Self-Regulation in Learning

Mathematics Online: Implications for

Supporting Mathematically Gifted
Students with or without Learning
Difficulties
Joyce J Y Fung; Mantak Yuen; Allan H K Yuen
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China

Abstract
This aricle reviews relevant literature that addresses the issue of self-regulated online mathematics learning for
mathematically gifted students. The definition of self-regulated learning is explored, together with a discussion
of its important role in online mathematics education. The evidence strongly supports the value of online
learning as a medium for advancing mathematical development not only in gifted students but in all students
and at all ages. This mode of engaging with mathematics has a vital role to play in involving students actively in
their own learning. The implications for supporting gifted students, including those with learning difficulties,
are identified.

Keywords: Gifted students; online learning; self-regulated learning strategies.

Introduction
Using information and communication technology has become a way of life, with the Internet
accessible to anyone with a digital device. As a direct result of this development, online learning has
become popular with many students and teachers as an alternative to traditional classroom-based
learning (Ally, 2004). Online learning can be used with any age level if the material placed online is
age-appropriate and if adult support is available for the youngest learners. Learning online, while
applicable to all students, represents a particularly viable pathway for gifted students, allowing them
to study independently, in greater depth, and at their own pace (Thomson, 2010).
In order to meet the challenges of learning online, students must become self-directed and
capable of applying strategies for self-regulated learning (SRL) (Shapley, 2000). In most learning
contexts, it is believed that students who are responsible for their own learning in this way are likely
to be more highly motivated and successful than those who rely merely on teacher direction and input
(Chang, 2005).
Zimmerman (2002) suggests that self-regulation is the process by which learners transform
mental abilities into functional skills for independent use in the academic domain. Students who are
self-regulated set themselves relevant goals, and then select suitable task-related strategies. These
students then self-monitor during the learning process, and their motivation is enhanced as their
learning methods prove to be successful. These benefits are likely to be found particularly in online
learning, where the learner is in control of the process.
Among the various domains of knowledge that can be presented effectively online, mathematics
is one that every student can study independently, or as a supplement to classroom learning. This
article focuses on how best to support SRL in mathematically gifted students engaged in online
mathematics learning.

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Defining Self-Regulated Learning

Self-regulated learning (SRL) has been defined in various ways by scholars. Bandura (1986)
and Winne (1995) viewed SRL as requiring an interaction between personal, behavioural and
environmental factors, resulting in the development of cognitive and metacognitive strategies for selfmanaging learning opportunities. Bandura also acknowledged that SRL requires a sense of personal
agency to perform independently in relevant contexts. Baumeister and Vohs (2007) described selfregulation simply as the capacity of an individual to alter his or her behaviour in order to achieve
particular goals. Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1988) added that self-regulated learners need to be
sensitive to their own academic strengths and weaknesses, and be able to apply appropriate strategies
to tackle specific academic tasks. More recently Pintrich (2000, p. 453) defined SRL as an active,
constructive process whereby learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor,
regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behaviour, guided and constrained by their goals
and the contextual features of the environment.

The importance of Self-Regulated Learning

During the 1980s and 1990s, increased interest in methods for helping students become more
independent and responsible for their own learning led to a growth in research into self-regulated
learning (Ashman & Conway, 1993; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995; Weinstein & Mayer, 1986).
Throughout that period, studies were focused on several components of self-regulated learning such
as cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational strategies that students can be taught to use (Garcia &
Pintrich, 1994; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1988). For example, Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons
(1986) interviewed gifted students and average students to explore fourteen SRL strategies associated
with students regulating their own learning (see Table 1). It is clear that all the strategies delineated in
Table 1 are also relevant to studying online.
Table 1: SRL strategies (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986).
Strategy
Description
1. Self-evaluation.
Student-initiated evaluations of the quality or progress of their work.
2. Organizing and transforming.
Student-initiated overt or covert rearrangement of instructional
materials to improve learning.
3. Goal-setting and planning.
Student-initiated setting of educational goals or sub-goals and
planning for sequencing, timing, and completing activities related to
these goals.
4. Seeking information.
Student-initiated efforts to secure further task information from nonsocial sources when undertaking an assignment.
5. Keeping records and monitoring.
Student-initiated efforts to record events or results.
6. Environmental structuring.
Student-initiated efforts to select or arrange the physical setting to
make learning easier.
7. Self-consequences.
Student arrangement or imagination of rewards or punishment for
success or failure.
8. Rehearsing and memorizing.
Student-initiated efforts to memorize material by overt or covert
practice.
9 11. Seeking social assistance.
Student-initiated efforts to solicit help from peers (9), teachers (10),
and adults (11).
12 14. Reviewing records.
Student-initiated efforts to reread tests (12), notes (13), or textbooks
(14), to prepare for class or further testing.

Zimmerman and Martinez-Pons (1986) confirmed that gifted students are more likely than
non-gifted students to be self-regulated learners. However, research evidence (plus classroom
experience) has indicated that not all gifted students are successful in achieving high academic results.
Effective self-regulation does not automatically accompany giftedness; other personal characteristics
influence the degree to which gifted learners become autonomous learners. Some never make
effective use of their potential ability; and a few underachieving gifted students appear to possess
weaker metacognitive skills than others (Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1986). In addition, some
gifted learners have a tendency toward disorganization and procrastination, traits that are not

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conducive to effective learning autonomy (Cross, Neumeister & Cassady, 2007). This may be one
reason to account for the conclusion reached by McCoach and Siegle (2008)that some 10% to 50%
of gifted students underachieve.
To a very significant degree the development and application of self-regulation requires
adequate motivation in the learner (Chang & Wu, 2003; DiPerna & Elliot, 1999; Schunk &
Zimmerman, 2008). Motivation is always necessary to ensure persistence in effort, and to maintain
interest in learning. Pintrich (1999) reported that motivation can promote and sustain self-regulated
learning, indicating that students are motivated to engage in a task, if the task itself is important,
interesting and useful to them. Recent research has supported this view, and has focussed on effective
ways for designing stimulating learning environments and tasks that can enhance students motivation
through active engagement (Chan Lin, 2009; Keller, 2008). Online learning is one way of providing
both stimulation and challenge.
The effective management of available learning time is also an important component of selfregulation (Zimmerman, Greenberg & Weinstein, 1994). Students need to be able to plan and allocate
the amount of time necessary to complete a task. In order to manage time effectively, students must
set goals and identify effective learning strategies to achieve them within the allotted time
(Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons, 1992).
Over the past decades, teachers have been encouraged to teach their students self-regulatory
cognitive strategies, and to provide opportunities for them to apply these in different subjects
(Khezrlou, 2012; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995). This began with language learning in the 1970s and
later expanded to mathematics and other subjects (Alexander, 1995).

SRL Strategies in online learning

In online learning, SRL strategies are considered to be of critical importance. Shapley (2000)
has indicated that students need to have a high level of self-direction and control to succeed in online
learning; and Chang (2005) points out that the students who do apply SRL strategies within an online
environment are more confident in their understanding of the course content, and in their own
performance.
Students who have trouble staying motivated, or who lack self-discipline may get little of
value from working online unless these detrimental traits can be modified (Li & Irby, 2008). Similarly,
students who do not enjoy working independently, or who require more teacher direction, may not
benefit from unsupervised online activities. And of course online learning may not be ideal for
students who do not have basic computer skills and are not comfortable with technology (Thomson,
2010).
Young and McSporran (2001) found that online courses may meet the needs of female and
older students effectively because these individuals tend to be more intrinsically motivated, better at
communication, and more self-disciplined. In contrast, male and younger students often require more
external supervision and control. This suggests that more support should be given to certain online
students to strengthen their self-discipline and encourage greater independence. Within the general
population of learners there is evidence that training students in the use of cognitive and selfregulatory strategies improves learning (Arsal, 2009; Ashman & Conway, 1993; Chan & Moore,
2006).
In recent years, researchers have attempted to find effective ways to support online learners, and
they have begun to develop guidelines for best practices in online instructing (Artino, 2008;
Cavanaugh, 2007; DiPietro, Ferdig, Black, & Preston, 2008; Dykman & Davis, 2008). It is clear that,
in the early stages, students may need to be explicitly taught effective self-regulatory and self-help

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strategies by the teacher (for example, through modelling, practice and corrective feedback) before
they can become more independent in their learning (Steedly et al., 2008; Westwood, 2013). These
experts emphasize the importance of proving to students how self-directing their own learning helps
them become more successful and autonomous learners.
Todays online technology is beneficial to students because it allows them to learn actively. In
order to provide a framework for thinking constructively about the role of technology and online
learning, Bangert-Drowns and Pyke (2001) created a seven level taxonomy of students engagement
with software. One important level is that of self-regulated learning, wherein students can, for
example, set their own goals within the program to make the content more personalized and
interesting. For example, project-based learning provides opportunities for students to select their own
topics, generate their own questions, and search online for appropriate information and resources
(Marx et al., 1997). Bangert-Drowns and Pyke (2001) also report that the vast majority of students
prefer to use Internet now, rather than books for research purposes.
In order to make optimum use of online learning in the classroom, teachers also need to have
appropriate methods for assessing students competencies in applying SRL strategies. Barnard-Brak,
Lan and Paton (2010) developed an instrument for assessing students use of self-regulated learning
strategies in an online context. They reported that the Online Self-Regulated Learning Questionnaire
(OLSQ) has satisfactory psychometric properties, validated across two different samples of learners in
online and blended learning environments (Barnard-Brak et al., 2009). The use of this instrument can
help teachers focus strategy instruction on the priority needs of a particular group or individual.

Promoting Self-Regulated Learning in mathematics

The philosophy underpinning mathematics education today has shifted from focusing only on
directly teaching the curriculum content (computational skills, formulae, terminology, problem
solving) to considering how students learn mathematics most effectively. Influenced mainly by
constructivist theories of learning, recent perspectives describe school mathematics as dynamic,
constructed, and reconstructed through an ongoing process of sense making by the learner (Heaton,
2000, p.4). The expected outcome from mathematics education mathematical proficiency has
changed from mastery of specific subject matter and skills to proficiency in five integrated strands:
conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning, and
productive disposition (Kilpatrick, Swafford & Findell, 2001). Instead of simply delivering
information to students via transmission teaching, teachers are now encouraged to act as facilitators
to support students self-regulated learning. It is believed that when students initiate and manage their
own learning in this way, they build deeper understanding of the content of mathematics (Boaler,
1999).
With this principle in mind, educators (particularly in research contexts) have designed
activities that embody self-regulation components that enhance students metacognitive awareness
and encourage their use of mathematical problem-solving strategies (Chung & Tam, 2005;
Hutchinson, 1993; Montague, 1992; Montague, Applegate & Marquard, 1993; Schoenfeld, 1987;
Stoeger & Ziegler, 2005; Verschaffel et al., 1999). Some of these strategy-training studies aimed to
improve mathematical problem solving for students with learning difficulties, while others were
concerned with gifted students who were underachieving in mathematics. With both populations the
results of strategy training proved positive, and the students improved their mathematics achievement
in terms of conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, and adaptive
reasoning.
Equally important, Arsal (2009) found that self-regulated learning instruction not only
increased mathematics self-efficacy beliefs of the students, but also improved their attitude toward the
subject (productive disposition). He suggested that all teachers should provide students with explicit
instruction in SRL strategies in order to increase mathematics achievement and to encourage
autonomy in learning.

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Learning mathematics
Mathematics is one of the core subjects in the curriculum that every student must study in
primary and secondary schools. Students achievement standards in this core subject vary enormously,
with some students finding the subject very difficult, while others exhibit genuine aptitude and talent
in this area. Online learning provides opportunities for students at both ends of this range.
The mastery of mathematical concepts, skills and insights over time requires students to build
a progressively deeper understanding of quantitative, spatial and other relationships within their range
of experience (Haylock, 2010). In particular, learners need to recognize key connections between
prior knowledge and any new concepts and skills currently being taught (Ollerton, 2009). New
information needs to be integrated and consolidated in order to become available for everyday use.
Online material can serve as a motivating resource for helping students at any level apply their
developing skills to new and interesting situations, and can also provide opportunities to practice
essential skills to the point of automaticity.
Sound and effective mathematical learning for all students is therefore much more that the
mere rote internalization of symbols, computational processes and algorithms. The ultimate goal is
that an individual will be able to draw upon mathematical understandings and skills to function
effectively in everyday life, and to be able to apply mathematical skills to solve problems. To achieve
this goal, students need to be actively involved in their own learning" (Wood, 1999, p. 173).

Mathematics and gifted students

In general, mathematically gifted students are good at using analytical, deductive and
inductive reasoning, and solving difficult and complex problems (Holton & Gaffney, 1994; Miller,
1990; Sheffield, 1994). When working with mathematical problems, these students tend to be flexible
and creative in their thinking (Miller, 1990). However, some gifted students in mathematics often
become bored in the classroom because they already understand the material being taught, and the
pace of instruction is too slow for them. In many classrooms, there is a tendency for teachers to just
follow the curriculum and teach mathematical concepts in a very routine and superficial way. The
mathematics curriculum, as taught in many classrooms, is often highly repetitive and provides little
in-depth study, or any opportunity for creativity (Johnson, Boyce, & Van Tassel-Baska, 1995;
Johnson & Sher, 1997). This obviously fails to motivate and nurture young mathematicians (Pletan,
Robinson, Berninger & Abbott, 1995). These students need to be able to cover the mathematics
curriculum at a faster pace, as well as in greater depth. The only way to help mathematically gifted
students reach their potential is to provide opportunities for them to learn and apply concepts,
principles and skills at higher cognitive levels, and to promote higher-order thinking and selfregulation (Casey, 1999; Koshy, 2001; Schoenfeld, 1992; Sheffield, 1999).
Specific classroom approaches for mathematically gifted children have been developed to
help teachers plan lessons at higher cognitive levels (Casey, 1999; Koshy, 2001; Sheffield, 1999). The
manner in which mathematics is presented to these students should aim to maintain their maximum
cognitive engagement. Online resources provide one obvious avenue to meet this need. For example,
real-life problems and issues that require mathematical solutions can be presented vividly in video or
other formats, and links can provide the learner with immediate access to necessary resources for
solution, such as statistical tables, data banks, formulae, and graphing functions. At the other end of
the scale, online programs can present learning-disabled students with more basic material that
focuses on improving their computational skills and key concepts (Westwood, 2013).
In particular, this online active approach maximizes students cognitive engagement. It is
believed that when students are genuinely engaged fully in learning they go beyond the requirements
of the task and are prepared to meet the challenges it presents (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Newmann,
Wehlage & Lamborn, 1992; Wehlage, 1989). Learning tasks online need to evoke the intrinsic
interests of the students and create a sense of ownership (Marks, Doane & Secada, 1996; Newmann et

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al., 1992). For example, Stoney and Oliver (1999) suggest that use of interactive multimedia can
foster cognitive engagement by holding students full attention and by ensuring active participation.
The online environment offers a platform for delivering mathematics programs in terms of
effective online courses. Students can learn by themselves through experiencing mathematics and
constructing understanding of the concepts. For example, the EPGY mathematics course offered by
Stanford University is very popular worldwide. In Hong Kong, similar online courses are being
offered for gifted students by the Hong Kong Bureau of Education (Gifted Section) and the Hong
Kong Academy for Gifted Education. The Khan Academy, which is a well known education website,
supplies a huge amount of subject-based resources and multimedia materials (Thompson, 2011).

Supporting gifted students with learning difficulties

While mathematics is one area in which certain students display great talent, just a few
intellectually gifted students may actually have a specific learning disability in mathematics
(dyscalculia) that seriously impedes their progress (Baum, 1989; Brody & Mills, 1997; Farrell, 2012;
Fetzer, 2000). It is important that teachers identify these students early so that appropriate
interventions, including online resources, can be used to support their learning. If left undiagnosed,
these leaning difficulties can seriously affect a students motivation to learn. He or she may
experience constant frustration and failure in every mathematics lesson, and may eventually opt out of
making any effort.
While other gifted students (with a talent for mathematics) require open-ended problems that
present them with intellectual challenges, the learning-disabled student usually requires a far more
carefully structured program.The use of technology may satisfy the needs of both groups (Becta 2003).
Picciano (2001) pointed out online learning can be very beneficial for learning-disabled students
because of its flexibility. At present, online courses are being developed with many assistive
technologies to fit different students needs.
Picciano (2001) further suggested a successful online course should be designed from the
students point of view, so as to meet the needs of every individual, including those with learning
difficulties. The course structure for online learning should be logical and consistent to enable
learners to engage with it independently. The content of online programs may also need to address
specific areas of weakness a student may exhibit (limited automaticity in basic numeracy skills, poor
memory for concepts and formulae). On the other hand, Powell (2003) stated that course designers
should not make online learning tasks too simple for learning-disabled students. He insisted these
students also need to be challenged intellectually, so that they have motivation to engage in the
learning tasks.
From the literature it seems that self-regulated learners usually have higher self-efficacy
(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002). They interact more confidently with the environment to make learning
more effective. However, Bandura (1986) found that some high ability students with learning
difficulties believed that they had lower academic self-efficacy than those without learning
difficultieswhich, in the present context, might impact negatively upon their ability to engage fully
and confidently in SRL. This view is balanced out by Hannah and Shore (1995) who found gifted
students with learning difficulties to be similar to their gifted peers in terms of metacognition and
strategy useboth abilities important in SRL. Overall, the evidence suggests that online learning can
be beneficial to gifted students with learning difficulties, not only by increasing proficiency in
mathematics, but also by enhancing their self-efficacy and self-regulation.

Conclusion and implications

The evidence gleaned from this review of literature strongly supports the value of online
learning as a contemporary medium for advancing the mathematical development, not only of gifted
students but all students. Online learning has a vital role to play in actively involving students in their

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own learning at all ages and ability levels. This form of learning has proved to be effective in
motivating students and maximizing their cognitive engagement in mathematical processes. However,
this form of learning requires adequate self-regulation on the part of the learner; and this selfregulation may need to be specifically taught and encouraged. An added benefit is that working
independently online can have positive effects on changing students attitude toward mathematics.
These benefits apply to all students, including those with learning difficulties in the mathematics
domain. The abundant resources readily available on the Internet now allow all students to learn
independently, without geographical and time limitations. Currently, online learning provides an
excellent medium for extending the depth of study for students who have specific talents in
mathematics.

The concepts explored in this article lead to the following practical implications:
All schools need to examine the potential opportunities that online learning in mathematics can
present to a broad range of students;
Some schools may need to increase the availability of technology that enables their students to
work online;
Teachers need to have access to seminars, workshops and courses that expose them to relevant
resources, and that prepare them to make creative use of online learning in mathematics;
Teachers may find it useful as a starting point to look at available resources by searching the
Web using the term learning mathematics online;
Teachers need to have pedagogical knowledge that includes sound methods for developing
students self-regulation, cognitive engagement, and metacognition;
Departments and centres concerned with the education of gifted students need to develop even
more online resources for students and teachers.

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About the Authors

Joyce J. Y. Fung is an Ed.D candidate at the University of Hong Kong Faculty of Education. She has
extensive experience in Mathematics Education and Online Teaching and Learning for secondary
students. Her research interests are in gifted education, talent development and online self-regulatory
learning.
Mantak Yuen, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Deputy Director of the Centre for Advancement of
Inclusive and Special Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong. He was
trained as an educational psychologist at the University College, London. He is a registered
counselling and educational psychologist in Hong Kong. His research interests are in students life
career development, connectedness, talent development, and inclusion in schools.
Allan H K Yuen, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Director of the Centre for Information
Technology in Education in the Faculty of Education at the University of Hong Kong. His particular
expertise is in the areas of technology adoption and pedagogical innovations, especially those related
to e-learning.

Addresses
Dr. Joyce J. Y. Fung;
Center for Advancement in Inclusive and Special Education (CAISE), Faculty of Education,
University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China.
e-Mail: joycejyfung@gmail.com
Dr. Mantak Yuen
Center for Advancement in Inclusive and Special Education (CAISE), Faculty of Education,
University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China.
e-Mail: mtyuen@hku.hk
Dr. Allan H K Yuen;
Centre for Information Technology in Education, Faculty of Education;
University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China.
e-Mail: hkyuen@hku.hk

*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mantak Yuen, Centre for
Advancement in Inclusive and Special Education (CAISE), Faculty of Education, The University of
Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong.
Tel. +852 2857 8542 Email: mtyuen@hku.hk

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