Conscription

Conscript redirects here. For other uses, see Conscript fence Troops) none of which is considered alternative
(disambiguation).
to the military conscription.
Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistAs of the early 21st century, many states no longer conscript soldiers, relying instead upon professional militaries with volunteers enlisted to meet the demand for
troops. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-ghting requirements and the scope of
hostilities. Many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during
wartime or times of crisis.[8]
No armed forces
No enforced conscription
Enforced conscription exists, but is promised to be abolished
soon, although situation is unclear[1][2][3][4]
Conscription
No information

1 History
1.1 Conscription in pre-modern times
1.1.1 Ilkum

ment of people in a national service, most often a military

service.[5] Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in some countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of near-universal national
conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s, where it became the basis of a very
large and powerful military. Most European nations later
copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain
age would serve 18 years on active duty and then transfer
to the reserve force.

Around the reign of Hammurabi (17911750 BC), the

Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called
Ilkum. Under that system those eligible were required to
serve in the royal army in time of war.[9] During times
of peace they were instead required to provide labour for
other activities of the state.[9] In return for this service,
people subject to it gained the right to hold land.[9] It is
possible that this right was not to hold land per se but
specic land supplied by the state.[9]
Various forms of avoiding military service are recorded.
While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the
hiring of substitutes appears to have been practiced both
before and after the creation of the code.[10] Later records
show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly
traded.[10] In other places, people simply left their towns
to avoid their Ilkum service.[10] Another option was to
sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them.
With the exception of a few exempted classes, this was
forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi.[10]

In China, the State of Qin instituted universal military

service following the registration of every household.[6]
This allowed huge armies to be levied, and was instrumental in the creation of the Qin Empire that conquered
a large area of what is now China in 221 BC.
Conscription is controversial for a range of reasons, including conscientious objection to military engagements
on religious or philosophical grounds; political objection,
for example to service for a disliked government or unpopular war; and ideological objection, for example, to
a perceived violation of individual rights. Those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the
country.[7] Some selection systems accommodate these
attitudes by providing alternative service outside combatoperations roles or even outside the military, such as
Zivildienst (civil service) in Austria and Switzerland.
Most post-Soviet countries conscript soldiers not only
for Armed Forces but also for paramilitary organizations
which are dedicated to police-like domestic only service
(Internal Troops) or non-combat rescue duties (Civil De-

1.1.2 Medieval levies

Under the feudal conditions for holding land in the medieval period, most peasants and freemen were liable to
provide one man of suitable age per family for military
duty when required by either the king or the local lord.
The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors. Although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these
1

HISTORY

levies were only obliged to ght for one to three months.

Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones
interest to send the men home for harvest-time.
In medieval Scandinavia the leiangr (Old Norse), leidang (Norwegian), leding, (Danish), ledung (Swedish),
lichting (Dutch), expeditio (Latin) or sometimes leing
(Old English), was a levy of free farmers conscripted into
coastal eets for seasonal excursions and in defence of the
realm.
The bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the
fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn
from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were
the land-holding aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour and weapons for
a certain number of days each year. The historian David
Sturdy has cautioned about regarding the fyrd as a precursor to a modern national army composed of all ranks
of society, describing it as a ridiculous fantasy":
The persistent old belief that peasants and
small farmers gathered to form a national army
or fyrd is a strange delusion dreamt up by antiquarians in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries to justify universal military
conscription.[11]

Ottoman janissaries

Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite rusze- the Empire, such as Pargal brahim Pasha and Sokollu
nie.
Mehmet Paa, were recruited in this way.[12] By 1609, the
Sultans Kapkulu forces increased to about 100,000.[13]
1.1.3

Military slavery

The system of military slaves was widely used in the

Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps
of Turkish slave-soldiers (ghulams or mamluks) by the
Abbasid caliph al-Mu'tasim in the 820s and 830s. The
Turkish troops soon came to dominate the government,
establishing a pattern throughout the Islamic world of a
ruling military class, often separated by ethnicity, culture and even religion by the mass of the population, a
paradigm that found its apogee in the Mamluks of Egypt
and the Janissary corps of the Ottoman Empire, institutions that survived until the early 19th century.
In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad
I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, with a
slave army called the Kapkulu. The new force was built
by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands,
especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system
known as the devirme (translated gathering or converting). The captive children were forced to convert to
Islam. The Sultans had the young boys trained over several years. Those who showed special promise in ghting
skills were trained in advanced warrior skills, put into the
sultans personal service, and turned into the Janissaries,
the elite branch of the Kapkulu. A number of distinguished military commanders of the Ottomans, and most
of the imperial administrators and upper-level ocials of

In later years, Sultans turned to the Barbary Pirates to

supply their Jannissaries corps. Their attacks on ships o
the coast of Africa or in the Mediterranean, and subsequent capture of able-bodied men for ransom or sale provided some captives for the Sultans system. Starting in
the 17th century, Christian families living under the Ottoman rule began to submit their sons into the Kapikulu
system willingly, as they saw this as a potentially invaluable career opportunity for their children. Eventually
the Sultan turned to foreign volunteers from the warrior
clans of Circassians in southern Russia to ll his Janissary armies. As a whole the system began to break down,
the loyalty of the Jannissaries became increasingly suspect. Mahmud II forcibly disbanded the Janissary corps
in 1826.[14][15]
Similar to the Janissaries in origin and means of development were the Mamluks of Egypt in the Middle Ages.
The Mamluks were usually captive non-Muslim Iranian
and Turkish children who had been kidnapped or bought
as slaves from the Barbary coasts. The Egyptians assimilated and trained the boys and young men to become
Islamic soldiers who served the Muslim caliphs and the
Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The rst mamluks served the Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad.
Over time they became a powerful military caste. On
more than one occasion, they seized power, for example,
ruling Egypt from 12501517.

1.2

Conscription in modern times

From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by the Bahri dynasty

of Kipchak origin. Slaves from the Caucasus served
in the army and formed an elite corp of troops. They
eventually revolted in Egypt to form the Burgi dynasty.
The Mamluks excellent ghting abilities, massed Islamic
armies, and overwhelming numbers succeeded in overcoming the Christian Crusader fortresses in the Holy
Land. The Mamluks were the most successful defense
against the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia and Iraq from entering Egypt.[16]

equivalent forces, as was generally the case with professional armies, these factors showed considerable importance. However, they became considerably less important when the Prussian armies faced forces that outnumbered their own in some cases by more than ten to one.
Scharnhorst advocated adopting the leve en masse, the
military conscription used by France. The Krmpersystem was the beginning of short-term compulsory service
in Prussia, as opposed to the long-term conscription previously used.[19]

On the western coast of Africa, Berber Muslims captured

non-Muslims to put to work as laborers. They generally
converted the younger people to Islam and many became
quite assimilated. In Morocco, the Berber looked south
rather than north. The Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail,
called the Bloodthirsty (16721727), employed a corps
of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard. He used
them to coerce the country into submission.[17]

In the Russian Empire, the military service time owed

by serfs was 25 years at the beginning of the 19th century.
In 1834 it was decreased to 20 years. The recruits were to
be not younger than 17 and not older than 35.[20] In 1874
Russia introduced universal conscription in the modern
pattern, an innovation only made possible by the abolition
of serfdom in 1861. New military law decreed that all
male Russian subjects, when they reached the age of 20,
were eligible to serve in the military for six years.[21]

1.2

Conscription in modern times

1.2.1 World Wars

Conscription of Poles to the Russian Army in 1863.

See also: Remplacement

Modern conscription, the massed military enlistment of
national citizens, was devised during the French Revolution, to enable the Republic to defend itself from the
attacks of European monarchies. Deputy Jean-Baptiste
Jourdan gave its name to the 5 September 1798 Act,
whose rst article stated: Any Frenchman is a soldier
and owes himself to the defense of the nation. It enabled
the creation of the Grande Arme, what Napoleon Bonaparte called the nation in arms, which overwhelmed European professional armies that often numbered only into
the low tens of thousands. More than 2.6 million men
were inducted into the French military in this way between the years 1800 and 1813.[18]
The defeat of the Prussian Army in particular shocked
the Prussian establishment, which had believed it was invincible after the victories of Frederick the Great. The
Prussians were used to relying on superior organization
and tactical factors such as order of battle to focus superior troops against inferior ones. Given approximately

Young men registering for conscription during World War I, New

York City, June 5, 1917.

The range of eligible ages for conscripting was expanded

to meet national demand during the World Wars. In the
United States, the Selective Service System drafted men
for World War I initially in an age range from 21 to 30 but
expanded its eligibility in 1918 to an age range of 18 to
45.[22] In the case of a widespread mobilization of forces
where service includes homefront defense, ages of conscripts may range much higher, with the oldest conscripts
serving in roles requiring lesser mobility. Expanded-age
conscription was common during the Second World War:
in Britain, it was commonly known as call-up and extended to age 51. Nazi Germany termed it Volkssturm
(Peoples Storm) and included men as young as 16 and
as old as 60.[23] During the Second World War, both
Britain and the Soviet Union conscripted women. The
United States was on the verge of drafting women into the
Nurse Corps because it anticipated it would need the ex-

ARGUMENTS AGAINST CONSCRIPTION

tra personnel for its planned invasion of Japan. However, that impressment of individuals into the armed forces is
the Japanese surrendered and the idea was abandoned.[24] "involuntary servitude.[31] Ron Paul, a former presidential nominee of the U.S. Libertarian Party has said that
conscription is wrongly associated with patriotism, when
it really represents slavery and involuntary servitude.[32]
The philosopher Ayn Rand opposed conscription, suggesting that of all the statist violations of individual
rights in a mixed economy, the military draft is the worst.
It is an abrogation of rights. It negates mans fundamental
rightthe right to lifeand establishes the fundamental
principle of statism: that a mans life belongs to the state,
and the state may claim it by compelling him to sacrice
it in battle.[33]
In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in
federal court arguing that it was a direct violation of
the Thirteenth Amendment's prohibition against slavery
and involuntary servitude. However, the Supreme Court
unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act
in the case of Arver v. United States on 7 January 1918.
The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the
power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The
Court emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights
and duties of citizens:
It may not be doubted that the very conception
of a just government in its duty to the citizen
includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen
to render military service in case of need and
the right to compel..[34]
Soviet conscripts. Moskov, 1941.

2.3 Economic

2
2.1

Arguments against conscription

Gender-based

Main article: Sexism and conscription

Conscription has been criticized as sexist.[25][26]
Historically, only men have been subjected to
conscription,[26][27][28][29][30] and only in the late
20th century has this begun to change, though most
countries still require only men to serve in the military.
The integration of women into militaries, and especially
into combat forces, did not begin on a large scale until
late in the 20th century. Men who opt out of military
service must often perform alternative service, such as
Zivildienst in Austria and Switzerland, whereas women
do not have even these obligations.

It can be argued that in a cost-to-benet ratio, conscription during peace time is not worthwhile.[35] Months or
years of service amongst the most t and capable subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this
the cost of training them, and in some countries paying
them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would
argue there is very little benet; if there ever was a war
then conscription and basic training could be completed
quickly, and in any case there is little threat of a war in
most countries with conscription. In the United States,
every male resident must register with the Selective Service System within 30 days following his 18th birthday
and is available for a draft.

The cost of conscription can be related to the parable of

the broken window. The cost of the work, military service, does not disappear even if no salary is paid. The
work eort of the conscripts is eectively wasted, as an
unwilling workforce is extremely inecient. The impact
is especially severe in wartime, when civilian professionals are forced to ght as amateur soldiers. Not only is
2.2 Involuntary servitude
the work eort of the conscripts wasted and productivity
lost, but professionally skilled conscripts are also diAmerican libertarians oppose conscription and call for cult to replace in the civilian workforce. Every soldier
the abolition of the Selective Service System, believing conscripted in the army is taken away from his civilian

3.2

Economic and resource eciency

work, and away from contributing to the economy which

funds the military. This is not a problem in an agrarian
or pre-industrialized state where the level of education
is universally low, and where a worker is easily replaced
by another. However, this proves extremely problematic
in a post-industrial society where educational levels are
high and where the workforce is highly sophisticated and
a replacement for a conscripted specialist is dicult to
nd. Even direr economic consequences result if the professional conscripted as an amateur soldier is killed or
maimed for life; his work eort and productivity is irrevocably lost.[36]

3.2 Economic and resource eciency

Further information: Industrial warfare, Total war and
War eort
It is estimated by the British military that in a professional military, a company deployed for active duty in
peacekeeping corresponds to three inactive companies at
home. Salaries for each are paid from the military budget. In contrast, volunteers from a trained reserve are in
their civilian jobs when they are not deployed.[43]

4 Drafting of women
3
3.1

Arguments for conscription

Political and moral motives

Further information: Social contract, Social solidarity

and Active citizenship
Jean Jacques Rousseau argued vehemently against pro-

Israeli female soldiers

Traditionally conscription has been limited to the male

population. Women and handicapped males have been
exempt from conscription. Many societies have traditionally considered military service as a test of manhood and
a rite of passage from boyhood into manhood.[44][45]
Conscription in Iran

fessional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of

every citizen to participate to the defense of the whole
society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business
to professionals. He based this view on the development
of the Roman republic, which came to an end at the same
time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force.[37] Similarly, Aristotle linked the division
of armed service among the populace intimately with the
political order of the state.[38] Niccol Machiavelli argued
strongly for conscription, seeing the professional armies
as the cause of the failure of societal unity in Italy.
Other proponents, such as William James, consider both
mandatory military and national service as ways of instilling maturity in young adults.[39] Some proponents, such
as Jonathan Alter and Mickey Kaus, support a draft in
order to reinforce social equality, create social consciousness, break down class divisions and for young adults to
immerse themselves in public enterprise.[40][41][42]

As of 2013, countries that were drafting women

into military service included Bolivia,[46] Chad,[47]
Eritrea,[48][49][50] Israel,[48][49][51] Mozambique [52] and
North Korea.[53] Israel has universal female conscription,
although in practice women can avoid service by claiming
a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women
do so.[48][49][54] Sudanese law allows for conscription of
women, but this is not implemented in practice.[55] In
the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in
1941, women were brought into the scope of conscription
but, as all women with dependent children were exempt
and many women were informally left in occupations such
as nursing or teaching, the number conscripted was relatively few.[56]
Sweden has also considered female conscription because
excluding women was thought to go against the ideology
of equality.[57]
In June 2013, the parliament of Norway made a principal
resolution to introduce female conscription, being the rst
country in NATO and Europe to do so.[58] In October
2014 laws were passed by parliament, declaring female

conscription, eective from January 2015.[59]

CONSCRIPTION BY COUNTRY

6 Conscription by country

In the USSR, there was no systematic conscription of

women for the armed forces, but the severe disruption 6.1
of normal life and the high proportion of civilians affected by World War II after the German invasion attracted many volunteers for what was termed "The Great
Patriotic War".[60] Medical doctors of both sexes could
and would be conscripted (as ocers). Also, the free Soviet university education system required Department of
Chemistry students of both sexes to complete an ROTC
course in NBC defense, and such female reservist ocers
could be conscripted in times of war. The United States
came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in
preparation for a planned invasion of Japan.[61][62]

China

In 1981 in the United States, several men led lawsuit in

the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Selective
Service Act of 1948 violates the Due Process Clause of
the Fifth Amendment by requiring that only men register
with the Selective Service System (SSS). The Supreme
Court eventually upheld the Act, stating that the argument for registering women was based on considerations
of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its
constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military
need, rather than 'equity.'"[63]
On October 1, 1999 in the Taiwan Area, the Judicial
Yuan of the Republic of China in its Interpretation 490
considered that the physical dierences between males
and females and the derived role dierentiation in their
respective social functions and lives would not make A terracotta soldier with his horse, China, 210209 BC
drafting only males a violation of the Constitution of the
Republic of China.[64] Though women are conscripted in Universal conscription in China dates back to the State
Taiwan, transsexual persons are exempt.[65]
of Qin, which eventually became the Qin Empire of 221
BC. Following unication, historical records show that a
total of 300,000 conscript soldiers and 500,000 conscript
labourers constructed the Great Wall of China.[68]

Conscientious objection

In the following dynasties, universal conscription was

abolished and reintroduced on numerous occasions.

Main articles: Conscientious objection, Antimilitarism

As of 2011, universal military conscription is theoretiand Conscientious objection throughout the world
cally mandatory in the Peoples Republic of China, and
reinforced by law. However, due to the large population
A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal of China and large pool of candidates available for rebeliefs are incompatible with military service, or, more cruitment, the Peoples Liberation Army has always had
often, with any role in the armed forces.[66][67] In some sucient volunteers, so conscription has not been recountries, conscientious objectors have special legal sta- quired in practice at all.
tus, which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden used to allow conscientious objectors to
choose a service in the weapons-free branch, such as an 6.2 Israel
airport reman, nurse or telecommunications technician.
Most refuse such service, as they feel that such roles are Main article: Conscription in Israel
a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing
to serve are varied. Some conscientious objectors are so
for religious reasons notably, the members of the historic peace churches, pacist by doctrine; Jehovahs Witnesses, while not strictly pacists, refuse to participate in
the armed forces on the ground that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conicts.

In Israel, the Muslim and Christian Arab minority are

exempt from mandatory service, as are permanent residents such as the Druze of the Golan Heights. Male
Ultra-Orthodox Jews may apply for a deferment of draft
to study in Yeshiva, and the deferment tends to become an
exemption, while female religious Jews can be exempted

6.4

United Kingdom

after presenting religious declaration to the IDF authorities, and some (primarily National Religious or Modern Orthodox) choose to volunteer for national service
instead. Male Druze and Circassian Israeli citizens are liable, by agreement with their community leaders (Female
Druze and Circassian are exempt from service). Members of the exempted groups can still volunteer, but very
few do, except that Bedouin have a relatively large number who tend to volunteer (usually for nancial reasons).

6.3

The Netherlands

Main article: Conscription in the Netherlands

Conscription, which was called Service Duty (Dutch:
dienstplicht) in the Netherlands, was rst employed in
1810 by French occupying forces. Napoleon's brother
Louis Bonaparte, who was King of Holland from 1806
to 1810, had tried to introduce conscription a few years
earlier, unsuccessfully. Every man aged 20 years or older
had to enlist. By means of drawing lots it was decided
who had to undertake service in the French army. It was
possible to arrange a substitute against payment.
Later on, conscription was used for all men over the age
of 18. Postponement was possible, due to study, for example. Conscientious objectors could perform an alternative civilian service instead of military service. For various reasons, this forced military service was criticized at
the end of the twentieth century. Since the Cold War was
over, so was the direct threat of a war. Instead, the Dutch
army was employed in more and more peacekeeping operations. The complexity and danger of these missions
made the use of conscripts controversial. Furthermore,
the conscription system was thought to be unfair as only
men were drafted.
In the European part of Netherlands, compulsory attendance has been ocially suspended since 1 May 1997.
Between 1991 and 1996, the Dutch armed forces phased
out their conscript personnel and converted to an allvolunteer force. The last conscript troops were inducted
in 1995, and demobilized in 1996. The suspension means
that citizens are no longer forced to serve in the armed
forces, as long as it is not required for the safety of the
country. Since then, the Dutch army is an all-volunteer
force. However, to this day, every male citizen aged 17
gets a letter in which he is told that he has been registered but does not have to present himself for service.
The Dutch army allowed its male soldiers to have long
hair from the early 1970s to the end of conscription in
the mid-1990s.

6.4 United Kingdom

Main article: Conscription in the United Kingdom
Britain introduced conscription to full-time military service for the rst time in January 1916 (the eighteenth
month of World War I) and abolished it in 1920. Ireland,
then part of the United Kingdom, was excepted from the
original 1916 military service legislation, and although
further legislation in 1918 gave power for an extension
of conscription to Ireland, the power was never put into
eect.
Conscription was reintroduced in 1939, in the lead up
to World War II, and continued in force until 1963.
Northern Ireland was excepted from conscription legislation throughout the whole period.
In all, 8,000,000 men were conscripted in WW2, as well
as several hundred thousand younger single women.[69]
The introduction of conscription in May 1939, before the
war began, was partly due to pressure from the French,
who emphasized the need for a large British army to
oppose the Germans.[70] From early 1942 unmarried
women age 1930 were conscripted. Most were sent to
the factories, but they could volunteer for the Auxiliary
Territorial Service (ATS) and other womens services.
None was assigned to combat roles unless she volunteered. By 1943 women were liable to some form of directed labour up to age 51. During the Second World
War, 1.4 million British men volunteered for service and
3.2 million were conscripted. Conscripts comprised 80%
of the Army, 60% of the Royal Navy, and 50% of the
Royal Air Force.[71]
The abolition of conscription in Britain was announced
on 4 April 1957, by new prime minister Harold Macmillan, with the last conscripts being recruited three years
later.[72]

6.5 United States

Main article: Conscription in the United States
In the United States, conscription, also called the draft,
ended in 1973, but males between 18 and 25 are required
to register with the Selective Service System to enable
a reintroduction of conscription if necessary. President
Gerald Ford suspended mandatory draft registration in
1975, but President Jimmy Carter reinstated that requirement when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Selective Service registration is still required of all young men,
although the draft has not been used since 1973.[73]

Even though it is generally thought that conscription has

been abolished in the Netherlands, it is compulsory at- 6.5.1 Colonial and Early National
tendance that was abolished, not conscription. The laws
and systems which provide for the conscription of armed In America before 1862, combat duty was always voluntary, but white men aged 18 to 45 were usually required
forces personnel still remain in place.

to join local militia units. Colonial militia lawsand after 1776 those of the statesrequired able-bodied white
men to enroll in the militia and to undergo a minimum of
military training, all without pay. Colonial Pennsylvania
(controlled by Quakers) did not have such laws. Members
of pacist religious denominations were exempt. When
combat troops were needed, some of the militiamen volunteered for short terms of service, for which they were
paid. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states
draft men from their militias for one years service in the
Continental army; this rst national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to ll the Continental ranks.
In 1814, President James Madison proposed conscription
of 40,000 men for the army, but the War of 1812 ended
before Congress took any action. An 1840 proposal for a
standing army of 200,000 men included conscription, but
it never passed and military service was voluntary before
1862.[74]

6.5.2

American Civil War

CONSCRIPTION BY COUNTRY

made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In the end, conscription was largely a failure. The draft
failed to bring in high-quality soldiers to the Union armies
and instead most draftees were lazy, unmotivated men,
men with physical or mental disabilities, and even criminals. They frequently met with contempt from the volunteer soldiers and required extra amounts of discipline and
surveillance to prevent them from committing desertion
and petty crimes.
The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by
the inequitable inclinations of conscription ocers and
local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter
class, and enrolling ocers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts
to eectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conict between state and local governments on the one hand
and the national government of the Confederacy.[75]

Further information: Conscription in the United States 6.5.3 World War I

Civil War
Main article: Selective Service Act of 1917
In 1917, the administration of Woodrow Wilson decided
Although both North and South resorted to conscription
during the Civil War, in neither region did the system
work eectively. The Confederate Congress on April
16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for
three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty-ve not
legally exempt, and it later extended the obligation so that
all soldiers were required to serve for the duration of the
conict. The U.S. Congress followed on July 17, 1862,
with an act authorizing a militia draft within a state when
it could not meet its quota with volunteers. However, this
failed to produce adequate enlistees, and with few men
A World War I draft card.
still volunteering by late 1862, it became necessary for
the rst time to impose national conscription. This met to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary
with considerable outcry among states rights advocates enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I.
who wrote numerous letters to President Lincoln pleading The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn
against the unconstitutionality of such an action. In the to remedy the defects in the Civil War system andby
end however, their complaints were ignored as Congress allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupaapproved the rst national conscription act on March 1, tions, and religious scruplesto place each man in his
1863, which made all white males between 20 and 44 li- proper niche in a national war eort. The act established a
able for military service.
liability for military service of all male citizens"; authoQuotas were assigned in each state, the deciencies in volunteers to be met by conscription. But men drafted could
provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, avoid service by
paying commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their
money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used
the substitute provision to select which man should go
into the army and which should stay home. There was
much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially
in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in
July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed
up as citizens to swell the machine vote, not realizing it

rized a selective draft of all those between twenty-one and

thirty-one years of age (later from eighteen to forty-ve);
and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers
drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.
In 1917 and 1918 some 24 million men were registered
and nearly 3 million inducted into the military services,
with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil
War.[76]

6.5
6.5.4

United States
World War II

9
6.5.5 Draft evasion

In 1940 Congress passed the rst peacetime draft legis- Main article: Draft evasion
lation, which was led by Grenville Clark. It was renewed The New York Draft Riots (July 11 to July 16, 1863;
(by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as
to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and
the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were
given quotas and then decided how to ll them. There was
very little draft resistance.[77]

Secretary of War Newton Baker draws the rst draft number on

20 July 1917.

The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high

unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower
shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and
foodstus more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers
were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer
1944.) In 1940 to 1943, the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in
order to increase production. Those transferred would
return to work in essential industry, although they could
be called back to active duty if the Army needed them.
Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed
absolutely essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries.
Blacks and Asians were drafted under the same terms as
whites. Over ten million men were drafted for combat
in World War II, more than twice the amount drafted for
World War One, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War
combined.
One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers,
which was avoided as much as possible. Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, and those who stayed
at home were not eligible for postwar veterans benets).
The draft law as established in 1940 exempted males under 21 from mandatory service due to public opposition
against the idea of drafting 18-year olds.

Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots

of 1863.

known at the time as Draft Week), were violent disturbances in New York City that were the culmination of
discontent with new laws passed by Congress to draft men
to ght in the ongoing American Civil War.
In the United States and some other countries, the
Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and the Selective Service System. Many people opposed to and facing conscription chose to either apply for
classication and assignment to civilian alternative service or noncombatant service within the military as conscientious objectors, or to evade the draft by eeing to
a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad
Ali, chose to resist the draft by publicly and politically
ghting conscription. Some people resisted at the point
of registration for the draft. In the United States around
1970, for example, the draft resistance movement focused on mandatory draft registration. Others resisted
at the point of induction, when they were ordered to put
on a uniform, when they were ordered to carry or use a
weapon, or when they were ordered into combat.

In the United States, especially during the Vietnam War,

some used political connections to ensure that they were
placed well away from any potential harm, serving in what
was termed a Champagne unit. Many would avoid miliLater in the war, as the need for manpower grew more and tary service altogether through college deferments, by bemore pressing, many earlier deferment categories became coming fathers, or serving in various exempt jobs (teaching was one possibility). Others used educational exempdraft eligible.[78]

10

8 RELATED CONCEPTS

tions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to

be conscientious objectors, although they might then be
drafted for non-combat work, such as serving as a combat
medic. It was also possible they could be asked to do similar civilian work, such as being a hospital orderly.
It was, in fact, quite easy for those with some knowledge of the system to avoid being drafted. A simple
route, widely publicized, was to get a medical rejection.
While a person could claim to have symptoms (or feign
homosexuality) if enough physicians sent letters that a
person had a problem, he might well be rejected. It often
wasn't worth the Armys time to dispute this claim. Such
an approach worked best in a larger city where there was
no stigma to not serving, and the potential draftee was not
known to those reviewing him.
For others, the most common method of avoiding the
draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been called up for military service and
who attempted to avoid it in some way were known as
draft-dodgers. Particularly during the Vietnam War,
U.S. draft-dodgers usually made their way to Canada,
Mexico, or Sweden.
Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being cowards, but some supported them in their eorts.
In the late years of the Vietnam War, objections against it
and support for draft-dodgers was much more outspoken,
because of the casualties suered by American troops,
and the actual cause and purpose of the war being heavily questioned.

Conscription in Gibraltar
Conscription in Greece
Conscription in Israel
Conscription in Malaysia
Conscription in Mexico
Conscription in New Zealand
Conscription in Russia
Conscription in Serbia
Conscription in Singapore
Conscription in South Korea
Conscription in Switzerland
Conscription in the Netherlands
Conscription in the Ottoman Empire
Conscription in the Philippines
Conscription in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
Conscription in the Russian Empire
Conscription in the United Kingdom
Conscription in the United States

Conscription in Turkey
Toward the end of the U.S. draft, an attempt was made
to make the system somewhat fairer by turning it into a
lottery, with each of the years calendar dates randomly
assigned a number. Men born on lower-numbered dates 7 Countries with and without
were called up for review. For the reasons given above,
mandatory military service
this did not make the system any fairer, and the entire
system ended in 1973. By 1975, the draft was no longer
mandatory. Today, American men aged 1825 are re- Main article: Military service
quired to register with the Selective Service, but there has
not been a call-up since the Vietnam War.

6.6

Main articles for conscription by country

8 Related concepts
Arrire-ban

Conscription in Australia

Civil conscription

Conscription in Brazil

Civilian Public Service

Conscription in Cyprus

Corve

Conscription in Canada

Economic conscription

Conscription in Egypt

Impressment and the Quota System

Conscription in Finland

National Service

Conscription in France

Zivildienst

Conscription in Germany

Pospolite ruszenie, mass mobilization in Poland

11

See also

[19] Dierk Walter. Preussische Heeresreformen 18071870:

Militrische Innovation und der Mythos der Roonschen
Reform. 2003, in Citino, p. 130

Bevin Boys

[20] Military service in Russia Empire. roots-saknes.lv.

Ephebic Oath

[21] Conscription and Resistance: The Historical Context

archived from the original. 2008-06-03. Archived from
the original on 2008-06-03.

List of countries by number of troops

Mens Rights

[22] Records of the Selective Service System (World War I)".;

see also Selective Service Act of 1917 and Selective Training and Service Act of 1940.

Military history
Military recruitment
Timeline of womens participation in warfare

[23] The German Volkssturm from Intelligence Bulletin.

lonesentry.com. February 1945.
[24] CBC News Indepth: International military. CBC News.

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[89]

[90]
[91]
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[129]
[130]

[131]
[132]
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11
Refugee Agency. Retrieved 2009-11-01

15

11

Further reading

Burk, James (April 1989). Debating the Draft in

America, Armed Forces and Society p. vol. 15:
pp. 431448.
Challener, Richard D. The French theory of the nation in arms, 18661939 (1955)
Chambers, John Whiteclay. To Raise an Army: The
Draft Comes to Modern America (1987)
Fitzpatrick, Edward (1940). Conscription and
America: A Study of Conscription in a DemocRichard Publishing Company.
ASIN
racy.
B000GY5QW2.
Flynn, George Q. (1998 33(1): 520). Conscription and Equity in Western Democracies, 194075,
Journal of Contemporary History in JSTOR
Flynn, George Q. (2001). Conscription and Democracy: The Draft in France, Great Britain, and the
United States. Greenwood. p. 303. ISBN 0-31331912-X.
Jehn, Christopher (2008). Conscription. In
David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia
of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Library of
Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658.
OCLC 237794267.
Kestnbaum, Meyer (October 2000). Citizenship
and Compulsory Military Service: The Revolutionary
Origins of Conscription in the United States. Armed
Forces & Society. p. vol. 27: pp. 736.
Levi, Margaret (1997). Consent, Dissent and Patriotism. New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-59961-0. Looks at citizens responses to military conscription in several democracies since the French Revolution.
Linch, Kevin (2012). Conscription. Mainz: Institute
of European History (IEG).
Krueger, Christine, and Sonja Levsen, eds. War
Volunteering in Modern Times: From the French
Revolution to the Second World War (Palgrave
Macmillan 2011)
Leander, Anna (July 2004). Drafting Community:
Understanding the Fate of Conscription. Armed
Forces & Society. p. vol. 30: pp. 571599.
MacLean, Alair. The Privileges of Rank: The Peacetime Draft and Later-life Attainment. date= July
2008. p. vol. 34: pp. 682713.
Mjoset, Lars and Stephen Van Holde, eds. (2002).
The Comparative Study of Conscription in the Armed
Forces. Amsterdam: JAI Press/Elsevier Science
Ltd. p. 424.

Pfaenzeller, Stephan. 2010. Conscription and

Democracy: The Mythology of Civil-Military Relations. Armed Forces & Society April Vol. 36 pp.
481504, doi:10.1177/0095327X09351226 http://
afs.sagepub.com/content/36/3/481.abstract
Sorensen, Henning (January 2000). Conscription in
Scandinavia During the Last Quarter Century: Developments and Arguments. Armed Forces & Society. p. vol. 26: pp. 313334.
Stevenson, Michael D. (2001). Canadas Greatest
Wartime Muddle: National Selective Service and the
Mobilization of Human Resources during World War
II. McGill-Queens University Press. p. 235. ISBN
0-7735-2263-8.

12 External links
The dictionary denition of conscription at Wiktionary
Media related to Conscription at Wikimedia Commons

16

13

13
13.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Conscription Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription?oldid=675767959 Contributors: WojPob, Robert Merkel, Timo

Honkasalo, The Anome, Tarquin, Larry Sanger, Rmhermen, Christian List, Karen Johnson, SimonP, Ryguasu, B4hand, Montrealais,
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Yobot, Reenem, Tempodivalse, Magog the Ogre, Btibor, Banjohunter, Slaaibak, AnomieBOT, Djibouti,Djibouti, Hershele, Jim1138, Pi-

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ano non troppo, InTheZone363, Kingpin13, Yachtsman1, Yadamavu, Materialscientist, Citation bot, OllieFury, Roux-HG, Ruby2010,
Gsmgm, Lamppis, Ssola, Bbarkley, Capricorn42, Poetaris, Parthasarathy B, DataWraith, Gumruch, Srich32977, Kithira, NeutriceH5, Sir
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Citation bot 1, J. Sketter, Pinethicket, Vasilcho, Calmer Waters, Murderdan537, Nevilledidit, Proverbialed, Kreutznaer, Ouyuecheng,
Tgv8925, Trappist the monk, Bbarkley2, Charizard96, Lotje, Kaiser Taylor, Harald Meier, MisterTin, Devilhunterred, Tbhotch, Jurryaany, Sideways713, Tinpac, Guerillero, RjwilmsiBot, Vtstarin, Josnyg, WildBot, Greenmuse, EmausBot, John of Reading, Oliverlyc,
Sir Blackbeard, Immunize, Super48paul, Ultratycoon, Tommy2010, Josve05a, Sanfuhrer, Nicob1984, Michael Essmeyer, ElationAviation,
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CeraBot, BattyBot, Kat16226, Chrisjwakeeld, Khazar2, AddMore, EagerToddler39, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Mogism, Cerabot~enwiki,
Remembermdy87, XXzoonamiXX, Giordpeter, 93, ZH8000, Zincoshine, Epicgenius, K.K. Slider, Samotny Wdrowiec, Melonkelon,
EricTheWhite, Sausage235, Fbryce, CdavM, SVR89, Finnusertop, Kesam takva, Civis mundi sum, Tshuva, Leoagaw1985, Chipperdude15,
Sswarddddddddd, *thing goes, Ryk72, Esmost, Massyparcer, Monkbot, SantiLak, Fyddlestix, EpsonNokidding, Monopoly31121993,
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File:Battle_of_Vienna.SultanMurads_with_janissaries.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Battle_

of_Vienna.SultanMurads_with_janissaries.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: own photo of an old document Original artist: G.
Jansoone
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world.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mysid
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Drapeau Algrien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp.
File:Flag_of_Angola.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Flag_of_Angola.svg License: Public domain
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Denelson83
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License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Belize.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Flag_of_Belize.svg License: Public domain
Contributors:
Used
as
Air
Force
insigna
seen
<a
data-x-rel='nofollow'
class='external
//www.airliners.net/photo/Belize---Air/Britten-Norman-BN-2A-21-Defender/0925855/
L/,<span>,&,</span>,sid=4b37e91656bda8ae09cb1eb875668eba'>here</a>

text'

href='http:

Improved version from xrmap ag collection 2.9.

Original artist: Caleb Moore
File:Flag_of_Bhutan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Flag_of_Bhutan.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Originally from the Open Clip Art website, then replaced with an improved version. Original artist: w:en:User:Nightstallion
(original uploader), the author of xrmap (improved version)
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Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp
File:Flag_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Flag_of_Bosnia_and_
Herzegovina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kseferovic

18

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The ag of Bulgaria. The colors are specied at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&
n=000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp
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Original artist: ?
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R-41, Minestrone, Lupo, Zscout370,
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:MaGa' title='User:MaGa'>Ma</a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' class='image'><img alt='Croatian squares Ljubicic.png' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/15px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png' width='15' height='15' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png/23px-Croatian_squares_Ljubicic.png
1.5x,
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2x' data-le-width='202' data-le-height='202' /></a><a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:MaGa' title='User
talk:MaGa'>Ga</a> (based on Decision of the Parliament)
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? Original artist: ?
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the ocial specication for the design of the Israeli ag.
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artist: ?

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File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: The source code of this SVG is <a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text'
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