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are bewildered about their identity. They are an Asian people not Asian
in the eyes of their fellow Asians and not Western in the eyes of the
West."
America's profound influence on the Filipino psyche, particularly its
ruling elite, is evident in the words of Salvador P. Lopez, former
ambassador to Washington, who gave a positive spin to the Philippines'
colonization by Americans, arguing that, among other supposed benefits,
American colonization helped "Philippine society to develop along more
democratic lines."
A Divided Nation
Among historical movies in the Philippines, it is quite common to detect
strong anti-Spanish or anti-Japanese sentiments. What is unique
about Heneral Luna is its unvarnished portrayal of not only American
deceit -- striking a separate deal to purchase the Philippines from the
Spaniards without the knowledge of their supposed Filipino allies -- but
also its brutality towards Filipino civilians.
The Philippine-American War led to the death of hundreds of thousands
of Filipinos, many of whom were ordinary civilians who couldn't cope
with the starvation and misery brought about the protracted conflict.
There were also wanton use of violence by American soldiers, while
others seemed to relish their defeat of Filipino revolutionary forces with
sadistic glee, with one solider describing the slaughter of fleeing enemies
as "more fun than a Turkey shoot". By invoking the doctrine ofManifest
Destiny, President William McKinley sanctioned a colonial project to
"educate the Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them." The
subjugation of the Philippines was veiled by sanctimonious imperialism
and denigration of Filipinos as uncivilized people.
But far from a cheap anti-American movie, Heneral Luna is a
contemplative artistic work that sheds light on the internal divisions that
beset the Filipino revolutionaries; divisions that continue to undermine
the country until this day. Raised in Manila, Ilocano on his father's side,
and educated in the West, Antonio Luna was both cosmopolitan and
patriotic. He was, in the words of American Generals James Franklin
Bell and Robert Hughes, the Philippines' only true general. And he tried
very hard to establish a modern and professional Philippine armed
forces, which transcended tribal and ethnic allegiances.
It was his military genius that, in the initial stages of the war, inspired
some sense of panic among invading Americans, who weren't expecting a
sophisticated resistance by the indigenous population. A product of
modern education, Luna used cutting-edge military tactics against the
West, trying to beat them in their own game. Ultimately, however,
General Luna was no George Washington. His temper, frustrations with
insubordination, and traumas of war got the better of him. The movie
painfully portrays his struggles with his inner demons, culminating in an
incident where he wrongfully unleashed his anger on innocent
bystanders, the very people whom he should have protected above all.
He was not an ideal leader, for he didn't appreciate the necessity for
charm, persuasion and consensus-building when it comes to leadership.
And, as Filipino historian Vicente Rafael explains, Luna and his
revolutionary colleagues "never had a program for addressing social
inequities.... never planned to redistribute land or to democratize social
relations."
Yet, one can't deny how critical Luna was, despite all his frailties, to
securing Philippine independence. Luna's harsh language (to ensure
military discipline), constant resort to threats (to prevent
insubordination and mobilize troops), and temper (over tribalism and
divisions within Filipino leadership) should be seen within the context of
the traumas of nation-building, especially when a fledgling nation is
confronting one colonizing power after the other while struggling with
vicious internal divisions.