A.F.T.E.S. WORKING GROUP N° 7 SUPPORT AND LINING Recommandations on the use of arches in the construction of underground works Brapared by P.Gesta, chairman, assisted by 1.1. — Object of recommendations 41.2. — Definition of arch ground support 1.3. — The various functions of archos 14. — Matching of type of arch to method of execution ot wor 2. — DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF ARCH AND THEIR USE 2.1. — Wooden arches 2.2. — Heavy metal arches: 2.2.1. — Single shapes 22.2. — Paired shapes 223, — Lattice arches 2.24. — Telescoping arches 2.3,— Lightweight metal arches 253.1. — Sliding arches 2.3.1.1.— The sliding arch as protection 2.3,1.2.— The sliding arch as 2.3.2: — Arches made of lightweight shapes or rails 2.3.3. — Arches made of folded sheet or sheet framing 2.4. — Conerete arché 24.1. — Arches with reticulated reinforcements 2:42, — Precast reinforced-concrete arches 2.5. — Design of archos 3. — ARRANGEMENTS COMPLETING ARCH GROUND ‘SUPPORT 3.1. — Sheeting and forepoting 3.1.1. — Wooden sheeting and Yerepoling 3.12 — Metalic sneeting 3.1.2.1. — Folded sheet ining panets MM. COSTE DAVID FOURNIER, ‘GODARD GUELLEC KONGRAD LEGRAND. LesoT MAGNAS MALCOR, NELVA FOCHET 1. ~ GENERAL, DEFINITIONS. 3.1.2.2, — Longitudinal support shapes 3.1.2.3. — Assembled metalic panels 3.1.24. — Sheet framing 3.1.3. — Metallic orepoting 3.1.4. — Probored tubos 3.2, — Foot bearing devices 3.2.1, — Fined bearings (columns, feet, footings) 3.2.2. — Expanding bearings 3.3. — Bracing of arches 3.4. — Devices for blocking to ground 9.4.1. — Wooden or metaiic shims 3.4.2, — Prepackad concrete or dry-stone masonry 3.4.3. — Expanding shims 4. — USE OF SLIDING ARCHES IN CONJUNCTION WITH ‘SHOTCRETE AND ROCK BOLTS (chapter written jointly by Working groups re 6 and 7) 4.1. — Positions of archos 4.2. —Cholee of type of arch Joining of arches with bolts —Contact of arches with crown 47. —Shoterete 4.8. — Stages of work 5. — CONCLUSION — Essential conditions of placomont — Criteria of choice of support by arches 1. — GENERAL, DEFINITIONS 1.1. — Object of recommendations In the “Recommendations concorning the choice of type ‘of support in tunnels", published by tho AFTES in issue n° 1 (January-February 1974) of the magazine Tunnels et ‘Ouvrages Souterrains, there was a list of the main types ‘of support and criteria for choosing among them were stated. ‘The present recommendations apply more particularly to arches ; they describe the main types and state more precisely the conditions and criteria of their use. 1.2, — Definition of arch ground support {n spite of the great variaty of support devices that can be classified as arches, thelr common feature is that they are frameworks in the form of afcs or portals, placed pa- rallel to the cross-section of the work with their chords along the walls of the excavation, with blocking to the ‘ground either directly or via a “skin” or sheeting that com= pletely or partially masks the wall. ‘They are generally made up of elements that are relati- vely rigid for their size, while the junctions between the ‘eloments are more or lass rigid according te the purpose and function of the support. 123Used alone, they generally constitute a discontinuous: support formed of supporting rings that may be more or less widely spaced but do not touch one another. Finally, by comparison with such other systems as rock bolts or shotcrete, they are distinguished by thelr relative independence of the surrouncing ground, which they are applied against but rigidly anchored to. ‘They may be used alone or in association with other de- vices (sheeting, rock bolts, shotcrete, wire mesh, etc.). ‘Tho shapes of the parts making them up, which may be ‘made of wood, metal, or concrete, match the profile of the work as closely as possible. Thus, ifthe profile is cur- vod and the structure is made of metallic shapes, these are generally bent to match the exact shape of the pro- file. the term arch designates any rigid, discontinuous ‘supporting structure placed along the wall of the under- ‘ground work, whatever its shape or the material of which itis made. This definition excludes, in particular, all supporting d vices based on segments or assembled metallic panels, which fail to satisty the criterion of discontinuity ; these 419 accordingly not covered by the prosent recommenda: tions. Arches may cover only a part of the profile of a tunnel (only the crown and the side walle) or all of it (closed or braced arches for tunnels having a circular cross-sec- tion}. In the former case, they must have bearings ca- ppable of distributing the loads transmitted to their ends in the ground without excessive deformation. 1.3. — The various functions of arches Arches may be used to perform diferent functions, for which their working conditions are different and so re- quire differents characteristics, Itis therefore important, before choosing a type of arch, to define precisely the function it will be required to per- form. For a new work to be built, wo cases may be distingui- she — Either the sole purpose is to protect from isolated fal- ting rock blocks, without attempting to prevent the ‘convergence of the section. This case generally arises in ground that, while fractured, has geotechnical properties, Sufficient to Keep deformations small. The arches are then ‘protecting’. They are intended to provide temporary protection of the personnel and play only @ secondary Tole in supporting the surrounding ground. In this case, they are used alone or with localized sheeting ; — Or else the purpose is also to retard deformation and the convergence of the walls before the placement of the definitive lining. The arches are then “supporting” be- ‘cause they, in fact, support a more or less substantial fraction of the ground stabilization prassure. In this cate- gory a distinction is made betwoon heavy arches with rigid joints that bear a larger load and limit the geomet cal deformations of the section and lightweight arches that allow larger deformations but need take out only limi- ted forces. For an old work that is to be consolidated or restored, tho arches must generally be able to preserve the geo- metry ot the work rigorously, by dearing, in conjunction with that work, the whole of the ground stabilization pres- sures. They must also satisty size requirements, so that the minimum ciearances can be left inside the works to allow normal operation. We shall call these arches “rein- forcing” arches. | 1.4. — Matching of type of arch to method of exe- cutlon of work Whatever their function, arches must be chosen so as to be compatible, in size and in delivery and placement constraints, with tha conditions of execution of the earth- work and construction of any lining. It is for this reason that wood, once used almost syste- ‘matically when excavation and the placement of the ma- ssonry lining were done by hand, has very broadly given way to metal as the operations of excavation, mucking, and concreting have become mechanized. This is be- ‘cause mechanization brought with it the need for types of ‘support capable both of leaving ever larger cloar spaces tor equipment and of allowing placement operations to be made more systematic and so progress regularly and keep pace with excavation, lt, on the other hand, because of the nature of the work, the methods of execution chosen are purely manual, wood may reasonably be preferred for its ease of place- ment without machinery and its great flexibility in adap- ting to the graune. Similarly, when, for example, a shield must be used for ‘excavating, the support (or the lining) used with it must generally be designed so as to be able to withstand the longitudinal forces resulting from the thrust of the shield as itis driven forward, These few examples show that the choice of a type of arch and, more generally of a type of support, cannot be ‘made independently of the choice of excavation method. Inthe end, it is the combination of these choices that de- termines, for-a given ground, the rates of advance and thus the cost of the works. 2. — DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF ARCH ‘AND THEIR USE Independentty of their conditions of use, a large number of different catagories of arches can be distinguished ac- cording to the type of material of which they are made (wood, metal, or, more rarely, concrete) or how thoir component elements are assembled. Most of these arches may be used as protection, as sup- port, or as reinforcement depending on the type of ‘ground and the size of the work. The information about this subject in the description that follows should be re- garded as providing only the most general guidance, since many technical and economic considerations ne- ‘cessarily affect the precise type of arch chosen in any particular case. 2.1. — Wooden arches Wooden arches are rarely used today because they ara bulky, stand up poorly in a damp atmosphere, are difficult to place, and require highly skilled and highly specialized manpower. Because of the risk of rot, they must be ramo- ved before the permanent lining is placed. But they have the advantage of being easy to adapt to different types of section and of making it possible to judge, ong before failure, the intensity of the forces transmitted by the ground (by their characteristic cracking or the type of ‘Sound they produca when hammered). They are aiso well suited to supporting unstable ground, because they can be placed immadiately aftar any of the stages of excava-tion, however divided (pushing, placement of felse beams or false frames, etc.). And so their use may be indicated : — In exploratory headings ; — In works having a section that is irregular or changes at shor intervals, cavities of small volume executed in oi vided sections, underpinning, et. ; = It highly unstable ground roquiring immediate action is encountered unexpoctodly ; — OF as temporary reinforcement for an existing work. They are generally made of logs and consist of — Either simple frames (two vertical posts anc a lintel or cap) braced by longitudinal members, in tunnels having very small cross-sectional areas (less than 6 m2) — Or a veritable tramework of assembled ribs, possibly supported by intermediate props in the case of works more than 3 m wide. When complete or partial sheeting of the ground is ne- cossary, it takes the form of wooden boards wedged be hind the arches, placed either behind the advance or by forepoling, 2.2, — Heavy metal arches These are generally used as supporting or reinforcing arches. Because of their inertia, they can, in most cases, if correctly supported and blocked, delay and limit defor- mations of the surrounding ground. The supporting pres- sure they develop in contact with the ground, which de- ends on the conditions of advance-and the time that lapses between their placement and that of lining, can in some cases stabilize the surrounding ground. Because of their very resistance to deformation, some shapes are tiable to sudden failure if the pressure exer- ted by the blocked deformation of the ground exceeds ‘the strength of the arch. This may occur in particular in large underground works under deep overburden. Subject to this reservation, they may be used where: maintaining the geometry of the section is essential or where the extent of the zone of decompressed ground ound the tunnel must be very strictly limited (urban tun- Nols under shallow overburden). They must be engineered for the maximum pressures of stabilization of the surrounding ground. When complete or partial sheeting of the surrounding ‘ground is necessary, it may be implemented using folded sheet-metal planks, which may or may not be perforated land may or may not touch one another, placed elther be- hind the advance or by forepoling, Distinctions are made among single or paired shapes, lattice arches, and telescoping arches. 2.2.1. — Single shapes « Generally, standard commercial shapes are used, IPN or IPE or, more commonly, HEA or HEB. They may be ei ther bent to match the theoratical profile of the crown or assembled in straight longths forming a polygonal line lying inside the profile. The local bending forces in the chords are obviously greater in the latter case and the design must take these secondary forces into account, Each arch consists of several elements, from two to about ten according to the size of the tunnei. The sizes of the arch elements are determined according to the maxi- ‘mum gauge for transport in the tunnel and the maximum tunit weights compatible with the handling and piacement equipment. In the case of underground works having a medium-sized to large cross-sectional area (greater than 30 m2}, it is, often best, especially if the earthworks are done in seve- © Dota of assembly by shpates Figure 1 Arches made of single shapes ral phases, first to place a central capping resting on ‘temporary load-bearing members (hydraulic props may be used) ; the other arch elements are then placed as the side drifts advance. in a large section, temporary support may also be provided by short anchored bolts placed on. either side of the arch. The elements of a given arch are assembled by bolting Using plates welded to the ends of each element or by fish: plating of the webs. For reasons of handling and working, the shapes used rarely exceed 220 mm. 2.2.2. — Paired shapes ‘When it is desired to increase the inertia of the arches ‘while limiting the height of the profile, paired shapes may 15‘be used, generally two IPN or IPE shapes placed a short distance apart (10 to 20 cm) and joined using either flats welded to the top and bottom flanges or identical shapes welded transversely to form bracas. The spacing of the flats or braces depends on the forces to be borne. It is generally of the ordar of 0,50 to 1m, The shapes may ‘also be placed side by side and assembled by welding the flanges to form a veritable box girder. ‘Assembly plates also help to link the two shapes to which they are welded. Tne division of the arches into elementary lengths and the methods of placing them are similar to those for single shapes. I hydraulic props are used for temporary support, a spe- cial bearing must be placed between the arch and the prop to centre the thrust perfectly and avoid twisting the arch, Paired shapes have the advantage of good transverse 1i- Gidity, making them more resistant to buckling and to biast affects 223. — Lattice arches ‘Arches with a high inertia can also be obtained without too much increase of weight by using lattice arches. ‘There are many types of lattice arch made from commer- cially available shapes. One of the commonest consists of two U-shaped ribs bent to the radius of the crown and. joined by welded angle shapes placed diagonally as shown in figure 3, Each arch consists of saveral elementary lengths, Tho devices joining the elements and the invert bearings consist of wolded plates assembled by bolting. Lattice arches, which are expensive because of the ‘considerable fabrication thay require, are used preferably in underground words having large sections. 2.2.4. — Telescoping arches When the site is so organized that the permanent ‘concrete lining is placed as excavation proceeds, at a roughly constant distance behind the face, and when the arches can be removed and recovered before concreting, it may be economically advantageous to use a small number of arches designed to cut the time and cost of their placement and removal to a minimum. This is the ‘purpose of “tolescoping" arches, which generally have {wo or three hinges to facilitate transport through the ‘other arches already in place to the face. Once they are in piace, the hinges are locked to ensure the continuity of Figure 5 128Figure 6 Example of use of sliding arches the arch. In the case of tunnels having large sections, all ‘of these operations can be mechanized through the uso ‘of an arch removal and transport gantry and foot jacks fa- cilitating the blocking of the bearings. It the quality of the ground requires, such arches may be used in conjunction with a systam of sheeting by motallic "lances" on the perimeter that oear against the arch and are driven into the ground, ° s excavation proceeds, by a serie of hydraulic or mant al jacks that also bear against the arches. This assembly, which in fact constitutes a sor. ‘of walking shield, is used in very poor ground and may be tollowed either by the concreting of a lining ring or by the placement of support by assembled metalic plates. 2.3, — Lightweight motal arches These arches have a limited bearing capacity and are highly deformable. They are much easier to handle than rigid arches and can be used either for protection only or actually to support the ground. ‘As in the case of heavy arches, the ground may be shee- ted with wooden planks, folded sheet-metal panels, or welded wire mash ; but lightweight metal arches can also be combined with the use of shotcrete, with which thoy are perfectly compatible precisely because of their floxi- bility. The types of lightweight metal arches include sliding archos, lightwoight shapes, and folded shoet-metal arches or sheet framing, 2.8.1. — Sliding arches In the case of sliding arches, deformability results from the way the elements of a given arch are assembled, which allows controlled sliding of the metallic shapes against one another. In the commonest types, the shapes are placed with an overlap of about forty centimetres and. clamped by two yokes or guides rings. The rasistance 10 slippage depends on how tight the yokes are. When the normal forces on the arch are greater than this resis- tance, sliding occurs, allowing a slight exoansion of the ‘ground accompanied by a reduction of the force on the arch. If the behaviour of the ground is elastic, stabiliza- tion may occur rapidly. If the characteristics of the ground. (constitutive law and geostatic stresses) are such that the maximum supporting pressure the arch can exert is not enough to ensure stability, the movement will cont nue in a serie of slippages. The amplitude and frequency of these movements depend on the characteristics of the arch and of the ground. In this case, the convergence of the walls of the tunnel Is merely slowed. aso by rg wa incon ‘Sooners “jee Oo 5 Figure 7 ‘Siding arches (TH type) ‘The type and spacing of the archas must be chosen so. that tho movement is slowed enough for convergence not to exceed the maximum admissible values in the time between excavation and permanent lining, ‘The shape most often used is a flared U. It has a greater transverse inertia for a given weight than the usual stan- ‘dard shapes and the same inertia with respect to longitu- dinal bending. There are several types, in weights from 10 to 50 kaye. Sliding arches are widely used both for protection and for ‘support. 2.3.1.1. — The sliding arch as protection ‘This applies to works excavated in relatively sound ‘ground (more or less fractured rocky ground) when the conditions are such that the stability of the walis can be obtained either naturally or at a low support pressure — in any case a pressure substantially lower than the bea- ring capacity of the arches for the section in question. 17In this case, the basic role of the arch is to protect against superficial damage to the rock. Gonerally, arches having a small to medium modulus.(10 to 90 kgim) are used in conjunction with wire netting or welded wire mesh applied against the wall. The arches are in several parts (2, 3, or § for horseshoe sections, 4 10 6 for closed circular sections). The feet of horseshoe arches may be fixed in the ground. ‘or rest on load-sproading footings. 2.3.1.2. — The sliding arch as support ‘The arch here acts as a load-bearing element to slow the deformation of the ground and the convergence of the tunnel walls It may be used either alone or in conjunction with wire netting, welded wire mesh, metal plates, or wooden planks, The conditions of use are then similar to those of the pre- vious case, but the modulus of the arches (20 to 50 kg/m) must be adapted to the size of the tunnel and the condition of the ground, This type of support is best suited to tunnals that have ‘small or medium-sized cross-sectional areas. Tha sliding arch is also used more and more often in conjunction with shotcrete and bolting. This composite assembly, in fact, constitutes with the ground itself the load-bearing element that will ensure the temporary or ‘even the permanent stabilty of the excavation, ‘The special conditions of use of arches in this case will ‘be mentioned in Chapter iV. 2.3.2. — Arches made of lightweight shapes or rails While not including any particular force-limiting arcange- ‘ments, some arches made of single shapes may be clas- sified as lightweight arches because of their low relative inertia. This is the case of some shapes, such as channels from 410 to 20 kg/m and recycled rails, ‘They are bont in a single piece for tunnel having a small cross-sectional area (less than 15 m2) or in several parts, assembled by fish-plates, for tunnels having a medium ‘cross-sectional area (15 to 35 m®). They are raraly used aline for tunnels having a large cross-sectional aroa. 2.3.3. — Arches made of folded sheet or sheet fra- ming ‘These elements, made of sheet metal ribbed ans folded ‘cold, are thin (2 to 4 mm) and light (5 to 10 kg/m). They are similar to those used for shaeting plaks but are pla- ‘ced across the tunnel and are in this case curved to the radius of excavation and bolted togathar. They may be installed either as independent rings, in which case their spacing depends on the stabiity of the ground, or closely spaced or touching, if the ground is systematically fractured. ‘They may be used alone simply to protect against spaling or isolated falls of rook-blocks, but may also contribute 10 ‘actual support when they are blocked to the ground by a packing of concrete cast in place or of rocky fil. ‘Shoot framing is well suited to tunnels having medium cross-sectional areas (15 to 36 m:). For small cross-sectional areas, the sheet becomes diti- ‘cult to shape ifthe radius of the crown is less than 1,50 m, Figure 8 Example of use of sheet framing 2.4. — Concrete arches Referring to the definition of arches as given in § 1.2 (dis continuous rigid elements placed crosswise to the tun= nel), we find that concrete is rarely used in this form for suppor. It fe used, in most cases, in a continuous support that aiso sheets the ground, whether the concrete is sprayed, formed, or precast. ‘There are however two types of application of concrete that may be regarded as arches : reticulated arches and Precast arches, which may be used for suppor or reinfor- ‘cement. 2.4.1. — Arches with reticulated reinforcements ‘While the term “reticulated” applies to a metallic structure made of round bars, these arches may be regarded as 128‘continement pressure (in T0-1 MPa = bare) Caregary of ground RA —(oLTOS.0 3) EY -} 140 E160 (240) dosignats a curve giving the permissive confinomontprsure for an HEB 140 arch placed contac with ground having in modkdus E of 160 bars (i te arches. af placed every 1.20) oF 240 bars the arenes are paced every 0.0). Figure 102 Design of single-shape arches concrete arches because this structure is never used alone but only to reinforce a concrete arch. These arches, made with round reinforcing bars, are si- mmilar in structure to the reinforcement of a beam in which the longitudinal bars are bent to the shape of the excava~ tion. The cross section of these elements is generally tr- angular and trom 15 to 90 cm on a side. The frames joining the bars are either welded or tied to the bars. Arch elements can be prepared in the shop and joined together by metalic plates welded to the reintorce- ments. After placement of the reinforcement so formed, concrete is sprayed to coat the whole skaleton. 1 the arches are closely spaced, it's not essential for the lining to be continuous. However, a layer of shoterete is often applied between these elements to constitute shee- ting. This type of arch may be used either for support, in alati- vely stable racky ground, or to reinforce existing works. {tis well suited to works having medium-sized or large cross-sectional areas (greater than 40 m#). in the latter case (large), it is generally necessary to attach the rein- forcement using a few anchor bolts and to place wire net- ting between the reinforcements to facilitate filling the central core of the beam with concrete. Arches with reticulated reinforcements are relatively inex- Pensive and require only common and relatively unso- phisticated materials, in other words materials readily available in most areas. But they have drawback of being rather tricky to place (thick shoterete) and bulky (requi- ring a-larger excavated section). 2.4.2. — Precast reinlorced-concrete arches The use of pracast reinforced-concrete for discontinuous temporary support is extremely care. This is primarily be- cause of the large weight of the elements to be handled, the difficulty of assembling them, and their inability 10 ‘adapt to the irregularities of the excavated section. Only very special economic conditions could justify the use of precast reinforced concrete arches. In the case of small trapezoidal tunnels, the shapes may be similar 10 those of the conventional wooden frames. Finally, in tho case of circular tunnel, concrete may be used in the form ‘of complete rings, not touching, made up of juxtaposed ‘small solid prismatic arch-biocks that can be placed by hand. An installation arch will of course be needed to support the crown blocks until the ring is closed, 2.5. — Design of arches This document does not deal with the general problem of ground support design. For the principlo of the calcula- tion and possible choice of a method, the reader may refer to “Reflexions sur les méthodes usuelles de calcul {du revétement des souterrains" published by the AFTES in issue-n® 14 of the journal “Tunnels at Ouvrages ‘Souterrains” The calculation of the temporary support is not funda- ‘mentally different from that of the permanent lining, and ‘can hardly be considered in igolation trom it For the investigation of the behaviour of the work during the initial phasos of its construction, the need to allow Yor the three-dimensional effect resulting {rom the presence (of the face and for the influence of time on the behaviour 129Roa = Cave ot ound (rel 705.91) EY 721 160 (20) eras av gogo agree corinemen pans for 219M TH arch placedn ona win our hav an ‘Ot 160 bars (tw afcos are placed evary 1.20”) or 20 bers (ithe arches are placed every 0.80) vera sain rods | Figure 10 Design of sliding arches of the ground is even more essential ita significant cal- culation is to be attained, In practice, in most cases, arches are designed with refe- rence to experience with works executed under similar conditions. it must be possible to adapt the arrang. ‘ments, where necessary, to reflect the actual behaviour of the ground as the work advances. ‘The diagrams of figures 10 a and 10 b can be used to de- termine the maximum admissible load per square metre ‘f horizontal projection of the crown for different common types of arch under normal conditions of placement (pla- ‘cement near face, careful blocking and bracing) versus the diameter of the tunnel and the overall strain modulus of the surrounding ground. Using the ground classification given in the recommenda tions of January-February 1974, with allowance for expe- riance with a large number of works, the diagrams also ‘give, on a semi-empirical basis, tho necessary contin« ment pressure according to the category of ground and the diameter of the tunnel. Comparing the necessary Pressure and the admissible pressure can guide the Choice of type cf arch and arch spacing. ‘Those diagrams were prepared on the following assump- tions 1. — Cross-section of tunnel Giroular or horseshoe with curved walls, with the princi pal dimensions (width and height) not difering by more ‘than 20 %. 2. — Arch spacing 1.20 or 0.80 m according to the graduations used. 3. — Active horizontal pressure Tho blocking of th arch, especially at the hanches, is careful enough so that an active horizontal pressure ‘equal to half of the vertical load (1 = 0,5) can be assu- med. 4. — Maximum stress of sto! To allow for irregularities of placement the maximum stress of the steel was limited to 120 MPa (1,200 bars) for common mild steel or AS7 shapes and 160 MPa (1,600 bars) for sliding arches made of AS2 or compa- rable steel. 5. — Sheeting The sheeting, if any, contains eloments that are rigid only lengthwise with respect to the tunnel (metallic or wooden planks) so that all of the confinement pressure Is borne by the arches. 6. — Bending limit The minimum bending radius was taken equal to 11.5 times the cross-sectional height of the shape. The mini- mum tunnel diameter Dm in which arches of height h may be used is therefore Dm = 23 h, 7. — Buckling limit Tho practical conditions of non-buckling of the arches are reflected by a maximum tunnel diameter DM for a given ‘aclus of gyration r of the cross-section of the arch. This is fixed at DM = 200 t. 8. — Case of shallow overburden When the overburden is shallow, the initial geostatic Pressure, which in this case is generally the weight of 130-Forepotng bear in orward postcn 7 Face propped by forepoing beams ‘Deve and toping without en support Drive wihou Ypping wit end support Figure 11, Forepoling arrengements with wooden planks {ground above the tunnel, is an upper limit on the load borne by the support, whatever the ‘ype of ground. The choice of arch may therefore have to alow for this maxi mum value of the necessary confinement pressure. To use the diagrams, one first determines the necessary pressure, the value of which is equal to the ordinate of a oint located in the band corresponding to the category ‘of ground and having as abscissa the diameter of the tunnel. For this same abscissa, one then locates the sample arches of which the curves give, for a value of the modulus E’of the ground not greater than the modu- lus of the surrounding ground, an admissible prossuro that is at least oqual to the necessary pressure These diagrams are only a semi-empirical resource, usable for preliminary design work to guide the choice of type of arch for a tunnel of known dimensions in a ground having a known modulus and comparable to one of the categories of the classification, Knowledge of the admissible pressure may, In particular, taciltate comparison with other types of support such as rock bolting and shotcrete, for which a maximum confine- ment pressure may also be found. 3. — ARRANGEMENTS COMPLETING ARCH GROUND SUPPORT The arch itsoit is in any case only one part of the support, Which, to be effective, must include certain additional ele: ments, intended primarily to ensure the necessary rec rocal interaction between the deformations of the arch and those of the graund and to distribute the contact forces in such a way that the amplitude of these deforma- tions remains compatibie with the tolerances on the geo- metry of the tunnel section. ‘These additional elements are — Sheeting and forepoling ; = Shimming and blocking — Bracing ; — Foot bearings ; — Other special devices for special conditions of use of the arches. 3.1. — Sheeting and forepoling ‘The tole of sheeting and foropoling is to ensure the ‘continuity of support of the tunnel wall between arches. ‘They constitute a sort of skin completely or partially mas- king the wall and prevent deformations of it in the inter- vals between arches. They are necessary only to the ex- tent that the mechanical properties of the surrounding {ground are too poor ‘or it to perform this load transfer function itsel, without excessive deformation, by bearing irectiy on the arches. They may also be necessary to Prevent damage to the exposed surtace of the ground or ‘erosion of it by flowing water. Forepoling is a form of sheeting driven forward length- ‘wise along the contour of the excavation and penetrating the ground in place in front of the excavation face so that the wall of the tunnel is effectively supported while It is being dug. Forepoling is obviously used only in vory poor ‘ground of which the equilibrium over a span equal to the ‘spacing of the arches cannot be ensured even for a short time (a few hours). The forepoles may be left in place in the bays and themselves constitute the sheeting, or thay may be moved forward continually as the excavation ad- vances and merely provide protection during the place- ment of the sheeting, 3.1.1. — Wooden sheeting and forepoling This Is the oldest form of sheeting. It consists of planks that are placed tangent to the extrados of the arches and ay be touching or open (every other plank). The dimen- sions of the planks depend on the conditions of execu- tion. However, the planks most often used are 4 to @ cm thick, 15 to 25 cm wide and 1.60 to 2 m long. They rest on blocks or wedges on arches placed al a spacing of 1.20 to 1.60 m (or 0.60 to 0.80 in ground exerting a very high active pressure). The planks must overlap lengthwise by about 0.40 m (or 0.20 om on eithar sido of the column centres) to ensure continuity of support. Wooden planks are quite suitable for forepoling, ‘There are various ways of improving the stability of the planks during torepoling, in particular the use of false frames or false caps (figure 11) to provide temporary ‘support for the planks at mid-span, Wooden sheeting and forepoling may be used with woo- den or heavy or lightweight metallic arches. Like wooden arches, because of their flexibility of use, they are well eeesuited to small structures having complex shapes or va- ‘lable Sections, to relatively cohesionless soils or soils having properties that vary frequently along the length of the work, and to underpinning jobs. ‘Wooden sheeting has the drawback of a risk of poor pre- servation, For this reason, itis desirable, wherever the stability of the ground permits, to remove the sheeting before placing the permanent ining, 3.1.2. — Metallic sheeting ‘There are many types of metalic sheeting, used almost solely with metalic arches. 3.1.2.1. — Folded sheet lining panels ‘The commonest type of sheeting consists of folded shoot metal, which may or may not be perforated, placed lenghtwvise and resting on the extrades of the arches on suitable blocks and wedges. They may touch, overiap, or to be open depending on the characteristics of the ground. The thickness of the sheets is generally between 2 and 4 mm, while the depth of the corrugations, which varies from one supplier to another, is generally between 4 and § om, ‘The panels may be from 20 to 30 cm wide and trom 1.90, to 3 m long, depending on the spacing of the arches. ‘Some panels have folding tabs that can be used to attach them to the arches. There are both solid and perforated sheets, the latter used only in rather cohesive ground containing litle water. AAs in the case of wood, there must be a longitudinal overlap of at least 0.40 m between panels. In practice, panels of this type are suitable in all types of ground and their characteristics can be rather readily adapted to the actual support needs, because a suitable choice of shape and overlap can cause the weight of steel per unit area of tunnel wall to vary considerably (between § and 40 kg/m?, for example). Diract driving of the panels is sometimes difficult be- cause of tho risk of buckling if the forepoling force nee: ded is large. In this case, false caps may be used or the panels placed under cover of metallic forepaling lances. 3.1.2.2. — Longitudinal support shapes When the sheeting to be produced need not be closed ‘but the loads to be supported may be large, use is some- times made of shapes placed in a staggered pattern on the extrades of the arches. They are generally channels (150 to 300 mm) placed flat. This type of sheeting is sui- ted to relatively cohesive and strong ground (marls or sot rock). 9.1.2.3, — Assembled metalic panels When, by contrast with the foregoing case, the sheeting ‘must be perfectly closed, and evan mora so if it must pro- vide a degree of tightness against flows of water in the ‘ground, one good solution is to use ribbed sheot-metal Panels, bent to the radius of the excavation, with the ledges turned up on two or four sides to form welts, which are bolted together. These are veritable lightweight seg- ‘ments that can be placed precisely and rapidly. ‘The panel are from 40 to 60 cm wide (direction parallel fo tunnel centreline and 1.00 to 1.50 m long. The sheets may be trom 2 to 10 mm thick, so the weight of steel per 1m may range trom 15 to nearly 100 kg. ‘Tne use of this type of sheeting assumes relatively pre~ cise cutting of the excavation, because there is no possi- billy of adaptation to irregularities of the wall. 2 Figure Profile of tining plate (Gescolac type) Figure 15 ‘Support elements for assembled metallic plates (commercial Hydraulics type) 132©) Wi interpased arch Figure 16 Types of plates assembly W the ground is very poor, the panels must be placed under cover of forepoling lances driven as the digging advances. Panels of this type can be used alone, i.e. without arches, especially if the section is circular and the active ‘arth pressures are not too great. If arches are used, they may be placed either inside the ‘ings or between successive rings. In the former case, the arches are placed in the centrelines of the rings and the panels rest on the arches on wooden shims. In the latter case, attachment bolts pass through the webs of the arches (generally | shapes), which are drilled out ac- cordingly. 3.1.2.4. — Sheet framing ‘The lightweight folded sheet — metal elements described in § 2.3.3 under the name sheet iraming may also be re- ‘garded as sheeting, especially when they are used not alone but in conjunction with inner arches that reinforce their inertia, This form of uso may bo indicated in particular when the active earth pressures are not great but effective protec tion against inflows of water is desired. The ribs of the ‘sheet framing act as drainage channels, conveying runoff water to gutters along the sides. If the joints between ele- ments are placed carefully and include an overlap, infil- trations of water into the tunnel may remain very slight, ‘even ifthe flowrates are high It is also possible to use ordinary corrugated sheets in the same way. If there is some active earth pressure, itis often necessary to complete these arrangements with longitudinal shapes that support the sheets and take the loads out ot the arches, 3.1.3. — Metallic forepoling When the strength of the ground over one advance cycle makes forepoling necessary and when the sheeting is metallic, metallic lances placed lontitudinally may be Used ; they are supported by the arches and driven for- ‘ward into the ground individually by hydraulic or manual jacks. These lances, which may or may not be closed, form a kind of shield under cover of which the ground support and sheeting can be installed. The sheeting may consist either of assembled panels or of a pre-lining of cast in situ concrete. In the commonest application of this last method, the pre-lining is cast inside pertorated me- tallic shoets serving as both shuttering and reinforcement (Bernold process). ‘The lances generally have grouting pipes directed aft, used to fil the gap as they are moved forward. The dimensions of the lances vary with the size of the tunnel and the characteristics of the ground. They are ge- Figure 17 Forepoling tances for support by assembled plates 193Figure 18 Forepoling lances for cancrete lining (Bernotd type) ‘erally about three times as long as the advance per cycle. There are then generally three lance support arches, ‘which are removed and replaced in pace with the ad- vance. 3.1.4. — Prebored tubes To combat the settlement of the ground, which starts even ahead of the face, it Is possible, from a boring chamber, to drive metaiiic tubes placed longitudinally above the exirados of the crown to be built, which will rest on the arches as the work progresses. The characte tistics and spacing of the tubes depend on the nature of the ground.-In the application of the process to the ‘construction of a high-speed Metro line in Paris, tubes 20, ‘om in diameter, 60 cm apart, bored to a length of 30 to ‘50 m, wero used. This is a dependable process, but long ‘and expensive and for use only to cross especially tricky zones sensitive to decompression (under buildings in oor ground). Issue n° 5 of the AFTES journal gives, on age 225, a detailed description of this process ; the bo- Ting is done trom transverse working chambers about fifty ‘metres apart. ‘rune cHANMER (vey 201 57) ORES TURES a 160200°me Teng 159301) con Figure 19 Example of support by probored tubes (the tubes are ‘bored on either side of sech drilling chamber) 2 For hoary erchos Arch foot bearings may be fixed or expanding. 9.2.1. — Fixed bearings ‘The shape of the bearings dopends on the type of arch and on the bearing capacity of the ground under the floor. In the case of wooden arches, the bearings may consist of: — Wooden or concrete sills placed lengthwise with res- pect to the tunnel : — Or stacks of several wooden or precast concrete shims assembled to form footings. In the case of heavy metalic arches, the bearings are of the same types as for wooden arches, but the bottom of the arch must have a welded piate, which may be either «a flat plate or a length of channel, in U. In the case of lightweight or sliding arches, specially de- signed metallic parts are attached to the bottoms of the arches to form a footing or shoe and bear either directly ‘on the ground or an wooden shims or sills In very tall works, when excavation is in several stages, a ‘temporary “elephant’s foot” or “ear” bearing, placed out- side the profile of the work, is often constituted at the in- vert of the first stage to ensure the stability of the upper part of the arch before the excavation and possible sup- Port of the next stage. Finally, when the arches are exposed to large horizontal pressures or when the ground tends to swell, it may be necessary to plan the placement of struts joining the two toot of the arch. edaFigure 21 Heavy arches bearing on foot jacks 3.22. — Expanding bearings ‘When itis essential to limit the decompression of the sur- rounding ground, the bearings may have a device to allow jacking. The arches are then “active”. in under- ‘ground works having a large cross-sectional area, arches may be made up of several elaments placed end to and, between which jacks are also placed to distribute forces and strains over the whole length of the arch. Active arches are generally replaced in the shortest pos- sible time, either by carefully blocked and braced fixed arches or by the final lining itselt A distinction is made batween — Jacks placed under the foot of the arch or clase by, between a bearing plate attached to the arch and the foo- ting, which may be a sill or a stack of shims or even, in the case of a circular section, 2 precast concrete invert segment. ‘This type of hydraulic jack is used more particularly for arches having large spans, and the capacities of such jacks can reach 500 to 1.000 kN (50 to 100 tonnes), ge- ‘erally corresponding to a uniform confinement pressure fof as much as 0.1 MPa (1 bar) at the crown. — Expanding props with the manual or hydraulic jack built inte the prop itself, which supports the eross-mem- ber ; these props aro used extensively in tunnels having small cross-sectional areas (headings), and their unit force is generally between 200 and 700 KN (20 and 70 tonnes). 3.3. — Bracing of arches ‘The main purpose of bracing the arches is to ensure the angitudinal rigidity of support and prevent buckling of the arches, Im the case of wooden frames, the bracing consists of 4 or 6 braces or stretchers, also made of wood, per frame ; Figure 22 Use of expanding props with jacks they are aligned, This arrangement makes the support very rigid by opposing overturning or twisting of the frames in their plane. In the case of metallic arches, the bracing may be made of metal or wood. It the bracing is made of metal, it may consist of — Round bars with ends curved to fit into (horizontal or vertical) tubes welded along the webs of the arches ; — Round bars with tapped holes at their ends, attached by bolts through the arches ; — Or flats or shapes (angles or channels or flats) bolted along the arches or walded to their intracos. Ifthe bracing is made of wood, it may be simply held at each end by wooden shims or wedges, or assembled on either side ofthe arch by special bolted metal paris (caso of aliding arches). A few examples of bracing are illustrated in figures 23, and 24, 3.4. — Devices for blocking to ground For the strength of the arches to be mobilized most effec- tively, the points of contact with the ground must be suff- ciently close together and rigid. 3.4.1. — Wooden or metallic shims Jn most cases, shims and force-titted wedges are placed at the oxtrados of the arch ; their thickness depends on the overbreak. The shims and wedges may be pieces of ‘wood or steel sheet, Care must be taken to load the arch as evenly as pos- sible both to ensure its symmetry and to avoid overloa- ding at the crown before the haunches have been bloc- ked, 3.4.2. — Prepacked concrete or dry-stone masonry When the ground support includes sheeting panels, there must be blocking not only at the arches but also along the surface of the panels. This may be achieved, as. above, by wooden shims, or by stones forming a sort of dry masonry, or again by concrete pumped directly be- hind the plates. This approach is in particular preferable when there is a large overbreak, but the delivery and pla 135Figure 23, Bracing for heavy arches cement of the concrete near the face may be a major probiom-tor site organization if the tunnel cross-section is ‘small it is also possible in this case, when the quality of the ground permits, to use plastic bags having a capacity of a few litres, fled in advance with excavated materials. 3.4.3. — Expansion shims ‘The arches can also be blocked to the ground by plastic ‘envelopes placed along their extrados and filled with ‘mortar until they touch the ground. The rate of setting of the mortar is adjusted so that its strength increases ra- ther rapidly to take out the loads from the ground as they develop. The filing pressure can be adjusted, according to the necessary support pressure, between 0.1 and 0.5, MPa (1 10 5 bars). ‘This rather expensive process has the advantage of fit- ting rather closely, within certain limits, all the irregulari- ties of then ground, with no risk of causing punching of the ground. It is especially well suited to soils or maris when surface subsidences must be limited. 4. — USE OF SLIDING ARCHES IN CONJUNCTION WITH SHOTCRETE AND ROCK BOLTS From the first experiments with the new method of imme- diate support by shoterete, sliding arches were introdu- ced in some cases to complete the support provided by rock votting This use of sliding or lightweight arches cals for certain ‘special arrangements, which are discussed in this chapter. Figure 24 Bracing for sliding arches 1. — Positions of arches The shape allows good coating of the arch by sprayed concrete and good retention of the counter-arches of sprayed concrete between the archos, provided that the groove of the arch is towards the interior of the cavity ‘This requires that these elemonts be bent so that the ‘concave part is towards the intrados, i. curved in the di- rection opposite the usual on ‘The active earth pressure is distributed over the shot- rete, which transmits the force to the arches via the ‘counter-arches. This action may be continued by bolts placed through the arches. 4.2. — Cholce of type of arch The inertia of the arch, and thus its weight, will be cho- sen primarily according to the density of bolting in the arches or between the arches and the distance between arches, which generally coincides with the excavation ba- soline at the fac Figure 25 shows, for guidance, the types of sliding arches most often used as a function of these two para- meters. ‘Arches alone or in conjucntion with shoterete but no bolts ‘may not be used for underground works having an ope- ning exceeding 6 to 8 m. 4.3. — Joining of arches by bolts ‘There must be a mechanical link between the arches and ‘the bolt heads. This link may take the form of pins bet- 136Weight per linear metre of sliding arches designed 10 be costed with shotcrete ween two bolt heads flanking an arch via a shape place ‘on its intrados, or be provided directly by drilling ovalized holes in the arch, through which the bolt holes are drilled. The bolts then bear directly against the arch via a bes- ring plate. This last arrangement applies only to arches having a large modulus (> 29 kg/m) and is tricky to imple- ‘ment because of the precision required, 4.4. — Contact of arches with crown Overbreak is especially harmful to this type of support, both economically and in terms of the transmission of forces between its various component elements. ‘An attempt must therefore be made to reduce overbreak by adapting the excavation method accordingly. It is desirable that the maximum distance between the arches and the ground should never exceed 20 to 25 cm, And it would seem in any case that the method should Not be used if this distance exceeds 30 to 40 cm. 4.8, — Bearings at foot of arch By contrast with the other cases of use, the support of the arch at the foot does not require any spacial precau- tions, insofar as the role of the arch is essentially to dis- tribute the ground support forces among the bolts, This claarly no longer holds in the case of arches with shoterete but without bolts, or with boits of doubtful effec- tivoness. 4.6. — Bracing The bracing arrangements are similar to those for the other uses of these arches 4.7. —Shoterete ‘The coating of the arches or arch elements will:comoly with the recommendations already laid down in the AFTES publication on sprayed concrete (n° 1) and the Tecommendations af the A.F.B. This coating must be at \east 2 om thick, and an effort must be made to leave no voids behind the arches. This calls for oblique spraying, in certain appropriate directions. In the case of reticula- ted arches, very special care must be taken to ensure ‘oper filing of the interior volume of the arch, — Breaking of whole or partial section of cavity ; — Placement of one or more arch elements covering the — Coating of all reinforcements, with an attempt made to ‘stone syed conoa 9m 21d cout sped corome 120m Selon tape \Weoowremaah 15x Sem a Sm Figure 26 Détails of placement of sliding arches coated with shoterete in case of direct bearing with bolt centred (on arch (large-modulus arch) 4.8. — Stages of work For the placement of lightweight arches with shotcrete, the stages of execution are generally — Removal of loose materials and spraying of safety layer of 3 10 5 cm of shotcrote ; — Placement of a first layer of welded wire mash ; whole or part of the section ; — Placement of bolts through or betwaen the arches ; form shotcrete counter-arches between the arches. — CONCLUSION Because of their very conditions of placement and their independence of the ground, arches cannot mobilize the resistance af the ground to its own deformation. Apart from the load it transmits to the arches, the ground acts nly through the passive earth pressure with which it op- poses the deformation of the arch. From thie there follow both the criteria of use of arches. and their optimum conditions of use. ‘As ground support, arches, alone or in conjunction with shooting panels, will be reserved basically for ground ha- ving mechanical properties that are inadequate — either through too little cohesion, in the case of a soll, or through overly fine fragmentation or heterogeneity, in the case of rock to contribute effectively to limiting deforma- tions of the excavation by such means as bolting or shot- crete. They serve to prevent the fall of large rack masses bounded by discontinuities having orientations making 137Figure 27 ‘Stages of placement of ground support by shoterato relntorced by sliding arches stabilization by bolting dificull. They may also be made necessary by flows of water in the ground. As reinforcements, arches may be used in all cases, and have in particular the advantage of allowing direct visual observation of the ground if the sheeting is not closed. ‘Tho choice of type of arch depends primarily on the di- mensions of the work ; heavy metallic arches, for example, would be used only for large sactions or tun- nels having float crowns. However, the use of sliding arches in conjunction with bolting and shotcrete may be considered for large sections it the mechanical properties of the ground are good enough for botting. It Is possible with this method to dig tunnels in several sections (heading, bench, side walls) by placing the cor- responding permanent support at the time of execution of each phase, without the excavation of any phase impal- ring the stability of support of the preceding phase. Figure 26 shows the arrangements to make when placing ‘sprayed concrete in conjunction with bolting and arches, together with the main defects to be avoided. Wooden arches are used only in tunnels having smail or variable sections, Local procurement conditions also significantly In- fluence the choice of type of arch. ‘The essential conditions of optimum use of arches are those that ensure immediate and effective contact with Figure 28 Mlustration of detects In placement of shoterete with ‘arches bolted to ground (TH shapes bent in wrong direction, no lengthwise rods, not enough overlap of welded wire mesh). The right-hand cross-section 1s between two lengtwise rods. the surrounding ground wherever the arch bears against the ground. Wis therefore essential to ensure : — Blocking of the arch against the ground along the haunches and side walls ; — Distribution of the forces at the foot of the arch so as to reduce settlements under load ; — Blocking of the arch along the crown to limit decom- pression of the ground round the excavation ; — Gross-bracing between arches, All of these operations must be performed when the arch is placed. They will be easier and more effective it the section Is cut with the least overbreak compatible with the nature of the ground. In combination with ground support by bolting or sprayed or in competition with these methods, ground support by arches still has a significant piace in the arse- nal of means available to builders to control the deforma- ‘tons of the ground during the construction of an undar- ‘ground work. Its effectiveness and the safety of the site ‘depend not only on thorough knowledge of the surroun- ding ground and on proper design, but also on scrupu- lous compliance with the rules of placement and regular ‘observation of deformations and their evolution.