ABHISHEK

GOYAL
12-MES-05
MACHINE
DYNAMICS FILE

INDEX
Sno.
Topic
1
To study different types of cam
and followers.
2

To study the profile and stroke

of a cam and follower
mechanism.

To study the phenomenon of

jump in a cam and follower
mechanism.

To study the performance

characteristics of a simple
Watt governor.

To study the performance

characteristics of a Porter
governor.

To study the performance

characteristics of a Proell
governor.

To study the performance

characteristics of a Hartnell
governor.

To study the Gyroscopic

effects on a disc and
verification of relation,
= I..p.

To study the dynamic

balancing machines for rotor.

Date

Remarks

EXPERIMENT 1
OBJECTIVE: To study different types of cam and followers.
THEORY:
A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used
especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice
versa. It is often a part of a rotating wheel or shaft that strikes
a lever at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be
a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a steam
hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that
produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in
the follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam.

Types of camsCams can be classified according to

Shape
Follower movement
Manner of constraint of the follower
According to shape
1. Wedge and flat cams: Here the cam is in the form of a
wedge and has translational motion. The follower can either
translate or oscillate. A spring is generally used to maintain
the contact between the cam and the follower.

Instead of using a wedge, a flat plate with a groove can also

be used. In the groove the follower is held. Thus a positive
drive is achieved without the use of a spring.
2. Radial or disc cams: In the radial cams, the working
surface of the cam is designed such that follower moves in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of the cam performing a
reciprocating or oscillating motion.
3. Spiral cams: A spiral cam is a face cam in which a groove is
cut in the form of a spiral. The spiral groove consists of teeth
which mesh with a pin gear follower. The velocity of the
follower is proportional to the radial distance of the groove
from the axis of the cam.
The use of such cam is limited as the can has to reverse the
direction to reset the position of the follower. It finds its use
in computers.
4. Cylindrical cams: In this type of cam, the follower either
reciprocates or oscillates in a plane parallel to the axis of the
cam. In this a circumferential contour is cut in the surface of
the cylinder which rotates about its own axis. The follower
rides in the groove of the cylinder surface and it reciprocates
in the plane parallel to the axis of rotation.
5. Conjugate cams: A conjugate cam is a double-disc cam in
which the two discs are keyed together and are in contact
touch with the two rollers of a follower. Thus the follower has
a positive contact. Such a type of cam is preferred when the
requirements are low wear, low noise, better control of the
follower, high speed, high dynamic loads etc.
6. Globoidal cams: A globoidal cam can have two types of
surfaces, convex or concave. A circumferential contour is cut
on the surface of rotation of the cam to impart motion to the

follower which has an oscillatory motion. The application of

such cams is limited to moderate speeds and where the
angle of oscillation of the follower is large.
7. Spherical cams: In a spherical cam, the follower oscillates
about an axis perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
cam. Note that in a disc cam, the follower oscillates about an
axis parallel to the axis of rotation of the cam.
A spherical cam is in the form of a spherical surface which
transmits motion to the follower.

According to follower movement

The motion of the followers is distinguished from each other by
the dwells they have. A dwell is the zero displacement or the
absence of motion of the follower during the motion of the cam.
Cams are classified according to the motions of the follower in the
following ways:
1. Rise-Return-Rise: In this, there is alternate rise and return
of the follower with no periods of dwells. Its use is very
limited in the industry. The follower has a linear or an
angular displacement.
2. Dwell-Rise-Return-Dwell: In such a type of cam, there is
rise and return of the follower after a dwell. This type is used
more frequently than the R-R-R type of cam.
3. Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return-Dwell: It is the most widely used
type of cam. The dwelling of the cam is followed by rise and
dwell and subsequently by return and dwell. In case, the
return of the follower is by a fall, the motion may be known
as dwell-rise-dwell.

According to manner of constraint of the follower

A pre loaded compression spring is used for the purpose of
keeping the contact between the cam and the follower
1. Pre loaded spring cam: A pre-loaded compression spring
is used for the purpose of keeping the contact between the
cam and the follower.
2. Positive drive cam: In this type, contact touch between
the cam and follower is maintained by a roller follower
operating in the groove of a cam. The follower cannot go out
of this groove under the normal working operations. A
constrained or positive is also obtained by the use of a
conjugate cam.
3. Gravity cam: If the rise of the cam is achieved by the rising
surface of the cam and the return by the force of gravity or
due to the weight of the cam, the cam is known as gravity
cam.
Classification of Cam Followers:
According to the Surface Contact:
1.

2.

Knife edged followers: These are simple in construction.

The contacting end of the follower with the cam has a sharp
knife edged hence it is called so. The motion between the
cam and follower is sliding. It is not used in practice because
small area of contact surface results in high rate of wear at
the edges due to which the transmission of motion may not
be accurate as desired.
Roller follower: The contact end of the follower is roller and
the rolling motion exists between the cam and follower.
Compared to knife edge followers, the rate of wear and tear
is less due to less friction. These are used in aircraft engines
and oil engines.

3.

4.

Flat face or mushroom follower: These are used where

space is limited to operate valve of automobile engine. The
contact surface is perfectly flat. The side thrust between
guide and follower is much reduced. It is called a mushroom
follower when the flat face is circular.
Spherical follower: When the contact end of the follower is
of spherical shape.

According to the Path of the Motion of the Follower:

1.
2.

Radial follower: In a radial follower, the follower translates

along an axis passing through the center of the cam.
Offset follower: The axis movement of the follower is away
from the axis of the centre of rotation of the cam.

DISCUSSION:
A cam is a mechanical member used to impart desired motion to
follower by direct contact. The cam may be rotating or
reciprocating whereas the follower may be rotating, oscillating or
reciprocating. Cams are widely used in machines, Internal
Combustion engines, machine tools, printing control mechanisms,
etc.

EXPERIMENT 2

OBJECTIVE: To study the profile and stroke of a cam and follower

mechanism.
THEORY:
Motion of the follower
Though the follower can be made to have any desired
motion, knowledge of the existing motion programs saves time
and labor while designing the cam. The generally known types of
motions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Constant Velocity motion

Simple Harmonic motion
Constant Acceleration motion
Cycloidal motion

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sn
o.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Angle ()
00
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200

Lift
(mm)
0
0
0
0
3.5
5.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
37.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
50
3.5
0
0

18
19

3400
3600

0
0

RESULT:
Angle of ascent = 1200
Angle of descent = 1200
Angle of dwell = 1200
Length of rise = 37 mm

DISCUSSION:
From the performed experiments, it can be concluded that as
a cam rotates about its axis, it imparts a specific motion to the
follower which is repeated with each revolution of the cam. During
rotation of the cam through one revolution, the follower is made
to execute a series of events such as rises, dwells and return.

EXPERIMENT 3

OBJECT: To study the phenomenon of jump in a cam and follower

mechanism.
APPARATUS USED:
Cam and follower mechanism setup
Stethoscope
Tachometer (Contact Type)
THEORY:
Jump phenomenon:
The jump phenomenon occurs in case of cam and follower
operating under the action of compression spring load. This is a
transient condition that occurs only with high speed, highly
flexible cam follower system. With jump the cam and follower
separate swing to successively unbalanced force exceeding the
spring force acting during the period of negative acceleration.
This is indelible since the fundamental function of cam-follower
system the constraint and control of follower motion are not
maintained. Also it relates to the short life of the cam flank
surface, high noise, vibrations and poor action. To observe the
phenomenon of jump, use of stethoscope is necessary. When
jump occurs the following points on the cam surface give a good
thumping sound.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sno.

Weight

RPM

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0
0
0
0

498
410
400
380
347
439
472
486
515
640

Spring
Length (cm)
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
3.0
2.7
2.5
2.4

RESULT:
As can be observed from the graphs; the RPM of the cam
decreases with the increase in weight on the follower for a
constant spring length. Also, the RPM of the cam decreases with
the increase in spring length without any load on the follower.
DISCUSSION:

Jump phenomenon is an important phenomenon used extensively

while designing a cam follower system for a specific purpose. This
helps in rating the RPM of the machines to avoid jump and
ultimately failure of the cam follower assembly in both imparting
the required motion and catastrophic failure.

EXPERIMENT 4
OBJECT:
To study the performance characteristics of a simple Watt
governor and plot
1. Force vs radius of rotation
2. Speed vs sleeve displacement
THEORY:
In simple centrifugal or Watt governor, a pair of ball (masses) is
attached to the spindle with the help of links. The upper links are
pinned at point O. The lower link fixed to the sleeve free to move
on the vertical spindle.
As the spindle rotates, the balls take up a position depending
upon the speed of the spindle. If it lowers, they move near the
axis due to reduction in the centrifugal force on the ball and the
ability of the sleeve to slide on the spindle. The movement of the
sleeve is further taken to the throttle of the engine, by means of a
suitable linkage to decrease or increase the fuel supply.

OBSERVATIONS:
ro = 140 mm
ho = 85 mm
Length of arm, l = 125 mm
Weight of each ball, W = 160 gm = 0.16 Kg
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sno.

N
(RPM)

Sleeve
Disp (x)

h = ho
x/2

= cos1
(h/l)

1
2
3
4
5
6

211.2
236
276
221
244
264

6.8
10.0
12.3
7.9
9.8
11.3

5.1
3.5
2.35
4.55
3.6
2.85

65.92
73.74
79.16
68.65
73.26
76.82

r=
50+l.sin(
)
16.41
17.00
17.28
16.64
19.95
17.17

Fc (N)
12.84
16.61
23.10
14.26
17.73
21.00

RESULT:
From force vs radius of rotation graph, we can conclude that for a
very small change in radius of rotation there is a huge change in
force. From speed vs sleeve displacement graph we can conclude
that there is a little increase in sleeve displacement with increase
in speed.

DISCUSSION:
With slight change i.e. increase in RPM, centrifugal force on the
masses (balls) increase, increasing the radius of rotation resulting
in increased sleeve displacement. As the speed decreases, the
radius of rotation decreases slightly resulting in lowering of the
sleeve. This phenomenon is used to regulate the fuel supply into
an engine, which ultimately regulates the running speed of the
engine.

EXPERIMENT 5
OBJECT:
To study the performance characteristics of a simple porter
governor and plot
1. Force vs Radius of rotation
2. Speed vs Sleeve displacement
THEORY:
If the sleeve of a Watt governor is loaded with a heavy mass, it
becomes a porter governor. The force of friction always acts in a
direction opposite to that of the motion. Thus when the sleeve
moves up, the force of friction acts in the downward direction and
the downward force acting on the sleeve is Mg + f. Similarly,

when the sleeve moves down, the force on the sleeve will me (Mg
f).
If the speed of the engine increases, the balls would tend to move
away from the axis, but now as the friction has to act in the
downward direction, the resistance to the motion would be Mg +
f. In the same way, when the sleeve has moved up and the speed
decreases, the resistance to the sleeve movement would be Mg
f.

OBSERVATIONS:
ro = 140 mm
ho = 85 mm
L = 125 mm
W = 0.16 Kg

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sn
o.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

M
(Kg
)
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3

N
Sleeve
( RPM Disp (mm)
)
180.5
34
208.1
80
229
89
212.8
50
230.3
75
206.5
38
229.5
40
241.8
43
292
58

h=ho
x/2

=cos1(h/l)

r=50+l.si
n()

68
45
40.5
60
47.5
66
65
63.5
56

57.04
68.89
71.09
61.31
67.66
58.13
58.67
59.47
63.38

154.88
166.61
168.25
159.65
165.62
156.16
156.77
157.67
161.75

RESULT:
From force vs radius of rotation graph, we can conclude that for a
very small change in radius of rotation there is a huge change in
force. From speed vs sleeve displacement graph we can conclude
that there is a little increase in sleeve displacement with increase
in speed.

EXPERIMENT 6
OBJECT:
To study the performance characteristics of a simple Proell
governor and plot
1. Force vs Radius of rotation
2. Speed vs Sleeve displacement
THEORY:

If the two balls (masses) of a porter governor are fixed on the

upward extensions of the lower links which are in the form of bent
links, it becomes a Proell governor.
As the spindle rotates with the variation of speed, the ball takes
up a position depending upon the speed of the spindle. If the
speed is low i.e. load is very high, then the arms move near the
axis due to reduction in centrifugal force on the ball and the
ability of sleeve to slide on the spindle. The movement of sleeve
is further taken to the throttle of the engine, by means of a
suitable linkage to decrease or increase the fuel supply.

OBSERVATIONS:
ro = 140 mm
x = 15 mm
ho = 95 mm
L = 125 mm
W = 0.16 Kg

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sn
o.
1

M
N
(Kg ( RPM
)
)
1
202

Sleeve
Disp
(mm)
15

h=ho
x/2

F (N)

87.5

162.3
9
172.4
8
184.5
4

45.5

235.0
6
276.3
3
294.3

50.08

302.6
9
339.5
5
369.1
5

51.9

224

34

78

260

54

68

247

32

79

297

78

56

338

94

48

263

36

77

310

63

60.5

266

88

51

51.3
57.0

63.3
67.4

61
65.9

r
e
(mm) (mm)
238.
26
347.
68
154.
88

162.
5
153

146.
8
161.
75
165.
42

154

148.
47
159.
38
164.
12

152

143

132
123

135.
5
126

RESULT:
The graph between the force and radius of rotation is a straight
line, representing a linear relation between the force and radius of
rotation. Also, the graph between speed and sleeve displacement
is observed to be curved, representing a parabolic relation
between the speed and the sleeve displacement.

DISCUSSION:

With slight change i.e. increase in RPM, centrifugal force on the

masses (balls) increase, increasing the radius of rotation resulting
in increased sleeve displacement. As the speed decreases, the
radius of rotation decreases slightly resulting in lowering of the
sleeve. This phenomenon is used to regulate the fuel supply into
an engine, which ultimately regulates the running speed of the
engine.

EXPERIMENT 7

OBJECT:
To study the performance characteristics of a Hartnell governor
and plot
1. Force vs Radius of rotation
2. Speed vs Sleeve displacement
THEORY:
In this type of governor, the balls are controlled by a spring.
Initially, the spring is fitted in compression so that a force is
applied to the sleeve. Two bell crank levers, each carrying a mass
at one end and/or roller at the other, are pivoted to a pair of arms
which rotate with the spindle. The rollers fit into a groove in the
spindle.
As the speed increases and the balls move away from the spindle
axis, the bell crank levers moves on the pivot and lifts the sleeve
against the spring force. If the speed decreases, the sleeve moves
downwards. The movement of the sleeve is communicated to the
throttle of the engine. The spring force can be adjusted with the
help of a screw cap.

OBSERVATIONS:
Length, a = 78 mm (Ball Arm)
Length, b = 125 mm (Sleeve Arm)
Mass of each ball = 160 gm
Initial radius of rotation, ro = 155 mm
Weight of sleeve = 1.53 Kg

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sn
o.

N
( RPM)

r = ro +
x(a/b)

F (N)

454

Sleeve
Disp
(mm)
20

167.48

330

158.12

362

160.62

395

15

164.36

506

23

169.35

60.5
4
30.2
1
36.9
3
44.9
9
76.0
8

CALCULATION:
r = ro + x(a/b)
Taking 1st observation
r = 155 + 20 x (78/125)
= 167.48 mm
F = mrw2 = 0.16 x 167.4 x 10-3 x ( 2 x x 454/60 )2

= 60.54 N

RESULT:
The graph between the sleeve displacement and speed and
between the force and radius of rotation came out to be straight
line, representing a linear variation of speed and sleeve
displacement with radius of rotation.
DISCUSSION:
With slight change i.e. increase in RPM, centrifugal force on the
masses (balls) increase, increasing the radius of rotation resulting
in increased sleeve displacement. As the speed decreases, the
radius of rotation decreases slightly resulting in lowering of the
sleeve. This phenomenon is used to regulate the fuel supply into
an engine, which ultimately regulates the running speed of the
engine.

EXPERIMENT 8
OBJECT:
To study the Gyroscopic effects on a disc and verification of
relation, C = I..p.
EQUIPMENT USED:

Tachometer (Contact Type)

Gyroscope
Stopwatch
Weights

THEORY:
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining
orientation, based on the principle of preserving angular
momentum of the moving body. Mechanical gyroscopes typically
comprise a spinning wheel or disc in which the axle is free to
assume any orientation. Although the orientation of the spin axis
changes in response to an external torque, the amount of change
and the direction of the change is less and in a different direction
than it would be if the disk were not spinning. When mounted in
a gimbal (which minimizes external torque), the orientation of the
spin axis remains nearly fixed, regardless of the mounting
platform's motion.

Description and working instructions:

The motor is coupled to the disc rotor, which is statistically and
dynamically balanced. This disc shaft rotates about x-x axis in two
ball bearings housed in the frame. This frame can swing about y-y
axis in bearings provided in the yoke type frame. The yoke frame
is free to rotate about vertical axis z-z. The freedom of rotation
about the three perpendicular axes is given to the rotor.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sn
o.
1
2
3
4

N
(RPM)
6000
6000
6000
6000

W
(Kg)
1
2
3
4

Time
(sec)
11.31
5.39
4.76
2.85

p
90
90
90
90

CALCULATIONS:
Length, l = 197 mm
M = 6.5 Kg
R = 150 mm
Moment of inertia of flywheel = MD2/8
= 0.073 Kg m2
T = F.r = c = I..p

Taking 1st observation

T = 12.31 sec
mw = 1 Kg = p = dp/dt
w = (2..N)/60 = 628.318 m/s
c = I..p
= 0.073 x 628.32 x 0.08
= 1.92 N-m

CONCLUSION:
It is thus concluded that the equation T = I..p holds valid for
gyroscopic action. The slight error might be due to parallax and
gyroscopic speed.

EXPERIMENT 9
OBJECT:
To study the dynamic balancing machines for rotor.
THEORY:
A balancing machine is used to measure an unbalancing in a part
if any, both static or dynamic and indicate its magnitude and
location. This out of balance may exist in the material density or
in accuracies in asting or machining.
Since the centrifugal force and couple may vary as the square of
the speed, even the small errors may lead to serious troubles at
high speeds of rotation. Thus effort is used to measure this
unknown unbalance so that suitable corrections can be made to
the part to reduce the final errors.
There are two types of balancing machines, hard bearing and soft
bearing. In hard bering machines, balancing is done at a
frequency lower than the resonance frequency of the rotating
part. In the soft bearing machines, balancing is done at a
frequency higher than that of the resonance frequency.
Static Balancing: Static balance occurs when the centre of
gravity of an object is on the axis of rotation. The object can
therefore remain stationary, with the axis horizontal, without the
application of any braking force. It has no tendency to rotate due
to the force of gravity.
Dynamic Balancing: Rotating shaft unbalanced by two identical
attached weights, which causes a counterclockwise centrifugal
couple Cd that must be resisted by a clockwise
couple F = Cd exerted by the bearings. The figure is drawn from

the viewpoint of a frame rotating with the shaft, hence the

centrifugal forces.
A rotating system of mass is in dynamic balance when the
rotation does not produce any resultant centrifugal force or
couple. The system rotates without requiring the application of
any external force or couple, other than that required to support
its weight. If a system is initially unbalanced, to avoid the stress
upon the bearings caused by the centrifugal couple,
counterbalancing weights must be added. This is commonly done,
for example: in the case of an automobile tire, where the
imbalance is due to imperfections of manufacture that make the
tire composition inhomogeneous
Unbalanced Systems: When an unbalanced system is rotating,
periodic linear and/or torsional forces are generated which are
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The periodic nature of these
forces is commonly experienced as vibration. These off-axis
vibration forces may exceed the design limits of
individual machine elements, reducing the service life of these
parts. For instance, a bearing may be subjected to perpendicular
torsion forces that would not occur in a nominally balanced
system, or the instantaneous linear forces may exceed the limits
of the bearing. Such excessive forces will cause failure in bearings
in short time periods. Shafts with unbalanced masses can be bent
by the forces and experience fatigue failure.
Under conditions where rotating speed is very high even though
the mass is low, as in gas turbines or jet engines, or under
conditions where rotating speed is low but the mass is high, as in
ship propellers, balance of the rotating system should be highly
considered, because it may generate large vibrations and cause
failure of the whole system.

CONSTRUCTION:
For dynamic balancing of a rotor, two balancing or counter
masses are used in any two conventional planes. Balancing is
achieved by addition and removal of masses on these two planes,
whichever is convinient.
Pivoted Cradle Balancing Machine
In this type of machine, thr rotor to be balanced is mounted on
half bearings in a rigid carriage and is rotated by a drive motor
through a universal joint.
Field Balancing
It is essentially, a method and not the machine used to balance
heavy machines like turbines, generators, where it is not possible
to balance the rotors by mounting.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sno
1
2
3
4

Weight
(gms)
226
260
264
270

No. of
balls
118
98
116
120

WORKING:
With the rotating blades resting on the bearing a vibration sensor
is attached to the rotors. In the most soften bearing machines, a
velocity sensor is used. This sensor works by moving a magnet
voltage proportional to the velocity of vibrations.
Accelerometer, which measures accelerations of the vibrations,
can also be used. A photocell sometimes called a phaser is a
proximity sensor or encoder used to determine the rotational
speed as well as the relative phase of the rotating part. This
phase information is then used to filter the vibrations to
determine the amount of movement or force in one rotation of the
rotor.
Calibration is performed by adding a known weight at a known
angle. In a soft bearing machine, the trial weights must be added
in correction planes along the rotational axis.