2)

2 gc ( P2 P1 )

(3)

Therefore, ideally the fluid velocity can be determined from

Equation (3) once the differential pressure (P1-P2) is measured by
the pitot tube as:

( P2 P1 ) =

g
( M ) h
gc

(4)

In practice, due to the non-ideal condition a calibration factor is

added to Equation (4) for the determination of the fluid velocity at
a given point in the flow as:
V1 = C

2 gc ( P2 P1 )

(5)

The calibration factor C is usually in the range of 0.98 to 1.0

Equation (5) applies to incompressible fluid (liquid). However, it
can also be used for gas flow at moderate velocities and pressure
change (P1-P2) less than 10% the total pressure.
In gas flow application, an annubar is often used. The annubar is
basically an integration of a number of pitot tubes on one bar that
can installed across the diameter of a pipe. The annubar thus gives
the reading of the average velocity of the flow in the pipe with a
typical accuracy of 3% full scale.

CHE 215

page 2 of 20

H. Muhamad

2. Venturi flowmeter

CHE 215

page 3 of 20

H. Muhamad

P1

P2

flow
D1

D2

From the Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluid (with the

assumption of constant fluid density between points 1 and 2):
V 12

V22
P
g
g
+
+
+ 2+
z2
z1 =
2 gc gc
2 gc gc
P1

The relationship between the fluid velocity at points 1 and 2 can be

written as:

( P1 P2 ) =

V22 V12

2 gc

(6)

From the equation of continuity for isothermal condition (constant

):
V1 = V2

A2
A1

(7)

Substitution of Equation (7) in to Equation (6):

2

A
V22 1 2

A1

( P1 P2 ) =
2 gc

(8)

The fluid volumetric flow rate is (ideal condition):

CHE 215

page 4 of 20

H. Muhamad

A2

Q=

A 2
1 2
A 1

2 g c (P1 P2 )

(9)

Under practical conditions (some friction loss), a coefficient of

discharge (or calibration coefficient), Co, which is a function of the
ratio of the venturi throat diameter to that of the pipe and the
Reynolds number, is added to the equation of the fluid volumetric
flowrate as below:
Q = Co

A2
1
2 2

A
1 2
A1

2 g c (P1 P2 )

(10)

Let M, velocity approach factor, =

A
1 2
A1

2 g c (P1 P2 )
Q = Co M A2

(11)

Advantages of a venturi flowmeter over an orifice plate:

Low pressure loss
Less maintenance
More accurate: 0.5% full scale
However, a venturi flowmeter is more expensive than an orifice
plate.

CHE 215

page 5 of 20

H. Muhamad

3. Orifice plate and Flow Nozzle

orifice
flow
A2

A1

P1

P2

Orifice Plate
CHE 215

page 6 of 20

H. Muhamad

Flow nozzle

An orifice plate is a plate with an opening area A2 that is smaller

the cross-sectional area A1 of the pipe. The fluid accelerates at the
orifice opening. Therefore, the pressure at point 2 (P2) is lower
than the pressure in the bulk stream P1 right in front of the orifice
plate. Similarly, from the Bernoulli equation, the equation for the
volumetric flowrate is identical to that for a venturi flowmeter as
below:
1

2 g c (P1 P2 ) 2
Q = Co M A2

(12)

The orifice coefficient, Co, is a function of the ratio of the orifice

diameter to that of the pipe and the Reynolds number.

CHE 215

page 7 of 20

H. Muhamad

The discharge coefficient for an orifice plate can be determined

from the following equation:
Co = 0.5959 + 0.0312

2.1

0.184 +
4

91.71 2.5
Re D0.75

(ratio of throat diameter to pipe diameter): 0.2 to 0.7

ReD: Reynolds number based on the pipe inside diameter
A flow nozzle is basically an orifice plate with the opening
extended to form a short tubing in the direction of the flow. The
equation for the volumetric flowrate is exactly the same as that of
an orifice plate. The orifice plate and the flow nozzle are suitable
for clean and low viscosity fluid. The accuracy is usually in the
range of 0.75 to 2% full scale. The discharge coefficient can be
estimated using the following equation:
106

Co = 0.9975 0.00653
Re D

0.5

where the Reynolds number is based on the pipe diameter.

Gas flow
For a gas flow (compressible fluid) passing a venturi flowmeter or
an orifice plate, the volumetric flowrate can be determined from
the following equation:
2 g c (P1 P2 )
Q = Y Co M A2

(13)

Where the gas expansion factor Y can be estimated from the

following equations.

CHE 215

page 8 of 20

H. Muhamad

For an orifice plate:

2

A2 P1 P2

Y = 1 0.41 + 0.35
A
P

1
1

(14)

Where = CP/CV, Cp is the gas specific heat at constant pressure

and Cv is the gas specific heat at constant volume. For example, for
air = CP/CV = 1.4
For a venturi flowmeter or a flow nozzle:
( 1)

P2
A2

P 1 P
A
1
1

Y = 2
2

P 1 1
P2
2

1 A2 P2
P

1
A P

1 1

0.5

(15)

In the graph for the values of the expansion coefficient Y, is

defined as D2/D1 (D1 diameter of the pipe, D2 the diameter of the
throat)

CHE 215

page 9 of 20

H. Muhamad

CHE 215

page 10 of 20

H. Muhamad

II. FLOWMETER USING DRAG FORCE

Rotameter (variable area flowmeter):
d

tapered tube

float
b
angle
y

CHE 215

page 11 of 20

H. Muhamad

A rotameter is based on the force balance on a float inside a

tapered tube.
(16)

Fd + Fb = Fg

The drag force, Fd, can be expressed as:

Fd = C d Ab F

u2
2 gc

(17)

Where Cd is the drag coefficient, Ab is the area of the float

perpendicular to the flow (Ab = d2/4), F is the density of the
fluid and u is the fluid velocity at the annular space between the
float and the tapered tube.
The buoyant force, Fb is:
Fb = F

g
Vb
gc

(18)

where Vb is the volume of the float.

CHE 215

page 12 of 20

H. Muhamad

The gravitational force on the float, Fg is:

Fg = b

g
Vb
gc

(19)

By substitution of Equations (17), (18) and (19) into Equation (16)

and isolation of u, the following equation is obtained:
2 g Vb b

1
u=

C d Ab F

0.5

(20)

Equation (20) indicates that u is constant for a certain fluid and a

specific float (Cd is relatively constant under turbulent flow). This
can be applied to measure the stream flowrate. Initially, under no
flow condition the float sits at the bottom of the tube where the gap
between the float and the tube is almost negligible. As the fluid
flows through the rotameter, the float is forced upward and moves
to some position where all the forces applied on the float are
balanced. The fluid velocity is then at the value of u accordingly to
Equation (20). When a further increase of the flowrate occurs, the
drag force is stronger. The total force applied on the float becomes
unbalanced in the upward direction since the annular velocity is
temporarily higher than the steady value given by Equation (20).
As a result, the float moves up farther to open up the annular space
so to regain the steady annular velocity u. Therefore, a scale can be
calibrated and marked on the tapered tube to read the fluid
flowrate.
Precautions:
Rotameter is calibrated for a certain fluid. Therefore, it must be
used for the fluid it is calibrated for. Different fluids have
different densities; hence, a density change due to a different
fluid in use would cause some change in the value of the
annular velocity u, leading to error in the flowrate reading.

CHE 215

page 13 of 20

H. Muhamad

Q = A u
A is the annular area between the float and the tube. At a given
flowrate Q, when u changes, A will changes, i.e. the vertical
position of the float in the rotameter changes.
Use the rotameter at the same temperature at calibration since
temperature changes cause changes in fluid viscosity. This in
turn might change the Reynolds number, and hence, the drag
coefficient, Cd.
Low accuracy: up to 5% full scale

III. OTHER FLOWMETERS

1. Hot wire Anemometer

CHE 215

page 14 of 20

H. Muhamad

A hot wire anemometer is mainly a wire that is heated electrically

and placed in a flow stream (usually gas). The heat transfer rate
from the wire to the flow stream is:

q = a + b u 0.5 (TW T )

(21)

where a and b are calibration constants, u is the gas velocity, TW is

the wire temperature and T is the temperature of the stream.
Also:

q = i2 Rw

When the gas velocity, u, increases, more heat loss from the wire
to the gas stream. The current, i, to wire is increased automatically
to maintain TW. The change in the supplied current, i, with the gas
velocity can be calibrated to read the gas velocity.
Another arrangement involves a connection of a hot wire
anemometer to a Wheatstone bridge, the change in the resistance
CHE 215

page 15 of 20

H. Muhamad

of the wire (due to the cooling of the wire by the gas flow) leads to
a finite bridge output voltage that can be calibrated to measure the
gas velocity.
Hot wire anemometer is very sensitive. Some may have time
constant of 0.001 second (such as a platinum wire of 0.0001 inch
diameter). Therefore, it is suitable for transient measurements.

2. Magnetic flowmeter

A magnetic flowmeter is based on the principle of the Faraday law

of electromagnetic induction that states a voltage (emf) will be
induced in an electrical conductor moving through a magnetic
field. In flow measuring application, an electrically conductive
fluid flowing through a magnetic field has an emf induced in it at
right angles to the direction of flow. The induced emf can be
picked up by the electrodes, in contact with liquid, on the wall of
the pipe, and sent to a read out unit. The electrodes are insulated
from the pipe carrying the fluid. The induced emf, E, is directly
CHE 215

page 16 of 20

H. Muhamad

proportional to the velocity of the fluid, u, as shown in the

following equation:
E = BLu10-8

(22)

where E is the emf induced (volt), B is the magnetic flux density

(gauss), L (cm) is the length of the conductor (it is the diameter of
the pipe in the case of flow measurement of a stream in a pipe), u
is the liquid velocity (cm/s)
Two types of magnetic flowmeters are available. One type is
integrated with a non-conductive pipe section. This type is suitable
for liquids with low electrical conductivities such as water (with
trace of ions such as the hardness of water in city water). The
electrodes are installed in the nonconductive pipe section and they
are flush with the inside wall of the non-conductive pipe. Another
type is for liquid with high conductivities. For this case, the meter
can be used with metal pipe. The electrodes can be attached
directly to the outside of the pipe and diametrically opposed to
each other.
Magnetic flow meters are not suitable for non-conductive fluids
such as several organic solvents, gases, steam and most
hydrocarbons. The liquid should have a minimal conductivity of
1.0 S/cm (conductivity of pure water is 0.04 S/cm). Accuracy of
a magnetic flowmeter is 0.5-1.0%.
3. Ultrasonic flowmeter
There are two types of ultrasonic flowmeters: transit-time meter
and ultrasonic Doppler meter.
a) Transit-time meter:
For the transit-time meter, the time the ultrasound travels from a
sound transmitter to a sound receiver on the opposite side of a pipe
changes with the fluid velocity in the pipe. The change in the travel
CHE 215

page 17 of 20

H. Muhamad

time can be calibrated to measure the fluid velocity in the pipe.

The transit-time in a quiescent liquid is used as a reference. This
type of meter is often used with plastic pipes but not for concrete
pipes since the sound wave cant penetrate the concrete wall. The
typical accuracy is 1% full scale.
b) Utrasonic Doppler meter:
The transmitter passes ultrasonic wave through the flow with
suspended solid or bubbles (it requires at least 25 ppm particles or
gas bubbles of 30 m diameter or larger). The sound wave
reflected from the particles in the flow has a frequency shift that is
related to the velocity of the particles. The receiver receives the
reflected waves and sends them to a microprocessor where signals
are processed and converted to the flowrate output (accuracy of
2-5% full scale).
transmitter
ultrasound beam
flow

ultrasound receiver
Transit-time meter
transmitter
ultrasound beam
flow
bubble or particle
receiver
Ultrasonic Doppler meter
CHE 215

page 18 of 20

H. Muhamad

4. Turbine flowmeter:

A turbine flowmeter mainly consists of a magnetized turbine in a

flow path and a voltage pick-up coil on the outside wall of a pipe.
CHE 215

page 19 of 20

H. Muhamad

As fluid flows through the flowmeter, it makes the turbine to rotate

and generate a voltage pulse every rotation. The voltage pick-up
coil receives the voltage pulse and transfer it to a counter where the
number of voltage pulses received per unit time can be translated
to the flowrate of the fluid passing the turbine in the pipe as below:
Q=

f
K

(23)

Where Q is the flowrate (gallon/s), f is the pulse frequency

(cycle/s) and K is the flow coefficient of the meter (cycle/gallon).
Turbine flowmeter are quite accurate with the accuracy of
0.5% over a large range of flowrates.
They are suitable for clean fluid, clean gas and steam.
They are not recommended for slurry, very viscous materials
and corrosive fluids.

CHE 215

page 20 of 20

H. Muhamad