DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules)

from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of
lower concentration. A good example of diffusion is food colouring.
If you place a drop of red food colouring in a beaker of water
eventually the entire beaker of water will have a red tint. The food
colouring moved through the water until it was equally distributed
throughout the beaker. Diffusion takes place along a concentration
gradient. A concentration gradient exists until the diffused
substance is evenly distributed.
Other everyday examples of diffusion are:
1. Sugar will diffuse through tea until the entire cup of tea is
sweet. (We stir the tea to speed up the diffusion.)
2. The odour of food cooking diffuses throughout the kitchen. If
you open the kitchen door it will spread into the next room.
The movement of these molecules is said to be passive. No
energy is needed to be provided. The natural kinetic energy of
the particles supplies the energy.

Examples of diffusion in science are:

1.

Carbon dioxide entering the stomata of leaves.

2.

Oxygen diffusing out of the stomata and lenticels of leaves.

This animation shows the purple molecules diffusing

throughout the box.

This animation shows a graduated cylinder. Note how the

bromine diffuses throughout the cylinder when the glass
plate it removed.

(click the reload or F5 button to view this again)

Click here for an excellent interactive animation of
osmosis and diffusion

Here the molecules move out of the liquid and into the air by
diffusion.

Click here to view an animation of diffusion

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is a special example of diffusion. It is the diffusion of a
substance through a semipermeable membrane from a more
dilute solution to a more concentrated solution. This process is
also passive since no external energy is needed.

A semipermeable membrane is a barrier that permits the

passage of some substances but not others. Cell membranes are
described as selectively permeable because not only do they allow
the passage of water but also allow the passage of certain solutes
(dissolved substances).
Some major examples of osmosis:
1. Absorption of water by plant roots.
2. Reabsorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of
the nephron.
3. Reabsorption of tissue fluid into the venule ends of the blood
capillaries.
4. Absorption of water by the alimentary canal stomach, small
intestine and the colon.

Here is an example of particles moving through a plasma

membrane.

This animation shows osmosis of particles. Note that when

the particles are distributed equally on both sides of the
membrane the osmosis stops.

(click the reload or F5 button to view this again)

In another example, the solute cant fit through the

membrane but the water can. The water moves through
until both sides concentrations are equal.

Here, the concentration is the same on both side of the

membrane. The water moves through the membrane from
both sides at equal rates.

Osmosis and Animal Cells

The movement of liquids in and out cells is dependant on the
concentration of the solution surrounding it.
There are 3 types of situations in which this could vary:

1. Isotonic: Here the external solution concentration and the

internal concentration of the organism are the same.
2. Hypotonic: Here the external solution concentration is less
than the concentration of the organism. In this case water will
rush into the organism.
3. Hypertonic: Here the external solution concentration is
greater than the concentration of the organism. In this case
the water will rush out of the organism.

OSMOREGULATION
Osmoregulation is the means by which cells keep the
concentration of cell cytoplasm or blood at a suitable
concentration.
OSMOREGULATION IN ANIMAL CELLS
(A)

Amoeba, living in freshwater, uses a contractile vacuole to

expel the excess water from its cytoplasm. This was
discussed in the amoeba web page which can be found on
the homepage.

Paramecium, another protest, also gets rid of excess water

using a vacuole:

(B)

The kidneys maintain the blood at the correct

concentration.

Click here to see an interactive animation of

osmoregulation with the kidneys
OSMOREGULATION IN PLANT CELLS

Plant cells have a cell wall that allows all materials to enter. It then
has a semi-permeable membrane surrounding the cells cytoplasm.
Plant cells are able to take in water and swell because the cell wall
is strong enough to withstand the pressure within the cell. This
pressure is called turgor pressure. As a result of turgor pressure
the cell becomes firmer and stronger. Plant cells with the correct
internal water pressure are said to be turgid. Plants with too little
internal water are said to be flaccid.
A good example of this is a plant that is watered compared to a
plant that is not watered. The non-watered plant will shrivel and will
because it has lost its Turgor pressure.
The loss of water from a plant is called plasmolysis. The cell then
become plasmolysed. The cell on the right (below)
is plasmolysed. Deplasmolysis is the process by which the cell
become turgid by gaining water.

OSMOSIS AND FOOD PRESERVATON

Food can be preserved by causing any microorganism that comes in

contact with it to become plasmolused and, therefore, shrivel and
die. To do this food is placed in a high salt or sugar medium. The
salt or sugar concentration is higher than the cytoplasm of bacteria
or fungi. Bacteria or fungi, that contaminate the food, will lose
water by osmosis and their metabolism will decline.Many will die but
some bacteria may survive by forming dormant resistant
endospores. Meat and fish are often preserved in salt. Fruit is
commonly preserved in sugar as in jam or syrup.

Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the process by which
molecules intermingle as a result of
theirkinetic energy of random motion.
Consider two containers of gas A and B
separated by a partition. The molecules of
both gases are in constant motion and make
numerous collisions with the partition. If
the partition is removed as in the lower
illustration, the gases will mix because of
the random velocities of their molecules. In
time a uniform mixture of A and B
molecules will be produced in the
container.

Index

Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory

The tendency toward diffusion is very

strong even at room temperature because of
the high molecular velocities associated
with the thermal energy of the particles.
Rate of diffusion

Osmosis

Fluid
concepts

Thermal energy

Energetics of solute diffusion

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Rate of Diffusion
Since the average kinetic energy of different types of molecules (different
masses) which are at thermal equilibrium is the same, then their average
velocities are different. Their average diffusion rate is expected to depend
upon that average velocity, which gives a relative diffusion rate

Index
Kinetic
theory
concepts

where the constant K depends upon geometric factors including the area
across which the diffusion is occuring. The relative diffusion rate for two
different molecular species is then given by

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Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
concepts

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Osmosis
Index

If two solutions of different concentration are

separated by a semi-permeable membrane which
is permeable to to the smaller solvent molecules
but not to the larger solute molecules, then the
solvent will tend to diffuseacross the membrane
from the less concentrated to the more
concentrated solution. This process is called
osmosis.

Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory

Osmosis is of great importance in biological

processes where the solvent is water. The
transport of water and other molecules across
biological membranes is essential to many
processes in living organisms. The energy which
drives the process is usually discussed in terms
of osmotic pressure.

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Fluid
concepts

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Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis is a selective diffusion process driven
by the internal energy of the solvent molecules.
It is convenient to express the available energy
per unit volume in terms of "osmotic pressure".
It is customary to express this tendency toward
solvent transport in pressure units relative to the
pure solvent.
If pure water were on both sides of the
membrane, the osmotic pressure difference
would be zero. But if normal human blood were
on the right side of the membrane, the osmotic
pressure would be about seven atmospheres!
This illustrates how potent the influence of
osmotic pressure is for membrane transport in
living organisms.
The decision about which side of the membrane
to call "high" osmotic pressure is a troublesome
one. The choice made here is the opposite of that
made in many biology texts, which attribute
"high" osmotic pressure to the solution and zero
osmotic pressure to pure water. The rationale for
the choice is that the energy which drives the
fluid transfer is the thermal energy of the water
molecules, and that energy density is higher in
the pure solvent since there are more water
molecules. The thermal energy of the solute
molecules does not contribute to transport,
presuming that the membrane is impermeable to
them. The choice is also influenced by the
observed direction of fluid movement, since
under this choice the fluid transport is from high
"pressure" to low, congruent with normal fluid
flow through pipes from high pressure to low.
The final rationale has to do with the
measurement of osmotic pressure by
determining how much hydrostatic pressure on
the solution is required to prevent the transport
of water from a pure source across a semipermeable membrane into the soluton. A positive
pressure must be exerted on the solution to

Index

Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
concepts

prevent osmotic transport, again congruent with

the concept that the osmotic pressure of the pure
solvent is relatively "high".
Nevertheless, the dialog continues on this issue
since the discussion of osmosis is most relevant
to the biological and life sciences and perhaps
the logic stated above should yield to the
conventions of the field in which the phenomena
are most relevant.
Measuring osmotic pressure
Calculating osmotic pressure
Osmotic pressure example: egg in syrup

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Index

Measuring Osmotic
Pressure
One approach to the measurement
ofosmotic pressure is to measure the
amount of hydrostatic pressure necessary to
prevent fluid transfer by osmosis.

Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
theory
Fluid
concepts

Membrane transport
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Membrane Transport
The transport of water and other types of molecules across membranes is the
key to many processes in living organisms. Many of these transport processes
proceed by diffusion through membranes which are selectively permeable,
allowing small molecules to pass but blocking larger ones. These processes,
including osmosis and dialysis, are sometimes called passive transport since
they do not require any active role for the membrane. Other types of transport,
called active transport, involve properties of a cell membrane to selectively
"pump" certain types of molecules across the membrane.
The transport of gases across membranes depends upon diffusion and the
solubility of the gases involved. In life science applications such transport is
characterized by Graham's Law and Fick's Law.

Henry's Law
Index
When a gas is in contact with the surface of a liquid, the amount of the gas
which will go into solution is proportional to the partial pressure of that
gas. A simple rationale for Henry's law is that if the partial pressure of a
gas is twice as high, then on the average twice as many molecules will hit
Kinetic
the liquid surface in a given time interval, and on the average twice as
theory
many will be captured and go into solution. For a gas mixture, Henry's law
concepts
helps to predict the amount of each gas which will go into solution, but
different gases have different solubilities and this also affects the rate. The
constant of proportionality in Henry's law must take this into account. For Applications
of kinetic
example, in the gas exchange processes in respiration, the solubility of
theory
carbon dioxide is about 22 times that of oxygen when they are in contact
with the plasma of the human body.
Diffusion Osmosis Membrane transport

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Graham's Law
When gases are dissolved in liquids, the relative rate of diffusion of a given
gas is proportional to its solubility in the liquid and inversely proportional
to the square root of its molecular mass. Important in thetransport of
respiration gases is the relative diffusion rate of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the plasma of the human body. Carbon dioxide has 22 times the
solubility, but is more massive (44 amu compared to 32 for oxygen).
According to Graham's law, the relative rate of diffusion is given by
Index

Kinetic
theory
concepts
Applications
of kinetic
Graham's law
theory
may be
applied to the
process that
occurs in tha
alveoli of the
lungs.

Diffusion

Osmosis Membrane transport

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Henry's Law

Fick's Law
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Fick's Law

Index

The net diffusion rate of a gas across a fluid membrane is proportional to

the difference in partial pressure, proportional to the area of the membrane
Kinetic
and inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane. Combined
theory
with the diffusion rate determined from Graham's law, this law provides
concepts
the means for calculating exchange rates of gases across membranes. The
total membrane surface area in the lungs (alveoli ) may be on the order of
100 square meters and have a thickness of less than a millionth of a meter, Applications
of kinetic
so it is a very effective gas exchange interface.
theory
Diffusion Osmosis Membrane transport Graham's Law Henry's Law

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Oxygen Transport in the Lungs

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Index

The total membrane surface area in the lungs (alveoli ) may be on the order
Kinetic
of 100 square meters and have a thickness of less than a millionth of a
theory
meter, so it is a very effective gas exchange interface. The relative rate of
oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange across these thin membranes depends concepts
upon diffusion and the solubility of the gases in the fluid membrane. This
Applications
is described by Fick's law.
of kinetic
theory
Respiration

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Respiration
The process of respiration involves the lowering of the diaphragm to increase
the volume of the thoracic cavity, which by the ideal gas law is seen to lower
its pressure. A model of lung action can be made with a bell jar, balloons, and
Index
an elastic membrane. The thoracic cavity normally has a negative gauge
pressure to keep the lungs inflated, and the diaphragm action must lower it
Gas law
more to accomplish inhalation. The inhalation process must accomplish
concepts
the inflation of the alveoli of the lungs, which itself is a remarkable process.
The pressure achieved by the diaphragm action is only about -4 mmHg
Kinetic
compared to a pressure inside the alveoli of about -3 mmHg, so inhalation
theory
must be accomplished with a pressure differential of only about 1 mmHg. The concepts
remarkable efficiency of oxygen transport across the lungmembranes is
characterized in Fick's Law.
Lung model

Alveoli of lungs

Respiratory system
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Breathing Pressure Model

Air is drawn into
the lungs by
lowering the
diaphragm,
making the
pressure more
negative in the
thoracic cavity.
Exhalation is
accomplished by
the elastic recoil of
the diaphragm and
of the tiny air sacs
(alveoli ) of the
lungs. Thatelastic
recoilproduces a
positive pressure.

Index
Gas law
concepts
Kinetic
theory
concepts

Respiration
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Problem #11: What is the rate of effusion for a gas that has a molar mass twice that of
a gas that effuses at a rate of 3.62 mol/min?
Solution:
Set rate1 = 3.62
Set rate2 = x
The gas that has twice the molar mass is the one whose rate we are trying to
determine.
MM2 = 2
MM1 = 1
These molar masses are arbitrary values, we just need MM 2 to be twice the value for
MM1.
3.62 / x = (2/1)
x = 2.56 mol/min

Problem #12: Calculate the rate of effusion of NO2 compared to SO2 at the same
temperature and pressure.
Solution:
The rates of effusion of two gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of
their molar masses -- Graham's law.
We can state Graham's law like this:
rate12 x MM1 = rate22 x MM2
Solve for the unknown
rate2 = (rate12 x MM1 / MM2)
rate2 = (12 x 46 g/mol / 64 g/mol)
rate2 = 0.85

The rate of effusion of SO2 is 0.85 times the rate of effusion of NO2, which is logical
because SO2 is more massive than NO2, and moves more slowly, on average.
This is not my (the ChemTeam's) solution, but it is rather nice, so I decided to copy it
as is. Notice how the solution assigns rate1 to be equal to 1. You might wish to
rearrange the writer's Graham's law equation into the one the ChemTeam tends to use.

Problem #13: Assume you have a sample of hydrogen gas containing H 2, HD, and
D2 that you want to separate into pure components. What are the various ratios of
relative rates of effusion?
Solution:
Let us first compare H2 and HD to D2. Since D2 is the heaviest molecule, it is the
slowest. D2's rate (which is r2) will be set to 1.
Graham's Law is: r1 over r2 = MM2 over MM1
1) H2 : D2
x/1 = (4/2)
x = 1.414
H2 effuses 1.414 times faster than D2
2) HD : D2
x/1 = (4/3)
x = 1.155
HD effuses 1.155 times faster than D2
3) Finally, let us compare H2 to HD. This may be solved two different ways:
x/1 = (3/2)
x = 1.225
or, use a ratio and proportion:

1.414 is to 1.155 as x is to one

x = 1.224

Problem #14: A 3.00 L sample of helium was placed in container fitted with a porous
membrane. Half of the helium effused through the membrane in 25 hours. A 3.00 L
sample of oxygen was placed in an identical container. How many hours will it take
for half of the oxygen to effuse though the membrane?
Solution:
1) Determine helium's rate of effusion:
1.50 L per 25 hr = 0.0600 L/hr.
Let r2 be the rate for helium. So r1 will be the rate for oxygen in L/hr.
2) Determine oxygen's rate of effusion:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
x / 0.0600 = [4/32]
x = 0.0212132 L/hr
3) Determine time for half of oxygen's 3.00 liters to effuse:
1.50 L divided by 0.0212132 L/hr = 70.7 hrs
Problem #15: At a certain temperature, hydrogen molecules move at an average
velocity of 1.84 x 103 m/s. Estimate the molar mass of a gas whose molecules have an
average velocity of 311 m/s.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
1840 / 311 = [x / 2.02]
Divide, square both sides, multiply by 2.02

x = 70.7 g/mol
Although the question does not ask for the identity of the gas, we could identify it
tentatively (based on just the data we have) as Cl 2. The molecular weight for chlorine
gas is 70.9 g/mol.

Problem #16: An unknown gas effuses 1.66 times more rapidly than CO 2. What is the
molar mass of the unknown gas.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
1 / 1.66 = [x / 44.01]
Divide, square both sides, multiply by 44.01
x = 16.0 g/mol
Although the question does not ask for the identity of the gas, we could identify it
tentatively (based on just the data we have) as CH 4. The molecular weight for methane
gas is 16.043 g/mol.

Problem #17: A sample of hydrogen gas effuse through a porous container 9 times
faster than an unknown gas. Estimate the molar mass of the unknown gas.
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
9 / 1 = [x / 2.02]
x = 163.62 g/mol
I always try and set up these problems so that the x is in the numerator of the righthand side of the equation. Makes for a slightly easier solution path.
Sorry. I don't know what compound this gas is.

Problem #18: N2 is contaminated with a noble gas.The contaminant effuses at 1.87x

N2. What is the noble gas?
Solution:
r1/r2 = [MM2/MM1]
r1 = N 2 = 1
r2 = unk gas = 1.87
1/1.87 = [x/28.0]
x = 8.00
Comment on this problem:
No noble gas has molar mass = 8.00
However, He = 4.00, so perhaps the desired answer is He 2, which does not exist.
The ChemTeam's personal opinion is that the writer (NOT the ChemTeam!) used 14.0
rather than 28.0 in designing the problem. Using 14.0 gives an answer of 4.00, the
atomic weight of He.

Problem #19: In an effusion experiment, it was determined that nitrogen gas, N 2,

effused at a rate 1.812 times faster than an unknown gas. What is the molar mass of
the unknown gas?
Solution:
(r1/r2)2 = MM2/MM1
Notice the slightly different formulation of Graham's Law.
r1 = N2 = 1.812
r2 = unk gas = 1
(1.812/1)2 = (x/28.014]
x = 91.98 g/mol

Problem #20: Why are the rates of diffusion of nitrogen gas and carbon monoxide
almost identical at the same temperature?
Solution:
1) The speed of a gas is given by:
v = (3RT/M)
where M is the molecular weight of the gas in kg/mol.
2) The molecular weights are:
N2 = 0.028014 kg/mol
CO = 0.028010 kg/mol
Without solving the formula for the speeds, you should be able to see that the speeds
will be nearly identical. Two values (R and T) are going to be same for each gas and
the values for M are very nearly the same.
The diffusion rates for nitrogen gas and carbon monoxide gas are very nearly the same
at the same temperature because the two substances have very nearly the same
molecular weights.

Problem #21: In running a diffusion experiment, ammonia is found to diffuse 30.0

cm during the time hydrogen chloride moves 20.0 cm. Calculate the percentage
deviation from Graham's Law.
Solution:
The experimentally determined ratio 30.0/20.0 is 1.50.
1) What ratio is predicted by Graham's Law:
r1 = NH3 = x
r2 = HCl = 1
MM1 = 17.0307 g/mol
MM2 = 36.4609 g/mol

x / 1 = [36.4609 / 17.0307]
x = 1.463
Ammonia diffuses 1.463 times faster than HCl.
2) Percent deviation is:
(1.50 - 1.463) / 1.50 = 2.47%
Problem #22: A sample of Br2(g) take 10.0 min to effuse through a membrane. How
long would it take the same number of moles of Ar(g) to effuse through the same
membrane?
Solution:
Let us assume that 1.00 mole of Br2 effuses. Therefore, its rate is 1.00 mol / 10.0 min
= 0.100 mol/min
r1 = x
r2 = 0.100 mol/min
MM1 = 39.948 g/mol
MM2 = 159.808 g/mol
x/0.100 = [159.808/39.948]
x/0.100 = 2.00
x = 0.200 mol/min
1.00 mole of Ar effuses in 5.00 minutes

Problem #23: At a particular pressure and temperature, it takes just 8.256 min for a
4.893 L sample of Ne to effuse through a porous membrane. How long would it take
for the same volume of I2 to effuse under the same conditions?
Solution:

r1 = x
r2 = 4.893/8.256 = 0.59266 L/min
MM1 = 253.8 g/mol
MM2 = 20.18 g/mol
x / 0.59266 = [20.18 / 253.6]
x / 0.59266 = 0.2821
x = 0.16719 L/min
4.893 L / 0.16719 L/min = 29.27 min

Problem #24: How much faster does U235F6 effuse than U238F6?
Solution:
1) Calculate molecular weights:
U235F6 = 235.04393 + 6(18.99840) = 349.03433
U238F6 = 238.05079 + 6(18.99840) = 352.04119
2) U238F6 is heavier, so:
assign its rate to r2 and set the rate equal to 1
3) Solve Graham's Law:
r1 / r2 = [MM2 / MM1]
x / 1 = (352.04119 / 349.03433)
x = 1.0043
U235F6 effuses 1.0043 times faster than U238F6

Problem #25: O3 effuses 0.8165 times as fast as O2. What % of the molecules
effusing first would be O2?

Solution:
The rate of effusion of O2 is 1.225 times faster than O3, which means that every
second there will be 1225 molecules of O 2 effusing for every 1000 molecules of O3.
Therefore, the percentage of O2molecules is:
[1225 / (1225 + 1000)] x 100 = 55%