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3. Barometric Leveling
The barometer, is an instrument that measure air pressure, can also be used
to find relative elevations of points on the Earths surface since a change of
approximately 1000 ft in elevation will correspond to a change of about 1 in.
of mercury (Hg) in atmospheric pressure. Air pressures are affected by
circumstances other than difference in elevation, such as sudden shifts in
temperature and changing weather conditions due to storms. Also, during
each day a normal variation in barometric pressure amounting to perhaps a
100-ft difference in elevation occurs.
In barometric leveling, various techniques can be used to obtain correct
elevation differences in site of pressure changes that result from weather
variations. In one of these, a control barometer remains on a benchmark
(base) while a roving instrument is taken to points whose elevations are
desired. Readings are made on the base at stated intervals of time, perhaps
every 10 min, and the elevation recorded along with temperature and time.
Elevation, temperature, and time readings with the roving barometer are
taken at critical points and adjusted later in accordance with changes observe
at the control point.
4. Trigonometric Leveling
The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by
measuring (1) the inclined or horizontal distance between them and (2) the
zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the other. Thus in the
figure shown below, if the slope distance S and the zenith angle (z) or altitude
angle between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation difference
between C and D, is:
V = s*cos z
V = s*sin
Example:
Sample:
Dumpy Levels
Tilting Levels
Automatic Levels
Digital Levels
Tilting Levels
Tilting levels are use for the most precise work. With these instruments, quick
approximate leveling is achieved using a circular vial and the leveling screws.
Precise level in preparation for readings is then obtained by carefully centering a
telescope bubble. This is done for each sight, after aiming at the rod, by tilting or
rotating the telescope slightly in a vertical plane about a fulcrum at the vertical axis
of the instrument. A micrometer screw under the eyepiece controls this movement.
The tilting feature saves time and increases accuracy, since only one screw need be
manipulated to keep the line of sight horizontal as the telescope is turned about a
vertical axis. The telescope bubble is viewed through a system of prisms from the
observers normal position behind the eyepiece. A prism arrangement splits the
bubble image into two parts. Centering the bubble is accomplished by making the
image of the two ends coincides.
Automatic Levels
Automatic levels of the incorporate a self leveling feature. Most of these
instruments have a three screw leveling head, which is used to quickly center a
bulls-eye bubble, although some models have a ball-and-socket arrangement for
this purpose. After the bulls-eye bubble is centered manually, an automatic
compensator takes over, levels the line of sight, and keeps it level. Automatic levels
have become popular for general use because of the ease and rapidity of their
operation.
Digital Levels
Digital levels are classified in the automatic category because it uses a pendulum
compensator to level itself, after an operator accomplishes rough leveling with a
circular bubble. With its telescope and crosshairs, the instrument could be used to
obtain readings manually, just like any of the automatic levels. However, this
instrument is designed to operate by employing electronic digital image processing.
After leveling the instrument, its telescope is turned toward a special bar-coded rod
and focused. At the press of a button, the image of bar codes in the telescopes field
of view is captured and processed. This processing consists of an onboard computer
comparing the captured image to the rods entire pattern, which is stored in
memory. When match is found, which takes about 4 seconds, the rod readings is
displayed digitally. It can be recorded manually or automatically stored in the
instruments data collector.
The instruments maximum range is approximately 100-m, and its accuracy in rod
readings is 0.5mm. The bar-coded rods can be obtained with English or metric
graduations on the side opposite the bar code.
Tripods
Leveling instruments, whether tilting, automatic, or digital, are all mounted on
tripods. A sturdy tripod in good condition is essential to obtain accurate results.
Several types are available. The legs are made of wood or metal, may be fixed or
adjustable in length, and solid or split. An adjustable leg tripod is advantageous for
setups in rough terrain or in a shop, but the type with fixed-length leg may be
slightly more rigid.
Level Rods
A variety of rods are available, some of which are shown below. They are made of
wood, fiberglass, or metal and have graduations in feet and decimals, or meters and
decimals.
As shown in the figure, four instrument setups were required to complete half of th
circuit (the run from BM Mil to BM Oak). Field notes for this exampleare shown on
the next figure. As illustrated in this figure, tabular form of fieldnotes is used
fordifferential leveling, and the addition and subtraction to compute HIs and
elevations is done directly in the notes. These notes also show the data for the
return run from BM Oak back to BM Mil to complete the circuit. It is important in
differential leveling to run closed circuits so that the accuracy of the work can be
checked.
As noted, the intermediate points upon which the rod is held in running a differential
leveling circuit are called turning points (TPs). Two rod readings are taken on each, a
foresight followed by a back sight. Turning points should be solid objects with a
definite high point. Steel turning pins and railroad spikes driven into firm ground
make excellent turning points when permanent objects are no conveniently
available.
In differential leveling, horizontal lengths for back sight and fore sights should be
made about equal. This can be done by pacing, taping or stadia measurements.
Turning points are also numbered consecutively but not described in detail, since
they are merely a means to an end and usually will not have to be relocated.
However, if possible, it is advisable to select turning points that can be relocated, so
if reruns on long lines are necessary because of blunders, fieldwork can be reduced.
Before a party leaves the field, all possible note checks must be made to detect any
mistakes in arithmetic and verify achievement of an acceptable closure. The
algebraic sum of the back sights and foresights applied to the first elevation should
give the last elevation. This computation checks the addition and subtraction for all
HIs and turning points unless compensating mistakes have been made. In the notes
above, note that the page check is secured by adding the sum of back sights, 40.24,
to starting elevation 2053.18, and then subtracting the sum of foresights, 40.21, to
obtain 2053.21, which checks the last elevation.
As previously noted, leveling should always be checked by running closed circuits or
loops. This can be done either by retuning to the starting benchmark, as
demonstrated in the field notes above, or by ending the circuit at another
benchmark of equal or higher reliability. The final elevation should agree with the
starting elevation if returning to the initial benchmark. The amount by which they
differ is the loop misclosure. Note that n the field notes, a loop misclosure of 0.03 ft
was obtained.
Note that in running a level circuit between benchmarks, a new instrument setup
has to be made before starting the return run to get a complete check.
Precision:
Precision in leveling is increased by repeating observations, making frequent ties to
established benchmarks, using high quality equipment, keeping it in good
adjustment, and performing the measurement process carefully. However, no
matter how carefully the work is executed, errors will exist and will be evident in the
form of misclosures. To determine whether or not work is acceptable, misclosures
are computed with permissible values on the basis of either number of setups or
distance covered. Various organization set precision standards based on their
project requirements. For example, on a simple construction survey, an allowable
misclosure of C = 0.02ft n might be used, where n is the number of setups.
The Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (FGCS) recommends the following
formula to compute allowable misclosures:
C = m K
C
Sample Problem 1:
From the given data of a differential leveling as shown in the tabulation:
Station
Back
Sight
Foresight
(FS)
Elevation
(m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
(BS),
5.87 m
7.03 m
3.48 m
7.25 m
10.19 m
9.29 m
392.25
6.29
6.25
7.08
5.57
4.45
4.94
m
m
m
m
m
m
corrected
corrected
c. Compute
the
elevation of TP3.
d.
e.
corrected
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
v.
w.
x. Double-Rodded Differential Leveling
y. Double-rodded lines of levels are sometimes used on important work. In this
procedure, back sights and foresights are taken on two turning points, using
two rods from each setup, and the reading carried separate note form
columns. A check on each instrument setup is obtained if the HI agrees for
both lines. This same result can be accomplished using just one set of turning
points, and reading both sides of a single rod that has two faces, that is, one
side in feet and the other in meters. These rods are often used in precise
leveling.
z. Reciprocal Leveling
aa.Sometimes in leveling across topographic features such as rivers, it is difficult
or impossible to keep back sights and fore sights short and equal. Reciprocal
Leveling may be utilized at such locations.
ab.
ac. As shown in the figure, a level is set up on one side of a river at X, near A,
and rod readings are taken on points A and B. Since XB is very long, several
readings are taken for averaging. Reading, turning the leveling screws to
throw the instrument out of level, releveling, and reading again, does this.
The process is repeated two, three, four or more times. Then the instrument
is moved close to Y and the same procedure is followed.
ad.
ae.
af.
ag.
ah.
ai.
aj.
ak. Sample Problem 3:
al. A Reciprocal leveling is observed across a wide river and the reciprocal level
readings were taken between points A and B as follows. With instrument set
up near A, the rod readings on A are 2.283 m and 2.285 m. The reciprocal
level readings on the opposite side of the river at point B are 3.618, 3.619,
3.621 and 3.622 m. With the instrument set up near B the rod readings on B
are 4.478m and 4.476 m, and the rod readings on the on the opposite side of
the river at point A, the rod readings are 3.143, 3.140, 3.146 and 3.144.
a. Compute the difference in elevation between A and B with the instrument set
up near A.
b. What is the true difference in elevation between A and B?
c. If the elevation A is 300 m, what is the elevation of B?
am.
an.
ao.
ap.
aq.
ar.
as.
at.
au.
av.
aw.
ax.
ay.
az.
ba.
bb.
bc.
bd.
be.
bf.
bg.
Three-Wire Leveling
bh.As implied by its name, three-wire leveling consists in making rod reading on
the upper, middle, and lower crosshairs. Formerly it was used mainly for
precise work, but it can be used on project requiring only ordinary precision.
This method has the following advantages:
a. Providing checks against rod readings are available
b. Producing accuracy because averages of three readings are available
c. Furnishing stadia measurement of sight lengths to assist in balancing
backsight and foresight distances.
bi. In three-wire procedure the difference between the upper and middle
readings is compared with that between the middle and lower values. They
must agree within one or two of the smallest units being recorded (usually
0.1 or 0.2 of the least count of the rod graduations); otherwise the readings
are repeated. An average of three readings is used as a computational check
against the middle wire. As noted in the stadia surveying method, the
difference between the upper and lower readings multiplied by the
instrument stadia interval factor gives the sight distances. In leveling, the
distances are often not important. What is important is that the sum of the
back sights is about equal to the sum of the foresights, which eliminate errors
due to curvature, refraction, and collimination errors.
bj.
bk.
bl.
bm.
A sample set of field notes for three-wire method is presented in the
figure above. Back sight readings on BM A of 0.718, 0.633, and 0.550 n taken
on the upper, middle, and lower wires, respectively, give upper and lower
differences (multiplied by 100) of 8.5 and 8.3 m, which agree within
acceptable tolerances. Stadia measurement of the back sight length (the sum
of the upper and lower differences) is 16. 8 m. The average of three back
sight readings on BMA, 0.6337 m, agrees within 0.0007 m of the middle
reading. The stadia foresight length of 15.9 m at this setup is within 0.9 m of
the backsight length, and is satisfactory. The HI (104.4769 m) for the first
setup is found by adding the backsight reading to the elevation of BM A.
Subtracting the foresight reading on TP1 gives its elevation (103.4256 m).
This process is repeated for each setup.
bn.
bo.
bp.
Profile leveling
repeated
until
the
profile
is
completed.
by.
bz.
ca.
cb.
Whether the stationing is in feet or meters, intermediate sights are
usually taken at all full stations. If stationing is in feet and the survey area is
in rugged terrain or in an urban area, the specifications may require that
readings also be taken at half- or even quarter-stations. If stationing is in
meters, depending on conditions, intermediate sights may be taken at 40-,
30-, 20-, or 10-m increments. In any case, sights are also taken at high and
low points along the alignment, as well as at changes in slope.
cc.
Intermediate sights should always be taken on critical points such as
railroad tracks, highway centerlines, gutters, and drainage ditches. As
presented in data above, rod readings are normally only taken to the nearest
0.1 ft (English system) or nearest cm (metric system) where the rod is held
on the ground, but on critical points, and for all back sights and foresights
taken on turning points and benchmarks, the reading recorded to the nearest
hundredth of a foot (English) or the nearest mm (metric).
cd.
In profile leveling, length of intermediate foresights varies, and in
general they will not equal the back sight length. Thus errors due to an
inclined line of sight and to curvature and refraction will occur. Because errors
from these sources increase with increasing sight lengths, on important work
the instruments condition of adjustment should be checked, and excessively
long intermediate foresight distances should be avoided.
ce.
Instruments heights (His) and elevations of all turning points are
computed immediately after each back sight and foresight. However,
elevations for intermediate foresights are not computed until after the circuit
is closed on either the initial benchmark or another. Then the circuit
misclosure is computed, and if acceptable, an adjustment is made and
elevations of intermediate points are calculated. The procedure is described
in the following subsection.
cf.
As in differential leveling, the page check should be made for each lefthand sheet. However in profile leveling, intermediate foresights play no part
in this computation. As illustrated in the data, the page check is made by
adding the algebraic sum of the column of back sights and the column of the
foresights to the beginning elevation. This should equal the last elevation
tabulated on the page either a turning point or the ending benchmark if that
is the case, as it in the example on the shown data.
c. Drawing and using the Profile
cg.
Prior to the drawing the profile, it is first necessary to compute
elevations along the reference line from the field notes. However, this cannot
be done until an adjustment has been made to distribute any misclosure in
the level circuit. In the adjustment process, HIs are adjusted, because they
will affect computed profile elevations. The adjustment is made progressively
in proportion to the total number of HIs in the circuit. The procedure
illustrates in the data shown, where the misclosure was 0.03 ft. Since there
were three HIs, the correction applied to each is -0.03/3 = -0.01 ft per HI.
Thus correction of 0.01 was applied to the first HI, -0.02 ft to the second, and
0.03 ft to the third. Adjusted HIs are shown in the data above in parenthesis
above their unadjusted values. It is necessary to correct turning point
elevations since there are of no consequence. After adjusting the HIs, profile
elevations are computed by subtracting intermediate fore sights from their
corresponding adjusted HIs. The profile is then drawn by plotting elevations
on the ordinate versus their corresponding stations on the abscissa. By
connecting adjacent plotted points, the profile is realized.
ch.
ci.
cj.
In drawing profiles, the vertical scale
is generally exaggerated with respect to the horizontal scale to make
differences in elevation more pronounced. A ratio of 10:1 is frequently used,
but flatness or roughness of the terrain determines the desirable proportions.
Thus, for a horizontal scale of 1 in = 100 ft, the vertical scale might be 1 in. =
10 ft. The scale actually employed should be plainly marked.
ck.
purposes, such as:
Sample Problem:
cq.
The figure below shows a schematic arrangement of a profile level
route from BM1 and BM2. The values indicated represent backsight, foresight,
and intermediate foresight reading taken on stations along the route.
Elevation of BM1 = 328.07 m.
a. Find the difference in elevation between stations 5 and 9.
b. Find the elevation of TP2.
c. Find the elevation of BM2.
cr.
cs.
ct.
cu.
cv.
cw.
cx.
cy.
cz.
da.
db.
dc.
dd.
de.