CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
I underwent 28 days training in MK CONSTRUCTION. Promoters which
deals with construction and design of Tower. Thus I utilized 28 days training period
in reviewing contract administration by the company in particular projects and also
learned construction aspects in the particular project.

1.1 ABOUT THE COMPANY

M.K.construction was established in the year 2000, by its Founder Mr.
N.Muthukumar who executed civil works in his name, in TNEB GENERAL
CONSTRUCTION CIRCLE. It has done so by giving a Good quality of work, fulfilling
the clients requirements as committed, completing the projects within the scheduled
time and on budget at the most competitive prices. M.K Construction Company has
established a successful track record and taken dynamic efforts for diversification in
the allied branches of construction, engineering, Residential and technological
entrepreneurship. In that Short Period MK Construction has successfully completed
about 25 more projects within region for Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Erode districts of
Residential and Power sector. Arranging workers as per the schedule, getting the
work had done in proper way and safety Coordination with all for day to day
requirement, ensuring, quality and workmanship, ensuring production levels are
achieved and monitoring the job as per clients/consultants requirement.This
commitment to quality has seen it grow from a modest turnover of Rs.10 Lakhs in
2000 to nearly Rs.331 Lakhs in 2012. The major works are,
i) Substation 110/230kv civil and allied works,
ii) Substation erection,
iii) Transmission tower line,
iv) Residential buildings.

1.2 TOWER CONFIGURATION

1.2.1 Purpose of transmission tower
A tall structure used to support an overhead power line. Also called
electricity pylon or pylon. The structures of overhead transmission lines, comprising
essentially the supports and foundations, have the role of keeping the conductors at
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the necessary distance form one another and form earth, with the specified factor of
safety to facilitate the flow of power through conductor form one point to another with
reliability, security and safety. Transmission structures are one of the most visible
elements of the electric transmission system. They support the conductors used to
transport electric power from generation sources to customer load. Transmission
lines carry electricity over long distances at high voltages, typically between 115 kV
and 765 kV (115,000 volts and765, 000 volts).

1.2.2 Types of transmission tower

The selection of the most suitable types of tower for transmission lines
depends on the actual terrain through which the line traverses. Experience has,
however, shown that any combination of the following types of towers are generally
suitable for most of the lines:
i) Suspension towers ( with I or V suspension insulator strings )
ii) Tension tower
In this report, discussed about the suspension tower design and
construction as per IS 802 Part 1 1995 Use of structural steel in overhead
Transmission line towers - Code of practice & IS 12427: 1988 Transmission
tower bolts.

1.2.2.1 Types of Suspension Tower

a) Tangent towers
b) Intermediate towers
c) Light angle towers

Tangent towers
To be used on straight runs only. Angle of suspension ring is 0.

Intermediate towers
To be used on straight runs and up to 2 line deviation.

Light angle towers

To be used on straight runs and up to 5 line deviation.
NOTE - In the selection of suspension tower either (b) above or a combination of
(a) and (c) may be followed.

1.2.2.2 Types of Tension Tower

a) Small angle towers
b) Medium angle towers
c) Large angle towers
d) Dead-end towers
e) Large angle and dead-end towers
Small Angle Towers
To be used for line deviation from 0 to 15 (HCR tower).
Medium Angle Towers
To be used for line deviation 0 to 30 (HCR tower).
Large Angle Towers
To be used for line deviation from 30 to 60 (KCR tower).
Dead-End Towers
To be used as dead-end (terminal) tower or anchor tower.

Large Angle and Dead-End Towers

To be used for line deviation from 30 to 60 or for Dead-End.

NOTE- In the selection of tension towers either (e) above or a combination of (c)
and (d) may be followed.

1.2.3 Factors governing tower configuration

Depending upon the requirements of transmission system, various line
Configurations have to be considered ranging from single circuit Horizontal to double
circuit vertical structures with single or V-strings in all phase, as well as any
combination of these.
The configuration of a transmission line tower depends on:
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(a) The length of the insulator assembly.

(b) The minimum clearances to be maintained between conductors
and between conductor and tower.
(c) The location of ground wire or wires with respect to the
outermost conductor.
(d) The mid span clearance required from considerations of the
dynamic behavior of conductors and lightning protection of the line.
(e) The minimum clearance of the lower conductor above ground
level.

1.3 TOWER HEIGHT

The factors governing the height of a tower are:
(a) Minimum permissible ground clearance (Ha)
(b) Maximum sag (Hb).
(c) Vertical spacing between conductors (Hc).
(d) Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductor (Hw).
Thus the total height of the tower is given by
H = Ha + Hb + Hc + Hw

Fig 1: Determination of tower height

1.3.1 Minimum permissible ground clearance

From safety considerations, power conductors along the route of the
Transmission line should maintain clearances to ground in open country, National
highway, rivers, railway tracks, tele-communication lines, other Power lines etc. as
laid down in the Indian Electricity Rule or standards or code of practice.

1.3.2 Maximum sag of Lowermost Conductor

The size and type of conductor, wind and climatic Conditions of the region
and span length determine the conductor sag and tensions. Span length is fixed from
economic considerations. The maximum sag for conductor span occurs at the
maximum temperature and still wind conditions. This maximum value of sag is taken
into consideration in fixing the overall height of the steel structures. In snow regions,
the maximum sag may occur even at 0 C with conductors loaded with ice in still wind
conditions. While working out tension in arriving at the maximum sag, the following
stipulations laid down, in I.E. Rules (1956) are to be satisfied.

(i) The minimum factor of safety for conductors shall be based on their ultimate
tensile strength.
(ii) The conductor tension at 32 C (90 F) without external load shall not
exceed the following percentages of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductor.

Initial unloaded tension

. . 35 %

Final Unloaded tension

. . 25 %

In accordance with this stipulation, the maximum working tension under

stringent loading conditions shall not exceed 50 percent of the ultimate tensile
strength or conductor. Sag-Tension computations made for final stringing of the
conductors, therefore, must ensure that factor of safety of 2 and 4 are obtainable
under maximum loading condition and every day loading condition, respectively.

1.3.3 Spacing of conductors

The spacing of conductors is determined by considerations which are
partly electrical and partly mechanical. The material and diameter of the conductors
should also be considered when deciding the spacing, because a smaller conductor
especially if made of aluminum, having a small weight in relation to the area
presented to a cross wind, will swing synchronously (in phase) with the wind, but
with long spans and small wires, there is always the possibility of the conductor
swinging nonsynchronous, and the size of the conductor and the maximum sag at
the Centre of span are factors which should be taken into account in determining
distance apart at which they should be strung.

1.3.4 Vertical clearance between ground wire and top conductor.

This is governed by the angle of shielding i.e. the angle which the line
joining the ground wire and the outermost conductor makes with the vertical,
required for the interruption of direct lightning strikes at the ground and the minimum
mid span clearance between the ground wire and the top power conductor. The
shield angle varies from about 20 degrees 30 degrees, depending on the
configuration of conductors and the number of ground wires (one or two) provided.

Accordingly, the values for the various voltages, 66kV to 400 kV, are:

1) 66kV - 5.49m
2) 132kV - 6.10m
3) 220kV - 7.01m
4) 400kV - 8.84m

The above clearances are applicable to transmission lines running in open

country.

1.3.5 PERMISSIBLE DEFLECTIONS

Sufficient data are not available with regard to the permissible limits of
deflection of towers, as specified by the various authorities. However, one practice
given below is followed in the USSR:
Assuming that there is no shifting of the foundation, the deflection of the top of
the support in the longitudinal direction from the vertical should not exceed the
following limits:
For dead-end heavy-angle structure (1/120) H
For small angle and straight line structures with strain insulators (1/100) H
For supports with heights exceeding 160m and intended to be used at
crossing locations (1/140) H

Where
H is the height of the tower.

2.0 LOAD CALCULATION FOR TOWER CONSTRUCTION

Transmission lines are subjected to various loads during their lifetime.
These loads are classified into three distinct categories, namely,
a) Climatic loads -- related to the reliability requirements.
b) Failure containment loads - related to security requirements.
c) Construction and maintenance loads related to safety requirements.

2.1 CLIMATIC LOADS

These are random loads imposed on tower, insulator string, conductor
and ground wire due to action of wind on transmission line and do not act
continuously. Climatic loads shall be determined under either of the following climatic
conditions, whichever is more stringent:
i) 100 percent design wind pressure at everyday temperature, or
ii) 36 percent design wind pressure at minimum temperature.
In suspension tower design the wind load is not consider for load calculation.

2.2 FAILURE CONTAINMENT LOADS

These loads comprise of:
i) Anti cascading loads, and
ii) Torsional and longitudinal loads.

2.2.1 Anti Cascading Loads

Cascade failure may be caused by failure of items such as insulators,
hardware, joints, and failures of major components such as towers, foundations,
conductor due to defective material or workmanship or from climatic overloads or
sometimes from casual events such as misdirected aircraft, avalanches, sabotage
etc. The security measures adopted for containing cascade failures in the line is to
provide angle towers at specific intervals which shall be checked for anti-cascading
loads.
2.2.2 Torsional and Longitudinal Loads
These loads are caused by breakage of conductor(s) and/or ground wire.
All the towers shall be designed for these loads for the number of conductor (s)
and/or ground wire considered broken.

2.3 CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND SELF-LOADS

These are loads imposed and self-weight on towers during construction
and maintenance of transmission lines.

2.4 COMPUTATION OF VARIOUS LOADS ON TOWERS

The loads on of various loads on towers consist of three mutually
perpendicular systems of loads acting vertical, normal to the direction of the line, and
parallel to the direction of the line. It has been found convenient in practice to
standardise the method of listing and dealing with loads as under:

Transverse load

Longitudinal load

Vertical load

Torsional shear

Weight of structure

2.5 TENSION AND DEAD END TOWERS

Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structure, conductors,
ground wires and insulators shall be computed as per IS 802-1995
i) 60 percent wind span shall be considered for broken wire condition and
100 percent wind span for intact span condition.
ii) Transverse loads due to line deviation shall be the component of 100
percent mechanical tension of conductor and ground wire as defined in 11.3.2.1.IS
802-1995

2.6 LOADS ON SUSPENSION TOWER SECURITY REQUIREMENT

a) Transverse loads due to wind action on tower structures,
conductors, and ground wires ant1 insulators shall be taken as nil.
b) Traverse loads due to line deviation shall be based on component
of mechanical tension of conductors and ground wires corresponding to everyday
temperature and nil wind condition. For broken wire spans the component shall be
corresponding to50 percent mechanical tension of conductor and 100 percent
mechanical tension of ground wire at everyday Temperature and nil wind.

2.7 SAG CALCULATION

Sag at any Span = Sag at Basic Span (Span Length) 2
(Basic Span) 2

3) TOWER FABRICATION

Fabrication of towers are done in accordance with IS codes which is

ensured by visit to the fabrication workshops and undertaking specified tests, in the
presence of POWERGRID quality engineers. The following may be ensured during
fabrication of the towers.
i) Butts, splices should be used and thickness of inside cleat should not
be less than that of heavier member connected. Lap splices are used to
connect unequal sizes.
ii) While designing, joints are to be made so that eccentricity is
avoided.
iii) Filler should be avoided as far as practicable.
iv) The diameter of hole = diameter of bolt + 1.5 mm
v) Drain holes are to be provided where pockets of depression are
likely to hold water.
vi) All similar parts should be interchangeable to facilitate repairs.
vii) There should be no rough edges.
viii) Punched holes should be square with plates and must have their
walls parallel.
ix) It should be checked that all burrs left by drilling or punching should
be removed completely. Drilling or reaming to enlarge defective holes is not
allowed.

3.1 BOLTING

1) The minimum diameter of bolts used for the erection of transmission line
towers is 12 mm. Other sizes commonly used are 16 mm and 20 mm.
2) The length of the bolt should be such that the threaded portion does not
lie in the plane of contact of members.
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3) Table 3.1 gives the minimum cover to free edge and bolt spacing as per
IS: 802 (Part II)-1978 Code of Practice for Use of Structural Steel in
Overhead Transmission line Towers. The bolts used with minimum
angle sizes restrict the edge distances as given in Table 3.2 for the bolt
sizes of 12 mm, 16 mm and 20 mm used on 40 x6mm, 45x6 mm and
60x 8 mm angle sizes respectively.

Table 3.1 Spacing of Bolts and Edge Distances

Bolt

Hole

Bolt spacing Edge

Minimum

Diameter

Diameter

Minimum

hole

distance

centre

hole

centre to

sheared

to

rolled edge

edge
12

13.5

32

16

20

16

17.5

40

20

23

20

21.5

48

25

28

Table 3.2 Maximum Edge Distance Possible With Minimum Angle Size (mm)

Bolt dia.

Size of bolted leg of Maximum

angle section and its that
thickness

can

edge

distance

be

actually

obtained

12

40x6

17

16

45x6

18

20

60x8

25

3.2 LAP AND BUTT JOINT

Lap splices are normally preferred for leg members as these joints
are generally simpler and more economical compared to the heavier butt joints which
are employed only if structural requirements warrant their use. In lap splices, the
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back (heel) of the inside angle should be ground to clear the fillet of the outside
angle.

3.3 GUSSET PLATES

In the case of suspension towers, the stresses in the web system are
usually small enough to keep the use of gusset plates to the minimum. On
heavier structures, however, the web stresses may be very large and it may not
be possible to accommodate the number of bolts required for the leg connection
in the space available on the members, thus Necessitating the use of gusset
plates. Plates may also be required to reduce the secondary stresses introduced
due to eccentricity to a minimum. The bracing members should preferably meet
at a common point within the width of the tower leg in order to limit the bending
stresses induced in the main members due to eccentricity in the joints. To satisfy
this condition, it may sometimes become necessary to use gusset plates.

4.0 METHODS OF ERECTION

4.1SECTION METHOD
In the section method, major sections of the tower are assembled on the
ground and the same are erected as units. Either a mobile crane or a gin pole is
used. The gin pole used is approximately 10 m long and is held in place by
means of guys by the side of the tower to be erected. The two opposite sides of
the lower section of the tower are assembled on the ground. Each assembled
side is then lifted clear of the ground with the gin or derrick and is lowered into
position on bolts to stubs or anchor bolts. One side is held in place with props
while the other side is being erected. The two opposite sides are then laced
together with cross members diagonals; and the assembled sections lined up,
made square with the line, and levelled. After completing the first section, gin
pole is set on the top of the first section. The gin rests on a strut of the tower
immediately below the leg joint. The gin pole then has to be properly guyed into
position.
The first face of the section is raised. To raise the second face of this
section it is necessary to slide the foot of the gin on the strut to the opposite of
the tower. After the two opposite faces are raised, the lacing on the other two
sides is bolted up. The last lift raises the top of the towers. After the tower top is
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placed and all side of the lacings have been bolted up, all the guys are thrown off
except one which is used to lower the gin pole. Sometimes whole one face of the
tower is assembled on the ground, hoisted and supported in position. The
opposite face is similarly assembled and hoisted and then bracing angles
connecting these two faces are fitted.

4.2 MANPOWER REQUIREMENT FOR TOWER ERECTION GANG

One engineer shall be earmarked exclusively for the work of Tower
erection being carried out by different gangs. Following manpower is required for
each tower erection gang.
1) Supervisor 1 no.
2) Fitter 8 nos.
3) Skilled workers 12 nos.
4) Unskilled workers 20 nos.

Note: average output per gang per month will be approximately 80 MT. The man
power may be regulated depending upon Requirements

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