Chap. 2.

Elementary Materials : Science Concepts

2.1 Classical Theory: Drude Model
2.1.1 Metals and Conduction by Electrons

- Electrical current density : , drift velocity

Ex
x

vdx
Jx

Fig. 2.1: Drift of electrons in a conductor in the presence of an

applied electric field. Electrons drift with an average velocity v dx in
the x-direction.(E x is the electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.U sask.Ca

or
Ex

x
Vibrating Cu + ions

(a)

V
(b)

Fig. 2.2 (a): A conduction electron in the electron gas moves about randomly in a
metal (with a mean speed u) being frequently and randomly scattered by by
thermal vibrations of the atoms. In the absence of an applied field there is no net
drift in any direction. (b): In the presence of an applied field, Ex, there is a net
drift along the x-direction. This net drift along the force of the field is
superimposed on the random motion of the electron. After many scattering events
the electron has been displaced by a net distance, x, from its initial position
toward the positive terminal
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

- The drift velocity of the electrons due to the applied electric field :
= the velocity of the i-th electron at time t (the last collision at ti)
= the
"
after collision

The electron accelerated free of collisions for time ( ) ;

Velocity gained along x

vx1- ux1
Last collision

Present time

Electron 1

time

t1

vx1- ux1

Free time

Electron 2

t2

time

vx1-ux1

Electron 3

t3

time
t

F ig. 2 .3: V elocity gained in the x-direction at tim e t from the

electric field (E x ) for three electron s. T here w ill be N electrons to
consider in the m etal.
F ro m P rin c ip le s o f E lec tro n ic M a te ria ls a n d D e vic e s , S e c o n d E d itio n , S .O . K a sa p ( M c G raw -H ill, 2 0 0 2 )
http ://M a te ria ls.U sa sk .C a

the average free time for N electrons between collisions.

with
- Let the mean free time, or the mean time between collisions (mean scattering time)

by , then
Replace

where , the drift mobility.

- The current density so the conductivity

2.2. Temperature Dependence of Resistivity: Ideal Metals
- Temperature dependence of the conductivity (or ):
Consider the mean free time (mean free path l)
An electron moving with a mean speed u is scattered when its path crosses the
cross-sectional area S of a scattering center.
Since is the mean time taken for one scattering process, the mean free path l of the
electron between scattering processes is .
Let = the concentration of the scattering centers, then in the vol. of Sl, there is
one scattering center, that is

S = a2

l=u

Electron

Fig. 2.4: Scattering of an electron from the thermal vibrations of the

atoms. The electron travels a mean distance l = u between
collisions. Since the scattering cross sectional area is S, in the volume
Sl there must be at least one scatterer, Ns(Su) = 1.

*Note that the mean speed u of conduction electrons in a metal is only slightly
temperature dependent.
Since the atomic vibrations (scattering centers) are random, the atom covers a
cross-sectional area (a = the amplitude of vibrations).
If the electron's path crosses , it gets scattered.
Therefore, the mean time between scattering events is inversely proportional to .

The average kinetic energy of a harmonic oscillator (atomic vibrations)

so

Thus,

For
, that is


(lattice-scattering-limited conductivity)

2.3. Mattiessen's Rule

2.3.1 Mattiessen's Rule and Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity ()
Strained region by impurity exerts a
scattering force F = - d(PE) /dx

Fig. 2.5: Two different types of scattering processes involving scattering

from impurities alone and thermal vibrations alone.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

- Two types of mean free times between collisions: one ( ) from scattering from thermal
vibrations only, and the other ( ) for scattering from impurities only:

the effective mean free time as long as two scattering mechanisms are indep.

The lattice-scattering limited mobility = and impurity-scattering-limited mobility = , then

the effective (overall) resistivity

The mean free time , temperature independent because is determined by the

impurity concentration (i.e., ) and u is nearly constant in a metal.
Finally, where the residual resistivity due to the scattering of
the electrons by impurities, dislocations, interstitial atoms, vacancies, grain boundaries.
- Temperature coefficient of the resistivity (TCR):

Empirically,

100
T

10

Resistivity (n m)

1
(n m)

0.1
T

0.01

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1

0.001

T5

0.5 = R
0
0 20 40

= R

0.0001

60

80 100

T (K)

0.00001

10

100

1000

10000

Temperature (K)

Fig.2.7: The resistivity of copper from lowest to highest temperatures

(near melting temperature, 1358 K) on a log-log plot. Above about
100 K, T, whereas at low temperatures, T 5 and at the
lowest temperatures approaches the residual resistivity R . The
inset shows the vs. T behavior below 100 K on a linear plot ( R
is too small on this scale).

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

2.5. Hall Efect and Hall Devices

- Application of a magnetic field in a perpendicular direction to the applied electric field
:
Bz

Jy = 0

+
Jx

Ey

eEy

+
Ex

vhx

eEy

Jx

vex

evhxBz

evexBz

Bz

V
Fig. 2.26: Hall effect for ambipolar conduction as in a
semiconductor where there are both electrons and holes. The
magnetic field Bz is out from the plane of the paper. Both electrons
and holes are deflected toward the bottom surface of the conductor
and consequently the Hall voltage depends on the relative mobilities
and concentrations of electrons and holes.(E is the electric field.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

- A transverse electric field in the sample exists in a direction perpendicular to both and
(along the y-axis).
Lorentz force with = the drift velocity.
q = +e

q = -e
v

B
F = qvB

(a)

v
B
F = qvB

(b)

Fig. 2.16 A moving charge experiences a Lorentz force in a magnetic

field. (a) A positive charge moving in the x direction experiences a
force downwards. (b) A negative charge moving in the -x direction
also experiences a force downwards.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

The accumulation of electrons generates an internal electric field in the -y direction

Force balance (no further accumulation of electrons)

Hall coefficient

Metal n
-3
[m ]

R H (Experimental)
3
-1 -1
[m A s ]

H = | R H |
2

-1

-1

10 28

10 11

[m V s ]
10 4

Ag
Al

5.85
18.06

-9.0
-3.5

57
13

Au

5.90

-7.2

31

Be

24.2

+3.4

Cu

8.45

-5.5

32

Ga
In

15.3
11.49

-6.3
-2.4

3.6
2.9

Mg

8.60

-9.4

22

Na

2.56

-25

53

2.6. Thermal Conductivity

- Metals: good electrical" and "thermal" conductivity.
2.6.1. Thermal Conductivity

The rate of heat flow through a thin section of

HOT

COLD

dQ
dt

HEAT

x
Fig. 2.19: Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end. Consider the
rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, across a thin section x of the rod. The rate
of heat flow is proportional to the temperature gradient T/ x and the
cross sectional area A.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca


Fourier's law:
with = thermal conductivity

Ohm's law:

(Wiedermann-Franz-Lorenz law)

with (the Lorenz number) =

Thermal conductivity, (W K-1 m-1)

450
Ag

400

Ag-3Cu

Cu

Ag-20Cu
300

Au

= T CWFL
Al

200
W

Be
Mg
Mo
Brass (Cu-30Zn)

Ni
Bronze (95Cu-5Sn)
Steel (1080)
Pd-40Ag
Hg

100

10
20
30
40
50
60
Electrical conductivity, , 106 -1 m-1

70

Fig. 2.20: Thermal conductivity, vs. electrical conductivity for

various metals (elements and alloys) at 20 C. The solid line
represents the WFL law with C WFL 2.44 10 8 W K -2 .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Equilibrium
Hot

Cold

Energetic atomic vibrations

Fig. 2.22: Conduction of heat in insulators involves the
generation and propogation of atomic vibrations through the
bonds that couple the atoms. (An intuitive figure.)

2.6.2. Thermal Resistance

- Temperature Gradient : the rate of heat flow (heat current)

Like Ohm's law ,

thermal resistance

2.7. Electrical Conductivity of Nonmetals

Insulators

Semiconductors

Conductors

Many ceramics

Superconductors

Alumina
Diamond Inorganic Glasses
Mica
Polypropylene
PVDF Soda silica glass
Borosilicate Pure SnO2
PET
Intrinsic Si
Amorphous
SiO2
Intrinsic GaAs
As2Se3
10-18

10-15

10-12

10-9

10-6

10-3

100
Conductivity (m)-1

Metals
Degenerately
Doped Si
Alloys
Te Graphite NiCr Ag

103

106

109

Figure 2.24: Range of conductivites exhibited by various materials

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

1012

2.8. Skin Effect: High Freq. Resistance (Conductor)

- A cylindrical conductor carrying a current I :

R
= Skin depth

2a

Fig. 2.30: At high frequencies, the core region exhibits more

inductive impedance than the surface region, and the current flows
in the surface region of a conductor defined approximately by the
skin depth, .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

- Most of the current flows in the surface region of depth .

In the central region, the current is negligibly small.

Skin depth:

where = the angular freq. of the current (or14 applied field

= conductivity (constant for dc - 10 Hz in metals),
= magnetic permeability of the medium

With the skin depth known, the effective cross-sectional area A is

Then, the ac resistance of the conductor per unit length is

where is the ac resistivity at the freq. of interest.

[Homework]
Prob. #2.13

thus