Mechanics

1 Mole
o The amount of the substance which contains the same number of particles as there are in 0.012kg of
carbon-12
Avogadros constant
o Number of atoms of in 0.012kg of carbon-12
Radian
o An angle at the centre of a circle, by an arc equal in length to the radius
Angular Displacement
o A measure of the angle through which an object moves in a circle
Angular Velocity
o The rate of change of the angular position of an abject as it moves along a curved path
Angular frequency
o The rate of change of angle expressed in radian per second
Circular motion
o Speed is constant but velocity is not as direction of object is always changing thus object is
accelerating towards centre of the circle and resultant force is directed towards centre of the circle
and perpendicular to the motion of the object, hence object is not in equilibrium
Newtons Law of Gravitation
o Any two point masses attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the product of
their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their separation
Gravitational Potential
o The work done in bringing the unit mass from infinity to the point
Orbital Period
o The time taken for a satellite to complete one orbit
Geostationary orbit
o When a satellite orbits at the same rate and same direction as the earth below it, hence it has an orbital
period of 24 hours
Gravitational field strength
o The gravitational force exerted per unit mass
Why is the value of g constant
o On or near the surface of the earth, the gravitational field is uniform
Why gravitational values always negative
o As gravitational forces only attract, thus the work done bringing the mass from infinity to that point in
the field will be negative work, thus all values of gravitational potential are negative

Matter & Thermal Physics

First Law of Thermodynamics

o A change in internal energy should equal a change in heat supplied to the system and work done on
the system
Internal Energy
o The Sum of the EK and Ep of molecules due to random motion
Thermal Energy
o Energy flowing from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
Convert Celsius to kelvin
o Degrees in Celsius + 273
Thermal Equilibrium
o When there is no energy transfer between 2 objects in contact with each other, which are at the same
temperature
Change of state
o Once at melting point any additional thermal energy supplied will not increase the temperature
while the melting is occurring Ep will rise
o The thermal energy will be used to increase the separation between the molecules & break the atomic
bonds & work against the atmosphere
o Once all of the solid has turned into a liquid the temperature will rise Ek will rise

C2
o The mean square speed
Assumption made when a thermometer is calibrated
o That the thermometers property will change linear with temperature
Relationship of volume and temperature
o The volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the temperature of the gas
Kinetic theory of Gases
The Kinetic Theory of Gases:
o Collisions between gas molecules are elastic.
o Collisions between molecules & the walls of the container are elastic.
o There are no intermolecular forces of attraction.
o The volume that the molecules themselves take up is negligible in comparison to the volume of the
container itself.
Explain why a group of molecules in a gas dont always have the same speed
o As there is a range speeds, thus some will have a greater speed than others
Relationship of pressure and volume
o The pressure of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume provided the temperature is
constant
What is the difference between the absolute scale of temperature and other temperature scales
o It does not depend on the property of a substance
Thermometers
o Laboratory thermometer
volume of mercury
Portable
Fragile
o Thermocouple
EMF
Robust
Requires calibrations as its non linear
o Resistance thermometer
Resistance
Very wide range
Fairly linear over a narrow range
o Sensitivity
The degree with which a thermometer can magnify the change in temperature
Specific latent heat of a substance
o The energy required per kilogram of the substance to change its state without any change in
temperature
Specific latent heat of fusion
o Thermal energy required to melt a unit mass at its melting point, without any change in temperature
Specific latent heat of vaporisation
o Thermal energy required to vaporise a unit mass at its boiling point, without any change in
temperature
Which is greater Lv or Lf?
o Lv is stronger than Lf as when a liquid vaporises there is a greater change in volume, thus more work
is done against the atmosphere
When a substance is being heated, why is there an error in the apparatus
o Energy is lost to the environment, hence this is a systematic error, theoretically, it can be eliminated by
insulation
Specific heat capacity
o The energy required per unit mass of the substance to raise the temperature of the substance by 1K or
1C
As the temperature of a substance increases, why does the rate of increase in temperature decrease?
o The greater the temperature of the substance, the greater the rate of energy loss, thus the rate of the
rise in temperature will be lower
Absolute zero
o The temperature at which all atoms have a minimum internal energy

Oscillations

Oscillations
o Backward and forward motion
Free oscillations
o Definition
No external force acting, hence no energy loss
o Examples
Ripples in water
Pendulum
Vibrations in a car with poor shock absorbers
Forced oscillations
o An input of energy from an external force which causes oscillations, thus the forcing frequency is not
equal to its natural frequency
Simple Harmonic Motion
When the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement and is always directed
towards the mid-point of oscillation
o Total Energy in a SHM
It is always constant and equal to the sum of the Ek + Ep
Damping
o Definition
The loss of energy caused by a frictional force
o Light damping
So small that the oscillations dis out very slowly with time
Example
When a child is on swing friction between the swing and the frame and air resistance
causes the amplitude of the childs oscillations to die out slowly over time
o Heavy damping
The oscillations quickly die out with time
o Critical damping
System will get to zero amplitude without any oscillations
Example?
Car suspension system
o Springs are damped by shock absorbers, thus returning passengers to a
smooth ride after every bump by introducing a force of friction which
removes energy from the oscillating system
Resonance
o A point at which the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the oscillating system,
hence a maximum frequency is achieved
o As damping increases
Maximum amplitude and frequency and sharpness of resonance peak decreases
o If forcing frequency not equal to natural frequency
Amplitude will increase but not to extent as when resonance is achieved
o Very Useful
Pushing a child on a swing
Tuning of musical instruments
o Problem
Buildings that vibrate at natural frequencies close to the frequency of seismic waves face the
possibility of collapse during earthquakes.

Electricity & Magnetism

Magnetic Field
o A region of force experienced by either current-carrying conductors or by permanent magnets
Direction of field lines
o Field lines are from north pole to south pole
Magnetic flux density
o The number of magnetic field lines per unit area

Measuring magnetic flux density

o Using a current balance
Telsa
o A straight conductor carrying a current of 1A normal to a magnetic field, in addition the force per unit
length is 1Nm-1
Magnetic Flux
o A product of the magnetic flux density normal to the surface and the area of the surface
Magnetic Flux Linkage
o The product of the number of turns N of the coil and the magnetic flux linking each turn.
Faradays Law
o the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage
Lenzs Law
o the induced e.m.f. will be directed such that the current which it causes to flow opposes the change
that it is producing
What happens when a magnet enter a circular coil?
o The flux density increase thus there is an induced e.m.f. across the ends of the coils, in addition energy
is lost as a force is produced which opposes the motion of the magnet
What is the core of a transformer and why is it like this?
o The core of a transformer is a continuous loop & made of iron to reduce loss of magnetic flux and
improve flux linkage
Thermal in generated in the core
o The changing flux induces a current in the core, which causes the core to heat up
Operation of a transformer
o Changing current in primary coil give rise to changing flux in the core and since the iron ring links the
flux with the secondary coil, the changing flux in the secondary coil induces an emf
How to Prove Lenzs Law
o Connect a circular coil in series with a meter and push the known pole of a magnet into the coil.
Observe that the direction of the induced current has reversed and that the field from the coil repels
the magnet. Now revers the magnet and put the other pole into the circular coil and notice how the
meter deflects in the opposite direction. Therefore the induced current will oppose any change that the
magnet is producing.
Electric Potential
o The work done in bringing the unit positive charge from infinity to the point
o Why can electric potential be positive or negative
As opposite charges attract, thus the amount of work done bringing them together will have a
negative value, whereas like charges repel, thus the amount of work done bringing them
together will have a positive value
Coulombs Law of Charge
o The force between 2 charge is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation
Electric and Gravitational Fields
o Similarities
Both spherical
Both obey an inverse relationship with distance
Field strength are defined as force per unit charge or mass
o Differences
Gravitational forces only attract
Electric forces attract or repel
Gravitational forces between masses
Electric forces between charges
Charge is quantised
o It comes in packs of e, with the basic unit of charge being (1.6 *10^19 C)
Millikans Experiments
o Put a charged particle in a vacuum chamber between parallel metal plates and turn off electric field.
Notice how the particle begins to fall, and when its velocity is constant time it against a scale to work
out its mass

Then switch on electric field and adjust it until the charge is stationery. Once it is, the electric force is
equal to its weight.
o Find the charge for many oil droplets and average them to obtain the charge on a single electron, e
Functions of capacitors in electrical circuits
o Storing charge
o Smoothing
o Preventing sparks
o Blocking d.c.
Capacitance
o The charge stored per unit of potential difference across it
Why is work done when a capacitor is used?
o When a capacitor is charged, work must be done to push additional electrons against the repulsion of
the electrons that are already present
Direction of Electric Field
o More positive to more negative
Direction of an electric field between 2 plates
o Electric field is at right angles to the plate
Potentiometer
o A device used to compare potential differences
Direction of beams in a magnetic field
o If the magnetic field is going into the board, each electron will experience a force perpendicular to its
motion thus it will travel the arc of a circle as the force due to the magnetic field will provide a
centripetal force, hence its speed will be constant
Direction of beams when the electric & magnetic field force are equal and opposite?
o The electron beam moves in a straight line
Alternating current
o A current that reverses its direction at regular intervals by continuously switching the polarity of its
polls
Io
o The peak value of the current
Irms
o The value of the steady current that produces the same power as the alternating current, and the rate of
heat production
Step-up Transformer
o More turns is secondary coil
Step-down Transformer
o More turns if primary coil
Advantages of transmitting electrical energy with an a.c.
o 1)
For the same power, the voltage transmission is greater, thus the current is less, hence the
power loss is less, thus less money is wasted
o 2)
Voltage can be easily stepped up or down, thus it can be easily changed
o 3)
Less power station are needed
Disadvantages of transmitting electrical energy with an a.c.
o Cables require greater insulation
Explain why the potential difference across the load and the emf of the supply in a transformer are not in
phase
o The magnetic flux is in phase with current in the primary coil and the p.d. across secondary coil is
proportional to rate of change of flux thus the e.m.f. of the supply is not in phase with p.d. across
secondary coil
Use Lenzs law to explain why the input potential difference and the output e.m.f.
o The induced current in the secondary coil produces a magnetic field which opposes the field produced
bin the primary coil, thus the are not in phase
Why cant a direct current be used in a transformer
o

As an emf is only induced when the magnetic flux is changing, and a direct current will give a
constant flux
Rectification
o What is it?
Converting and a.c. to a d.c.
o What happens?
The current only flows through the diode during the top half of the cycles & when the
direction changes in the next half of the cycle V = 0 as the diode wont conduct in the opposite
direct
o Full wave Rectification
A bridge that has four diode in both halves of the cycle the current flows the way in the
forward direction
Benefits
Greater mean power is available & less ripple for same smoothing capacitor
Smoothing
o By using a capacitor smooth a D.C. is produced instead of a bumpy d.c.
o What else?
The larger the value of the product of (Resistance*Capacitance) and the bigger the capacitor
the slower the capacitor will discharge, thus it will be more difficult to charge the value of the
voltage quickly and the variation in the output voltage will be reduced
When using electric circuits, how is energy lost
o Energy is dissipated as a spark or in the wires
o

Quantum Physics

Photoelectric Effect
o Definition
The emission of electrons from metal by electromagnetic radiation.
o Evidence
Instantaneous emission of electrons
If frequency of incident radiation if below threshold frequency no emission occurs
Rate of emission dependent on intensity of incident rays
Emitted electron have a range of EK values, from a minimum to a maximum value and it
depends of the incident radiation
Photon
o A packet of electromagnetic radiation
Electrons behave as waves:
o travel through space as waves
o they show signs of diffraction
Electrons behave as particles
o they interact with matter as particles
o the photoelectric effect provides evidence for this
Electron going up an energy level
o An electron will jump from a lower energy level to the next higher level by absorbing a photon equal
to the difference between the 2 energy levels
Electron going down an energy level
o If an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, it will lose energy, thus
electromagnetic radiation is emitted
Work Function
o the minimum of energy of required to cause emission of a single electron from a metal surface
Threshold Frequency
o the minimum frequency of an incident electromagnetic radiation required to cause emission of a
single electron from a metal surface
Threshold wavelength
o The maximum wavelength of incident electromagnetic radiation that can cause emission of electrons
from a metal
Photoelectric Current

The rate of emissions of electrons

How is it related to intensity
The greater the intensity of the incident radiation, the greater the number of photons there
will be, the rate of emission of electrons will increase, thus so will the current
o Why is the Ek max of the electrons independent of the intensity of the incident radiation
As the Ek max is only dependent of the frequency of the incident radiation
Evidence for discrete electron energy levels in atoms
o Discrete wavelengths mean photons have particular energies, which is determined by energy of
electron
Electronvolt (eV)
o 1eV is the energy transferred when an electron travels through a potential difference of one volt
Theory of light
o For a wave, electrons can continuously absorb energy ,and will be emitted at all frequencies and after
a sufficiently long delay
de Broglie wavelength
o a moving wavelength of a wave that is associated with a particle that is moving, hence every particle
has a wavelength
Emission line spectrum
o What it is?
Each line corresponds to a photon energy and a photon will be emitted when an electron
changes its energy level, hence discrete energy changes mean discrete levels
o How does it look like
A sharp bright line in a dark spectrum
Absorption line spectrum
o What is it?
Observed when white light it passed through cool gases and electron will be promoted to a
higher energy level if they absorb a photon of the correct energy
o How does it look like
A dark line in a continuous spectrum
o
o

Nuclear Physics

Binding energy
o Amount of energy required to pull a nucleus apart into separate nucleons to infinity
Decay Constant
o Probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time
Nucleons
o Nucleons are particles that make up an atom
Nuclear Fission
o The splitting of a large nuclei into 2 nuclei of about the same mass which results in the release of
energy
Nuclear Fusion
o The combining of 2 light nuclei into 1 large nuclei which results in the release of energy
Nuclear Force
o Holds together nucleons in a nucleus
Radioactive decay
o The rate of decay of a radioactive nucleus
Why do neutrons have no binding energy?
o Neutrons are single particles
Mass Defect
o The difference in mass between a nucleus and the total mass of its individual nucleons
Half-Life
o Definition
The mean time for half of the active nuclei in a sample to decay
o Factors that affect half-life
Background radiation

Random nature of decay

Radioactive daughter product
Conditions for Nuclear Fission
o A high temperature and a high pressure
Activity
o The number of emissions per unit time