Orchestration Markedness and Its Effect On Form

THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF MUSIC
ORCHESTRATIONAL MARKEDNESS
AND ITS EFFECT ON FORM
By
KATHRYN E. STEETLE
A Thesis submitted to the

College of Music
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master of Music
Degree Awarded:
Spring Semester, 2007
Copyright 2007
Kathryn E. Steetle
All Rights Reserved
The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Kathryn E. Steetle defended on
January 19, 2007.
______________________________
Matthew Shaftel
Professor Directing Thesis
______________________________
Evan Jones
Committee Member
______________________________
Clifton Callender
Committee Member
The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee
members
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables......................................................................................................................iv
List of Figures......................................................................................................................v
Abstract...............................................................................................................................vi
1. INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
2. METHODOLOGY..........................................................................................................6
Sound vs. Silence.....................................................................................................9
Haydn, Surprise Symphony, No. 94, movement 4.......................................9
Timbre and Extended Technique...........................................................................11
Penderecki, Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima...................................12
Notes, Voices, and Lines.......................................................................................15
Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, movement 3.............................................16
3. BRAHMSS VARIATIONS ON A THEME BY HAYDN FOR ORCHESTRA, OP. 56 A
AND VARIATIONS ON A THEME BY HAYDN FOR PIANO, OP. 56 B.........................20
Style, Topic, and Degree of Dignity......................................................................21
Brahms and the Division between High and Low Styles......................................24
The Blocked Orchestration of Measures 1-10...........................................31
The Mixed Orchestration of Measures 314-321........................................33
Orchestrational Influence on Overall Form...........................................................35
A Traditional Reading of Overall Arc Form..............................................35
An Alternate Reading of Overall Form.....................................................36
4. CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................47
BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................50
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.............................................................................................52
iii
LIST OF TABLES
th
1. Form diagram of Surprise Symphony, No. 94, 4 movement, mm 1-111.......................9
2. Form diagram of Trenody..............................................................................................13

3. Form diagram of Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt 3...............................................16
4. Form diagram of Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt 3, Coda (mm 349-414).............17
5. Skeletal mapping of the Theme.....................................................................................25
6. Skeletal mapping of Variation 1....................................................................................25
10. Skeletal mapping of Variation 5..................................................................................28
14. Skeletal mapping of Finale..........................................................................................30
15. Table of Traditional Arc Form focusing on a traditional analysis of harmonic and
thematic relationships........................................................................................................35
16. Table of Alternate Form focusing on an analysis with respect to orchestral
techniques..........................................................................................................................36
iv
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Egmont Overture, mm 1-17.............................................................................................3

2. Hattens Stylistic/Strategic Interaction Diagram.............................................................7
3. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 71-76................................................................10
4. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt 4, mm 72-76, graph......................................................11
5. Sample of Extended Techniques used in Threnody.......................................................12
6. Sound Block Motives in Threnody................................................................................13
7. Penderecki, Threnody, mm 24-26..................................................................................14
8. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt. 3, mm 125-140....................................................16
9. Theme, mm 1-10............................................................................................................32
10. Theme, mm 1-10, graph...............................................................................................33
11. Variation 3, mm 108-111.............................................................................................34
12. Variation 3, mm 108-111, graph..................................................................................34
13. Graph of Traditional Arc Form...................................................................................35
14. Graph of Alternate Form.............................................................................................36
15. Variation 1, mm 30-34.................................................................................................37
16. Variation 1, mm 30-34, graph......................................................................................38
17. Variation 3, mm 127-134.............................................................................................39
19. Variation 7, mm 314-321.............................................................................................41
21. Finale, mm 361-371.....................................................................................................43
22. Finale, mm 361-371, graph..........................................................................................43
23. Finale, mm 455-462.....................................................................................................44
24. Finale, mm 448-462.....................................................................................................45
ABSTRACT
This study analyses the structural role of orchestration in small and large forms.
Orchestrations influence is examined by applying Robert S. Hattens expressive genre
theory specifically in its use of marked and unmarked events signaling a change in
musical style and/or orchestrational norm and thereby influencing how one perceives
small and large forms.
In Chapter 2, examples are taken from Haydns Surprise Symphony, movement 4,
to illustrate a marked silence acting in lieu of a transition passage; Pendereckis Threnody
to the Victims of Hiroshima, to illustrate a marked change in timbre as a section indicator;
and Tchaikovskys Symphony No. 4, movement 3, to show how subtle marked changes in
instrument family affect large and small forms.
In Chapter 3, two formal analyses of Brahmss Variations on a Theme by Haydn
for Orchestra are given, one based on traditional analytical methods and the other using
expressive genre analytical model, historically documented degree of dignity, and the use
of voice lines/instrumental lines.
As evidenced in this paper, orchestrational techniques change with each piece, but
the process of orchestration is ubiquitous regardless of era, composer, or genre.
Expressive genre theory, because of its culturally derived basis, proves to be a viable
means to analyze the role of orchestration within the compositional process of composers
of many eras.
vi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Music analyses are more prone to examine abstract tones instead of concrete
orchestral notes, thereby overlooking subtle (and not so subtle) musical information
illustrated by orchestration.1 William Rothstein laments this dismissal of notes, the
musical entities [that] represent specific pitches and durations, to be played on a specific
instrument, in favor of the tones, musical entities [that] are not what we hear in the
literal sense of that word; rather, they are a way of representing to ourselves what we
2
have heard already. Robert Hattens theory of expressive genre provides a possible
entry into a closer examination of Rothsteins notes. 3 His work presents the notion of
markedness, the foregrounding of an event or idea against an unmarked background: the
unexpected versus the expected. My study will focus on orchestration and will establish
that a careful study of orchestration using expressive genre theory can present greater
insight on compositional form and structure.
Analyzing music through instrumentation is understandably problematic. Carl
Schachter groups orchestration, texture, and other musical elements as secondary
qualities of the music.4 Secondary musical parameters are not studied thoroughly,
mainly because of their resistance to codification and their reliance on other musical
parameters for definition. Robert Hopkins approaches this problem in his book, Closure
and Mahlers Music: The Role of Secondary Parameters, giving several reasons for
secondary parameters unpopularity in the analytical literature: 1) the imprecise use of the
term parameter, 2) the ambiguous nature of some current terminology, 3) the lack of
accepted technical terms for some secondary parameters. 5 To clarify the term parameter,
Hopkins establishes dependent and independent variables in music with an example:
See William Rothstein, On Implied Tones, Music Analysis 10 (October 1991): 293-295.
Ibid., 293-294.
3
Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994).
4
Carl Schachter, Unfoldings: Essays in Schenkerian Theory and Analysis, ed. Joseph N. Straus (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1999), 8.
5
Robert G. Hopkins, Closure and Mahlers Music: the Role of Secondary Parameters, (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 29.
2
Dynamics and rhythm, for instance, are often called parameters since they are
variables in music. Yet dynamics (the relative loudness of sounds) is a more or
less independent variable, whereas rhythm (which has to do with grouping sounds
into patterns where unaccented beats are related to accented ones) is a dependent
variable determined by a number of interacting parameters such as harmony,
pitch, duration, and dynamics.6
According to Hopkins, the term, parameter, should only refer to independent variables,
i.e. tonal pitch and harmony. He classifies meter, tempo, texture, registral pitch, duration,
and timbre as dependent variables. In the above example, rhythm is dependent upon
7
multiple variables and falls into a different category, emergent property. Orchestration
is itself an emergent property; any consideration of orchestration must also include an

examination of register, dynamic, duration, and timbre. Although this study will not
adopt Hopkinss hierarchical system of dependent and independent variables, it does
employ the basic premise that some aspects of music can only be analyzed thoroughly
when taken into consideration with other parameters.
A study of orchestration without pairing it with other kinds of analytical
information would result in a vague and essentially descriptive narration. For example
one could imagine an analytical narrative that runs like this:
Beethoven begins his Egmont Overture with a forte tutti on an octave F in
a held fermata. After the orchestra diminuendo, the string section plays an
ominous 4-measure introduction. The oboe then begins a solo wistful motive to be
repeated by the clarinet and bassoons in the following measure. This motive is
then passed to the strings where it is repeated until the orchestra interrupts the
strings in measure 7 with another tutti forte on octave F. Next, the 4-measure
string introduction is repeated in the whole orchestra (without timpani) but this
time the phrase is shortened to 2 measures. The woodwinds wistful motive from
measures 5-7 returns in measures 12-15 using the same instrumentation with the
addition of the flute.
Ibid., 29-30.
Ibid.
Figure 1. Egmont Overture, mm 1-17
Although the above analysis appears correct, the blow-by-blow account of the pieces
orchestration without the inclusion of other analytical information, adds little to a
thorough understanding of the process within the piece.
Hilarie Clark Moores 1991 dissertation, The Structural Role of Orchestration in
8
Brahmss Music, uses orchestration as a foil for musical structure. Moore pairs
Schenkerian analyses with computerized graphic representations of the score to explore

Brahmss orchestrational methods on the foreground and background levels of the piano
and orchestral versions of his 3rd Symphony. She establishes that varying timbres of the
orchestral sonority can either articulate voice-leading lines by their difference or conceal
voice-leading effects by their similarities, demonstrating that Brahmss orchestral
technique is a contributing factor to Brahmss form and structure both in phrases and
thematic divisions.9
Another dissertation exploring orchestration and its effect on Schenkerian
analysis is Timothy Spence Cutlers 2000 dissertation, Orchestration and the Analysis of
Tonal Music: Interaction between Orchestration and Other Musical Parameters, c. 178510
1835. Cutler surveys the majority of scholarly writings on orchestration, giving special
attention to Schenkers writings and analytical method. Linear analysis is used to

demonstrate how orchestration can distract the listener from the Urlinie and/or
Hauptstimme. Cutler also defends his premise: Schenkerian analysis was not created to
ignore orchestrational nuances; Schenker placed great importance on pitches, the
instruments being used, and the orchestrational affect particular to each piece.11 As both
of these dissertations have already illustrated, Schenkerian analysis can be used in
tandem with orchestration to gain a richer understanding of the piece in question.
In contrast to strictly utilizing Schenkerian analysis to examine orchestration, this
study explores the links between orchestration and the study of form and by utilizing
Hilarie Clark Moore, The Structural Role of Orchestration in Brahmss Music: A Study of the Third
Symphony (PhD. diss., Yale University, 1991).
9
Ibid., 8.
10
Timothy Spence Cutler, Orchestration and the Analysis of Tonal Music: Interaction between
Orchestration and Other Musical Parameters in Selected Symphonic Compositions, c. 1785-1835 (PhD.
diss., Yale University, 2000).
11
Ibid., 84-5.
Robert Hattens theory of expressive genre.12 Expressive genre theory relies

essentially on the idea that there is significance and hierarchy in difference. This theory
will better illustrate how orchestration can be condensed into a conformational model
within each piece and provide a method to measure how each small deviation from the
established background of orchestral style contributes to the whole in regards to form and
intra-opus established norms. Expressive genre theory differs from Moores and Cutlers
analytical methods because it demonstrates, at least in part, a strong correlation between
marked and unmarked events (as reflected in orchestration techniques) and formal
structure.
This paper will focus on Brahmss Variations on a Theme by Haydn for
Orchestra, Op. 56 A, and Variations on a Theme by Haydn for Two Pianos, Op. 56 B.
These pieces include a chorale theme with eight sectional variations and a finale
comprised of eighteen continuous variations with a coda. It is significant that the piano
version pre-dates the orchestral version and that both were completed by the composer;
indicating that the piano version was not a mere transcription, but a complete work in and
of itself. This will be explored in greater depth in Chapter 3.
12
Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven.
CHAPTER 2
METHODOLOGY
Robert Hattens expressive genre theory was originally created to discuss how
13
music has expressive meaning and not merely... what that meaning might be. His
theory is based on the understanding that music is a sonic reflection of human emotions
that can be categorized and codified; with this insight music can be synthesized in terms
of both its structural properties and meaning. Expressive genre theory incorporates more
traditional analytical methods as well as style and linguistic-based approaches from
Edwin Battistella, Leonard Meyer, Leonard Ratner and others.14 Hatten moves from
individual analyses to a general framework for further exploration into ambiguously
expressive musical works. At the very foundation of his expressive interpretations is
the notion of cultural dependency. This follows the logic that the listener can only
synthesize musical stimuli that can be compared to past experiences (i.e. it would be
th
considerably more difficult for an 18 century listener to quickly grasp an electronic
piece or conversely, it is much more difficult for todays listener to quickly grasp
Haydns musical jokes). To quote Leonard Meyer, Because expectation is largely a
product of stylistic experience, music in a style with which we are totally unfamiliar is
meaningless.15
Hatten illustrates the dialectic of stylistic correlations with strategic
16
interpretations in Figure 2.
13
Robert S. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994) 1.
Edwin Battistella, The Logic of Markedness (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). Leonard B.
Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1956). Leonard Ratner,
Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980).
15
Leonard B. Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music, 35.
16
Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 30.
14
Figure 2. Hattens Stylistic/Strategic Interaction Diagram

Stylistic correlations are derived from:
Cultural units or expressive states defined by basic semantic oppositions in a
culture (sad vs. happy; tragic vs. nontragic). These cultural units are mapped onto
general stylistic types, as oppositionally defined by traditional or other theories
(minor vs. major). Interpretations, on the other hand, further specify or
contextualize expressive states as they relate to entities structures or processes
17
actually manifested in musical works (i.e. tokens of their stylistic types).
Cultural expectations (and the undercutting of these expectations) as combined with
18
traditional analytic approaches provide the backbone for Hattens analytical method.
This system should be applicable to any situation where the analytical criteria are
culturally derived hierarchies that oppose traditional interpretations. Orchestration, which

is driven by stylistic considerations, has long been resistant to traditional analytical
approaches (with the exception of the recent Schenkerian-based dissertations cited
above). Hattens culturally contingent system, however, can be fruitfully applied to
orchestrational techniques in all musical genres and time periods.
Expressive genre theory is based on the concepts of markedness, type, and token.
The term, markedness, is taken from linguistics and is, most simply put, valuation given
19
to difference. A marked term is something that has a greater specificity than its
unmarked counterpart. One example Hatten gives are the terms cow and bull. Cow
17
Ibid.
See Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, A Hermeneutic Reading of the Slow Movement of
Beethovens Piano Sonata in B-flat, Op. 106 (Hammerklavier), 11-28
19
Ibid., 34.
18
would be considered an unmarked term because one would use this term when the gender
is not important. On the other hand, the term, bull, would be marked because of its
greater gender specificity. For example, in music, the home key could be considered
20
unmarked and any modulation could be considered marked.
Hattens theory establishes musical styles by grouping a hierarchy of types and

tokens. The term, type, is an ideal or conceptual category defined by features or a range
of qualities that are essential to its identity.21 A token is the specific perceptible entity
that embodies or manifests the features or qualities of the type.22 Using these definitions,
a type can only be defined by its tokens, but a type is not required to account for every
23
detail of its tokens. One example Hatten uses to illustrate this is the tonic triad. In the
key of C Major, C-E-G is considered the tonic triad (the type), but not every C-E-G
sonority is a functional tonic triad, and inversely, not every tonic triad needs a fifth or
even a third to be identified (the tokens).
In my adaptation of Hattens expressive genre theory, the terms marked and
unmarked will play a central role. Meyer claims that, the customary or expected
progression of sounds can be considered as a norm ... and alterations in the expected
progression can be considered as a deviation.24 My study of orchestration illustrates that
works and sections within works establish their own orchestrational hierarchy; any
deviations from this hierarchy would be considered significant. The established intraopus orchestrational hierarchy would be considered an unmarked orchestral norm while
the deviations become marked events that inform our understanding of the work.
It may be useful to equate the orchestral norm to Hattens type. In this study
orchestral techniques will be placed in two categories: blocked style (unmarked) vs.
mixed style (marked). These classifications are based on the accepted practices of 18th
century music as described in Ratners Classic Music: Expression, Form and Style and
Hattens Musical Meaning in Beethoven. Blocked style vs. mixed style orchestrational
type will be discussed further in Chapter 3.
20
Ibid., 44.
Ibid.
22
Ibid., 45.
23
Ibid.
24
Leonard B. Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music, 32.
21
Tokens will include all other parameters (Hopkinss dependent and independent
variables) that influence the type. These parameters include: silence vs. sound, texture
and density, voice and instrumental line, doubling (including variational and acoustical
doubling), voice spacing, and registral isolation. The following two sections will explore
these tokens as representations of orchestral extremes in order to illustrate how the notion
of markedness can be the driving force behind large formal structure.
Sound vs. Silence

Cutler proposes that, The mechanics of the human voice are responsible for the
most fundamental of all textural contrasts sound and silence.... A single melodic line
sung by the human voice is conditioned by the need to take breaths in order to replenish
ones supply of air.25 Thus, pauses in a melodic line can certainly be expected.
Unexpected silence, on the other hand, most likely signals a marked event.
Haydn, Surprise Symphony, No. 94, movement 4
Most readers will be familiar with the following example from Haydns Surprise
Symphony, No. 94, movement 4.
Table 1. Form diagram of Surprise Symphony, No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 1-111
Exposition
Primary
Episode 1
Theme
GM
GM
1-37
38-73
Grand
Pause
74
Secondary
Theme
DM
75-86
Episode 2
Transition
DM
87-99
Cn
100-103
Primary
Theme
GM
104-111
The marked silence of measure 74 plays an essential role in the formal process of the last
movement, allowing a sudden modulation between the tonic key of the main theme and
the dominant key of the second theme. During the preceding three movements, short
25
Cutler, Orchestration and the Analysis of Tonal Music, 256.
silences indicate ends of phrases or emphasize cadences and codas. None of these
26
previous rests are longer than a beat and all fall on weak beats. The marked silence in
the fourth movement consists of a complete measure; the length of silence alone in
measure 74 signals markedness to the listener.
Figure 3. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 71-76
26
There is a rest on beat 1 in m 39, first movement, but it only serves to emphasize the pick-up into a repeat
of the main theme.
10
Adding to the listeners discomfort, the silence interrupts the resolution of the
dominant-A chord to the expected D-major chord. These two chords are stated several
times, changing an otherwise unmarked chord progression to an unmarked 2-beat
dominant/resolution figure. The combination of an extended silence 2 beats placed
within the 2-beat dominant/resolution figure undercuts the logical expectation of the DM
resolution chord on beat one, thus becoming a marked occurrence and adding tension to
this passage.
The piece begins again having changed the instrumentation, dynamics, playing
technique, style, and key. Measure 75 includes violins, cello and bass instead of tutti
strings, flute, oboe, bassoon and horn; piano instead of forte; cello and bass using
pizzicato instead of arco, and singing style instead of the more stately marcato style from
measure 73 (see Figure 4). The expected 1-beat D major resolution chord instantly
becomes the new key of the following secondary theme bypassing the expected transition
passage. The marked silence clears the aural palette, allowing one to accept the sudden
transition and all of its changes in measure 75.
72
73
74
75
76
fl 1/2
ob 1/2
bsn 1/2
hrn 1/2
tpt 1/2
timp
vln 1
vln 2
vla
cello/bass
Figure 4. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 72-76, graph

Timbre and Extended Technique
Timbres play a prominent role in the study of orchestration techniques. Extended
techniques are any techniques that produce sounds by using an instrument in any way
other than what may be typical according to cultural practice, therefore providing new
timbres for musical expression. This would include: plucking the strings on a piano;
using a power tool as a percussion instrument; multiphonics on a woodwind or brass
11
(playing multiple notes using odd key combinations, playing while humming or other
methods), and so forth. Extended techniques sometimes appear as a melodic line (i.e.
whisper tones on the flute), but are usually used as percussive accents. For example,
measure 437 in Dream of a Witches Sabbath from Berliozs Symphony Fantastique,
uses col legno (hitting the string with the wooden part of the bow) to emulate skeletons
dancing. This study will examine the interplay of homogeneous (timbres/voices moving
together) and heterogeneous (timbres/voices moving separately) sonorities with respect to
extended techniques as they relate to form and structure. The following piece uses
extended techniques for strings as its primary orchestrational method, and, ultimately, as
the strongest arbiter of formal structure.
Penderecki, Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima
In Pendereckis familiar work, Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima, timbre as
expressed in extended techniques, is the primary indicator of form. Some of the extended
techniques used in this piece include:
27
Figure 5. Sample of extended techniques used in Threnody

Because of the lack of traditional playing techniques along with the absence of an
established melody or harmony, extended techniques themselves become unmarked.
Instead, changes in the extended techniques signal changes between sections, as
27
Krzysztof Penderecki, Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima (Krakow: Polskie Wydawnictwo Muzyczne
Edition, 1960) 3.
12
summarized in Figure 6 and Table 2. This analysis will focus on the markedness of
measure 26, the beginning of section 2.
Sound block 1 (mm 1-2)
Sound block 2 (m 6)
Sound block 3 (m 10)
Figure 6. Sound block motives in Threnody

Table 2. Form diagram of Threnody
Section 1
Exposition
Subsection 1
Sound block
1
Subsection 2
Sound block
2
Subsection 3
Sound block
3
mm 1-5
mm 6-9
mm 10-17
Subsection 4
Transition
(blending of
sound blocks
1 & 3)
mm 18-25
Section 2
Development
(blending and
development
of sound
blocks 1,2, &
3)
Section 3
Recapitulation
(return of sound
block 1)
mm 26-62
mm 62 70
The manner in which the extended techniques are used in this work can be
grouped into three motive-like entities that I will call sound blocks (see Figure 6). In the
first section each sound block is introduced separately, corresponding to the divisions
provided in Table 2. These sound blocks may dovetail to provide smooth transitions, but
13
each sound block contrasts with those on either side, establishing each sound block as a
28
separate entity. The expository nature of section 1 establishes the orchestral norm for
the entire piece, albeit an orchestral norm comprised exclusively of extended techniques.
The slow progression of musical ideas is disrupted with the entrance of section
two, beginning in m 26.
Figure 7. Penderecki, To the Victims of Hiroshima, mm 24-26

Measure 26 is a marked occurrence for three reasons: it is prefaced by silence, the shift
from homogeneous (few voices/timbres) to heterogeneous (many voices/timbres)
sonorities, and the activity change between m 24 and 26 (activity change is used in lieu of
tempo change, section 1 is considered low activity [slow tempo held pitches] while
section 2 is considered high activity [fast tempo many short percussive pitches]).
Silence in this piece is used similarly to silence in Haydns 96th Symphony: as an
expedient bridge between sections. The five seconds of silence indicated in the score
prepare the listener for the new section while adding contrast to the piece. Even though
14
the timbres used in this piece differ from the usual melody/harmony hierarchy, extended
orchestrational techniques function as the primary method of establishing form.
Notes, Voices and Lines
A study of orchestration techniques is dependent upon the idea that there is
significance in the written notes in addition to the theoretical tones.
29
Moore concludes
that theorists neglect of a thorough study of orchestration is not indicative of any doubt
concerning its importance but, rather, results from the absence of an appropriate
analytical method.30 Moore offers her remedy in a study focusing on orchestration as
illustrated in voice leading, claiming that, In fact, the orchestrational method,
specifically the doubling techniques, create a hypothetical voice hierarchy, in which the
outer voices are of highest importance.31
In Moores analysis, she creates her own terminology in order to establish a
hypothetical voice hierarchy. Voice line is used in the same manner as in four-part
SATB harmony. Instrumental line is limited to the actual notated line of the orchestral
score played by one instrument. Doubling refers to any grouping of vocal and
instrumental lines. Variational doublings are usually in the inner voices and preserve the
individuality of each instrumental line while forming the composite of the inner harmonic
voice leading lines. Acoustical doublings are most often in the outer voices and are pitchclass/octave equivalent doublings at the unison or octave. Voice spacing is significant in
that distance between voices can signal markedness and in extreme cases can result in
registral isolation. The number of voices versus the number of instrumental lines will
comprise the density. Texture constitutes the fusion between the density and timbre
sonorities mentioned in the section above. This study will incorporate Moores
terminology as representatives of Hattens tokens as indicated on page 8.
29
30
31
Rothstein, On Implied Tones. See page 1 for an explanation of this dichotomy.

Moore, The Structural Role of Orchestration in Brahmss Music, 2.
Ibid., 8.
15
Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, movement 3

th
rd
In Tchaikovskys well-known 4 Symphony, the 3 movement emphasizes
changes in instrumentation as indicators of form. In this work, instrumentation plays a

larger role than in the previous two examples, interacting with harmony, key areas, and
thematic material similarly to the orchestral technique found in Brahmss Variations
(Table 3).
Table 3. Form diagram of Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt. 3
Section 1, A
Principle
Theme
Theme 1
Section 2, B
Trio
Tempo 1
Transition
Theme 2
Theme 3
Themes 1&3
Strings
Winds
F Major
A Major
Brass
+ Winds
Df Major
mm 1-136
mm 136-169
mm 170-203
Brass/Winds
+ Strings
Df Major
F Major
mm 204-217
Section 3, A
Principle
Theme
Theme 1
Section 4, C
Coda
Strings
F Major
Winds/Strings
+ Brass
F Major
mm 218-348
mm 349-414
Themes 1,2&3
Throughout this movement the instruments are grouped in choirs, roughly replicating
SATB voices. These choirs have close voice spacing and consistent doublings throughout
the movement. This stability in orchestration allows for the change in instrument choir
coupled closely with thematic shifts to move into prominence as an indicator of form.
This can be heard most clearly at the meno mosso section (m 133) and the coda (m 349).
The change in theme/section and instrument family is particularly salient when
the oboe enters at the meno mosso passage (m 133).
Figure 8. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt. 3, mm 125-140
16
Figure 8 - continued.
Until measure 130, the strings have been playing a consistent pizzicato with close voice
spacing. The length of this string passage gives the listener the false sense that the strings
will continue uninterrupted for the entire movement. The oboes entrance is particularly
jarring in that, besides being a new timbre, the oboe plays forte on a single held note
instead of pianissimo and the staccato that would reflect the strings pizzicato. This held
note acts in a similar manner as the silence in the Haydn example above. The length of
the held A allows the listener to quickly adjust to the new theme, new key of A major,
and the woodwind choir in the Trio section.
By the end of section 2 (see Table 3), instrument families are closely associated
with specific themes. In the Coda, however, Tchaikovsky plays with the expectations
thus created.
Table 4. Form diagram of Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt 3, Coda, mm 349-414
Measures
349-350
351-352
353-354
355-356
357-358
359-360
361-362
363-354
365-372
373-378
Key
FM
DfM
FM
DfM
Fm
FM
Fm
FM
FM
FM
Comments
Winds, theme 1
Strings, theme1
Winds, theme 1
Strings, theme 1
Winds, theme 1
Strings, theme 1
Winds, theme 1
Strings, theme1
Winds (+horn)/strings, theme 2 split antiphonally between families
Winds (+horn)/strings, theme 2 diminished (first 2 beat motive)
17
Table 4 - continued.
379-386
387-394
395-398
399-410
411-414
FM
FM
Winds (+horn)/strings, theme 2 diminished (first 2 eighth-note motive)

Winds, theme 2 (first 2 beats repeated) with string accompaniment taken
from brasss theme 3
FM
Blending of first 2 eighth-note motive of theme 2 and first bar of theme
1(winds), accompaniment figure still suggestive of theme 3 (strings +
horn)
DfM Theme 3 passed between brass, winds and strings
FM
FM
Strings, taken from theme 1, mm 57-59
The Coda derives its interest not from developing themes, but by segmenting and then
splicing the themes together. In the opening of the coda section the strings theme 1 (mm
1-2) is repeated once in the wind choir (mm 349-350) and then by the string choir (mm
351-352) (Table 4). In all three occurrences, the harmony, melody, and rhythms are the
same (with voicing adjusted for the different choirs) differing only in key and instrument
family. Because of each instrument choirs marriage to a respective theme, the change
from the expected string choir to wind choir in measure 349 is marked and is the first
indication to the listener that this is a new section and not a repeat of section 3 (Table 3).
This shifting of instrument choirs in measures 349-364 greatly assists the listener in
following the rapidly changing tonicizations and also prepares the listener for the hocketlike technique in measures 365-386 wherein a 2-beat motive is repeated by toggling
between instrument families (Table 4). As illustrated above, the technique of exploiting
instrument choirs and their themes provides exciting contrast while greatly (and quickly)
clarifying form in this movement.
The art of orchestration is the realization and undercutting of cultural
expectations. Orchestrational techniques evolve their own rules with respect to era,
composer, and genre, and settle into orchestral norms specific to each work. These
orchestrational norms are formed early in each work and create the guidelines for marked
and unmarked events which can either clarify or muddle small and large formal structure.
Marked events can provide extreme contrasts such as the silence in Haydns Surprise
Symphony and the change in extended technique in Pendereckis Threnody to the Victims
18
of Hiroshima, or more subtle (but equally significant) instrument family changes such as
in Tchaikovskys Symphony No. 4, movement 3. This application of marked and
unmarked orchestral events can create a significantly different interpretation of form as
will be evidenced in Chapter 3, Brahmss Variations on a Theme by Haydn for
Orchestra, Op. 56 A and Variations on a Theme by Haydn for Piano, Op. 56 B.
19
CHAPTER 3
BRAHMSS VARIATIONS ON A THEME BY HAYDN FOR ORCHESTRA, OP. 56 A
AND VARIATIONS ON A THEME BY HAYDN FOR PIANO, OP. 56 B
Brahms most likely conceived of writing his Variations on a Theme by Haydn

Opp. 56A and 56B as two independent works with the same donne (original musical
concept) rather than an orchestral version and piano transcription. This can be seen in
correspondence from around the time the piano version was completed. Clara Schumann
wrote in her diary on August 20, 1873, ...In the morning I tried out with Johannes [his]
32
new variations for two claviers on the ?-theme (sic), which are entirely wonderful...
Apparently around this time she had told Fritz Simrock, Brahmss publisher, about the
piece because he sent Brahms an irritated letter over a misunderstanding. A week later
(September 4) Brahms responded:
I did not write you about the variations for two reasons. In the first place, I
thought of Rieter [-Biedermann, his other publisher], and in the second place, they
are actually variations for orchestra. More about it shortly, when I have made up
my mind.
Simrock responded (September 6):
The variations for orchestra? So much the better [in French:] that wont hinder
the two pieces send them to me soon and do not think so much about Rieter but
about the other honest man [pun on the name Biefermann]!! You probably have
the score already finished and are having it played in Munich? I am very glad of
it...
In Donald M. McCorkles investigation of these passages he suggests that Brahms may
not have thought of re-writing the piece for orchestra until he played it through
(completed) with Clara Schumann; there is no mention of orchestrating the piece before
th
September 4 .
32
Donald M. McCorkle, The Variations within the 1873 Portfolio. Variations on a Theme of Haydn,
Opp. 56A and 56B (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1976) 19-21.
20
Understanding the two versions of Variations on a Theme by Haydn as fraternal

twins allows one to view the two pieces differences with greater meticulousness. Ones
perception of the two works, and hence ones understanding of them, is significantly
influenced by the application of orchestration to the donne, leading to essential
differences between versions. Because of this, Variations on a Theme by Haydn Opp.
56A and 56B, will prove a worthy example of how orchestration can effect the perception
of form.
Style, Topic, and Degree of Dignity
Music has a lengthy history of characteristic figures that help define styles and
connote various affects to the listener. In Leonard Ratners book, Classic Music;
Expression, Form and Style, he catalogs these figures as topics and clarifies their
33
constituent musical features through historic sources. Topics (and the more
comprehensive style) have long been useful in differentiating between pieces with the
same formal structure (e.g., binary) in a set of works (e.g., dances in a Baroque suite).
Topics and styles are most typically applied with respect to tempo, meter, and
characteristic rhythmic figures (although musical gestures and contours can also play a
role as in the horn call), but as demonstrated in Musical Meaning in Beethoven by Hatten
(see pp 6-9), Playing with Signs by V. Kofi Agawu, and Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart by
Wye Jamison Allanbrook, the expressive content of topics and styles adds another
dimension to the understanding of style and, therefore, can lead to a greater
understanding of form.34
As discussed earlier, Hattens expressive genre theory is based on the idea that
there is significance in difference. Orchestral technique is established early in each piece
becoming the unmarked orchestral norm. The length of time devoted to establishing the
orchestrational norm would depend upon instrumentation, composer, genre, era, and
33
Leonard Ratner, Classic Music; Expression, Form and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 3-27.
Agawu, V. Kofi, Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music (Princeton: Princeton
University Press) 1991. Allanbrook, Wye Jamison, Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart; Le Nozze di Figaro and
Don Giovanni (Chicago: University of Chicago Press) 1984. Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven.
34
21
overall length of each piece. It may be easier to establish the orchestral norm after it has
th
been deviated from, such as the marked silence in Haydns Surprise Symphony, 4
movement. The piece can either return to its original unmarked state, such as in the
Haydn, or remain in its new marked state, such as the new extended technique in
Pendereckis Threnody eventually becoming the new unmarked orchestral norm.
Agawu approaches a semiotic theory of classical music by applying his theory of
topic (T) and essence of topic (E) within the confines of plot (P) or structural rhythm
(SR) to a Beginning-Middle-End (BME) paradigm as established by Schenkerian
analysis. Agawu believes that this BME paradigm provides the much needed syntax
that leads to the formation of a topical hierarchy. Agawu continues that these topics (T)
can be either examined in two ways. Topics (T) can be examined with respect to other
extra-musical events (i.e. a confrontation between high and low styles, an episode from
a commedia dellarte, a critique of an Enlightenment world view) resulting in a plot (P)
reading. Topics (T) can also be examined by stripping them of their referentiality and
using just the pure essence (E) (rhythm, a procedure, a melodic progression, a cadence)
of each topic (T) and applying it to the BME paradigm resulting in a structural reading
(SR). Agawu believes both of these methods have merit, but by stripping topics to their
essence it is easier to validate topics influence on overall structure thereby producing a
more persuasive argument. 35
This is in stark contrast to Allanbrooks application of topic as a significant
thematic element in Le nozze di Figaro and Don Giovanni. In Allanbrooks analysis, he
uses the low/middle/high styles (degree of dignity) implied within dances to further
character development in these operas. The given style provides the character more
meaning; much like meter and word choice enhances characters in Shakespearian plays.
The degree of dignity inherently implied in styles was considered an important
element in eighteenth-century music. Ratner claims that, In vocal music, the connection
between feeling and figure was explicit. In instrumental music which imitated opera,
church music, and ballet this connection could only be implied, but it was
35
Agawu, Playing with Signs, 128-130.
22
unquestionably present.36 Ratner establishes the prevalent opinion of a styles degree of

dignity during the eighteenth century:
Degrees of dignity are described by Johann Adolph Scheibe in Der critische
Musikus, 1745. He distinguishes between the high, middle and low styles. He says
that the high style must be stately and emphatic; the harmony must be full, the
ideas fully carried through, the melody rich in invention, fresh, lively, and
elevated. It should be used only for heroes, kings, and other great men and noble
spirits; magnanimity, majesty, love of power, magnificence, pride, astonishment,
anger, fear, madness, revenge, doubt, and other similar qualities and passions can
only be expressed in the high style.
The middle style, according to Scheibe, is ingenious, pleasant, and flowing; it
must please the listener rather than excite him or lead him to reflection. The
melody must be clear, lively, flowing, and well turned; harmony must serve only
to make the melody clearer and must never dominate (this refers to texture, rather
than chord progression). Joy, delight, love, devotion, modesty, and patience are
the best imitated in this style.
The low style avoids all clever elaborations; it permits no extensions and should
be used in short pieces. It represents nature in its simplest form, and is used for
low-born persons and for objects and situations associated with them. Its
characteristic embodiment is the shepherd; some others are beggars, slaves, poor
37
prisoners, and farmers.
This paper is based on the idea that during the eighteenth century the cultural norm in art
music (including Brahmss Variations) is this high style. In the above quote, Ratner
establishes that high-style music would include a stately, unambiguously rhythmic and
powerful/authoritative melody, and perhaps reference to the learned style (canon, fugue,
fugato) or historical styles (styles associated with the church e.g. chorale, stile antico, and
oratorio.)38 High-style music could then be paired with the appropriate/predictable
instrumentation techniques. A high style of instrumentation would include fanfares
played by brass choirs, a fugue played by organ, or oratorios performed by strings and
solo voice. The combination of high style music and a high style of instrumentation
would thus produce blocked orchestration such as predictable (unmarked) tessituras,
36
37
38
Ratner, Classic Music, 8.

Ratner, Classic Music, 7-8.
Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 75, and Ratner, Classic Music, 23.
23
predictable (unmarked) voice hierarchies, (unmarked) clear and full harmonization with
clear voice leading, and ideas carried through without shifting of voice lines.
Mixed orchestration should be considered as an antithesis of blocked
orchestration rather than high style music (much like Hattens regulation of unmarked
39
comic vs. marked tragic.) Therefore, in opposition, mixed orchestration would use
marked orchestration, marked tessituras, ambiguous voice hierarchies with ambiguous

voice leading and shifting of voice lines mid-phrase but perhaps with the high-style
music of a chorale or fugue. The grouping of mixed orchestration with low-style music
would be seen to strengthen both (e.g. musical saw used in disjoined melody in a Classic
era work), but is not necessary to establish its existence or significance to the given work.
According to this theory, mixed (marked) orchestration is dependent upon the existence
and prevalence to blocked (unmarked) orchestration to establish its influence on the
passage/work in question. The occurrence of mixed orchestration can further support
smaller-scale structural divisions that were already present allowing for larger-scale
structural divisions to emerge from orchestral/stylistic pairings. This grants for the
seemingly small difference in medium between Variations on a Theme by Haydn for
Orchestra, Op 56 A and Variations on a Theme by Haydn for Piano, Op 56 B to provide
each with a significantly different interpretation of overall form as will be presented in
Orchestrational Influence on Overall Form.
Brahms and the Division between High and Low Styles
In the Variations for Orchestra, Brahms contrasts musical styles and levels of
orchestration to create inter- and intra-variation formal coherence. The following tables
are a skeletal mapping of the pieces form and style:
39
Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 76.
24
Table 5. Skeletal mapping of the Theme

Measures
1-10 (repeated)
Structural
Division
A
11-29 (repeated)
Thematic Style
Chorale in high march style, ecclesiastical
high style
Re-emphasis of high march style,
ecclesiastical high style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
I-V (1-5),
I-I (6-10)
V-V (11-18),
I-I (19-22),
6
I 4 I (23-29)
The theme (Table 5) uses duple meter with equal stress on both beats. It has crisp,
repeated dotted-eighth-sixteenth-note patterns with a clear representation of the tonic.
The orchestral version uses double reed choir with horns to suggest royalty (this will be
discussed further on page 30). Voice lines are retained throughout the theme and the
theme ends in a full tonic chord with open spacing over the full range of the orchestra, yet
each instrument stays in a comfortable tessitura.
Table 6. Skeletal mapping of Variation 1
Measures
30-39 (repeated)
Structural
Division
A
40-58 (repeated)
Thematic Style
Blending of march
melody/accompaniment with pastoral
countermelody (The drone
accompaniment figure in mm 30-32 and
35-37 is a pastoral quality, but because of
its proximity to the same figure [and same
note] in an established march style
segment, this drone figure takes on both
qualities: march and pastoral.)
middle/high style
Continuation of drone and pastoral,
middle/high style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
I-V (30-34),
I-I (35-39)
i-I (40-43),
IV-I (44-48),
I-I (48-58)
Variation 1 (Table 6) begins in duple meter with a drone accompaniment. An eighth-note

melody and pastoral triplet countermelody figure overlay each other both are flowing,
diatonic, rhythmically simple, repetitious, and highly arpeggiated. The drone
accompaniment begins with low reeds (+ horn) producing a warm bridge connecting the
25
brilliant-style end of the theme and the calmer pastoral countermelody in variation 1. This
timbral choice is more pronounced after the high winds enter in m 35 with the same tone
and rhythm but a pronounced color change. The drone continues in part B and the
strings triplet countermelody comes into prominence becoming the main melodic motive
by m 44. This will be discussed further in An Alternate Reading of Overall Form.
Measures
Thematic Style
59-68 (repeated)
Structural
Division
A
69-87 (repeated)
Continuation of gavotte, high dance style
Gavotte, high dance style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
i-V (59-63),
i-i (64-68)
V-V (69-76),
i-V7 (77-80),
I-I (81-87)
Variation 2 (Table 7) uses duple meter, a dotted-eighthsixteenth note repeated march

rhythm in the melody and a running eighth-note accompaniment suggesting the gavotte
style. The triplet pastoral motive from variation 1 returns in mm 62-63 and 67-68 in
violin 1. The eighth-note march motive from variation 1 returns as running eighth-note
accompaniment. The eighth-note accompaniment figure emerges as the melodic figure
in mm 82, 84-86. The dotted-eighth-note-sixteenth-note pattern never deviates from the
woodwinds/brass suggesting a rigidly formal blocked orchestration. Voice lines are
retained throughout this variation.
Thematic Style
(B f) Tonal Structure
88-107
Structural
Division
A
Singing style - duple meter,

middle style
108-145
Singing style/singing allegro duple meter, middle style
I-I (88-93) (elision),

iii6-I (93-97),
I-I (98-103) (elision),
I-I (103-107)
V7-V (108-115),
I-I (116-120) (elision),
V7/IV -I (120-126),
V-I (127-135),
I-vi (135-139) (elision),
vi-I (139-145)
Measures
26
In variation 3, measures 88-97 (Table 8), the oboe and bassoon melody and
countermelody are orchestrated similar to Part A of the theme. Viola, cello and double
bass are acoustical doublings of the walking bass line (similar to the gavottes running
eighth-note accompaniment from variation 2). Horn emphasizes the chromatic
ascending line in mm 90-92 and 95-97. In measures 98-107 the melody, countermelody
and walking bass line are repeated verbatim in strings. The oboe joins the horn in a
repeat of the chromatic ascending line and the flutes and bassoons introduce a new
sixteenth-note accompaniment, prominent specifically because of timbre. Voice lines are
clearly established and retained throughout (again reminiscent of the voice structure of
the theme). This is the first time the repeats are written out in both the piano and
orchestra versions. Variation 3 has a marked change in the number of voices and mixed
orchestration, particularly beginning in m 108. This will be discussed further in An
Alternate Reading of Overall Form.
Measures
146-165
Structural
Division
A
166-205
Thematic Style
Singing style - triple meter, middle
style
Continuation of singing style - triple
meter, middle style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
i-i (146-155),
i-i (156-165)
V-V (166-173),
i-i (174-185),
V7-V (186-193),
i-i (194-205)
Variation 4 (Table 9) is the only variation entirely in minor mode. The melody is
stepwise with a walking bass line. The primary melody (eighth notes) and secondary
melody (sixteenth notes) toggle back and forth in prominence and instrument families,
but voices/instrument families do not change mid-phrase. Voice lines remain extremely
stable once they are established.
27

Measures
Thematic Style
206-225
Structural
Division
A
226-263
Continuation of tarantella, low dance

style
Tarantella, low dance style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
IV64-V (206-210),
IV64-I (211-215),
IV-I (216-225)
I64-V7 (226-233),
vi-I (234-244),
6
i 4-I (245-263)
Variation 5 (Table 10) begins with the melody/harmony split between winds and strings.
Sudden changes in dynamics as presented in variations 2 and 4 are used throughout
variation 5 as a significant motive. Musical ideas stay consistent within instrumental
voices, but because of tempo, changes in dynamic, and the antiphonal nature of this
section, the melody line shifts between instruments and instrument families within the
phrases.
Measures
264-273
Structural
Division
A
274-292
Thematic Style
Galant style military march,
middle/low style
Continuation of galant style military
march, middle/low style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
I-vi (264-273)
V-V (274-282),
I-I (282-292)
Variation 6 (Table 11) begins with the return of the instrumentation from m 30 (variation
1), but this time the melody is in the low winds/horns and accompaniment is in the
strings. In this variation the standard phrase structure from the theme returns. The brass
are prominent throughout this variation, significant because until this variation they were
primarily supporting. Instruments are now treated as one entity orchestrated by range
instead of by family.
28

Measures
293-302
(repeated)
303-321
(repeated)
Structural
Division
A
Thematic Style
Continuation of siciliano, low dance

style
Siciliano, low dance style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
I-V7 (293-297),
I-I (298-302)
V7-V7 (303-310),
I-I (311-321)
In variation 7 (Table 12) the orchestra version leaves out the 2 opening gracenotes found
in the piano version. The register change between first (mm 293-297) and second (mm
298-302) phrases from the piano version is now emphasized by a change in
instrumentation: first phrase - flute with viola to cello and bass, second phrase - violin
with bassoon to flute, oboe, and clarinet. Even with the piano dynamic marking, the high
tessitura of the flute/viola entrance gives the beginning a marked strength. This variation
continues the use of orchestra as one entity from variation 6. This is prevalent in mm
314-321 wherein 2 groups of 3 descending eighth notes pass between brass, winds and
strings. This is the first appearance of a seamless melding of melodic elements between
instrument families as differentiated from the rhythmic driven elements in variations 5
and 6.
Measures
Structural Division
Thematic Style
322-341
Storm and stress,

fantasia style
342- 360
(repeated)
B (This section can be

interpreted as a
development of part A
instead of a new part B.)
Continuation of storm
and stress, fantasia style
(B f) Tonal
Structure
i-V7 (322-326),
i-i (327-331),
VI-i (332-341)
V-I (342-346),
I-V (346-349),
I-I (350-360)
Variation 8 (Table 13) uses minor mode throughout this variation and the grand
chromatic passages typical of storm and stress. Orchestration is set up in that the melodic
figure "sweeps across the orchestra, linking the strings (m 322) to the winds (m 327) to
29
the horns (m 334). This orchestrational technique can be interpreted as a development of

mm 314-321 in variation 7 and a continuation of the melding of instrument families
climaxing in mm 354-360. During these measures winds (piccolo, flute, clarinet,
bassoon), brass (horn 1/2), strings, and timpani blend together creating one sound with
the oboe/horn 3 figure acting as a stabilizing foundation (oboe/horn 3 figure does not
appear in the piano version).
Table 14. Skeletal mapping of Finale
Section 3
Section 2
Section 1
Intro
Section
Measures
361-365
366-370
371-375
376-380
381-385
386-390
391-395
396-400
Continuous
Variation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
401-405
406-410
9
10
411-415
11
416-420
12
421-425
13
426-430
431-435
436-440
441-445
446-462
14
15
16
17
18
463-471
Coda
(B f) Tonal
Structure
Fugato
I-V7
Continuation of fugato
I-V7
7
Continuation of fugato, high style
I-V
Marcato, high style
I-V7
7
Continuation of marcato, high style
I-V
7
I-V
Marcato, fugato, high style
I-V7
Continuation of marcato, fugato, high fIV64 (vii of
style
V)-V7
Singing style, middle style
I-V7
Continuation of singing style, middle I-V7
style
7
Singing style, but becoming marcato I-V
with pizzicato cello and staccato
(with slurs) winds, middle style
Continuation of singing style with
I-V7
marcato tendencies, middle style
Continuation of singing style with
I-V7
marcato tendencies, high style
Marcato, high style
i-v
I-V
7
i-V
I-V7
Maestoso, high style
I-I, reprise of
mm 1-9, 2329 (448-462)
Coda, high style
I-I
Thematic Style
The finale differs from earlier variations in that it is comprised of 18 continuous

variations built on a repeating 5-bar ostinato-like bass line. This is the only variation that
30
contains the original theme (mm 448-462) creating a circular relationship while elevating
the meaning of the theme. This will be discussed further in An Alternate Reading of
Overall Form.
The Blocked Orchestration of Measures 1-10
As discussed above, Brahmss Variations establishes the blocked orchestral norm
in the theme. In Brahmss Variations, a double reed choir introduces the theme. This is
significant since it is reminiscent of the typically formal Trio sections and double reed
consorts in larger works by Handel or J.S. Bach.40 The solemnity inherent in the double
reed choir with horns upgrades the simple (yet stately) chorale in the piano version
(indicative of a country church service) into a high march style suggesting regality and
divine right.41 The thicker instrumentation and louder dynamic in measures 11-29 further
suggests this style.
The accompanying voicing supports the blocked orchestration of the theme. The
orchestration is predictable and voice lines and instrumental lines remain consistent,
resulting in a very controlled homogeneous texture. The following two figures are the
score and voicing graph of the first 10 measures of the theme, illustrating the static
orchestrational character of this passage (Figures 9 and 10).
40
A partial list includes: J.S. Bach, Orchestral Suite No. 1: Overture m 29 (marked Trio) and m 56
(marked Trio), Boure II, 2 oboes with bassoon; Orchestral Suite No. 4: Overture m 49 (not marked
Trio), Boure II, 3 oboes with bassoon; Brandenburg Concerto No. 1, 4th mvt, 1st Trio, 2 oboes with
bassoon; St. Matthews Passion: Wiewohl mein Herze in Trnen schwimmt, 2 oboe damores, continuo
and soprano; Ich will dir mein Herze schenken, 2 oboe damores, continuo and soprano; Mein Jesus
schweigt zu falschen Lgen stille, 2 oboes, continuo and tenor; Sehet, Jesus hat die Hand, 2 oboe da
caccias, continuo and alto; B minor Mass: Et in Spiritum Sanctum Dominium, 2 oboe damores, continuo
and bass. G.F. Handel, prominent sections in Water Music, 2 oboes with bassoon; and Music for the Royal
Fireworks, 3 oboes with bassoon.
41
Allanbrook, Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart, 66-67.
31
Figure 9. Theme, mm 1-10
32
10
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vla
cello
bass
soprano
alto
bass
Figure 10. Variations for Orchestra, mm 1-10, graph

The Mixed Orchestration of Measures 108-111
Measures 108-111 illustrate mixed orchestration. In these measures the quartertwo-eighth-note melody in horn 1 (m 108), and the bassoons four-eighth-note
countermelody (m 108), shift between clarinet, horn 3 and strings. This passage is
intensified by the proximity to the high style double reed choir in mm 88-97. These
changes in voice line and instrumental line result in a sudden switch to a mixedorchestration heterogeneous texture. This is illustrated in Figures 11 and 12.
33
Figure 11. Variation 3, mm 108-111

108
109
110
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vln 2 div.
vla
vla div.
cello
bass
(acting) soprano
inner-voice 1
inner-voice 2
inner-voice 3
inner-voice 4
(acting) bass
Figure 12. Variation 3, mm 108-111, graph
34
111
Orchestrational Influence on Overall Form

As with many theme-and-variations movements, Brahmss Variations can be
organized into an intra-variation schematic order. But unlike most theme and variations,
this piece can be viewed in two distinct ways, one taking into account a strict formal
reading and the other placing emphasis on orchestrational type.
A Traditional Reading of Overall Arc Form

This piece can be organized in a largely symmetrical arc form:
Theme
Finale
Figure 13. Graph of Traditional Arc Form

Table 15. Table of Traditional Arc Form focusing on a traditional analysis of
harmonic and thematic relationships
Sections
Theme &
Finale
1&8
2&7
3&6
4&5
Relationship
High style
Theme is high march style as explained above; finale begins with a fugato and
ends in a triumphant expression of the theme in full orchestra.
Both center on the eighth-note pulse, 1st as eighth-note triplet in a smooth pastoral
style, the latter in a smooth storm and stress.
nd
th
Both are the only two dance forms, 2 is a gavotte, the 7 is in the siciliano style.
Both dances focus on dotted-eighth-note-sixteenth-note pattern elsewhere found
only in the theme.
Similar in their use of running eighth notes and are the only two variations that stay
in the major key for the entirety of the variation.
Both deviate from the strict 48-measure length of the theme, but are similar to each
other (60 and 58 measures respectively). Their proximity causes them to be more
complimentary rather than compliant: variation 4 is in a smooth, singing style and
minor, variation 5 is in a staccato, tarantella-like style and major.
As shown in Figure 13 and Table 15 above, Brahmss Variations can be arranged

in a largely symmetrical arc form pivoted around variations 4 and 5. This arc form is only
dependent upon the presence of motive, harmony, and thematic style and can be applied
35
to both the orchestral and piano versions. The following section will illustrate that an
analysis with respect to orchestrational technique places the orchestrational version into
another form distinguishing it from the original piano version.
An Alternate Reading of Overall Form
The orchestrational choices set forth in this piece not only establish formal
divisions within variations, but through their strategic placement in many variations, they
create their own formal hierarchy. Brahmss Variations on a Theme by Haydn for
Orchestra, Op. 56 A can be split into 4 sections each using a greater complexity of
orchestration techniques reflecting the thematic development of each section (Figure 14
and Table 16).
Section 1
Theme
Section 2
1
Section 3
5
Section 4
8
Finale
Figure 14. Graph of Alternate Form

Table 16. Table of Alternate Form focusing on an analysis with respect to orchestrational
techniques
Section
Relationship
Theme, 1
a) Straightforward doublings with clear establishment of consorts by
&2
families
b) Marriage of motives to specific consorts
c) Lack of shifting voice lines mid-phrase (lack of dialog between
consorts)
3, 4 & 5
a) Passing melody/countermelody between consorts between phrases
b) Uses instrumentation to clarify changing a motive from melody to
countermelody and vice versa
c) Dialog by use of dynamic contrast while keeping motives consistent
to consorts during phrases
6, 7 & 8
a) Consorts grouped by range rather than family
b) Dialog by shifting voice lines mid-phrase
d) More use of full orchestra
36
Table 16 - continued.
Finale
a) Uses full orchestra over full range
b) Groups consorts by family, range, or other
c) Dialog within and between families
e) Shifting/joining voice lines mid-phrase
These section groupings illustrate the significance of orchestration as a means of
measurable change. The orchestrational norm is presented in the theme and reinforced in
variations 1 and 2. Orchestrational technique is developed alongside the thematic
development in sections 2 and 3. In section 4, orchestrational techniques suddenly shift in
complexity reflecting the higher level of thematic sophistication in the finale. This is in
sharp contrast from the finales equivalence to the theme as presented earlier in the
Traditional Arc Form (Figure 13 and Table 6).
The orchestration in section1. In addition to the thematic development between
the theme and variation 1, the choices in orchestration give more meaning (extra-musical
information, that is, style implications) and greater continuity within this section. This is
reflected in the opening of variation 1, mm 30-34 (Figures 15 and 16).
37
30
31
32
33
34
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vla
cello
bass
soprano
alto
bass

These opening 5 measures are comprised of 3 parts: the Bf drone
accompaniment, the quarter-note melody, and the triplet countermelody. The Bf bass
drone in variation 1 is taken directly from the themes cadential BfM chords in mm 2729. The drone uses the wind sonority from the theme, but limits it to the low winds,
adding the high winds in measure 35 as their own consort. The small change from both
high and low winds (+ horn) to low winds (+ horn) allows the string melody and
countermelody to be heard unobstructed by the higher timbres while linking the theme
and first variation together.
As mentioned above in Table 6, this variation contrasts the higher march style
influence from the theme retained in the drone, with the low style pastoral triplet
countermelody. This pastoral triplet motive remains in the strings throughout variation 1
(and variation 2) contrasting the now low style strings from the high style double reeds in
38
the theme (see page 30). Neither the double reeds nor the strings retain this style
designation for the entire piece, but the close proximity of contrasting degrees of dignity
so early in the piece suggests the importance of musical styles as another form of musical
expression in this work.
The orchestration in section 2. In variation 3 the development of the sixteenthnote countermelody is supported by instrumentation. This variation begins with 3 parts:
melody (oboe 1 and bassoon 1, m 88), harmony (oboe 2 and bassoon 2, m 88), and eighth
note walking bass line (viola, cello, bass, m 88). The string family then repeats this
phrase with a new sixteenth-note accompaniment figure in the flute and bassoon (mm 98107). Beginning in m 108, the walking bass line and opening motive of the melody
pass between instruments in a playful argument to decide which will be the new
prominent melody (see page 32). This argument is settled in measure 112, with the
oboe playing the new transitional melody (a development of the walking bass line)
over the horns new transitional harmony (a development of the original melody from m
88) until the reprise of the original melody and harmony in measure 116. In measure 127
the playful argument returns, this time with the melody motive from measures 88 and
108 and a harmony developed from the blending of the walking bass line from measure
88 and sixteenth-note accompaniment from measure 98 (Figures 17 and 18).
39
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vln 2 div.
vla
vla div.
cello
bass
(acting) soprano
inner-voice 1
inner-voice 2
inner-voice 3
inner-voice 4
(acting) bass

This new playful argument is settled again by the oboes conformational return in
measure 131. The prominence provided in instrument choice of the new sixteenth-note
melody shifts the melody/harmony hierarchy to a new madrigal-like equivalency.
The orchestration in section 3. In measures 314-321 of variation 7, the
orchestration shifts from being primarily melody and accompaniment, to a new orchestra
timbre comprised of multiple music ideas moving through the wind, brass, and string
families and high and low ranges (Figures 19 and 20). This passage contains 3 motives:
descending eighth-note motive (horn, m 314), dotted-eighth-sixteenth-note motive
(clarinet, m 314), and quarter-eighth pulse (violin, m 314). These motives ebb and flow
into one another (partly due to a shifting of dynamic levels) creating a new full orchestra
timbre before variation 8 develops this concept into a full variation.
This passage can be heard as a development of mm 127-134 in variation 3 not
only for its use of passing motives between families, but by the reprisal of oboe and horn
as the main melodic instruments (see Figure 17).
40
314
41
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vln 2 div.
vla
vla div.
cello
bass
(acting) soprano
inner-voice 1
inner-voice 2
inner-voice 3
inner-voice 4
inner-voice 5
inner-voice 6
inner-voice 7
inner-voice 8
(acting) bass

The orchestration in section 4. In Brahmss Variations the finale is different
from the other variations in many respects including basic formal structure (continuous
variations and a coda instead of sectional variations), reprisal of the original theme (mm
448-462, Table 14), and orchestration techniques. Although the Traditional Arc Form
groups this section with the theme, an analysis using orchestrational styles along with
thematic development places the finale into its own section.
This variation begins with a gradual introduction of instruments using the high
fugato style (see Table 14). This sudden shift from storm and stress style in variation 8 to
the antiquated fugato in the finale is emphasized by the change of the quick pulsing full
orchestra to the held notes in the cello and bass. Even though the finales first note is only
3 beats, the length acts similarly to the marked silence in Haydns Surprise Symphony, 4
rd
movement (p 9) and the oboes held A in Tchaikovskys Symphony No. 4, 3 movement
(p 16) in that it allows the listener to cleanse the aural pallet and signals to the listener
that this is a new section (Figures 21 and 22).
42
th
Figure 21. Finale, mm 361-371

361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vln 2 div.
vla
vla div.
cello
cello div.
bass
(acting) soprano
inner-voice 1
inner-voice 2
inner-voice 4
inner-voice 5
inner-voice 6
inner-voice 7
inner-voice 10
Figure 22. Finale, mm 361-371, graph
43
inner-voice 11
(acting) bass
370
371
The finale also presents the only return of the original theme in full orchestra over
the full range with consorts grouped by range instead of family. This reprisal begins in
measure 448, climaxing in mm 457-460 with a tutti fortissimo prevailed by the horn choir
(Figures 23 and 24). Significantly, mm 448-456 use mixed orchestration suddenly
switching to blocked orchestration in mm 457-471, further emphasizing the new
triumphant maestoso style of the fanfare-like theme. The marked return to blocked
orchestration can be understood to be a recapitulation of the theme while elevating the
meaning of the theme. The presentation of the high march style has transfigured into a
high exultant style procession. This passage places the finale higher in regard to an
orchestrational style hierarchy directly opposing the Traditional Arc Forms theme and
finale equivalence.
Figure 23.Finale, mm 455-462
44
Figure 23 continued.
45
picc
fl 1
fl 2
ob1
ob 2
cl 1
cl 2
bsn 1
bsn 2
cbsn
hrn 1
hrn 2
hrn 3
hrn 4
tpt 1
tpt 2
timp
triangle
vln 1
vln 2
vln 2 div.
vla
vla div.
cello
cello div.
bass
448
(acting) soprano
inner-voice 1
inner-voice 2
inner-voice 3
449
450
inner-voice 4
inner-voice 5
inner-voice 6
inner-voice 7
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
inner-voice 8 (acting) bass

inner-voice 9
inner-voice 10
inner-voice 11
Figure 24. Finale, mm 448-462, graph

The application of styles expressive content to how that content is presented
orchestrationally adds another dimension to the understanding of other styles and a
greater understanding of form. In Variations on a Theme by Haydn for Orchestra, the
contrasting of orchestrational types alongside the development of themes strengthens the
effects of other musical parameters: register, dynamic, duration and timbre creating interand intra-variation formal coherence significantly different than its companion work,
Variations on a Theme by Haydn for Piano.
46
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION
Orchestration has a significant impact on the form and structure of music

affecting both small and large formal structures. The shift in attention away from the
theoretical tones to the more inclusive notes can add greater depth into the
exploration of the total work. In this paper I have examined orchestrations influence on
small and large forms by applying the style-driven analytical model of expressive genre
theory specifically in its use of marked and unmarked events signaling a change in
musical style and/or orchestrational norm.
42
Expressive genre theory proves to be an appropriate analytical method to the art

of orchestration because of its reliance on the realization and undercutting of cultural
expectations. Orchestrational norms are subject to the era, composer, and genre and are
formed early in the work providing an unmarked background for the upcoming marked
events. Using this theory, marked and unmarked events offer subtle and not subtle
changes in orchestration that constitute measurable change in small and large forms. This
is evidenced by a marked silence acting in lieu of a transition passage in Haydns
Surprise Symphony, and a marked change in timbre as section indicator in Pendereckis
Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima. Also, the more subtle marked changes in
instrument family provide small and large sectional divisions in Tchaikovskys
rd
Symphony No. 4, 3 movement.
Topics and styles have long been applied to differentiate between pieces of the
same formal structure (e.g., binary) in a set of works (e.g., dances in a baroque suite).
These topics and styles are usually applied with respect to tempo, rhythm, and meter, but
their expressive content, along with degree of dignity, uncovers another dimension to the
understanding of style and, therefore, can lead to a greater understanding of form.
Using this analytical method, orchestration techniques can be divided into two
contrasting entities: blocked orchestration (unmarked), which uses clear and full
harmonization with clear voice leading, and mixed orchestration (marked), which uses
ambiguous voice leading and shifting of voices mid-phrase. Marked events of mixed
42
Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven.
47
orchestration support smaller-scale structural divisions allowing for larger-scale structural

divisions to emerge from orchestral/stylistic pairings. These pairings can lead to a
significantly different interpretation of overall form as evidenced in Brahmss Variations
on a Theme by Haydn for Orchestra.
In Chapter 3, two formal analyses of Brahmss Variations were given, one based
on traditional analytical methods and the other using the expressive genre analytical
model, historically documented degree of dignity, and the use of voice lines/instrumental
lines. By applying the orchestrationally influenced expressive genre analytical model, the
contrasting of musical styles, and orchestration techniques uncovers inter- and intravariation formal coherence. This leads to an alternate overall form consisting of 4
sections each with an increase of orchestration complexity reflecting the thematic
development of this work.
This paper is premised on the idea that orchestrational technique is in fact a
definable, culturally derived style. As Leonard B. Meyer states,
Style constitutes the universe of discourse within which musical means arise.
There are many musical styles. They vary from culture to culture, from epoch to
epoch within the same culture, and even within the same epoch and culture. This
plurality of musical styles results because styles exist not as unchanging physical
processes in the world of nature, but as psychological processes ingrained as
habits in the perceptions, dispositions, and responses of those who have learned
through practice and experience to understand a particular style. What remains
constant from style to style are not scales, modes, harmonies, or manner of
performance, but the psychology of human mental processes the ways in which
the mind, operating within the context of culturally established norms, selects and
43
organizes the stimuli that are presented to it.
As illustrated in this paper, orchestrational techniques change with each piece, but
the process of orchestration is ubiquitous regardless of era, composer, or genre.
Expressive genre theory, because of its culturally derived basis, proves to be a viable
means to analyze the role of orchestration within the compositional process of composers
of many eras. Finally, it is hoped that a closer examination of orchestrational techniques
as a codifiable entity can provide greater insight to the complete finished work.
43
Leonard B. Meyer, Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture.
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967) 7.
48
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allanbrook, Wye Jamison. Rhythmic Gesture in Mozart; Le Nozze di Figaro and Don
Giovanni. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Battistella, Edwin. The Logic of Markedness. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Cutler, Timothy Spence. Orchestration and the Analysis of Tonal Music: Interaction
between Orchestration and Other Musical Parameters in Selected Symphonic
Compositions, c. 1785-1835. PhD. diss., Yale University, 2000.
Hatten, Robert S. Musical Meaning in Beethoven. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1994.
Hopkins, Robert G. Closure and Mahlers Music: the Role of Secondary Parameters.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990.
Kofi, Agawu, V. Playing with Signs: A Semiotic Interpretation of Classic Music.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.
McCorkle, Donald M. The Variations within the 1873 Portfolio. Variations on a Theme
of Haydn, Opp. 56A and 56B. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1976.
Meyer, Leonard B. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in TwentiethCentury Culture. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1967.
Meyer, Leonard B. Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1956.
Moore, Hilarie Clark. The Structural Role of Orchestration in Brahmss Music: A Study
of the Third Symphony. PhD. diss., Yale University, 1991.
Penderecki, Krzysztof. To the Victims of Hiroshima. Krakow: Polskie Wydawnictwo
Muzyczne Edition, 1960.
Ratner, Leonard. Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style. New York: Schirmer
Books, 1980.
Rothstein, William. On Implied Tones, Music Analysis 10 (October 1991): 289-328.
49
Schachter, Carl. Unfoldings: Essays in Schenkerian Theory and Analysis. Edited by

Joseph N. Straus. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
50
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Kathryn E. Steetle was born in Massachusetts to southern parents resulting in a

childhood rich with sweet tea, grits, and Red Sox games. At the age of 7 she started piano
lessons ending them abruptly 6 months later because of the realization that she would
have to practice to get any better. When she was 9, she tried again with the clarinet
playing in the school band. The following year she switched to the oboe just to be
different. This one stuck.
Her family moved to Jacksonville, FL the summer before high school. Here she
attended Douglas Anderson School of the Arts High School where she studied oboe and
English horn with Claudia Minch and Eric Olson of the Jacksonville Symphony. This led
to Florida State University where she studied with Eric Ohlsson and became more
interested in Music Theory. After graduating with a BM in Music Theory in 2001, she
began her Masters degree in Music Theory at Florida State University completing it in
2007.
51

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A Thesis submitted to the

2. Form diagram of Trenody..............................................................................................13

1. Egmont Overture, mm 1-17.............................................................................................3

is itself an emergent property; any consideration of orchestration must also include an

Figure 1. Egmont Overture, mm 1-17

Schenkerian analyses with computerized graphic representations of the score to explore

attention to Schenkers writings and analytical method. Linear analysis is used to

Robert Hattens theory of expressive genre.12 Expressive genre theory relies

Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven.

Figure 2. Hattens Stylistic/Strategic Interaction Diagram

culturally derived hierarchies that oppose traditional interpretations. Orchestration, which

unmarked and any modulation could be considered marked.

Hattens theory establishes musical styles by grouping a hierarchy of types and

Sound vs. Silence

Cutler, Orchestration and the Analysis of Tonal Music, 256.

Figure 3. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 71-76

Figure 4. Haydn, Symphony No. 94, mvt. 4, mm 72-76, graph

Figure 5. Sample of extended techniques used in Threnody

Sound block 1 (mm 1-2)

Sound block 3 (m 10)

Figure 6. Sound block motives in Threnody

Figure 7. Penderecki, To the Victims of Hiroshima, mm 24-26

Rothstein, On Implied Tones. See page 1 for an explanation of this dichotomy.

Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, movement 3

changes in instrumentation as indicators of form. In this work, instrumentation plays a

Figure 8. Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 4, mvt. 3, mm 125-140

Winds (+horn)/strings, theme 2 diminished (first 2 eighth-note motive)

Brahms most likely conceived of writing his Variations on a Theme by Haydn

Understanding the two versions of Variations on a Theme by Haydn as fraternal

Agawu, Playing with Signs, 128-130.

unquestionably present.36 Ratner establishes the prevalent opinion of a styles degree of

Ratner, Classic Music, 8.

marked orchestration, marked tessituras, ambiguous voice hierarchies with ambiguous

Hatten, Musical Meaning in Beethoven, 76.

Table 5. Skeletal mapping of the Theme

Variation 1 (Table 6) begins in duple meter with a drone accompaniment. An eighth-note

Continuation of gavotte, high dance style

Gavotte, high dance style

Variation 2 (Table 7) uses duple meter, a dotted-eighthsixteenth note repeated march

Singing style - duple meter,

Singing style/singing allegro duple meter, middle style

I-I (88-93) (elision),

Table 10. Skeletal mapping of Variation 5

Continuation of tarantella, low dance

Tarantella, low dance style

Table 12. Skeletal mapping of Variation 7

Continuation of siciliano, low dance

Siciliano, low dance style

Storm and stress,

B (This section can be

the horns (m 334). This orchestrational technique can be interpreted as a development of

The finale differs from earlier variations in that it is comprised of 18 continuous

Figure 9. Theme, mm 1-10

Figure 10. Variations for Orchestra, mm 1-10, graph

Figure 11. Variation 3, mm 108-111

Figure 12. Variation 3, mm 108-111, graph

Orchestrational Influence on Overall Form

A Traditional Reading of Overall Arc Form

Figure 13. Graph of Traditional Arc Form

As shown in Figure 13 and Table 15 above, Brahmss Variations can be arranged

Figure 14. Graph of Alternate Form

Figure 15. Variation 1, mm 30-34