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EDUCATION
Amanda Credaro 1999, 2000, 2001
INTRODUCTION
Educational institutions, like all other organisations, require constant monitoring to
identify areas for potential improvement. However, educational reforms are often not
well implemented. This results in massive wastage of finances, human resources, and lost
potential.
Change may be described as the adoption of an innovation (Carlopio 1998, 2), where the
ultimate goal is to improve outcomes through an alteration of practices. However, the
process of change is complex, with many different types of change possible. Further,
there are a number of differing strategies for implementing these changes, with the
success of implementation being highly variable.
Factors that drive change may be internal or external to the environment (Yee, 1998),
innovations may be initiated at any level in the organisational structure (Swenson 1997)
and reforms may be systemic or local (Reigeluth 1994) in nature.
Commercial enterprises, non-profit organisations, service industries, government
instrumentalities and educational institutions all undergo change. As educational
institutions have characteristics in common with each of the preceding, they may be
considered as being typical of an organisation undergoing change.
EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURES
The structural framework of education is hierarchical in nature. Each of these strata are
comprised of individuals with differing goals, interests and perspectives. This results in
groups that possess different cultures, structures, practices, policies and goals, which
ultimately determine the success or otherwise of the implementation of innovations.
Whitely (1995, 44) notes that there are three "intersecting sets of core values"
underlaying organisational culture; organisational (the company's corporate values),
group values and individual values.
Educational institutions are organised on many levels, from the individual classroom
under the management of a single teacher, to groups of classrooms supervised by a Head
Teacher or Executive Teacher, to a whole-school structure, under the guidance of the
principal. Independent or private schools generally report to a School Board. Government
schools in NSW are grouped into "districts", whilst Catholic schools are administered by
a central regional authority. Overseeing these geographic divisions is a statewide body
The unprecedented volume of information (Hancock 1993, Siitonen, 1996, Hahm et al,
1998) that is now available has generated a need for complex analytical skills to
appropriately access this information in an efficient, meaningful way. Although much
publicity in the media has been generated in the last few years regarding the perceived
reduction in standards for functional literacy (reading and writing), the educational
perspective requires a shift in paradigm to an information literacy focus.
To achieve this goal in a meaningful way, educational institutions themselves must
restructure the framework of their organisation to form learning communities (Hough &
Paine 1997, 192), rather than institutions whose core function is the dispensing of
information.
Information Landscape
In the current "information age", a new economy has emerged in which knowledge is
traded as a marketable commodity (Tinkler, 1996). In this global knowledge economy, it
is imperative that school students be equipped to undertake appropriate access to data and
manipulate it to fulfil their information needs.
Hazell (1990) notes that school libraries are the largest component of the Australian
library and information network, with some 11,000 schools providing educational
opportunities for over 3 million students. It is therefore self evident that in order to cater
to a student's information literacy critical skills, an appropriate "library program" is
necessary. Whilst traditional bibliographical instruction, delivered by the teacher
librarian, is still fundamental to introducing the principles of information access, a more
integrated approach to information literacy is required in order to engender meaningful,
relevant direction for school students. This type of instruction is most efficiently
delivered by the subject or class teacher in collaboration with the teacher librarian.
Implementation of proposed innovations, the third stage of the change process, is the
most complex and difficult to achieve. In the school context, this may be even more
arduous than in other organisations. Fullan (1993, 46) notes that educational reforms are
"hard to conceive and even harder to put into practice" . The implementation of change is
not linear (Carlopio 1998, 5), and must progress through various stages over time, with
commitment from stakeholders that is achieved through shared decision-making,
common vision, collaboration and the establishment of support structures.
Carlopio (ibid ) notes that the implementation stage of change is itself constructed of four
periods. The creation of "knowledge and awareness", the first step of implementation, is
noted by Shields (1989, 41) as consisting of a further six "stages of concern". The second
step in the implementation process is the establishment of facilitating structures, whilst
the third is the complex simultaneous process engagement in persuasion, decision and
commitment; Lastly, "rollout and fine tuning" complete the implementation of
innovation.
Interestingly, a study on business decisions reported that the success rate of
implementation (Wind & Maine, 1998) was only about 50% . The lowest rate of
implementation was for the most successful practices, such as group problem solving,
whilst the highest rate of implementation was for the least successful practices, such as
issuing directives (Sauer, 1997).
It is self evident that the implementation stage of change must be followed by evaluation
and reassessment, possibly with further amendments needed as issues of concern become
identified. Honeywell Australia (1999) comments that change is "like fractal patterns",
complex and iterative, with stakeholders making "thousands of incremental adjustments"
in reaction to each of the stages noted above.
LEVELS OF CHANGE
Systemic
All organisations, including educational systems, have concerns that are addressed by
attempts at organisational renewal. Productivity (class sizes, teaching periods per day),
cost effectiveness (global budgeting was introduced in 1989 in NSW government
schools), capital utilisation, market orientation (increasingly higher enrolments in nongovernment schools, together with an increasingly greater proportion of "out-of-area"
enrolments, demonstrating that pupils are exercising their right of choice), organisational
renewal and viability are primary of importance for all organisations.
Whole School
As individual schools have unique cultures, practices and traditions, it is self-evident that
an individual tailoring that is context-specific is required. The leadership style of the
administrator will to a large extent determine the types of change that are likely to occur,
together with the ultimate success of their implementation and subsequent improvement
to learning outcomes. Lincoln (1987, 16) states that a whole school approach is
necessary, with the need for shared decision-making and collaborative practices being
paramount.
At Classroom Level
Individual teachers and teacher librarians are in an ideal position to instigate innovative
practices and processes. Whilst their "self-imposed isolation" (Smith & Scott, 1990) has
numerous drawbacks, it does allow the freedom to experiment with innovation.
It may be hoped that by individuals taking risks by developing educational practices that
embrace the concepts of information literate learning communities, gradual change to
some of the barriers may occur, thereby laying the foundations for a whole school
approach. Fullan et al (1990, 14) view this approach as a catalyst for
innovation, linking classroom practice to school improvement. While this is to be viewed
as a long-term goal, the nature of change and the resistance to it makes this option a more
pragmatic strategy.
However, innovation implies risk taking (Hirose, 1992). Current educational practices do
not support unsuccessful outcomes (Santos, c1998). The nature of accountability in
government schools determines to a large extent the school principal's response to
suggestions of innovation at the local (school) level. However, these "unsuccessful
experiments" are part of the learning process itself.
debate is noted (Lashway, 1998) as the key to successful "group dynamics". It must be
emphasised that practice must concentrate on listening, suspending judgment and seeking
common understanding.
Senge (1992, 5) comments that many of the "best ideas" are not put into practice due to
conflict with "deeply held internal images". The failure to critically review prevailing
assumptions and philosophies (Whitely 1995, 48) when formulating new strategies may
be considered to be one of the many causes of failure to implement innovative structures
and practices.
Perceptions of Stake Holders
Schools are possibly unique amongst other types of organisations. Stakeholders are not
only those within the physical boundaries of a school, nor those beyond the school
charged with its administration. Parents and primary caregivers are also greatly
concerned with activities within the school. Tertiary institutions have expectations of
school leavers, as do employer groups and social welfare organisations. Wider society is
similarly concerned with educational structures and procedures. Each of these
stakeholders have perceptions which form barriers to the implementation of innovation,
and the resultant changes that occur.
Students have a firm view that school work involves "reading and writing" ( Lincoln
1987) and where classroom practice is negotiated and participatory, the students'
perception is that of not actually engaging in learning. Similarly, parents expect that their
children will spend much of their school time in writing-based activities, as a result of the
parents' own learning experiences. Potential employers to a great extent still require a
subjective assessment based on examinations for lower level employment, prior to
promotion to higher level positions requiring higher order skills.
The combination of these perceptions creates a barrier to achieving change at local level,
where the amount of written work, the format of examinations and classroom experiences
diverge from the ineffective, if traditional, practices. In the educational environment, the
genuine support of teachers is necessary for any attempt at change (Hargreaves 1993, 16).
Teachers must not only accept the inevitability of change, but must also understand the
rationales for any proposed changes.
Lack of Holistic Approach
The rapid introduction of ill-conceived changes without consideration to the effect on
individual parts of the system or the system as a whole (Senge 1990, 15) has resulted in a
piecemeal approach (Henri & Hay, 1994) that produces a fragmentation rather than a
coagulation of the organisation.
Similarly, Newman (1998) comments that incremental reforms , which she refers to as
"tinkering to remove defects" aim to improve existing structures, whilst fundamental
reforms transform and permanently alter structures. Further, Newman (ibid ) notes that
This absence of follow-up has highlighted the ineffectual nature of these educational
reforms. Had effective evaluation and monitoring been actioned, the deficiencies of
implementation would have been highlighted, and the necessary amendments
accomplished.
Absence of Support
Despite the background research that precedes any major organisational change, it is
noted that "top-down" policies are almost without exception ineffective. Addleson
(c1998) asserts that "structure and strategic plans" have little to do with organisational
achievement, as organisational structure is composed of relationships between individuals
and groups, and is shaped by individual's attitudes towards others both within and beyond
the organisation. It is therefore manifestly obvious that the implementation of changes
requires a support structure for the individuals and groups involved.
Carlopio (1998, 2) notes that change is a social process, undertaken over a period of time,
and not a "decision event". Those involved in the change must undergo a learning process
in order to appreciate the aims and goals of the proposed change, make adaptions to cater
for the new practices and be permitted to achieve personal and professional growth prior
to attempting to implement the change.
The Change Process
The process of change is itself a barrier to achieving change. Whilst change may be
ongoing, follow a "metastrategic cycle" (Limerick et al , 1994) or be episodic and
characterised by "punctuated equilibrium" (Limerick & Cunnington, 1993), the
mechanism and methodology of the change has less of an impact that the actual process
of change. Any disturbance to the status quo is likely to create friction, and Fullan (1993,
77) cautions that this conflict is inevitable but necessary.
Dunning (1997) remarks that the necessity for closure is one of the most basic of human
needs. The last decade has witnessed numerous attempts at reform within the NSW
government school system (Carrick's Report, Scott's "School Renewal" , McGaw's
"Effective Schools "). Fullan (1993, 42) observes that "irregular waves of change and
episodic projects" produce a fragmentation of effort and a "grinding overload". With
progressive, continual change there can be no closure. Continual
gradual improvement or dramatic rapid initiatives are equally unsettling to the human
psyche, and therefore are frequently resisted.
In discussing innovation in the workplace, Carlopio (1998, iii) notes that resistance to
change is more pronounced in Australia than countries such as USA or Japan. Referring
to "reform fatigue", Carlopio (ibid ) comments on the counterproductive nature of
ongoing modifications. The negative effects of these continuous modifications include
"overload and burnout" (Hargreaves 1993, 16), but may be curtailed if any change was
It is pertinent to inquire as to how these broad changes have been so effectively actioned
in the sphere of the school library, and in such a relatively short time. Teacher librarians
have been subject to external influences such as technological developments to an extent
not yet apparent in the mainstream classroom. From the relatively innocuous replacement
of card catalogues to an electronically based OPAC, school libraries have been involved
in innovative practices concerning networked digital reference works and access to
external information sources via the Internet. This has resulted in teacher librarians
frequently being cited as the technology expert within many schools.
It is noted that not all teacher librarians are on the "technology bandwaggon", and many
resisted both the previous and current changes. An "interplay" (Bennett 1998) between
forces for change and resistance exist in this area, as in all situations where changes are
occurring. However, despite the singularity of their position within the school, teacher
librarians are noted for their development and participation of networks external to their
own school. In allowing time and space (Hill, 1995, 49) for reflection, enquiry and
professional dialogue, the teacher librarian provides an exemplar for coping with the
negative effects of change and innovation.
Departmental policy and budgetary provisions provided another external change driver
for the school library. The dramatic injection of government funds radically altering
resource housing in the 1960's, from a modified classroom to a purpose-build facility, and
simultaneously created the neccesity for a position for a school library professional.
Unfortunately, this also produced a shift in paradigm concerning resource-based learning.
With the print material being housed separately to the learning areas, there was a gradual
decline in their central use for instruction. Contemporary teacher librarians are now in the
process of addressing this issue, by actively promoting the advantages of resource-based
learning in situations where the practice is not used or used ineffectively.
Internal change drivers also effect the teacher librarian and the school library. Within the
whole school environment, the perception by classroom colleagues of the teacher
librarian's role as "custodian of the books" has not altered in many schools. Changes to
the delivery of tertiary training for teacher librarians have raised awareness of the
potential improvements possible to information services within the school. Unfortunately,
tertiary instruction regarding classroom teaching practice does not appear to have made
teachers similarly cognisant of the potential benefits of collaborative practice, particularly
in the secondary environment. Teacher librarians themselves are acting as change agents
to promote the benefits of collaborative practice to educational outcomes.
A subtle shift in management style of school principalship also acts as an internal change
driver for school library practices. As principals become more aware of the connection
between the quality of the school's information services and improvement in educational
outcomes, the imperative for quality library services increases. Again, in many instances,
it is the teacher librarian who frequently brings these issues to the attention of the
principal, and other leaders within the school.
Thus, teacher librarians have managed change in their school libraries by developing
their own support structure of networks external to the school (Shields, 1989) and
developing relationships with administrators within the school. Whether the forces for
change have been external or internal to the school, or indeed identified as an area for
improvement by the teacher librarian themselves, the school library has improved
practices which ultimately benefit all members of the school community.
CONCLUSION
Paradoxically, the very same factors that produce the need for change present barriers for
the achievement of that change. School culture, stake holders perceptions, societal
effects, organisational structure and the nature of change itself are together creating both
the need for, and method of, continuous improvement to education and its outcomes.
Whilst Fullan (1993, 46) notes that societal problems beyond the control of schools
frequently prevent educational reform, these cannot be wholly held responsible for the
failure of educational reform. Lack of supporting structures, a deficit in the consultative
process, an inadequacy in holistic approach, and the absence of ongoing evaluation and
amendment contribute greatly to the impairment of implementing innovative practices.
Present practices are inadequate to meet changes in work, knowledge, and citizenship
(Schuyler, 1997) while serving a greater number of students with diverse backgrounds
and educational objectives. A paradigm shift from instruction to learning is required to
adequately serve the clients of educational institutions, which in turn requires an
alteration in procedures for improved outcomes.
Educational practices, and the structures that support them, must change in order to
ensure that the citizens of the future - our school children of the present - can exist and
grow in a world characterised by change, unpredictability and enterprise.
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