Howreactivepowerishelpfultomaintainasystemhealthy

How reactive power is helpful to maintain a system healthy

Wealwaysinpracticetoreducereactivepowertoimprovesystemefficiency.Thisareacceptableatsomelevel,ifsystemis
purelyresistivelyorcapacitanceitmakecausesomeprobleminElectricalsystem.ACsystemssupplyorconsumetwokind
ofpower:realpowerandreactivepower.

Realpoweraccomplishesusefulworkwhilereactivepowersupportsthevoltagethatmustbecontrolledforsystemreliability.
Reactivepowerhasaprofoundeffectonthesecurityofpowersystemsbecauseitaffectsvoltagesthroughoutthesystem.
FindimportantdiscussionregardingimportanceaboutReactivePowerandhowitisusefultomaintainSystemvoltage
healthy.

COVEREDTOPICS:
Needofreactivepower
Importanceofpresentofreactive
power
Purposeofreactivepower
Whatisreactivepower?
Whydoweneedreactivepower?
Reactivepowerisabyproductof
ACsystems
Howarevoltagescontrolled?
Voltagemustbemaintainedwithin
acc.levels
Voltageandreactivepower
Reactivepowerandpowerfactor
Reactivepowerlimitations

Reactivepowercausedabsenceof
el.supply
Problemsofreactivepower
Profoundeffectsofreactivepower:
Generation
Synchronouscondensers
Capacitorsandinductors
StaticVARcompensators
(SVCs)
Staticsynchronous
compensators
Distributedgeneration
Transmissionside
Voltageandreactivepower
planning

NeedofReactivePower
Voltagecontrolinanelectricalpowersystemisimportantforproperoperationforelectricalpowerequipmenttoprevent
damagesuchasoverheatingofgeneratorsandmotors,toreducetransmissionlossesandtomaintaintheabilityofthe
systemtowithstandandpreventvoltagecollapse.Ingeneralterms,decreasingreactivepowercausingvoltagetofall
whileincreasingitcausingvoltagetorise.Avoltagecollapseoccurswhenthesystemtrytoservemuchmoreloadthan

thevoltagecansupport.
.
Whenreactivepowersupplylowervoltage,asvoltagedropscurrentmustincreasetomaintainpowersupplied,
causingsystemtoconsumemorereactivepowerandthevoltagedropsfurther.Ifthecurrentincreasetoomuch,
transmissionlinesgooffline,overloadingotherlinesandpotentiallycausingcascadingfailures.
.
Ifthevoltagedropstoolow,somegeneratorswilldisconnectautomaticallytoprotectthemselves.Voltagecollapse
occurswhenanincreaseinloadorlessgenerationortransmissionfacilitiescausesdroppingvoltage,whichcausesa
furtherreductioninreactivepowerfromcapacitorandlinecharging,andstilltherefurthervoltagereductions.Ifvoltage
reductioncontinues,thesewillcauseadditionalelementstotrip,leadingfurtherreductioninvoltageandlossoftheload.
Theresultintheseentireprogressiveanduncontrollabledeclinesinvoltageisthatthesystemunabletoprovidethe
reactivepowerrequiredsupplyingthereactivepowerdemands.

ImportanceofPresentofReactivePower
Voltagecontrolandreactivepowermanagementaretwoaspectsofasingleactivitythatbothsupportsreliabilityand
facilitatescommercialtransactionsacrosstransmissionnetworks.
.
Onanalternatingcurrent(AC)powersystem,voltageiscontrolledbymanagingproductionandabsorptionofreactive
power.Therearethreereasonswhyitisnecessarytomanagereactivepowerandcontrolvoltage.
.
First,bothcustomerandpowersystemequipmentaredesignedtooperatewithinarangeofvoltages,usuallywithin5%
ofthenominalvoltage.Atlowvoltages,manytypesofequipmentperformpoorlylightbulbsprovidelessillumination,
inductionmotorscanoverheatandbedamaged,andsomeelectronicequipmentwillnotoperateat.Highvoltagescan
damageequipmentandshortentheirlifetimes.
.
Second,reactivepowerconsumestransmissionandgenerationresources.Tomaximizetheamountofrealpowerthat
canbetransferredacrossacongestedtransmissioninterface,reactivepowerflowsmustbeminimized.Similarly,
reactivepowerproductioncanlimitageneratorsrealpowercapability.
.

Third,movingreactivepoweronthetransmissionsystemincursrealpowerlosses.Bothcapacityandenergymustbe
suppliedtoreplacetheselosses.
.
Voltagecontroliscomplicatedbytwoadditionalfactors.
.
First,thetransmissionsystemitselfisanonlinearconsumerofreactivepower,dependingonsystemloading.Atvery
lightloadingthesystemgeneratesreactivepowerthatmustbeabsorbed,whileatheavyloadingthesystemconsumesa
largeamountofreactivepowerthatmustbereplaced.Thesystemsreactivepowerrequirementsalsodependonthe
generationandtransmissionconfiguration.
.
Consequently,systemreactiverequirementsvaryintimeasloadlevelsandloadandgenerationpatternschange.The
bulkpowersystemiscomposedofmanypiecesofequipment,anyoneofwhichcanfailatanytime.Therefore,the
systemisdesignedtowithstandthelossofanysinglepieceofequipmentandtocontinueoperatingwithoutimpacting
Get anycustomers.Thatis,thesystemisdesignedtowithstandasinglecontingency.Takentogether,thesetwofactors
PDF resultinadynamicreactivepowerrequirement.Thelossofageneratororamajortransmissionlinecanhavethe
compoundingeffectofreducingthereactivesupplyand,atthesametime,reconfiguringflowssuchthatthesystemis
TOP
consumingadditionalreactivepower.
.
SHARE
Atleastaportionofthereactivesupplymustbecapableofrespondingquicklytochangingreactivepowerdemandsand
tomaintainacceptablevoltagesthroughoutthesystem.Thus,justasanelectricalsystemrequiresrealpowerreserves
torespondtocontingencies,sotooitmustmaintainreactivepowerreserves.
.
Loadscanalsobebothrealandreactive.Thereactiveportionoftheloadcouldbeservedfromthetransmissionsystem.
Reactiveloadsincurmorevoltagedropandreactivelossesinthetransmissionsystemthandosimilarsize(MVA)real
loads.
.

Verticallyintegratedutilitiesoftenincludechargesforprovisionofreactivepowertoloadsintheirrates.With
restructuring,thetrendistorestrictloadstooperationatnearzeroreactivepowerdemand(a1.0powerfactor).The
systemoperatorproposallimitsloadstopowerfactorsbetween0.97lagging(absorbingreactivepower)and0.99
leading.Thiswouldhelptomaintainreliabilityofthesystemandavoidtheproblemsofmarketpowerinwhicha

Like companycoulduseitstransmissionlinestolimitcompetitionforgenerationandincreaseitsprices.

PurposeofReactivePower
Synchronousgenerators,SVCandvarioustypesofotherDER(Distributedenergyresource)equipmentareusedto
maintainvoltagesthroughoutthetransmissionsystem.Injectingreactivepowerintothesystemraisesvoltages,and
absorbingreactivepowerlowersvoltages.
.
Voltagesupportrequirementsareafunctionofthelocationsandmagnitudesofgeneratoroutputsandcustomerloads
andoftheconfigurationoftheDERtransmissionsystem.
.
Theserequirementscandiffersubstantiallyfromlocationtolocationandcanchangerapidlyasthelocationand
magnitudeofgenerationandloadchange.Atverylowlevelsofsystemload,transmissionlinesactascapacitorsand
increasevoltages.Athighlevelsofload,however,transmissionlinesabsorbreactivepowerandtherebylowervoltages.
Mosttransmissionsystemequipment(e.g.,capacitors,inductors,andtapchangingtransformers)isstaticbutcanbe
switchedtorespondtochangesinvoltagesupportrequirements
.
Systemoperationhasthreeobjectiveswhenmanagingreactivepowerandvoltages.
.
First,itmustmaintainadequatevoltagesthroughoutthetransmissionanddistributionsystemforbothcurrentand
contingencyconditions.
.
Second,itseekstominimizecongestionofrealpowerflows.
.
Third,itseekstominimizerealpowerlosses.
.
However,themechanismsthatsystemoperatorsusetoacquireanddeployreactivepowerresourcesarechanging
.Thesemechanismsmustbefairtoallpartiesaswellaseffective.Further,theymustbedemonstrablyfair.

WhatisReactivePower?
Whileactivepoweristheenergysuppliedtorunamotor,heatahome,orilluminateanelectriclightbulb,reactivepower
providestheimportantfunctionofregulatingvoltage.
Ifvoltageonthesystemisnothighenough,activepowercannotbesupplied.
Reactivepowerisusedtoprovidethevoltagelevelsnecessaryforactivepowertodousefulwork.
Reactivepowerisessentialtomoveactivepowerthroughthetransmissionanddistributionsystemtothecustomer.

WhyDoWeNeedReactivePower?
Reactivepower(VARS)isrequiredtomaintainthevoltagetodeliveractivepower(watts)throughtransmissionlines.
Motorloadsandotherloadsrequirereactivepowertoconverttheflowofelectronsintousefulwork.
Whenthereisnotenoughreactivepower,thevoltagesagsdownanditisnotpossibletopushthepowerdemandedby
loadsthroughthelines.

ReactivePowerisaByproductofAlternatingCurrent(AC)Systems
Transformers,transmissionlines,andmotorsrequirereactivepower
Transformersandtransmissionlinesintroduceinductanceaswellasresistance:
1. Bothopposetheflowofcurrent
2. Mustraisethevoltagehighertopushthepowerthroughtheinductanceofthelines
3. Unlesscapacitanceisintroducedtooffsetinductance
Thefartherthetransmissionofpower,thehigherthevoltageneedstoberaised
Electricmotorsneedreactivepowertoproducemagneticfieldsfortheiroperation

HowAreVoltagesControlled?
Voltagesarecontrolledbyprovidingsufficientreactivepowercontrolmargintomodulateandsupplyneedsthrough:
1. Shuntcapacitorandreactorcompensations

2. Dynamiccompensation
3. Propervoltagescheduleofgeneration.
Voltagesarecontrolledbypredictingandcorrectingreactivepowerdemandfromloads

VoltagemustbemaintainedwithinAcceptableLevels
Undernormalsystemconditions,bothpeakoroffpeakloadconditions,thevoltagesneedtobemaintainedbetween
95%and105%ofthenominal.
Lowvoltageconditionscouldresultinequipmentmalfunctions:
1. Motorwillstall,overheatordamage
2. Reactivepoweroutputofcapacitorswillbereducedexponentially
3. Generatingunitsmaytrip.
Highvoltageconditionsmay:
1. Damagemajorequipmentinsulationfailure
2. Automaticallytripmajortransmissionequipment

VoltageandReactivePower
Voltageandreactivepowermustbeproperlymanagedandcontrolledto:
1. Provideadequateservicequality
2. Maintainproperstabilityofthepowersystem.

ReactivePowerandPowerFactor
Reactivepowerispresentwhenthevoltageandcurrentarenotinphase:
1. Onewaveformleadstheother
2. Phaseanglenotequalto0o
3. Powerfactorlessthanunity
Measuredinvoltamperereactive(VAR)

Producedwhenthecurrentwaveformleadsvoltagewaveform(Leadingpowerfactor)
Viceversa,consumedwhenthecurrentwaveformlagsvoltage(laggingpowerfactor)

ReactivePowerLimitations
Reactivepowerdoesnottravelveryfar.
Usuallynecessarytoproduceitclosetothelocationwhereitisneeded
Asupplier/sourceclosetothelocationoftheneedisinamuchbetterpositiontoprovidereactivepowerversusonethat
islocatedfarfromthelocationoftheneed
Reactivepowersuppliesarecloselytiedtotheabilitytodeliverrealoractivepower.

ReactivepowercausedabsenceofelectricalsupplyincountryAblackout

Power Triangle

Thequalityoftheelectricalenergysupplycanbeevaluatedbasingonanumberofparameters.However,themost
importantwillbealwaysthepresenceofelectricalenergyandthenumberanddurationofinterrupts.
.
Ifthereisnovoltageinthesocketnobodywillcareaboutharmonics,sagsorsurges.
.
Alongterm,widespreadinterruptablackoutleadsusuallytocatastrophiclosses.Itisdifficulttoimaginethatinallthe
countrythereisnoelectricalsupply.
.
Inrealitysuchthingshavealreadyhappenedanumberoftimes.Oneofthereasonsleadingtoablackoutisreactive
powerthatwentoutofthecontrol.
.
Whenconsumptionofelectricalenergyishigh,thedemandoninductivereactivepowerincreasesusuallyatthesame
proportion.Inthismoment,thetransmissionlines(thatarewellloaded)introduceanextrainductivereactivepower.
.
Thelocalsourcesofcapacitivereactivepowerbecomeinsufficient.Itisnecessarytodelivermoreofthereactivepower
fromgeneratorsinpowerplants.
.
Itmighthappenthattheyarealreadyfullyloadedandthereactivepowerwillhavetobedeliveredfrommoredistant
placesorfromabroad.Transmissionofreactivepowerwillloadmorethelines,whichinturnwillintroducemorereactive
power.Thevoltageoncustomersidewilldecreasefurther.Localcontrolofvoltagebymeansofautotransformerswill
leadtoincreaseofcurrent(togetthesamepower)andthisinturnwillincreasevoltagedropsinlines.Inonemoment
thisprocesscangolikeavalanchereducingvoltagetozero.Inmeantimemostofthegeneratorsinpowerplantswill
switchoffduetounacceptablylowvoltagewhatofcoursewilldeterioratethesituation.
.
IncontinentalEuropemostofthepowerplantisbasedonheatandsteamturbines.Ifagenerationunitinsuchpower
plantisstoppedandcooldownitrequirestimeandelectricalenergytostartoperationagain.Iftheotherpowerplants
arealsoofftheblackoutispermanent.
.
Insufficientreactivepowerleadingtovoltagecollapsehasbeenacausalfactorinmajorblackoutsintheworldwide.
VoltagecollapseoccurredinUnitedStatesintheblackoutofJuly2,1996,andAugust10,1996ontheWestCoast.

.
WhileAugust14,2003,blackoutintheUnitedStatesandCanadawasnotduetoavoltagecollapseasthattermhas
traditionallyusedbypowersystemengineers,thetaskforcefinalreportsaidthatInsufficientreactivepowerwasan
issueintheblackoutandthereportalsooverestimationofdynamicsreactiveoutputofsystemgenerationas
commonfactoramongmajoroutagesintheUnitedStates.
.
Demandforreactivepowerwasunusuallyhighbecauseofalargevolumeoflongdistancetransmissions
streamingthroughOhiotoareas,includingCanada,thanneededtoimportpowertomeetlocaldemand.Butthe
supplyofreactivepowerwaslowbecausesomeplantswereoutofserviceand,possibly,becauseotherplants
werenotproducingenoughofit.

Problemsofreactivepower
Thoughreactivepowerisneededtorunmanyelectricaldevices,itcancauseharmfuleffectsonyourappliancesand
othermotorizedloads,aswellasyourelectricalinfrastructure.Sincethecurrentflowingthroughyourelectricalsystemis
higherthanthatnecessarytodotherequiredwork,excesspowerdissipatesintheformofheatasthereactivecurrent
flowsthroughresistivecomponentslikewires,switchesandtransformers.Keepinmindthatwheneverenergyis
expended,youpay.Itmakesnodifferencewhethertheenergyisexpendedintheformofheatorusefulwork.
.
Wecandeterminehowmuchreactivepoweryourelectricaldevicesusebymeasuringtheirpowerfactor,theratio
betweenrealpowerandtruepower.Apowerfactorof1(i.e.100%)ideallymeansthatallelectricalpowerisapplied
towardsrealwork.Homestypicallyhaveoverallpowerfactorsintherangeof70%to85%,dependinguponwhich
appliancesmayberunning.Newerhomeswiththelatestinenergyefficientappliancescanhaveanoverallpowerfactor
inthenineties.
.
Thetypicalresidentialpowermeteronlyreadsrealpower,i.e.whatyouwouldhavewithapowerfactorof100%.While
mostelectriccompaniesdonotchargeresidencesdirectlyforreactivepower,itsacommonmisconceptiontosaythat
reactivepowercorrectionhasnoeconomicbenefit.Tobeginwith,electriccompaniescorrectforpowerfactoraround
industrialcomplexes,ortheywillrequesttheoffendingcustomertodosoathisexpense,ortheywillchargemorefor
reactivepower.Clearlyelectriccompaniesbenefitfrompowerfactorcorrection,sincetransmissionlinescarryingthe

additional(reactive)currenttoheavilyindustrializedareascoststhemmoney.Manypeopleoverlookthebenefitsthat
powerfactorcorrectioncanofferthetypicalhomeincomparisontothesavingsandotherbenefitsthatbusinesseswith
largeinductiveloadscanexpect.
.
Mostimportantly,youpayforreactivepowerintheformofenergylossescreatedbythereactivecurrentflowinginyour
home.Theselossesareintheformofheatandcannotbereturnedtothegrid.Henceyoupay.Thefewerkilowatts
expendedinthehome,whetherfromheatdissipationornot,thelowertheelectricbill.Sincepowerfactorcorrection
reducestheenergylosses,yousave.
.
Asstatedearlier,electriccompaniescorrectforpowerfactoraroundindustrialcomplexes,ortheywillrequestthe
offendingcustomertodoso,ortheywillchargeforreactivepower.Theyrenotworriedaboutresidentialservice
becausetheimpactontheirdistributiongridisnotassevereasinheavilyindustrializedareas.However,itistruethat
powerfactorcorrectionassiststheelectriccompanybyreducingdemandforelectricity,therebyallowingthemtosatisfy
serviceneedselsewhere.Butwhocares?Powerfactorcorrectionlowersyourelectricbillbyreducingthenumberof
kilowattsexpended,andwithoutityourelectricbillwillbehigher,guaranteed.
.
Weveencounteredthiswithotherelectriccompaniesandhavebeensuccessfulingettingeachofthemtoissuea
retraction.Electriccompaniesdovarygreatlyandmanyshownointerestindeviatingfromtheirstandardmarketing
strategybyacknowledgingprovenenergysavingproducts.KeepinmindthatpromotingREALenergysavingstoalltheir
customerswoulddevastatetheirbottomline.
.
Powerfactorcorrectionwillnotraiseyourelectricbillordoharmtoyourelectricaldevices.Thetechnologyhasbeen
successfullyappliedthroughoutindustryforyears.Whensizedproperly,powerfactorcorrectionwillenhancethe
electricalefficiencyandlongevityofinductiveloads.Powerfactorcorrectioncanhaveadversesideeffects(e.g.
harmonics)onsensitiveindustrializedequipmentifnothandledbyknowledgeable,experiencedprofessionals.Power
factorcorrectiononresidentialdwellingsislimitedtothecapacityoftheelectricalpanel(200ampmax)anddoesnot
overcompensatehouseholdinductiveloads.Byincreasingtheefficiencyofelectricalsystems,energydemandandits
environmentalimpactislessened.

ProfoundeffectsofReactivePowerinVariouselementsofPowerSystem:

Generation
Anelectricpowergeneratorsprimaryfunctionistoconvertfuel(orotherenergyresource)intoelectricpower.Almostall
generators*alsohaveconsiderablecontrolovertheirterminalvoltageandreactivepoweroutput.
.
Paymentfortheuseofthisresourceisthespecificfocusofvoltagecontrolfromgenerationservice.Theabilityof
generatortoprovidereactivesupportdependsonitsrealpowerproduction.Likemostelectricequipment,generatorsare
limitedbytheircurrentcarryingcapability.Nearratedvoltage,thiscapabilitybecomesanMVAlimitforthearmatureof
thegeneratorratherthanaMWlimitation.
.
Productionofreactivepowerinvolvesincreasingthemagneticfieldtoraisethegeneratorsterminalvoltage.Increasing
themagneticfieldrequiresincreasingthecurrentintherotatingfieldwinding.Absorptionofreactivepowerislimitedby
themagneticfluxpatterninthestator,whichresultsinexcessiveheatingofthestatorendiron,thecoreendheating
limit.
.
Thesynchronizingtorqueisalsoreducedwhenabsorbinglargeamountsofreactivepower,whichcanalsolimit
generatorcapabilitytoreducethechanceoflosingsynchronismwiththesystem.
.
Thegeneratorprimemover(e.g.,thesteamturbine)isusuallydesignedwithlesscapacitythantheelectricgenerator,
resultingintheprimemoverlimit.Thedesignersrecognizethatthegeneratorwillbeproducingreactivepowerand
supportingsystemvoltagemostofthetime.Providingaprimemovercapableofdeliveringallthemechanicalpowerthe
generatorcanconverttoelectricitywhenitisneitherproducingnorabsorbingreactivepowerwouldresultin
underutilizationoftheprimemover.
.
ToproduceorabsorbadditionalVARsbeyondtheselimitswouldrequireareductionintherealpoweroutputoftheunit.
ControloverthereactiveoutputandtheterminalvoltageofthegeneratorisprovidedbyadjustingtheDCcurrentinthe
generatorsrotatingfield.Controlcanbeautomatic,continuous,andfast.
.
Theinherentcharacteristicsofthegeneratorhelpmaintainsystemvoltage.Atanygivenfieldsetting,thegeneratorhas
aspecificterminalvoltageitisattemptingtohold.Ifthesystemvoltagedeclines,thegeneratorwillinjectreactivepower

intothepowersystem,tendingtoraisesystemvoltage.Ifthesystemvoltagerises,thereactiveoutputofthegenerator
willdrop,andultimatelyreactivepowerwillflowintothegenerator,tendingtolowersystemvoltage.Thevoltage
regulatorwillaccentuatethisbehaviorbydrivingthefieldcurrentintheappropriatedirectiontoobtainthedesired
systemvoltage.

Synchronouscondesers
Everysynchronousmachine(motororgenerator)withacontrollablefieldhasthereactivepowercapabilitiesdiscussed
above.
.
Synchronousmotorsareoccasionallyusedtoprovidedynamicvoltagesupporttothepowersystemastheyprovide
mechanicalpowertotheirload.Somecombustionturbinesandhydrounitsaredesignedtoallowthegeneratorto
operatewithoutitsmechanicalpowersourcesimplytoprovidethereactivepowercapabilitytothepowersystemwhen
therealpowergenerationisunavailableornotneeded.
.
Synchronousmachinesthataredesignedexclusivelytoprovidereactivesupportarecalledsynchronouscondensers.
.
Synchronouscondensershavealloftheresponsespeedandcontrollabilityadvantagesofgeneratorswithouttheneed
toconstructtherestofthepowerplant(e.g.,fuelhandlingequipmentandboilers).Becausetheyarerotatingmachines
withmovingpartsandauxiliarysystems,theymayrequiresignificantlymoremaintenancethanstaticalternatives.They
alsoconsumerealpowerequaltoabout3%ofthemachinesreactivepowerrating.

Capacitorsandinductors
Capacitorsandinductors(whicharesometimescalledreactors)arepassivedevicesthatgenerateorabsorbreactive
power.Theyaccomplishthiswithoutsignificantrealpowerlossesoroperatingexpense.Theoutputofcapacitorsand
inductorsisproportionaltothesquareofthevoltage.Thus,acapacitorbank(orinductor)ratedat100MVARwill
produce(orabsorb)only90MVARwhenthevoltagedipsto0.95pubutitwillproduce(orabsorb)110MVARwhenthe
voltagerisesto1.05pu.Thisrelationshipishelpfulwheninductorsareemployedtoholdvoltagesdown.
.

Theinductorabsorbsmorewhenvoltagesarehighestandthedeviceisneededmost.Therelationshipisunfortunatefor
themorecommoncasewherecapacitorsareemployedtosupportvoltages.Intheextremecase,voltagesfall,and
capacitorscontributeless,resultinginafurtherdegradationinvoltageandevenlesssupportfromthecapacitors
ultimately,voltagecollapsesandoutagesoccur.
.
Inductorsarediscretedevicesdesignedtoabsorbaspecificamountofreactivepowerataspecificvoltage.Theycanbe
switchedonoroffbutoffernovariablecontrol.
.
Capacitorbanksarecomposedofindividualcapacitorcans,typically200kVARorlesseach.Thecansareconnectedin
seriesandparalleltoobtainthedesiredcapacitorbankvoltageandcapacityrating.Likeinductors,capacitorbanksare
discretedevicesbuttheyareoftenconfiguredwithseveralstepstoprovidealimitedamountofvariablecontrolwhich
makesitadisadvantagecomparedtosynchronousmotor.

StaticVARcompensators(SVCs)
AnSVCcombinesconventionalcapacitorsandinductorswithfastswitchingcapability.Switchingtakesplaceinthesub
cycletimeframe(i.e.,inlessthan1/60ofasecond),providingacontinuousrangeofcontrol.Therangecanbe
designedtospanfromabsorbingtogeneratingreactivepower.Consequently,thecontrolscanbedesignedtoprovide
veryfastandeffectivereactivesupportandvoltagecontrol.BecauseSVCsusecapacitors,theysufferfromthesame
degradationinreactivecapabilityasvoltagedrops.Theyalsodonothavetheshorttermoverloadcapabilityof
generatorsandsynchronouscondensers.SVCapplicationsusuallyrequireharmonicfilterstoreducetheamountof
harmonicsinjectedintothepowersystem.

Staticsynchronouscompensators(STATCOMs)
TheSTATCOMisasolidstateshuntdevicethatgeneratesorabsorbsreactivepowerandisonememberofafamilyof
devicesknownasflexibleACtransmissionsystem(FACTS).
TheSTATCOMissimilartotheSVCinresponsespeed,controlcapabilities,andtheuseofpowerelectronics.Rather
thanusingconventionalcapacitorsandinductorscombinedwithfastswitches,however,theSTATCOMusespower
electronicstosynthesizethereactivepoweroutput.Consequently,outputcapabilityisgenerallysymmetric,providingas

muchcapabilityforproductionasabsorption.
ThesolidstatenatureoftheSTATCOMmeansthat,similartotheSVC,thecontrolscanbedesignedtoprovidevery
fastandeffectivevoltagecontrol.Whilenothavingtheshorttermoverloadcapabilityofgeneratorsandsynchronous
condensers,STATCOMcapacitydoesnotsufferasseriouslyasSVCsandcapacitorsdofromdegradedvoltage.
STATCOMsarecurrentlimitedsotheirMVARcapabilityrespondslinearlytovoltageasopposedtothevoltagesquared
relationshipofSVCsandcapacitors.ThisattributegreatlyincreasestheusefulnessofSTATCOMsinpreventingvoltage
collapse.

Distributedgeneration
Distributinggenerationresourcesthroughoutthepowersystemcanhaveabeneficialeffectifthegenerationhasthe
abilitytosupplyreactivepower.Withoutthisabilitytocontrolreactivepoweroutput,performanceofthetransmissionand
distributionsystemcanbedegraded.Inductiongeneratorswereanattractivechoiceforsmall,gridconnectedgeneration,
primarilybecausetheyarerelativelyinexpensive.Theydonotrequiresynchronizingandhavemechanicalcharacteristics
thatareappealingforsomeapplications(wind,forexample).Theyalsoabsorbreactivepowerratherthangenerateit,
andarenotcontrollable.Iftheoutputfromthegeneratorfluctuates(aswinddoes),thereactivedemandofthegenerator
fluctuatesaswell,compoundingvoltagecontrolproblemsforthetransmissionsystem.Inductiongeneratorscanbe
compensatedwithstaticcapacitors,butthisstrategydoesnotaddressthefluctuationproblemorprovidecontrolled
voltagesupport.Manydistributedgenerationresourcesarenowbeingcoupledtothegridthroughsolidstatepower
electronicstoallowtheprimemoversspeedtovaryindependentlyofthepowersystemfrequency.Forwind,thisuseof
solidstateelectronicscanimprovetheenergycapture.
.
Forgasfiredmicroturbines,powerelectronicsequipmentallowsthemtooperateatveryhighspeeds.Photovoltaics
generatedirectcurrentandrequireinverterstocouplethemtothepowersystem.Energystoragedevices(e.g.,
batteries,flywheels,andsuperconductingmagneticenergystoragedevices)areoftendistributedaswellandrequire
solidstateinverterstointerfacewiththegrid.Thisincreaseduseofasolidstateinterfacebetweenthedevicesandthe
powersystemhastheaddedbenefitofprovidingfullreactivepowercontrol,similartothatofaSTATCOM.
.
Infact,mostdevicesdonothavetobeprovidingactivepowerforthefullrangeofreactivecontroltobeavailable.The
generationprimemover,e.g.turbine,canbeoutofservicewhilethereactivecomponentisfullyfunctional.This

technologicaldevelopment(solidstatepowerelectronics)hasturnedapotentialproblemintoabenefit,allowing
distributedresourcestocontributetovoltagecontrol.

Transmissionside
Unavoidableconsequenceofloadsoperationispresenceofreactivepower,associatedwithphaseshiftingbetween
voltageandcurrent.
.
Someportionofthispoweriscompensatedoncustomerside,whiletherestisloadingthenetwork.Thesupplycontracts
donotrequireacosequaltoone.Thereactivepowerisalsousedbythetransmissionlinesownerforcontrollingthe
voltages.
.
Reactivecomponentofcurrentaddstotheloadscurrentandincreasesthevoltagedropsacrossnetworkimpedances.
Adjustingthereactivepowerflowtheoperatorchangevoltagedropsinlinesandinthiswaythevoltageatcustomer
connectionpoint.Thevoltageoncustomersidedependsoneverythingwhathappensonthewayfromgeneratorto
customerloads.Allnodes,connationpointsofothertransmissionlines,distributionstationandotherequipment
contributetoreactivepowerflow.
.
Atransmissionlineitselfisalsoasourceofreactivepower.Alinethatisopenontheotherend(withoutload)islikea
capacitorandisasourceofcapacitive(leading)reactivepower.Thelengthwiseinductanceswithoutcurrentarenot
magnetizedanddonotintroduceanyreactivecomponents.
.
Ontheotherhand,whenalineisconductinghighcurrent,thecontributionofthelengthwiseinductancesisprevalent
andthelineitselfbecomesasourceofinductive(lagging)reactivepower.Foreachlinecanbecalculateda
characteristicvalueofpowerflowSk.
.
IfthetransmittedpowerisaboveSk,thelinewillintroduceadditionallyinductivereactivepower,andifitisbelowSk,
thelinewillintroducecapacitivereactivepower.ThevalueofSkdependsonthevoltage:for400kVlineisabout32%of
thenominaltransmissionpower,for220kVlineisabout28%andfor110kVlineisabout22%.Thepercentagewill
varyaccordinglytoconstructionparameters.

.
Thereactivepowerintroducedbythelinesthemselvesisreallyanuisanceforthetransmissionsystemoperator.Inthe
night,whenthedemandislowitisnecessarytoconnectparallelreactorsforconsumingtheadditionalcapacitive
reactivepowerofthelines.Sometimesitisnecessarytoswitchoffalowloadedline(whatdefinitelyaffectthesystem
reliability).Inpeakhoursnotonlythecustomerloadscausebigvoltagedropsbutalsotheinductivereactivepowerof
thelinesaddstothetotalpowerflowandcausesfurthervoltagedrops.
.
Thevoltageandreactivepowercontrolhassomelimitations.Abigpartofreactivepowerisgeneratedinpowerplant
unites.Thegeneratorscandeliversmoothlyadjustableleadingandlaggingreactivepowerwithoutanyfuelcosts.
.
However,thereactivepoweroccupiesthegenerationcapacityandreducestheactivepowerproduction.Furthermore,it
isnotworthtotransmitreactivepowerforlongdistance(becauseofactivepowerlosses).Controlprovidedontheway
intransmissionline,connationnodes,distributionstationandotherpointsrequiresinstallationofcapacitorsor\and
reactors.
.
Theyareoftenusedwithtransformertapchangingsystem.Therangeofvoltagecontroldependsontheirsize.The
controlmayconsiste.g.insettingthetransformervoltagehigherandthenreducingitbyreactivecurrentsflow.
.
Ifthetransformervoltagereachesthehighestvalueandallcapacitorsareinoperation,thevoltageoncustomerside
cannotbefurtherincrease.Ontheotherhandwhenareductionisrequiredthelimitissetbymaximalreactivepowerof
reactorsandthelowesttapoftransformer.

Voltageandreactivepowerplanningandassessmentpractices
(1)KeyPrinciples:
Reactivepowercannotbetransmittedoveralongdistanceorthroughpowertransformersduetoexcessivereactive
powerlosses.
Reactivepowersupplyshouldbelocatedincloseproximitytoitsconsumption.
Sufficientstaticanddynamicvoltagesupportisneededtomaintainvoltagelevelswithinanacceptablerange.

Sufficientreactivepowerreservesmustbeavailabletoregulatevoltageatalltime
(2)KeyImplications:
Meteringmustbeinplaceandmaintainedtocaptureactualreactiveconsumptionatvariouspoints.
TransmissionandDistributionplannersmustdetermineinadvancetherequiredtypeandlocationofreactivecorrection.
Reactivepowerdevicesmustbemaintainedandfunctioningproperlytoensurethecorrectamountofreactive
compensation.
Distributionreactiveloadsmustbefullycompensatedbeforetransmissionreactivecompensationisconsidered.
(3)TransmittingReactivePower
ReactivepowercannotbeeffectivelytransmittedacrosslongdistancesorthroughpowertransformersduetohighI2X
losses
Reactivepowershouldbelocatedincloseproximitytoitsconsumption.
(4)Staticvs.DynamicVoltageSupport
Thetypeofreactivecompensationrequiredisbasedonthetimeneededforvoltagerecovery.
StaticCompensationisidealforsecondandminuteresponses.(Capacitors,reactors,tapchanges).
DynamicCompensationisidealforinstantaneousresponses.(condensers,generators)
Aproperbalanceofstaticanddynamicvoltagesupportisneededtomaintainvoltagelevelswithinanacceptablerange.
(5)ReactiveReservesduringVaryingOperatingConditions
Ideally,thesystemcapacitors,reactors,andcondensersshouldbeoperatedtosupplythenormalreactiveload.
Astheloadincreasesorfollowingacontingency,additionalcapacitorsshouldbeswitchedonorreactorsremovedto
maintainacceptablesystemvoltages.
ThereactivecapabilityofthegeneratorsshouldbelargelyreservedforcontingenciesontheEHVsystemortosupport
voltagesduringextremesystemoperatingconditions.
Loadsheddingschemesmustbeimplementedifadesiredvoltageisunattainablethrureactivepowerreserves.

(6)VoltageCoordination
Thereactivesourcesmustbecoordinatedtoensurethatadequatevoltagesaremaintainedeverywhereonthe
interconnectedsystemduringallpossiblesystemconditions.
Maintainingacceptablesystemvoltagesinvolvesthecoordinationofsourcesandsinkswhichinclude:
1. Plantvoltageschedules
2. Transformertapsettings
3. Reactivedevicesettings
4. Loadsheddingschemes.
Theconsequencesofuncoordinatedoperationswouldinclude:
1. Increasedreactivepowerlosses
2. Areductioninreactivemarginavailableforcontingenciesandextremelightloadconditions
3. Excessiveswitchingofshuntcapacitorsorreactors
4. Increasedprobabilityofvoltagecollapseconditions.
(7)VoltageSchedule
Eachpowerplantisrequestedtomaintainaparticularvoltageonthesystembustowhichtheplantisconnected.
Theassignedschedulewillpermitthegeneratingunittotypicallyoperate:
1. Inthemiddleofitsreactivecapabilityrangeduringnormalconditions
2. Atthehighendofitsreactivecapabilityrangeduringcontingencies
3. Underexcitedorabsorbreactivepowerunderextremelightloadconditions.
(8)TransformerTapSettings
Transformertapsmustbecoordinatedwitheachotherandwithnearbygeneratingstationvoltageschedules.
Thetransformertapsshouldbeselectedsothatsecondaryvoltagesremainbelowequipmentlimitsduringlightload
conditions.
(9)ReactiveDeviceSettings

Capacitorsonthelowvoltagenetworksshouldbesettoswitchontomaintainvoltagesduringpeakandcontingency
conditions.And
Offwhennolongerrequiredsupportingvoltagelevels.
(10)LoadSheddingSchemes
Loadsheddingschemesmustbeimplementedasalastresorttomaintainacceptablevoltages.
(11)VoltageandReactivePowerControl
RequiresthecoordinationworkofallTransmissionandDistributiondisciplines.
Transmissionneedsto:
1. Forecastthereactivedemandandrequiredreservemargin
2. Plan,engineer,andinstalltherequiredtypeandlocationofreactivecorrection
3. Maintainreactivedevicesforpropercompensation
4. Maintainmeterstoensureaccuratedata
5. Recommendtheproperloadsheddingschemeifnecessary.
Distributionneedsto:
1. FullycompensatedistributionloadsbeforeTransmissionreactivecompensationisconsidered
2. Maintainreactivedevicesforpropercompensation
3. Maintainmeterstoensureaccuratedata
4. Installandtestautomaticundervoltageloadsheddingschemes

References:
1.
2.
3.
4.

SamirAganovi,
ZoranGaji,
GrzegorzBlajszczakWarsaw,Poland,
GianfrancoChicco

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

RobertP.OConnellWilliamsPowerCompany
HarryL.TerhuneAmericanTransmissionCompany,
AbrahamLomi,FernandoAlvarado,BlagoyBorissov,LaurenceD.Kirsch
RobertThomas,
OAKRIDGENATIONALLABORATORY

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AboutAuthor//

Jignesh Parmar
jiguparmarJigneshParmarhascompletedM.Tech(PowerSystemControl),B.E(Electrical).Heis
memberofInstitutionofEngineers(MIE),India.MembershipNo:M1473586.Hehasmorethan13
yearsexperienceinTransmissionDistributionElectricalEnergytheftdetectionElectricalMaintenance
ElectricalProjects(PlanningDesigningTechnicalReviewcoordinationExecution).HeisPresently
associatewithoneoftheleadingbusinessgroupasaDeputyManageratAhmedabad,India.Hehas
publishednumbersofTechnicalArticlesin"ElectricalMirror","ElectricalIndia","LightingIndia",
"IndustrialElectrix"(AustralianPowerPublications)Magazines.HeisFreelancerProgrammerof

AdvanceExcelanddesignusefulExcelbaseElectricalProgramsasperIS,NEC,IEC,IEEEcodes.HeisTechnicalBlogger
andFamiliarwithEnglish,Hindi,Gujarati,Frenchlanguages.HewantstoSharehisexperience&Knowledgeandhelp
technicalenthusiaststofindsuitablesolutionsandupdatingthemselvesonvariousEngineeringTopics.

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