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Solid - Liquid Flow

Slurry Pipeline Transportation

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Other Ixtoksin tM
Series cia flulk M:ltcri:ds tJandfing'
Vol. , (I975 J77)

..
.

Uc-nd,ilc Coli; u:
Weichinc and rropoctiohintt of Bulk Solids
1975

ludwiJ:; RoUpe,:

The Bucke' \'('hccl ElCC'a"'~fo,

Development" Ocsi,n . ArpliC'ation
1975

tot &:A.RC'im~":
SILOS -Theory "nd Practice
1976

Rcinh.ud fJ. Wohlbicr:

SfackinsBlcndin& Rbimi"J
of Bulle Mne,i..l,
1977

/
Dinribulcd by
TRANS TECII S. II.
eU....711 Acdcrmannsdn,f. Swiu:C'lland

Copyri,hl 0 '''71 by
Tran~ Tech Puhfic;a.ions
Claus. hal. Ccrnun~ ..

lnlcrpalion,1J Standard BC'IOIc NumbC'r

ISBN O878~90 167
(

Printed in CC'nnany

This book. or pari' thelenf. m.IY 110' be ,crrt'fluccd in ..n)' (om' "'idKlutll,,:
w,iucnpcrriliuion of the publidlf'. AU"i~fS lC'krved.

,.

PREFACE
It was not the authors'purpose in writing this book to create a novel
or origins I contribution to the literature. As practicing engineers, our prime
concern is with the design of reliable slurry transportation systems, and
our intention was to communicate to people seriously interested-in this
field how the design of such systems might be intelligently approached.
In a sense, this book had its beginnings in the early 1950's, when the
senior author commenced a development program which culminated in
the successful operation of the Ohio coal pipeline. A basic conviction
arose as a result of the enormous development effort that went into the
design of that system. That conviction was that the key to the design of
slurry systems which would operate reliably lay, not in the selection of
exotic materials or the design of special equipment, but in the understanding and control of the slurry environment. More specifically, it was
felt that if thellow was homogeneous, the pipeline would be stable, that is,
the pressure drop would be constant with time, and also two other results
would naturally follow. One result was that if the corrosive environment
were controlled and made benign, the wear on the pipe would he ul)iform
and of such magnitude that a pipe life of over half a century could be
expected. The second result was that in a homogeneous regime the coal
itself wculd-notundergoany attrition during its travel, even over very
long distances.
These results were proven to be true in the actual operation of that line,
as well as in subsequent mineral and coal pipelines designed by the
techniques outlined in this book.
From this and subsequent experiences, it appeared that a book which
had in mind the practicing engineer was desirable. In order to test this idea,
the contents of ihe book were presented as an extension course at the
University of California. This permitted the authors to gain experience in
dealing with a group of practicing engineers and in determining their
interests and. reactions to the various topics. These classes definitely aided
in structuring the material.
,.

The book is therefore intensely practical and for that reason the
problems in each chapter were designed to facilitate the understanding
ofthe' material and alsoro permit the readeran opportunitytoacquire
confidence in his mastery of the material.
:'

i'
Lastly, I wish to acknowledge the very fine draftsmanship of Sam Lee
who is responsible for the illustrations and to Helena Troy for her
professional skill in organizing the physical aspects of the book.

E.],WAsr
San Francisco, California
September [976

CONTENTS
..

I.

4.

1/1

Introduction, ... , ...........

4.1.
Density,
.
4.2.
Vi~cosity ... _.........
4.3,
4.3.1. Dilute Suspensions _...........
4,3.2, Concentrated Suspensions .......
Specific Heat ., ..........
4.4.
Thermal Conductivity
.
4.5.
4.6.
Non-Newtonian Rheology
.
4.6.1. Time-Independcnt . Non-Newtonian
Fluids .............
4.6.2. Time-Dependent. Fluids .......
4.7.
Measurement of Rheology ......
4.7.1. Capillary-Tube Viscometer .......
4.7.2, .Coaxial Cylinder Rotary Viscometer
4.8.
Factors Affecting Suspension Rheology',.. ,
.
4.9.
References ...............
4.10. .Nomenclature ...........
4.11. Problems .............

211
211

5.

Preface .............
Contents .... , .......

5
6

I}

Introduction
.
1,2,.
Hydraulic Characteristics of Slurries
1.2.1. Types of Slurry Behavior ......
1.2.2. Critical Velocity ...............
1.3.
General Design Considerations ...
1.4.
Concluding Remarks ..........
1.5.
References ...............
1.6.
Nomenclature ..........

I}

1.

SLURRY PIPELINE DESIGN

1.1.

2.

SOME ASPEctS OF FLUlD

FLOW I~ PIPES " ............

2.1.
Introduction ... ! ,
2.2. . Energy Loss in Pipe Flow .......
2.3.
Reynolds Number and Flow Regimes
2.4.
Friction Factors .. '. .....
2.4.1. Laminar Friction Factors ....
2.4.2. . Turbulent Friction Factors
.
2.5.Boundary Layers and Turbulence .
2.5.1. The BoundaryLayer ..........
2.5.2. Development. of Boundary Layer ..
2.5.3. Friction Velocity ............
2.5.4. The Reynolds Stresses
.
.
2.5.5. .Concept of Mixing Length
2.5.6. Velocity Defect Law............
2.5.7. Viscous Sub-Layer ..... ,
.
2.6.
References ..................
2.7.
Nomenclature ...............
2.8.
Problems
,
.

3.

THE RELATIVE lIIOTION OF

.
FLUlDS AND PARTiCLES

3.1.
Introduction
.
3.2.
The Nature of Fluid Drag ......
3.3.
Drag Force on a Sphere
.
3.3.1. Stokes Law
'"
.
3.~.2. General Theory
.
3.4.
Generalized Drag C~efficient Curves
3.4.1. Shape Factor ...............
3.4.2. Generalized Curves ,
.
3.4.3. Fall Diameter
.
3.5.
The Effect of Turbulence on Fluid
Drag ........................
3.6.
Effect of Concentration on Drag ...
3.7.
Effect of Cylindrical Wall of Con-

3.8.
3.9.
3.10.
3.11.

tenner

II
II
12
15
16
It;
It;

17
17

17

21

23
23

THE SUSPENSION OF
PARTICLES IN TURBULIiNT
FLOW

411
50
51
51

5(,
511

59
51}
6lf

61

5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.
5.7.
5.8.

Introduction . , ..... '

.
Theoretical Considerations
.
Application to Closed Channels ..
Recent Studies; .. ,
;
.
Effect of System Parameters on C/CA
References
, . ; ..
Nomenclature ..............
Problems .............

G.

FLOW 01' HOMOGIiNEQUS

SUSPENSIONS

(,9

33
33
33
34

6.1.
6.2,
6.3.

{,I}

3-1

-II

6.3.1.
6.3.2.
6.4.
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6:4.3.
6.5.
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.6.

Introduction ..................
Criteria for Homogeneity' .......
Determination ofTransition Velocities '"
,....;
.
.
Bingham Plastic. Fluids
Power Law Fluids
.
Laminar Flow ..............
Bingham Plastic Fluids ..........
Power Law Fluids ............
Generalized Correlation
.
Turbulent Flow ..............
Bingham Plastic Fluids .........
Power Law Fluids ............
Choice of Design Procedure .....

42
42
42

6.6.2.
6.7.
6.8.

43

6.9.

24
25
2(,
2/1

21}
31
J2
J2
32

35
3(,
37

3/1

411
40
41

Ileconlme'ltded Procedure
.
References
,
.
Nomenclature
.
P':oblems ....................

PHYSiCAL PROPERTIES OF
SUSPENSIONS . ".~'.: .. , ....

6.6.1. Choice of Viscosity

Choice of Rheological Model

'..
References ....................
Nomcnclature
.
Problems
.

61
61
62
6.1

65
66

67
67

7ll
71
71
7-1

75
75
76
77
77
77

71}
IIll

III
III
/12
112
112

,,

7.
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.3.1.
7.3.2.
7.4.
7.4.1.

7.4.2.
7.4.3.

7.5.
7.6.

7.7.
7.8.

FLOW OF HETEROGENEOUS
SUSPENSIONS
. 115
Introduction
. 85
Criteria for Heterogeneity ....... 86
Determination of Deposition Velo. 118
cities ....... .'
, 89
Uniformly Sized Particles
Mixed Size Particles ............ 93
Prediction of Friction Losses
. 93
Heterogeneous Systems ofUniformly- 93
Sized Particles' ................
Heterogeneous Systems ofMulti-Sized
94
Particles "':~"""""""""
The Compound System
. 95
Concluding Remarks
. 98
. 99
References ..,
Nomenclature
. 99
Problems .................... 1110

10.
10.1.
10.2
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
10.6.
10.6.1.
10.6.2.
10.6.3.
10.7.
10.7.1.
10.7.2.
10.7.3.
10.8.
10.9.
10.10.

CORROSION-EROSION IN
SLURRY PIPEI.INES
.
Introduction ...........
Mechanism of Corrosion
.
.
Mechanism of Abrasion
Control of Abrasion
.
Control of Corrosion
;
.
Measurement of Corrosion-Erosion
Rate
.
Laboratory Test
.
Loop Tests
.
Measurement in the Pipeline
.
Economic Considerations
.
.
Use of Corrosion Inhibitors
Use of Protective Linings
.
Mechanical Deaeration .... '"
.
References
.
Nomenclature
.
Problems
.

141
141
141
143
144

145
146
146
147

1017
1411
1411

149
149
15f)
15f)
151

8.

RELATED TOPICS IN SLURRY

HANDLING'
.. 1113
8.1.
Introduction ..:
. 1113
8.2. Heat Transfer in Slurries
. 1113
8.2.1. Heat Transfer to Bingham Plastics .. 1113
8.2.2. Power Law flUids
. 1115
8.3.
. 105
Mixing of Slurries
8.3.1. Effect of Matarials Properties
. 105
8.3.2. Mixing of Newtonian Liquids
. 100
8.3.3. Mixing of Newtonian Suspensions . 107
8.3.4. Mixing of Non-Newtonian Suspen
I
stons
; .~
1118
8.4.
Drag Reduction ............ : .. 109
References ..,;;
. I/O
8.5.
8.6.
. III
Nomenclature. ~
8.7. Problem
,;
. III
0

i
I

9.

-=;i

9.1'
9.2.
9.3.
9.3.1.
9.3.2.
9.3.3.
9.3.4.
,9.3.5.
9.4.
9.5.
9.5.1.
9.5.2.
9.6.
9.7.
9.8.
9.9.

MECHANICAL AND
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
Introduction
.
Choice of ['umps
.
Types of Slurry Pump
.
Positive Displacement Pumps
.
Centrifugall'umps
.
.
Mars Pump
Moyno Pump .................

SpecialPumps .........
Piping and Valves
.
Slurry Processing
.
Slurry Preparation .............
Slurry Utilization
.
Instrumentation and Control
.
.
References .' ~-,
, ,
Nomenclature "
.
Problems ....................

1/3
113
113
118
118
122

123
123
123
124

1211
1211
133
138
139

140
140

11.

ILL
11.2.
J 1.2.1.
11.2.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.5.1.
11.5.2.
11.6.
11.7.

11.8.
11.9.
I I.l O.

ECONOllUC AND FINANCIAL

ASPECTS
.
Introduction
.
;
.
Technical feasibility
Commercial Slurries
, . " ....
Equipment
.
The System
.
Environmental Impact .. :
.
Economic feasibility
.
Transportation Costs
'"
.
Escalation
.
Concluding Remarks
.
Addendum
.
References
.
Nomenclature
"
.
Problems
.
Appendix. '"
About the Aulho,s
Answers to l'rohlcurs
Subject Index

153
153
15-1
155
156
1%

15};
159
159.

162
16.1
163
16.4

1601
164

.
.

172

175

165

. 223

\
(
(

(
(

1. SLURRY PIPELINE DESIGN

1.1 INTRODUCTION
i
The cost of the transportation of fawlllaterialsdred. years .and even lhoul\h; ii is lo~at~~i;;IJIYSO ...
from the sources to th~k 1Iitirnate m~rketshas~l'. mHesfromthecoast, itwas consideredh.laq:~s~ible.......
ways been a significant clement in m~rket prices:, '., Indeed, the interveningterra(ri i~exirell1~lrrllgged~ .
Not unnaturally, those rawmat~riald~P9~it~whiclJ:
. as shown in FigureH.The lise ofaslurf)'pip~li~e;
weremost accessible \~er~ dlefirst(ob~~xploit~d'Yhile.... which srarredoperaticn .in 1970, enabled this pre
other, less amenable clep<>sitswer~'eitIJc:rreglected' " . " body to be developed.'
i: ,
"'.'
or, in certain cases, consideredt~tallyuru..orkabli', '
i;
I on economic grounds. During the past two decades,
I
we have seen the growth of a transportation mode
The Black Mesa pipeline i':1 Arizona (Figure 1-2)
which has extended the economic reach of the minis another example of the impact of pipeline transerals industry in a most spectacular manner, \VIe
I are, of course, referring to the development of the
port on the economics of a project. This 273-mile,
18-inch diameter line transports coal to a 1.5 million
slurry pipeline.
k\VI power station on the Colorado River. It has an
annual design throughput of almost six million
In a relatively shcrt period of time, 'the largetons of coal.
,) scale transportation of solids by pipeline has moved
from ih" st"ilis of being ali iiltrigliilig, blit rather
risky possibility to its present status of a viable alterBlack Mesa is one of the latest developmentsin a
native to the conventional transportation modes.
field which had its modern beginnings in the 1950 s
'Table I-I tabulates the more important slurry pipewith the 108'mile, Ill-inch diameter Consolidation
lines in operation throughout the world. The numCoal pipeline in Ohio, and the American Gilsonite
ber of large pipelines built in the past five years is,
line i,nlJtah which was 72111iles long aJl(Ijnche.sin
in,itself, tcstimonyto the "coming of age" ofslurry
diameter. Before this, while therewere a.greatmany
pipeline technology. Undoubtedly, the driving
operational slurry pipelines, the concept had never
force behind the surge ofinterest in solids pipelines
been used for solids transportationover long distan, has primarily been one of economics, which will be
ces.
Since that time, a great deal of technical and
discussed in detail in Chapter II. Economic aspects
operating knowledge has been gained which, when
form a useful background to the' slurry pipeline field
coupled with the broad experience existing for short
as a whole. A good-example of the low transport
costs attainable using ilurry pipelines is the Savage
lines and for slurry handling systems in general, has
River iron ore pipeline in Tasmania. The existence
advanced the design and construction of long disof this ore deposit has been known for over a huntance systems from an art to a maturing technology.

10

SOLID -

uojno FLOW
,'- V

!.

..

,
Aerial Crossing
Savage R'IY.er Iron. Ore P'
,~:.Ipelono,

!;

length
(mile.)

COA[ "
C()N~OUDATlDN
BLACK MESA
T~/.

.108

213

,.

1.03&
180

ALTON

IRON'CONCENTRATE
SAVAGE RIVER
WAlplPI lIRO N SANDS)

53
&

PEIlACOLORA~A

. 28

'LAS TRUCHAS
SIERRA GRANDE

11
20

SAMAII~lJ

'.

253

COPPER'cONCENTRATE
BOlJllAINVlllE
WESTIR/AN
PINTO VAllEY

11
&9
II

LIMESTONE"
RUGBY
CALAVEIIAS
. ' Commttc
.
II I Slurry
Tabl, 11 Stleettd
;"
. "'plnn",

51
11

SLURRY PIPELINE DESIGN

At present, unless one is engaged in this field on a

day-to-day basis, the collection and assimilation of
the more important facets of this expanding knowledge is indeed a formidable task, particularly so
when the success or failure of a pipeline project depends upon it. An engineer who is unfamilinr with
slurry technology is liable to be somewhat discouraged by the mixture of highly technical studies
into solid-liquid mechanics and the welter of meanvalue correlations (each claiming general applicability!) in which the literature abounds. However, in
this book we will present practical design procedures
with examples of their use. The book, therefore, is
directed towards the working engineer and the solution of practical problems. However, a certain
amount of fundamental work is included in the
, hope that the engineer Can develop his own "feel" '
for the subject. '

II

1.2 HYDRAULIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SLURRIES
1.2.1 Types of 51 urry Bella" lor
The now of mixtures-ofsolids ar.d liquids in pipes
differs from, he now of homogeneous liquids in a
number of ways. With liquids the complete range of
velocities is possible, alld the nature of the now (i.e.,
laminar, transition, or turbulent) c~n becharacrerized from aknowledge of'lhe physical properties of
the fluid and the pipe isy~tem. Characterization of
slurry now is not as-simple as for liquid Row for two
reasons. Firstly, there are, Juperimposed or! the properties of the liquid, the properti~s of the solid partides to be accounted foriand also the effect of the
particles on the mixture properties, Secondly,a
range of slurry behavior ,is possible dependingon
the particular, conditions; this latter point being best
illustrated by consideration of the two extremes, of
slurry now which can be.identified.

In this introductory chapter, We will discuss some

general.nspects of slurry hydraulics and pipeline
design;
'

.. ;OJ!

',,"

:"j

Figure 1-2 Blec:kM... Coal Slurry

Plpell~e

i_._._._.~AI!_._

Davis Dam
Kingman

Seligman

Williams
Flags1e"

ARIZONA
Prescoll

12

SOLID - LIQUID FLO\'V

Homogmeous Fkno is the term given to systems in

which the solids are uniformly distributed throughout the liquid medium. Homogeneous flow, or a
close approximation to it, is encountered in slurries
of high solids concentrations and fine particle sizes.
The presence of the solids can have a significant
effect on the system K,roperties, usually resulting in a
sharp increase in viscosity as compared to that ofthe
carrier .fluid. Often these systems exhibit a nonNewtonian. rheology, which must be identified if
the flow is te:> be accurately characterized. The effects
of particle inertia are relatively minor in homogeneous flow. Typical examples of suspensions which
'. behave more or lesshomogeneously at normal pipeline velocities are sewagesludge, drilling muds, and
concentrated suspensions offine limestone (cement
kiln-feed slurry).
In Helerogmeolls Flow systems, solids are not evenly distributed and in horizontal flow, pronounced
concentration gradients exist.along the vertical axis
of the pipe, even at high 'velocities. Particle inertial
effects are significant, Le., thefluid and soli" phases
to a large extent retaintheir separate identities, and
the increase in the system viscosity over that of the
,carrier liquid is usually quite small. Heterogeneous
slurries tend to be oflower solids concentration and
have larger particle sizes than homogeneous slurries.
A typical example is Florida phosphate rock pipelines.

,
1.2.2 Crl tical Velocity:;'
Figure 1-3 shows typical friction loss-velocity
responses for both homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Curve A is typical of a hererogeneous slurry. At pipeline velocities where full move'
ment of the solids occurs, the pressure drop (Ap) Velocity( V)response tends towards a position parallel to the response of the carrier fluid, andthe solids
distribution would be as shown for full suspension
in the sketch in Figure, 1-3. As the mean pipeline
velocity is decreased, the maldistribution or solids
becomes more andmore pronounced until atsome
point a stationary or sliding bed appears on the bottom of the pipe, as shown for subcritical velocity in
that figure. The Ap- V respcnse reflects this as the
hook in the curve, which is characteristic of heterogeneous slurries. (It should be noted t hat we are
dealing here with horizontal flow. In vertical pipes
these solids are easily transported since the particle
fall velocities are usuallymuch lower than normal
flow velocities).
.'

The critical velocity at which a bed of particles

. begins to fonn is known as the drposilioll udb..il)'.
Since the usual carrier fluid employed is water,
which is usually in tile turbulent flow regime under
normal pipe-flow conditions, the deposition velocity of a heterogeneous suspension is almost invariablya turbulent flow phenomenon. It is directly related to the fall velocity of the particles and to the
degree ofturbulence existing in the system; it therefore increases with Increasing particle size, particle
density and solids concentration. Deposition velocity also increases with' increasing pipe diameter.
The significance of the deposition velocity on pipeline flow is clearly that it represents the lowerlimit
of safe operation. Lower velocities could lead to a
bed of solids building up in the pipe, with correspending increased and usually fluctuating friction
losses,and if the flow is reduced sufficiently, to plugging of the pipe.

"

Curve D in Figure 1-3 shows the Ap- V response

fora homogeneous suspension. The response is similar to that ofa single-phase liquid, exhibiting a linear
variation in the turbulent regime and a flat laminar
response. In this case the critical velocity corresponds to the transition from turbulent to laminar
flow and is referred to as the transition velocily. The
transition velocity (V,) is very sensitive to the system
rheology, as are the laminar flow friction losses.
Transition velocity tends to increase with slurry
viscosity, and therefore to increase with increasing
solids concentration and decreasing particle size.
For slurries with yield stress, V, is little affected by
changes in pipe diameter, whereas it is inversely
proportional to pipe diameter for Newtonian fluids.
While the design ofa system for operation below
the transition critical velocity may be acceptable {or
truly homogeneous suspensions, in this situation
there would be 110 turbulent forces to suspend cvcu
Iran" .unount s of heterogeneous p.uriclcs: "t.ll)ility
with respect to time. i.e.i constnntdischargc pressure.
for long distance lines may be difficllit to achieve;
hence theauthors .Ieel.thntalllong distance lilies
should be in turbulent now.
Many slurries encountered commercially are of
mixed character, incorporating the properties of
both extremes ofslurry behavior. Finer particle sizefractions join with the carrier-liquid to form a
homogeneous "vehicle", while the coarse size-fmctions are suspended heterogeneously in this vehicle.
Pipeline coal slurry is a prime example of this compound behavior.

J
,I

SLURRY PIPELINE DESIGN

13

en
en

-'
2:

l:;
IX:

, ,II

u.

""o-'

:' I

I.; !
,. I

~I

",;.

--

i; 'j
,~ ..'1

VT
VD - Typical deposition critical velo~ity.
VT - Typical viscous transition critical velocity

LOG VelOCITY

: ..
j,; .

DEPOSITION CONTROLLED
SLURRY

VISCOUS TRANSITION CONTROLLEO

SLURRY :

,'.
t' ,

FULL SUSPENSION

.,
i

FULL MOVEMENT

FULL TURBULENCE'

:: it
"I'
r ! 1:
"

SUBCRITICAL VElOCITY

1:........:....... .....::,.:.
...... ,...... .,'.."/:
.... . .1 L
.. ~

0"

: :

o : "

:..

l:, ~." ... '.

BED BUILDING -VD

Figure 13 C)tticaf Velocities i~ Slurry Systems

1: ..;.. :.:

.. . ,.J1

:.:.;.. :

TnANSITION TO LAMINAR FLOW - Vr

;QUD - LIQUID FLOW

14

I.

Process Considerations

A. Hydraulics

II. Mechanical Considerations

A. Select Type of Pumps to be Used (i.e., Cenrifugal or Positive Displacement)

1. Selection of carrier fluid

2. Selection of optimum particle size
consist and solidsconcentration

B. Select Number and Location of Pump

Stations
C. Select Type of Driver

3. Determination of minimum operating

" .velocity as a function of diameter

o~

4. Determination
friction losses as a
function of diameter and velocity

D. Establish Pipeline Construction Mode

(above Ground or Buried)

E. Automation Control
I. Degree of automation,

2. Pump station synchronization (with

B. Corrosion-Erosion Rates
1. Establish pipeline life (usually 20 to 50
years)

P.O. pumps)

F. Control of Pulsation and Vibration (for

P.D. Pump Station Piping)

2., Select corrosion inhibitor and/or oxygen and PH control

3. Select metal allowance
a. As a function of velocity
b. As a [unction of particle size

III. Economic Factors

A. Investment
B. Operating Costs

C. Abrasion Tests for Pump Wear

1. Maintenance of slurry pum ps
2. Inhibitor cost
D. Operability

Stability

I. Establish shutdown and startup requirements and capabilities

2. Select
slope

maximum allowable pipeline

E. Particle Degradation

1. Establish the effect of pumping on the

partide size consist (usually nil)

D. Optimization ofPipe Diameter and Power

Costs

IV. Operational Considerations

A.
B.
C.
D.

Select Mode of Operation

Develop Shutdown and Startup Techniques
SeL Emergency Procedures
Sia: t Requirements ill. Isolated Locatic

!
Table 1-2: Outline of slurry 'pipeline design requirements

SLURRY PIPELINE DESIGN

1.3 GENERAL DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS
As this text is concerned largely with the hydraulics of slurry pipeline design, it is perhaps useful to
put this aspect in the context ofpipeline design as a
. whole. TIle major decisions involved' ina pipeline
design are summarized in .Jable 1-2. Although
slurry hydraulics is only a small part of the total
. information required, the accuracy with which the
process conditions can be predicted has a great bear. ing on many of the other design considerations. Of
perhaps greater importance is the fact that the whole
. system stability depends on the pipeline component
operating in a stable manner,
Also in many cases the slurry pipeline itself is
only one stage of many in what may be a very complex process and therefore any decisions to be made
regarding pipeline hydraulics should be fully evaluated as to theirefTects on the other operations. In the

IS

exploitation of any resource, it is usually possible to

identify three distinct stages.The firstisapriparatioll
stage. That is, the material is acquired and processed
in such a way that it is suitablefor the ensuing stages.
The second is the transportation; i.e., the pipeline,
and the third stage is the I/tilizatiol1of the product.
It is possible that the product from the preparation
stage is optimum for both the transportation and
utilization stages. However, in practice it is unlikely
that this will be the case and there will usually be a
balance needed amongst the three stages. .;
To illustrate this point, let us brieflyellamine a
system involving the exploitationof acoal deposit
shown schematically in Figure 1-4. The coal from
the mine will be subjected to some form of comminution and the slurry concentration will beadjusted; this is the preparation stage; and for argument's,
sake we have chosen to make the prepared slurry a
50% weight percent suspension of 4 meshx.zero
particles. The 4 mesh ~ zerot~rminolog}' simply
means tharthe slurry!'contains particles ranging
of 4 mesh down to extremely fine
from a maximum
. .
.~-.

COAL SUPPLlER*PIPELlNE SYSTEMI'

~~~.
..r1~-{~"f.~it(

PREPARATION PLANT
1111

WATER. SUPPLY
,",

111111111

.;~t~~'.i'l,~~~
STOCK PILE

MINE

.'.

COAL CLEANING .

TANKAGE

~@----

,~.

PIPELINE ANO PUMP STATIONS

"'~la.lll}i----\1JI~~-----S+-"""
;,
I PIPELINE SYSTEM>\<

. . -. .

"

~_

~
.
DEWATERING

I
I

,
<,

Figure 1.4 Schematic Di.gram of Co.1 Tr.nsport.tion System

COAL

~t

r
I
I

. '~~
, . U
~:l~r.
....:n~*.

~~ I 'ri~~~l~
!
,- ...-......

.. '

PLANT

COAL BUYER

I'

!'
i.
r

, POWER PLANT

i;
!'

, BARGES

"

'I' ( ' ;

I: ,, ~:

I ,-,

II I

I . ,
II:

I. : ol..
~

II

'I

"I

II'

"

-'
;

2. SOME ASPECTS OF FLUID

FLOW IN PIPES
i

I
2.1 INTRODUCTION
,'..

-e-

,
.: . !

..

.; \......" I

/.....
,.~ ~~.

....

0",. Ii

'--::".,

I!

This chapter. is intended' to give a brief review

of the more important aspects of fluid mechanics
as they affect slurry pipeline design. Fluldmechanics is. of course, an extremely specialized field
and it would be impossible, 'not to say foolhardy,
to attempt-to present here a complete and balanced
review of the current state of knowledge. Only
selected topics are covered and in some. cases
rigorousnessof approach hasbeen simplified lp
what we hope-is physico' clarity,
"

The fallin pressure in the fluid reflects the app'

force causing the fluid to [low and since the fI
is steady this force must be counterbalanced b
shear force of equal magnitude at the wallaf.
pipe. If we call the shear stress at the pipe w~1I
then the force acting on the fluid M the pipe ".
must be - rw X Area or - r w." IJL (The negat:
sign indicates that this force'acts in a direct.
opposite the flow direction). The force acting ur
the fluid due to pressure difference is + (P, - P,)
Area or

.>.

ENERGY LOSS IN PIPE

FLOW

2.2
! .
'0

"-"

',

"

.; !
0"

A flowing fluid contains both potential and

kinetic energy. During fluid flow energy is lost
from theflllid due to friction at tile walls of the
container, beira pipe ora channel, TIle measure
of this energy loss, or friction loss; is achieved by
comparing the totaFenergyattwopointsinth"
flow. The resulting." pressure "gradient"is uSllally
expressed as the pressure difference relative to a
selected horizontal datumdivided by the distance
between the two points( i. e., AplI.. arid its units
arc Ibr/ft' per ft length (orNewton/m! per m length
in equivalent 5.1. terms). In pipeline design a
knowledge of the expected friction losses and
change in potential energy is essential since it is
this energy loss 'which dictates pump sizes.
Consider the steady flow ofa fluid in a horizontal
pipe of circular"cross-section as shown in . Figure
2-1. The "tnean velocity of flow is U. the pipe
diameter is D, and the pressure difference between
points (I) and (2),separated by distance I.. is (PI - P1) .

Where:
"
D is the inside diameter ~f pipe
P. and 1', are pressures at sections I' and
respectively, as shown in r.igure 2-1
L is the distancebetweenyeclions I and 2.
, :1

Figur.2.1 Definition Sketch ror Plpliflow

19

Fl.lJ1O FLOW IN PIPES

where:
p is the density of fluid
u is the average velocity of flow
v is the dynamic viscosity
Jl is the absolute viscosity
D is the pipe diameter.

For pipes:

D - D (the diameter)

For parallel plates:

It can be shown that Reynolds Number is, in fact,

the ratio of the inertial forces acting upon a fluid
element to the viscous forces acting upon the element. For flows about geometrically similar bodies
to be similar, the. ratio of forces acting on a fluid
particle at geometrically similar points must bear a
fixed ratio. For systems in which body forces can be
neglected, the flow is governed by the inertial and
viscous forces. Therefore, for similarity of flow' in
geometrically similar systems, the Reynolds Number should be constant.
For pipes; the critical value of Re is usually taken
as 2300 to 2800. Laminar flow has been reported at
values ofRe far in excess of this range; however, this
is exceptional and for the vast majority ofpipe flow
situations at values of Re > 2300, laminar flow becomes unstable and small disturbances are sufficient
to trigger the transition to turbulent flow.
The value of Re at transition depends upon the
geometric configuration through which the fluid is
flowing. For example, DAVIS and WHITE!I)
reported a value of critical Reynolds Number for
flow between parallel plates as

hup

-p-

_ 700

',-)

where h is the half-separation of the plates.

There have been a number of attempts to establish a stability parameter which is more general than
the Reynolds Number, i.e., one which would be independent of such things as change in flow configuration. LOHRENZ and KURATAm, attempted
to define an equivalent diameter which, when used
in conventional definitions of Reand of friction
factor, would permit laminar flow data for pipes,
parallel plates, and concentric annuli to be represented by a unique relationship. This method, which
treats pipes and parallel plates as two limiting cases
of annular flow, results in the use of the following
length scales (D in Eq, 2.2):

D- h

(f.ij

112

J ': .'

where h is the half separattorl

(;1

For annuli:

Ii:, ;1
~'"

('
;

D - 2 rO
+:ir,''

r,'"

where r. is the outerradiu~ :\

r, is the inner radius . J

Other formulations of a ,g~neral!zed stability parameter, such as thatdue to H,AN~S,u)concern themselves with a more fundamental approach..From an
engineering standpoint, it:'is more important to
recognize that a transitionexists than to logically.
quantify it; as long as consistency is maintained,
Reynolds Number
can be. defined
in a number of
. .. '.
I '
ways.
;""
~'

1:':1

TIle variation in friction lloss with mean velocity

of flow in pipes is shown. iti Figure 2-3. Energy loss
is expressed in terms. of pipe wall shear stress, r ..
(defined by Equation 2,1).

'!

Turbulent
Slope 1.75 "

log
Tw

log u
Figur.23 Friction Loss "','lnus Velocity for Pipe Flow

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

r :

i'

. ,i;
i

'I l

I
t :

I,

At the lower velocities, the response is typically

laminar: a .rather flat line whose slope is unity. As
the velocity is increased, the transition regime is
encountered and if the flow is increased further, the
flow enters the turbulent flow regime which is typified by a steep linear respon~ with a slope ofapproxif
imately. 1.75.

I,:
2.4 FIUCTION FACTORS
.

'

/laminar

Lag'

I
I
Turbulenl
I ----/

I
I
I

~~I

In addition to pressure 'gradient and wall shear

stress, the friction loss in pipe flow can be expressed
in the dimensionless form of a friction factor. The
most useful friction (actor: is known as Fannings
friction (aclor,/. defined as;
,

(Eq. 2.3)

From a dimensional standpoint, Equation 2.3 can be

rearranged as:

23001

--..J.
r

..

TranSItion

I
I

12800

LagRo
Figur. 24 V~rl.tJon In Friction Factor with
Rn-oolds NUmb'" for Smooth Pipe.

ves uniformly with velocity U in its own plane.

Provided that a steady state has been reached and
that the flow is laminar, it is found that (or the class
of fluids mentioned there isa shear stress r; developed on the lower plate in the direction of U, the
magnitude of which is given by

.i

.( _ .6.pD!l~~
(Eq.24)
.
pU
2
The numerator is representative offriction loss: the
denominator can be seen to be representative of'the
inertial forces, so th~tjis the ratio offrictioual forces
i'.:;
to inertial forces;
ii

!::

. The value ofjis dependeht'onthe fJo\\'conditio'i;

i.e., upon the value oftheReynolds Number. Figure
2-4 is a plotoflogjversus log Re, At low Reynolds
Numbers, i.e., in the laminar flow regime, the j-Re
response is rather steep and is linear. As the Reynolds Number increases, the flow enters the transition region. If the flow is increased stil/ further turbulent flow occurs, typified bythe flat curve shown
'
ill Figure 2...4.

2.4.1

(E'I' 2.5)

Equation 2.5 is sometimes referred to as Newton's

Law, and the class ofIluids which behaves according to this equationis cal/ed Newtonian fluids. The
constant p'is the coefficient of viscosity (or simply
the viscosity) and it is a constant for a given fluid at
a given temperature and pressure.
It is well established that the relative velocity
between a fluid and a rigid boundary at their contact
surface (i.e. at the wall) is zero. Therefore, in Figure
2-5, the fluid in contact with the lower plate must
be at rest while the fluid in contact with the upper
plate moves with velocity U. The velocity varies
linearly between the two plates sllch that at any
plane dist,llce) ~~()I)i the lower piate the velocity If,
parallel to .U. is given by

Laminar Friction Factors

The mechanism by which real (i.e.viscous) fluids

resist motion involves internal shearing of the fluid.
The relationship between the shear stress, which is
associated with the shearing, 'and the applied rate o(
shearing strain governs how the fluid is categorized.
For a large class.of'flulds, the shear stress is directly
proportional to the ~J.lear strain. Figure 2-5 represents two parallel plat~ separated by a distance b.
The lower plate.is fixed while the upper plate mo-

. (Eq.2.6)

l
\

Nov' he velocity. gradient is

(Eq, 2.7)

111us. we see that Equation 2.5 is simply the definition of viscosity, i.e.,

PLum FLOW IN PIPES

21

2.4.2. Turbulent Friction Factors

/

v.

FlguI.25 Definition Sketch for LamInar Flow

Between Parallel Plates

Shear Stress
Rate of Shearing Strain
(Eq.2.8)
While the form of Equation 25 is specific for ITow
between parallel plates, Equation 2.8 is general and
applies irrespective of the ITow geometry. For laminar flow in pipes, it is possible to derive the following relationship between friction loss and mean
velocity of ITow:
Ap

32pU

L--

(Eq.2.9)

D1

Equation 2.9 which is, ofcourse, the familiar HagenPoiseuille formula,can be re~rranged in the form
~D

4L
f"
p- -8U
- - -8U
-

[) 0

(Eq.2.10)

which is clearly the ratio of wall shear stress to mean

velocity gradient and is the corresponding pipe
equation to Equation 2.5 for parallel plate flow,

"iI

As we saw earlier, the Fanning friction f.,ctor is

, defined as

II

,
I

fw

(Eq.2.3)

pU I
2

Substituting ~rom Equation 2.10 we have

.1

r-~-Ji.
DUp

Re'

(Eq.2.11)

That is, for laminar ITow in pipes the friction factor

bears a simple relationship to the Reynolds Number
of the [low.
)

It is useful at this point to contrast the behavior

of fluids in laminar 1T0w with those in turbulent
flow. In the first instance the velocity profiles
show marked differences as indicated in 'Figure'
2-6. The shape o( the laminar velocity profile is invariably parabolic with a. ratio of mean velocity to
maximum velocity of 0.5. (These two (acts follow
directly (rom the derivalion of the Hagen-Poiseuille
equation, e.g., 2.9). The turbulent velocity profile is
much blunter, anditsactual shape can depend upon
the Reynolds Number of 1T0w. For high Reynolds
Numbers, the ratio ofmean velocity to maximum
velocity is about 0.85. !

Secondly, the resistance to flow (i.e., the friction

loss), all other things being equal, isgreater in turbulent [low than in laminar ITo",. Also, as mentioned
earlier, the rate o( increase in (rictjonlos,s with increase in flow velocity ismuchgreater for turbulent
flow, The friction loss varies as Ihe first power of
velocity in laminar ITow/but as the nth power ofthe
velocity in turbulent [lowwhere n is about 1.75 for
normal pipe Ilow ranges, but can be as high as 2.0.

Thirdly, the friction loss in turbulent flow is sensitive to the roughness of the pipe, whereas this is not'
the case in laminar flow, The effect ofroughness has
been found to be of'the same type in a homogeneous
slurry ITow as in the carrier fluid.
,: .,!

..

In turbulent pipe 1T0wihe friction (actor isdefined on exactly the same basis as for laminarflow,
i.e., according to EquatiOl)'2.3. This form; which is
derived from din,ensioriahonsiderations; was first
employed by DARCY (or ITow in pipes. More
recently, STANTON and PANNELL (1914) and
BLASIUS (1913) endeavored to examinethe variation in "DMCY'S coefficient" with change in Reynolds Number. III both of these cases the experiments were conducted in smooth pipes. Blasius
found that for values ofReynolds Numbers 'up to
80,000, the friction (actor was represented by the
following equation:
.

f-

0.079
(Re)O.IS

(Eq. 2.12)

22

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

These experiments in which roughnesses were produced by glueing sand (0.1 to 1.6 mm in diameter)
to the pipe walls established that the friction factor
was also a function ofthe "relative roughness" of the
pipe, r.e.

u Mean
I-~=--

I
I'

u-Max.

(E'I. 2.14)

f - function(Re, c/D)

,:i TURBULENT

.. LAMINAR

Figure 2~6 ',VeloCltY Profiles In Pipes 'or Lamin.r

--and Turbulent Flows

where e is the roughness length characteristic. and

D the pipe diameter.

Later experiments by NIKURADSE (1932) gave

general confirmation of Equation 2.12 and ext,:'nded the range to values of Re-in excess of3 x 10 in
the following form:"
';

COLEBROOK (1939) has proposed the following empirical equation for the commercially available pipelines:

:U.

1,

1
I

;<;j
I

D
_I _ 4 log 2 + 3.48 - 4 log

Vf

0.0553
R
(Eq.2.13)
eo.2Jl
The fact that the roughness of the pipe wall affected
the value of the ftiction factor waslirst established
by DARCY. Following thi,s~ the investigation of
rough pipe flow proceeded with considerable difficulty until the work of NIKURADSE in 1933.
Th~ (oUowjng'iott~ri;llInic form of N:IKURADSE's cqu~fion is more

f-0.0008 +

D
)
2e Re Vf
(Eq.2.15)
Equation 2.15 has been widely used, and it is the
basis of modern friction factor charts.
It has been found that at high Reynolds Numbers
the value of friction-factor becomes independent of
the Reynolds Number. For this region the last term

familiar and is based on a form suggested by VON KARMAN (1930):

I
.'
.
, '.
- - 4.0 log (Re l'fl- 0.40

Vi

0.025
0.0225

"

'\;-LIMIT OF TRANSITION

0.020

I 0.05
"~'':"...-,----------------11

4.-:-

0.0175
0.015
0.014
0.013
0.012
0.011
0.010
II:
0 .. 0 1009
t;
-e 0.008'
u.
0.007
z 0;0065
0
;:: 0.008
0
0.0055
u. 0.005
0.0045

...,

0 04

~\,

,0.03

--...:,.,.------------,-----II.Q2
",

~---.::..,....-----------------'-___!.
0.015

:~~::=~=============~!
i
"

'"

a:

1 + 9.35

"

0.008

0.006
0.01
"
~----.::...:__.:-..--------------1,
O.lX",

"

\.

"

...

,;:,

l!

'.

~---::,.,----'--'----.:...--.---J 0.007

~~@~~~=!
-,
I

.0.004

c.

. 0.0035
TRANSITION REGION

0.003
0.0025
0.00225
0.002
234568

10'

3 .. 56

10'
REYNOLDS NUMBER.(

10 6

56 I

107

0O:b'~ 6

OUP)
At!.---;;-

Flgur.27 PIJM Friction F.etan 'or Turbulent Flow (Modified .ftft' Moody, t..F . runs. ASME. Vol. 66. P 611. 19441

'00,

6
II:

0.0008
0.001
0,0006

.J
w

,0.0004

II:

~.j:::

3 456

0.0000'

10"

FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

on right hand side of Equation 2.15 becomes insignificant and the value of friction factor is obtained'
by dropping this term from EqJation 2.15.The
value of the Reynolds Number beyond which the
friction factor is independent of Reynolds Numbcr
is given by:

Re (critical) - 70

r~

(Eq. 2.16)

The friction f.1ctor chart shown in Figure 2-7 is

the graphical presentation of Equations 2.11, 2.13
and 2.15 and is widely used for pipe flowcalculations, The values of the absolute and relative pipe
roughness of a variety of pipe wall materials were
determined by MOODY (1944) and are given in
.
Figure 2-8,

2J

likely that our knowledge of fluid flow cannot be

advanced.much further by considerations of this
nature, and even in the field of suspension flow,
which is by-no means as well established as the: flow
of single-phase fluids, progress along these lines is
becoming severely limited. The. great advances in
the understanding of fluld flow which have taken
place in this century have resulted from fundamental work into the basic mechanisms controlling fluid
flow. Since further progress in suspension flow
depends 10 a large extentoo' how we can incorporate
this knowledge into the existing framework, we will
in this section outline rhe.rhore important facets of
what might be called "modern fluid mechanics"
and, where possible, highlight the areas relevant to
suspension flow.
., ;

2.5.1 The Boundary

Layer
,
'-",

"

., i

2.5 BOUNDARY LAYERS

AND TURBULENCE
In the preceding sections of this chapter, we have
briefly reviewed the problems of pipe flow in terms
of what might be called mean-value parameters. It is
PIPE DIAMETER ft..d

0.1

0.2

0.4 O.S'

..

IS

10

2025

0.05
0.04
O.OJ

0.02

TIle study ofthe flow of real fluids has, in the main,

: been one based on empiricism, The science of classicaI hydro,dynamics could make little pmgre" in
the theoretical prediction of fluid behavior without
recourse to the .concept of an "inviscid" or nonviscous fluid. In many cases this resulted in complete disagreement between whai could readily be
observed in practice and what theory predicted. For
example, classic;af hydrodynamics showed that a
body in steady motion, through an infinite fluid
could not experience any drag force.

0.01
0.008

0.006
0....

0.003

"'1
l:l 0002
.
w

;:,

!:

. ~

It was not until the turn ofthe century that theory

and practice were reconciled. TIle marriage was
achieved by means of
theory proposed by
PRANDTL in I904,>in ,~hich he postulated the
existence ofthe boundary layer. In this theory, itwas
reasoned that when a viscous fluid moves relative to
a solid boundary, the velocity ofa layer offluid close
tothesurface is retarded relative to the mean flow.
At the boundary itself, the fluid is at rest relative to
. the surface. Thus there is a film or a thin layer of
fluid close to the solid boundary in which the flow is
laminar even though the main fluid body is in turbulent motion.Probably the most readily observed
.example of a boundary .layer is the s0-c;alled"fric;tion belt" adjacent to a ship as'it moves through the
water. At the outer edge of the boundary layer the
fluid has essentially the main stream velocity relative to the surface. Outside the boundary layer, the
flow may be treated as inviscid, i.e., the effects of
viscosity need only be considered within the
boundary layer.

O.OC)1

0.0008
0.0006
,0.00040.0003

0.0002

o.ooot
0.000.08
0.000.08
0.000,04

0.000,03
0.000.02

o.ooo.Ot

..

0.000.008
0.000.001

\ -,

3 "

10

- ~:

:.;:

20 30 40 10

.,

....
~

'
'

100-200 300

'IPE DIAMETER fJnchnl .

Flgur.28 Rel.tlve Roughnessof Plpes

{Modified after Moody. IF. Tr.ns ASME. Vol. 66. Pg. 671. 19441

: '.

SOLID - LIQUID fLOW

24

. i

,
I

i
i

as shown in Figure 2-9. the velocity profile across a

. turbulent boundary layer is.almost uniform over its
whole thickness c5 T as compared to the velocity
. profile for the laminar layer. (Compare with Figure
2-6). Consequently, at the plate surface the velocity

The theory of boundary layers' is highly developed;

it would be beyond the scope of this text to discuss
the subject in great detail except perhaps for the outline of the general physics of boundary layers which
follows. For further information, the reader should
refer to SCHLICHTING.H

gradient
i

I
u .u

LAMINAR
BOUNOARY LAYER

: ;.

t,

i,

u U

I
I
,I
/liL

;
;

I
I

1....-;..
.>:

.-------.,

"7

u(x.v)

I
I_x

., .

TURBULENT
/TRANS'1
BOUNDARY LAYER
nON J

t-:P
:' I 1-;-

be much greater in the turbu-

t-

FREE
STREAM flOI'!

,
'. ,

~i tends to

I
I

(1

I liT
II
I

u' U

..... ....
'(.
---Boundary laver
Thickness

'/

"7

/
./

.,

....
2.5.2 DeveIopmencofBoundary Layer
Consider the example ofa plate located in an IInbounded fluid and oriented parallel to the direction
of mean flow (Figure 2-9); t .
Since the fluid is unbounded, as it approaches the
plate it is completely free ofvelocity gradients. Over
the forward part of the plate, the flow in the boundary
layer is laminar; that is, it is: smooth and it proceeds
iustrealt\(inesapproximately parallel to the plate.
At a certain point, a rapid transition to turbulent
flow takes place. We have discussed in Section 2.2
the differences between laminar and turbulent flow
as they affect such things as friction loss. However,
the primarydifference between the two flows is that
whereas laminar flow is streamline, in turbulent
flo\v.thereis ageneral mean motion parallel to the
surface, butsuperimposed on this are rapid fluctuaticnswhich are random in magnitude and direction.
This wiH be discussed in more detail later in the
chapter." . . . . .
.
".,

. '

The;';'~relmport.;lt.dirre;ence. between laminar

and turbulent boundary layers. In the first instance,

lent layer, and since the wall shear stress is defined as

du

T - "
r: dy

at y - 0

(E".2.17)

the friction loss is also much greater. This, in part.

explains previous comments regarding friction losses.
And, secondly, due to the Iluctuating Il:ttllle of
turbulent flow, the turbulent boundary layer lends
to mix more readily with the main stream Ilow, This
makes the turbulent boundary layer both thicker
and more stable than the laminar boundary layer.

T" return to pipe flow, we can see that the boundaryhyer will grow in all directions with distance
fro:: the entrance of the pipe. Figure 2-10 shows
rO\li,hly how a boundary layer (in this case a laminar
boundary layer) grows or "develops" in a pipe of
constant cross-section. The flow entering the pipe
exhibits no velocity arndient since it is unbounded.
In the initial part of the pipe the boundary layer
develops. This entry flow region is characterized by

r
r,

'FUJID FLO\'(! IN rirES

1
,

--- --- --

--+---'1--- --,

.---

.......

--

--~-f---f

--- ---

----

Figure 210 Development of the Boundary laye, in Lamin., Flow in Pipe

,
c]
!

I'
I

...

;:1'1
iI
,I'
!

a continuously changing velocity profile with

distance from the entrance. Following the entry
region, the boundary layer has grown to fill the whole
pipe. In this region the velocity profile is constant
and the flow is said to be "fully developed". The
distance required for the establishment of fully
developed flow depends upon the. condition of
flow, whether laminar or turbulent. In Iaminar flow
the entrance length, Le, is a function .of Reynolds
Number and pipe diameter and is given by

Le - 0.028 0 Re

(Eq.2.18)

Forturbulent flow the entrance length is independent of the Reynolds Number and is approximately
equal to SO pipe diameters, The area of most
interest to pipeline designers is the behavior offullydeveloped turbulent pipe now; consequently, the
remainder of this chapter will be devoted to a brief
review of certain aspects of turbulent flow.

2.5.3 Friction Velocity

\rr.::p

(Eq.2.20)

.........
was the startlng.point. In analyzing Equation 2.20,
I'RANDTL found it particularly difficult to see any
connection between shear stress at the pipe wa II and
the pipe: radius R. Simply stated, his problem was
how to eliminate R from the equation.
i
By introducing the cl>ncept of friction velocity
and employing a velocity' ratio

U* and a relative

distance from the wall

he was able to transform Equation 2.17

The friction velocity, is a parameter which is

employed in the theory and analysis of turbulent
flow in pipes. It can be considered as a characteristic .
velocity scale by which to describe a flow, and it is
defined as follows:
i

U. -

ced of the existence of a un iversal law goveming

velocity distributions in pipes: A formula developed
by BLASIUS from exp~rimental data, viz.

~~~ ... 8.73 (y')117

10

obtain

(Eq. HI)

where 1/ is the velocity of flow at a distance j- from

the wall. This is a universal law relating the velocity
at a point to the distance of that point from the pipe
wall.

(Eq.2.19)

,
The concept of a friction velocity emerged from
early work 01\ turbulent flow conducted by
PRANDTL PRANDTL, and others, were convin-

From the definition of friction factor and the definition of friction velocity (Equation 2.19), one can
obtain the following relationship between the friction velocity, friction factor, and the mean velocity
of flow:
.

26

SOLID - lIQYII> FLO\V

w'

(E'I. 222)

TI,e use/illnessof the concept of friction velocity as

all an'llyticallool will become apparent as the chapter progresses. However. the physical value of U is
also of significance, particularly to suspension [low,
Standard data on turbulence m~Jsurein'ents in fully
developed pipe flow (e.g., LAUF~R"')show that for
nearly the whole of the cross-section'of the pipe the
ratio ofthe Root Mean Square (RMS)of the velocity
fluctuations in the vertical direction to the friction
velocity is approximately unity.i It is reasonable to
assume that the magnitude of the vertical velocity
fluctuations issignificant 'with regard to the capacity
of a given flow to maintain particles in suspension.
Consequently,' the relatively simple measurement
of U can be a useful indicator in slurry pipeline
flow.

2.5.4 The Reynolds Stresses

If we were to take a continuous record of the
instantaneous velocity at a point in one direction
in a steady turbulent flow over a period of time, the
result would be similar to that shown in Figure 2-11.
; The trace is not steady, bUI Iluctuatesrandomly, The
fluctuations take place around a 'value equal to the
, mean velocity of flow and are typically of the order
of 10 percent ofthe mean velocity. It is the randomness ofthese fluctuations which characterizes turbulent flow and which makes the analysis of turbulence possible only on a statistical basis. At this
point one might be tempted to ask the question:

I
I
I
Y
I/

-- -.u 0+ u'

.--"-.-

J I--~x--;:/
/

'

.v._x 't'/

//

Fi,ur.212 D.finition Sketch for FI~id Element

if turbulent flow differs from laminar flow only by

this rather small fluctuationclement, how does one
explain the drastic differences in, 'say, friction loss
behavior? The answer to this question is contained
in considerati()n of the so-called Reynolds Stresses.
Figure 2:"12 represents a small fluid element in a
turbulent flow, 11.e now is unidirectional in the xdirection (i.e., it '1i":isa' mean velocity in the X-direction only), but ofcourse, since the flow is also turbulent, there will be fluctuating components of velocity in the Yand Z directions. Referring to Figure
2-11, we can write the instantaneous velocity at any
time as the sum of a mean velocity and a fluctuating
component; so that ill Figure 2-12, the velocity in
the X-direction at any instant is given by

t.('.\.(

u-

~t'.t

U + u'

"._

(Eq. 223)

J.

t'" ..

Instantaneous Velocity

>....

'U

..J

>

,,

1 \....:.:...::.
rII. ', I':(:\~.".:.

TIME hI

Flgu,. 211 Contlnuou. Record of tM INt,ntanlOu, V'loclty ,t a Point In a Steady Turbul...t Flow

,FI.IJID I'LOW IN rll'ES

mul in the l'-direction

Thus. in addition to the viscous stresses. we have

stresses generated by the velocity tluctuations themselves. These additional stresses ore called Reynolds

V + v' -v'

(Eq. 2.24)

and in the Zdirectioll

\V -

\Vi + w' ... w'

(Eq.2.25)

where II. V and 1i1 are the instantaneous velocity

components in the X. Yand Z directions respectively. The mean and fluctuating velocity components are represented 'by bars .and primes. respectively. Consider the momentum transport acrossface
of QXOZ (i.e. in the l~direction): the instantaneous
mass flux is pv'oxoz where p is the fluid density. TIle
momentum flux, or the rate of momentum transport across the face, which is, of course, the force
actingon the r.1ce, 0.\"01. is equal to the mass flux
multiplied by the velocity. Since we can distinguish
threevelocity components, we can also .identify
three force components on the face, one normal and
two tangential, viz:
,'. ".'

stresses.

It is usefulto exam"ne the Reynolds stresses in

numerical terms; this c:anonly he clonein an approxirnarc manner, but it prov(,.'s 01 very important point.
As was pointed out earlier. the magnitude ofturbulent fluctuations ist)'pically O.lO V. where U is
the mean velocity. Thus, lI'f,' is of the order

:i ;.
;: (0.10 U)

(~}O U) -

0.01

pD' ,

From Newton's Law, we can write the viscous

stresses as

(pv'oxoz) v',
(pv'(Jxoz) (U+ u')

'.~.

""

and

The mean stresses on the face are found by dividing the forces by the area and takin the average.
This results in a normal stress of pv' ,a tangential
stress in the X-direction of PII'f,', and a stress in the
Z-direction of pv'iiT.

Ifthe same.analysis.is performed for the other two

faces, the maguitudes of the stresses on the faces
ox~y and ~1'OZ are
pw'1, pu''Y' and pv'w'

:J

'. r. .

...

Il) " .::

(pv'oxoz) w'

and

..

\ :i

..

The ratio of Reynoldsstresses to viscous stresses

...

DU

then, is of the order of 0.001 (-,,/,) or 0.001 Re. I:

the pipe flow of fluid;, i~'"lues of Re of the order c
lOS arc not uncommon. so that the Reynolds stre:
ses or turbulent stresses 'are. hundred times lorg,
than those calculated from purely viscous consid
rations.Thus, the effect of the relatively small vel.
city fluctuations on the mean flow is quite drasti
Finally, there are t\YO comments which should I
made regarding the Reynolds stresses. Firstly, tl
Reynolds stress terms, for example, PII'f,' are I
convention normally written as a negative quanti:
i.e., -pu'o', This is because there is" strong negati
correlation between /I' and 1,'. and therefore /I'V'
positive. Secondly, the Reynolds stresses have nev
been adequately measured in suspension flow, al

28

,.
,

I:

SOI.ID - I.IQUID FI.OW

If the velocity at heighty is n, then if we assume that

1 is small

it is certain that as measurement techniques continue to improve. the structure of turbulent suspension '/Iow will become known. not only through
velocity covariances, but also' through velocityconcentration covariances, A great deal of fundamental work is required in this area.

du
u(y-I) - u-I .-

dy

(Eq.2.26)

and

2.5.5 Concept of Mixing Length

r

du
u(y+l) - u+1 ..-

In .. developing theories' concerning turbulent

transport of momentum in fluids, the early workers
drew on the already well-established kinetic theory
of gases. Reasoning that the: large-scale movements
of Iluid-elernents in turbulent motion are analogous
to the random motion of molecules in gases, most
workers in this field examined the effects ofpostulating a "mixing Irnglh" analogous to the mean free
path in molecular
motion.
, ..
~

dy

These velocities represent the overall sp~ead of

instantaneous velocities at pointy, i.e., u-vli:i' and
u+{;?:
.
We have, therefore,

(Eq. 2.27)

We will concern ourselves here.only with the

theory of momentum transport proposed by
PRANDTL There are others, but in addition to
being the first, PRANDTL~ theory.is the most
simple and.is as good as ani in correlating experimental results. The 'mixing length is considered as a
mean distance travelled byl! a fluid element over
which it-retained its original properties (e.g., velocity); at greater disranccsthanthe mixing length.
the fluid element mixes with its surroundings.

Since It' and ",'are generally of the opposite sign. by

assuming them to be ofthe same order, we can write
the Reynolds stress as

II

--:-;-;
du du
r - -pu
v - constant X I' I'. (_._)
-dy

dy

If we include the constant and I' in the same constant /" we can write

If we consider a flow in which the velocity Ii is a

function only of y, as shown in Figure 2-13,
PRANDTL's theory says that the fluid elements at
height y will have come fro;" planes al (y+lj and
(y-lj 'where / is the mixing length, retaining their
initial velocities before mixing at heightj..

-pll du dul
dy.dy

(Eq. 2.28)

where /. is proportional to the mixing length. COlliparing Equation 2.28 with Newton's Law, Equation
2.8, we can see that the termpll/ji!is equivnleut to

an effective turbulent, or eddy, viscosity E. Thus the

total shear stress is given by

Tt--'------I

_/ du

i1Y
I

FiQur.2-13 O.t'nit'onSk.tch for Mhclng length

". v

(Eq. 2.29)

n i t consider the manner ill which the mixing

len&,,, I, varies with distance. from the wall, the
simplest assumption that can be made is one of
direct proportionality, i.e.,

1t...=::::::::::-----..,.-~_

(E +1') du
dy

I, -xy

(Eq.2.30)

\I

I.)

Hum FLOW'IN PIPES

Subst itution into Equation 2.25 gives (for ~~ posilive)

,
.
y

( )

, . du
r - p(Kj'J -t1y

r
II

29

0.16

--. ,- -" - ....!L

l--'
, ...........
.,
.
-'----.
0.12 'r-P"", -- , - - ' - "1 /
.,,/
1----1r--.

"

'~

>,/

1, 0 08

-Af/

'

I;;

which can be rewritten ns

0.04

u'
du
dy - xy

...

~-

/"

II

- 126
0"'-60 f t. _ 30.6

:1 "
I

Upon integral ion we obtain

smfJOlh

- 501
---- f.
.. . - 252

._.

i
o

-~-

0.2

0.8

0.6

\.0

u
I
Y
---10"
'
u"
K
Yo

Figur. 2 15

(Eq. 2.31)

The Mh.ln, Length Cllrve for HilJ~ n.ynnld.INumb.f'

IlromA.B. B.khlMl.lf. Pv. 54, R.1. 210)

C'C

0.16

where JIOis 3 constant.

from mixing length considerations we have

obtained in Equation 2.31 what appears to be a general tiescription of the velocity profile. Its value
however depends upon two things. Firstly, how
realistic is the mixing length concept in physical
terms? Secondly, how good isthe assumption taken
in Equation 2.30? Figures 2-14 and 2-15, which

I
Y
0.08

lL
r

0.02

show data from NIKUR,ADSE in the form

-1-

0.\4

TlIUS,

versus,~, provide the answers to these questions. For

the lower range of Reynolds Numbers (Fig. 2-14),
the mixing length shows a slight dependence onthe
Reynolds Number. At higher Reynolds Numbers
(Fig. 2-15) this is not the case. lt can be concluded
[rom these data that the mixing length concept is
adequate particularly at high Reynolds Numbers,
and it can be assumed to be independent of roughness. pipe diameter, or velocity. These conclusions
can be expressed in a slightly different form, the
results of which are possibly more relevant to pipeline design. Considering Equations 2.1(01) and 2.25,
the shear stress at any point in a pipe can be written
, (neglecting viscous stresses) as:

.,....-- ...--c

0.12

':-II

0.10 - 1 -

0.06

--

0.04

~I:
o

--. ,,~

'/

X, ~

~h V

-".--

0.\

0.2

0.3

? :::::: ::.---

,/:'

0.5

"

oR -4.10)
o R-23.3.10' f----

,- -

0.4,

If _.

,--

R'= {OS.10 3.

0.6

0.1

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.
Ttt- MIII'I", brtQthCur". 'or If)w n.y""ldl .Numh....

lfrom A.B. Bakhm.ueH. PlI. 53. R.. f. 2-10)

This dimensionless equation states that fora 'conthe turbulent flow pattern' will be
stant value of
identica I for any pipe diameter, roughness,etc.

II"

,I
,; \

It is also apparent from! Figures 2-14 and 2-15

that the relationship assumed in Equation 2.30 can-

not beconsidered as valid beyollcl, say, ~ -0.2; i;e.,

beyond the inner 20% of the boundary layer: Thus
Equation 2.31 describing the velocity profile can be
applied only in this region close to the wall. For this
reason Equation 2.31 is sometimes referred to as the
inner logarithmiclaw, and is one form ofthe "law of ,
wall" referred to later.

or

2.5.6 Velocity Defect Law

du

II

~~

- ( I-

~-

f( ~) (Eq. 2.32)

[f we were to assume that Equation 2.30 holds for

SOLID - LIQUID ,'tOW

311
"

'j

16

the whole of the boundarylljrer, We could, for pipe

110w, substitute the boundary conditions II - " m"
aty - ~ into Equation 2.31
give
,

;.
,

15

rn,

14

13

r--

12

--

r
Unl.:l X -u
- -- log" ('-)
I(
"y
:'u*

(Eq.2.33)

II

-u

"::
,

ff

-O.lmm

-0.2tn'"
e 0.4",m I-- ~. a.8mm

-' 1- - - - - - c--.
-

.ftl

7
I

"r

loge - )

,,.....

(Eq.2.34)

V
l-

/'

The defect law as stated i;, Equation 2:,31 does not

apply to the whole of the boundary layer but only
to the portion awayfrom the ""all. The value of the
velocity defect law is thai it describes the velocity
profile irrespective of 'pipe roughness, 'pipe diameter, etc, and in fact il can be' expressed in ,the
general form
,', !

,........,
0.1

-u

0.2 G.3 0.4

,',

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

1.0

14t

T.... ,Veh)eity Deficiency Ct"..

efrort' A~8;eaflhmel.ff. PI. 63.:R.I. 2101 .

,-

_...

:\

U max

-0

"mIll:'"

I
;
.'
5.7~

of

10

Thus, the defect from the maximum velocity is related logarithmically to the distance from the wall.
Thus we have arrived at.albeit.incorrectly, the velocity-defect or outer Iogurithmic law of velocity
profile.x is of course the' von Karman constant
(- 0.4), and by changing froriJ narural logarithmics
to base 10 gives
'l '
U m 3X

(Eq.2.35)

to cover the whole of the boundary layer. (The exact

nature offishowever not known).
):';,

It was first suggested by, STANTON,l1S1 and as

shown in Figure 2-16, its application to NIKURADSE's dataillustrates its validity over the whole
of the pipe diameter.and for a range of pipe roughness. The effect ofroughness on velocity profile was
established by FRIT$CH.m Working with steady
flow through a,' rectaligtilaf'diiiiiiid,FRITSCI-I
demonstrated that thevelocity profilebecomes less
blunt as the roughness inereases,(SeeFigure 2.,.17).
Pipe roughnessincrease has twoeffects: it deforms

the velocity profile such that _u__ decreases and

',UmaJl

conseqently the, velocity ncar the wall decreases;

and it also results in increased friction losses.
The expression of local velocity as,a defect frorn
the maximum, normalized on the characteristic
velocity scale /I., accounts for ,these changes as
shown in Figure 2-16.

~
~
~
/

~
~
.:~

",'/'

:>;.
<~

;'.:;
Figur. 217

><
V~'ocitv Curves for Contt.nt Disch.r,e .nd
V.rying Roughness: IHlghly Rough;
fl Mildly Rough; 111Smooth.IAfter Fritsch.
In ,Abh.i1dlunven .us dem Aerodynemlschen .

'nnltur en d.r Technl.chen Uochschule

A.chen. Heft 8.)

n.uto PtO,"" IN !'lrES

2.5.7 Viscous Sub-Layer

layer the turbulent tluctuations ofvelocity in absolute-tenus become small (the IO(;;llturbttlcnce inten-

The law <if the w:111 i", commonly stared in the

form
u
u"y
-::--f(---)
u"

.11

(Eq.2.36)

and it'illUSlmtes tlwt the difference between the

. outer and inner velocity laws is one of the relative
importance of viscosity. The complete relationship
is usuallygiven :1S

sity

,
~ remains large h1->wever): Consequently, the
\1.

j!

dominant shear stress ii' thi, region is viscous, and

Reynold, stresses have very little effect. The thickness of this layer is given by
v
11.6 ...:.'

<5 -

(Eci. 2.38)

U'

jO

I, .

,:;' are the appropriate scaling factors for velocity

A knowlegde of the yiscom sub-layer is'of importance for a number of reasons; As canbeseen from
Equation 2.38: flow ~e1ocitydecreases (i.e., as II'
decreases), the sub-layer thickness .i increases, In
fact, in laminar 110w <5 I~ so large as to completely submerge any roughness elements of the size normally
encountered in pipe 110w., This explains why roughness has no elfect 011 laminar friction r.,ctors; it also
suggests that the size of the sub-layer relative to the
roughness elements is ofma;of importance with
regard 10 turbulence generation.

and length respectively in the wall region. There is,

however, a region adjacent to the wall (fory' < 11.6)
where the law of the wall does not hold. This is the
so-called viscous sub-layer. In this extremely thin

In slurry flow, THOMA.~IRlC9J bas discerned a

change in the mechanism by which particles remain
in susl~eils1on depending upon whether/he particles
are larger or smaller than the viscous sub-layer.

u
u'y
- . - 5.75 log (_ .._)
u
\'

+ 5.5

(Eq, 2.37)

and figure 2-18 shows :1 plot of NIKURADSE',

data ill this form. The extent of the inner logarithmic law is clearly seen as is also the fact that n" and

t.

.:_.".

50

40

30

20

"':

'0'
<t::

~.:

10

~:

....

'tI:-:--

-I-I-

~1~ ~O~~

_.'

.c

iIo

"~'~j.rIOlt1 "
1\l1\~::"", -

L- l-.,

.. .'
,

I--

'rrif!

Niku,adse ExpetimenlS

liTllIII

1.1 I

. I

10

100

1,000

10.000

100,000

Figure 2.18 P,oof of V.locity D.fect Lew

Chom A.B. B.akhmltteff. P9. 79. Ref. 210)

,,

'.

3l

SOLID - LIQUID F/.OW

2.6, REFERENCES ','

2-1

DAVIES. S. J. .tud Wurl'l:. 'c. MoO "we. Rn,',tt Sue. JJ9A. 91

(19lg~

I,

I-I

LOHRENZ. J. .and KUR/\TA. F... ln~. EntcuJ. Chem .. 52. p. 70J

.

I
r
u
u'

(1960~

Z-.1 HANKS. R. W.o "The LlllliturTllrhlllcttt r,.l1nirinn lar Flow ill

rille'S, Ccneeumc Allliuli. dlld I'Jr.llld PI,ltcs. ~ AIChE Juurn.d.
V. 9. pp. -15-48 fj"I~. 1%3). '
2_4

SC'II.ICHTIN(i. H, "lJound.lty to.lyC' Theory." 61h Edition.

McGuw Hill Book Co., New: YO,rk (1968).

Z-S LAUFER, J.. "TIle SUUt1Urc of Turbulence in Fully Developed

Pip. Row; NACA. Rep, 1174(1956/,

2-6 . STANTON. T. F.... Proe,

,

Roy~1
.'

Scc., london, A (1920).

2-7

FRITSCH.W.Abbandlun~cn aus dem Ac'odyn.amischen Insiitul

an der Tcchnischcn Ho~h~chulf: AoIcltcn.llcft.8

2-8

THOMAS, 0: G.; "Tr~~sp'~rt Ch.ua'cleri\ti~, of Slnrensions:

. Pari VI: Minimum Tr..nsport Velocity for 'u'rlte Partide Size
.Suspensions in Round Ho,izont,d Pipes: AIChE )o,unal. V.8.
pp, 373-378 Uuly1962~
,

2~9

THOMAS. D. G. "Teanspcn Ch.1r.1c(erinics of Su.pensions:

Part It Minimum Tr~nsporl Velocity lor Flocculated Suspensions
in- Horizonl,l Pipes: AIChE Joum..I, Y. 7, pp. 423-430 (Se-pt.
,1961~

2-10 BAKHMETEFF. A. B. "The .Mechanics of Turbulent Flo....

r,irlceton. Univ. Press. Princeton,: New Jersey'
.

I
I

',.,

2.7 NOMENCLATURE
. ,

D
E
L

:t~'!

""'j'
,

Pipe diameter
Eddy viscosity
Length .
L. Entrance length
P Pressure
R Pipe radius
Re Reynolds Number
U Mean velocity of flow
U Mean velocity of flow in X direction
U Friction velocity
V Mean velocity of (lowin Y direction
W Mean velocity of flow iii Z direction
du
Velociiy gradient
dy
f Friction factor

,-,

v
v'
w

w'
c5

Half separation distance between parallel pl.ues

Mixing length
Radial distance from pipe axis
lnstantaneous velocity in X direction
Fluctuating component of velocity in X direction
Instantaneous velocity in Y direction
Fluctuating component of velocity in r direction
'.......
Instantaneous velocity IIl:Z direction
Fluctuating component of velocity in Z direction
Boundary layer thickness

Pipe roughness
.Ill' Friction loss
p Absolute viscosity,
v Kinematic viscosity
p Density
.
r
Shear stress
Cw
Wan shear stress
t:

2.8 PROBLEMS
2.1 AI 7.5 ineh (445 nun) inside diameter steel pipe
carries 4200 gpm (954 m)/hr) water at 68 0 F
(20 0 C). Determine Reynolds Number, friction factor, and friction loss per unit length of
pipe. Determine power required to pump
water over a distance of 100 miles (160 km) if
the static lift is 305 ft (J00 m) and the pump
efficiency is 70 percent.
2.2 Assuming that laminar-flow conditions existed
for the flow situation in Problem 2.1, determine
the friction losses.
2.3 If in Problem 2.1 thi fluid is other than water,
with a viscosity of 0.0135 Ibllt s (0.02 kg/iu-s)
and density of 73.5 Ib/n-'( II 80 kg/nr'), determine the friction losses. friction velocity. and
thickness of laminar sublayer.
2.4 Based on von Karman's similarity hypothesis,
prove that the velocity distribution iu rurbulenr
I
flow of circular pipe is given by the following:

U~:u

__

[In ( 1 -

(f:yii'~) + Yl-y7r~ ]

I:'

3. THE RELATIVE MOTIOr\[ OF

FLUIDS AND PARTICLES
I
I

'/""1\1
"::~'

I
I
!

;)

N1
, i

. ~ .i

3.1 INTRODUCTION
So Ii", we have considered flow situations which
are essentially unidirccrionnl, with the fluid flowing ~
along a pipe or channel, In the present chapter.we
shall concern ourselves with the forces .cdng upon
body submerged in a flowing flnid. This, of
course, introduces the more complex problem of
three-dimensional flow, since in general the fluid
will be directed .11 around the ,body.
The reader will, no doubt, realize that a knowledge of the behavior ofa particlein a fluid is crucial
to the design of hydraulic transport systems in
which particle inertial effects are significant, i.e., for
heterogeneous systems. As with most aspects of
fluid dynamics, this subject does not lend itself
readily to theoretical analysis, and the advances in
knowledge to date have been based almost entirely
on empirical evidence. This chapter. is intended to
summarize the methods ofestimating settling velocity of solid particles.

i
!

,I

.;(~

with increasing distance 'from the leading edge of

the surface and at somepoint, dependent on the
flow conditions, the boundary 'layer may have
grown sufficiently to have become unstable and will
separate fronl the surface. This separation resultsin
the formation of.aneddy and the consequent dissipation of energy.
We can see that the forces developed on the body
in the C3<e where the boundary layer has separated
must be of adifferentn.ttire to those acting on the
body wh~~ ihe boundary,payer has, not separated.
In fact,the total drag force on a body immersed in a
moving fluid consists of.two components, the
uiscons tlr,'g (or skin fricti~i) and the form drng. At
low rates of flow, pasta body of given shape, no
separation takes place and the whole of the drag
results from skin friction. As the velocityisincreased, separation of the boundary layer occurs and both
skin friction and form drag contribute to the total
drag force. If the velocity is continually increased,
skin friction becomes a continually decreasing proportion of the total drag force.
'

.:

I
I

3.2 THE NATURE OF

FLUID DRAG
In any discussion of the nature of the resistive, or'
drag, force experienced by a body .moving relative
to a fluid, one must inevitably arrive at the consideration of the behavior of the boundary layer formed
ncar the surface of the body. It has already been
shown in Chapter 2 that when a viscous fluid flows
over a surface, the velocity ofa layer off1uid close to
the surface is retarded relative to the mean velocity
of flow. This boundary layer increases in thickness

;)

.:

It has been implicit in the'discnssion so f.,r that

the boundary l,ayer over the surf:lce of thebody is
laminar in nature. However, it is possible that the
flow within the boundary layer may change from
laminar to turbulent before separation takes place.
This transition from laminar to turbulent flow
within the boundary layer can be achieved by very
.high fluid velocities or by artificially rougheningthe
leading f.,ce of the submerged body, a~d i!is accompanied by a sharp decrease in the toiard!a&- force.
The reason for this is that the rate of momentum
transfer in turbulent flow is much greater than in
laminar flow. Consequently,the fast moving fluid is
able, by momentum transfer, to maintain the
boundary flow in forward motion, thus' retarding

501.10 - LIQUID FLOW

,
.
the formation of a separation eddy. (f separation
does occur, it will take place further from the leading
edgev the resulting eddies will be smaller, and the
total drag will he reduced from the laminar value.
As we will see later in this chapter. the occurrence of
this transition is usually 'V~II outside the range of
conditions experienced ii(slurry
pipeline systems.
,,
j::.'

,.

3.3 DRAG fORCE

ON A SPHERE : i:'

as (4 "II') (J,,,ll,). Equation 3.1 can be rewritten .is:

I' -

F/4rrr'
3w/d'

(EII.l2)

Equation 3.2 is clearly the mtio of the shear sires<

acting upon the surface of the sphere to the average
velocity gradient, i.e., it is merely the definition of
viscosity for the geometric configuration concerned.

. 1'

Before ''Ie go on to cOt;sider the equations by

which the forces acting on submerged bodies can be
evaluated. it maybe useful ito make a simplifying
assumption. The basic piece of information required by the design engineer is the particle drag
coefficient Co. As we shall 'see, the value of Co is
obtained from a knowledge of the terminal fall
velocity achieved by the particle in still water, i.e.
under conditions in which the external force is
gravity alone. We shall, therefore, focus our attention
on this specific case. and assume that in all cases
considered. unless otherwise stated, the external
force acting upon the particle is gravity.

Stokes Law, Equation 3.(, can also be expressed

as follows:

24
pw)
F - 6 rrprw - ""(d"",~"p":"I'-p"") A . (~-2-)
(Eq. 3.3)
where' A is the projected area of the sphere, i.e.
Trd)/4. In Equation 3.3,the fluid density,p, is-used as
a dummy variable, which is particularly convenient
since in the flow region concerned. Fis independent
ofp.lfwe now define drag coefficient in the normal
way, i.e.,
F/A

Co -

3.3.1. Stokes Law

'(Eq. 3.1)

where:
F is the drag force
I' is the /luid viscosity

.
r is tlie radius of the sphere
w is the relative velocity between fluid and particle.

..

.!

I
i

F
pAWl

(Eq. 3.4)

The only important case for which the drag on an

immersed body can be calculated from wholly theoretical considerations is that-of a sphere moving at
a low velocity through a :/luid of infinite extent.
This calculation was first performed by Stokes, who
obtained a solution or the general equations of motion by neglecting the inertial terms completely, i.e.,
by assuming that the resistance was 100% skin friction. The result of this analysis is generally referred
to its Stokes Law and can be stated:

F-6rrprw

pW'12

A familiar application of Equation 3.1 is in the

measurement of fluid v15cosities from the terminal
fall velocities ofspheres. In fact, ifwe express 6Trl'rw

From Equation 3.3 we can see that the drag coefficient is given by

C _ 24
o
Re

(Eq, 3.5)

i,

It should be stressed that Equation 3.5 applies

only in the range of conditions over which Stokes
Law applies, viz, for a sphere in a /low condition
where viscous effects predominate. This region is
usually called the Stokes or laminar regime. The
definition of drag coefficient. Equation 3.4, should
be compared with Equation 2.3 defining Fanning
friction factor. It will be seen that the form of each
.equarion is identical, being the ratio of the, shear
'stress experienced at the boundary to the kinetic
energy expressed .as velocity head. ThlJs, the drag
coefficient can be considered asa "particle Iriciion
facto," and just as Fanning frlctionIacror takes
account of pipe-diameter, fluid properties, pipe
roughness, and the nature of the flow. (i.e., laminar,
transitional or turbulent) so docs the drag coefficient reflect' the analogous parameters in the case of
a particle.

I
I.
I

:
I

. i~

"I.

II

~1()nON

OF FLUIDS AND PARTlCl.ES

II is . lso convenient to ex pre" the relationship

between dr. ~ coefficient. Cn , and Reynolds Number in graphical (orm, similar to the Fanning friction
(:>ctor - Reynolds Number plot given in Figure 2-1.
A plot of Cn versus particle Reynolds Number for
spherical particles is shown in Figure 3-1. TIle
region over which Equation 3.5 is applicable is
shown in the tigure :>, region a, and it COl'ClS the
range up to values of Re of about I. Outside of the
Stokes regime. three distinct regimes can be discerned. Region /I. for the r:>nge I < Re <' 1000, is known
as the intermediate tHV regime, region <' ioon < Re
< 2 x lOs is the regime in which laminar-turbulent
transition of the boundary layer has occurred prior
.to separation, i.e., region d. The curve shown in
Figure 3-1 is in lact a continuous one and the division into four regimes is merely ~ convenient
maneuver by which equations can be assigned to
the curve. In region it, it is assumed that skin friction
alone is responsible for the drag; in regions c and d,
that only form drag is acting. In reality, of course,
both skin friction and form drag are present over
the whole range of Reynolds Numbers, but the two
.are of a comparable magnitude only in region /I.

3\

mass III, moving due 10 external force F, through.

Iluid at velocity iiI. the resultant [orce in the direction of 7t1 is F, given by

(~q.

where F2 is the buoyant force due to displacement of

fluid of density p by a particle of density n; and F.,
is the drag force, which we have seen from Equation
3.4 to be equal to

Equation 3.6 con be rewritten as

(Eq. 3.7)
For the case of spheres settling under gravity, we
have .-~

3.3.2 General Theory

The equations which we have written so far have
been specific for the Stokes Law regime. Now we
will consider the relative motion of a submerged
sphere in general terms. For a discrete particle of

100,000

I..10,000
a
!:!

...
'"G

--- :-,- -- -

-I-

-- ---

-- - - _It

1,000

10-9.
100

I-

10

1.0

-.

ex:
a

-- -I- I-

Cl

.-

i-

u.
u.
w

~.

--

--

I-

1-

i-

_.

- -

~-

.. - I- A -

l-

--

I';'

Co versUs

I-

- -.

I-

0.001

0.01

0.1

1.0

10

100

1.000

10,000 100,000 1,000,000

REYNOLDS NUMBER IRe. wdP,

Figur. 3-1

I-

0.1
0.0001

R, for Spherfc.t p.rtieles

3.6)

J1

. SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

and, since force is rate of change of momentum, F

ca~. be rewritten as /II ( tI~/l!i~). Substituti,;g

into Equa.

_ 4g (P':f)U

"

(Eq.3.12)

3pw,-

t'

lion 3.7, we arrive at the differential equation of

motion, viz:
dw

g (p,-p)

ili-

,. :

(Eq.3.8)

Psl,l
Ii

I::

A spherical particle settling in a still fluid under

gravity will accelerate until it reaches a constant
velocity w" the terminal r,ill velocity, at which point
. d1tJ'

d/ -

. '

Dividing by Re gives
Cn
-Re

4g (P,-P)fl

- 3p'w,'
"--.,--

(Eq.3.1J)

Multiplying by (Re)' gives

(Eq. 3.14)

O. For the terminal condition Equation 3.8

becomes
.[ ,4g (pi'"P)d
w, - -'--'-3C nP

(Eq.3.9)

where Co - fIRe)

3-2. of i~ and Co Re2 as functions of Re lor spheri-

As we have seen 'in Equation 3.5. the drag coefficient in the Stokes Law regime bears a simple relationship 10 'the particle Reynolds Number, viz, CD 24/Re. Thus, by substitution into Equation 3.9, the
terminal fall velocity can be obtained as
,

,r:

g (P,_p)d 2

18 .

for Re

fl, '

In the Newtons Law regime, CD is a constant independentofRe and is equal to 0.4. Therefore, in this
region. the terminal fall velocity is given by

for 1000

-I

3.33 '~s~P)d ]'12

(Eq. 3.11)

< Re < 2 x lOs

~

The relationship between the terminalJall velocities

of spheres in both the Stokes and Newtons Law
regimes to the corresponding drag coefficient is
readily calculable from Equations 3.10 and Ll l.

Provided that

til,

cal particles. From these, a knowledge of terminal

fd..11
I 'atron
f C0 o
ve 1ocrty
-Rf irom I"-:'Q\l;I[IOn
l it OW$ caIcu

.
e
3.13, hence of Re from the graph, hence Cn. From a
knowledge of particle diameter, Cn Re 2 can be calculated from Equation 3.14, hence Re from the
graph, hence CD'

<I
(Eq. 3.10)

w,

It will be noted that Equation Ll J is independent of

particle diameter while Equation 3.14 is independent of terminal velocity. These equations are general and apply over the whole range of Reynolds
numbers. Graphs can be prepared as shown in Figure

is known. CII can be calculated

without a knowledge of the particle diameter. In the

intermediate lawregime, a slightly different approach must be taken. From the general Equation
3.9, CD can be expressed as follows:

Thus, for spherical particles, provided that either

the terminal fall velocity or the particle diameter is
known, the drag coefficient can be evaluated. Prom
a practical standpoint, the particle is more readily
characterized by a faU velocity rather than .l diameter and this lsrhe more reliable criterion upon
which to base drag coefficient calculations,

3.4GEN.ERALlZED DRAG
COEFFICIENT CURVES
'fhe preceding section of this chapter has asceri tained that for spherical particles. the evaluation of
drag coefficients is relatively straight forward. requir.ingonly :I. knowledge. of the terminal filII velocity
of the sphere. However, the foregoing analysis is. ill
itself, of liule lise to the design engineer Si'KC uni-

form spheres are rarely encountered ill practice. III

fact, commercial applications of slurry pipelines
invariably deal with solids of irregular shapes. The
drag.force on any particle, as we haveseen, is dependent on the boundary layer condition at the surface

MOTION 01' FLUfOs A!'I I) PARTICI.ES

3 10
10

..

COlA! =
4

3
10

1
10.

~~

"1-

~'

l - i-

--

..

1/

-- I-... ....

-1"<7-,

.1-

l-

......

..

- _.

e:

".

l7"

__
..

ro-

b"'"
.
1

,
<,

~:.9,

....:

-. - ..- -- -- -I',

'

'

1-

10

./

1--

r: .

'

<;;;

10

---

--

./

'V">

./

<
...

"',1

<,
I-~

4 9 11',-1') /.l
JI"W 3

r--.~, I,

4.

10"

.17

....

6 ,8

, 4

.....
' "1
..
~;'i..'
~:~

.i

Flgur.32 Co/Re end Co R.~ versus

n. for

of the particle which itself is dependent on the particle shape.

3.4.1 Shape Factor

In order to generalize the preceding discussion to

the practical case, we must examine how particle
shape 3ffects the drag coefficient. A great deal of
work has been done on 'particles of regular shapes
which mention must be
'other than spheres,
madcof the studies of McNOWN etal. lIl lll Mc
NOWN et al studied ellipsoids; nonellipsoids which
were symmetrical .with respect to each of three
mutually perpendicular axes, and' disks. The 31'preach taken by McNO\'VN was that the drag' force
on the particle could berelated to that experienced
by 3 sphere in the Stokes Lawregime by the follow-

or

Sphe,..

a dimensionless correction factor K which Mc

NOWN suggested should be known as .the Stokes
Number. Different values of K can be ascribed to
different shapes. For ellipsoids. a theoretical solution to the equations or morion is nvailable similar
to the solution presentedby Stokes for spheres so
that values of K for ellIpsoids can be calculated,
McNOWN et al claimed fh3t from these theoretical
results the drag coeflic~nts (or 3 wide range or
shapes can be estimated 'within 10 percent.
Drag coe(licienlsassociated with pa'ticles or irregular shape are of greater interest to the pipeline
designer. ALBERTSONIJ) studied the effect of
shape on gravel particles. He concluded .h3t while it
was unlikely that particle shape 'could ever be
accounted for by a single parameter. a shape factor
(S.F.) of the form

ingequarion:
.

".~

F - K (6 ll/lrw)

(Eq, 3.15)

Equation 3.15 is simply Equation 3.1 multiplied by

S.P. -

.=
yau

(Eq. 3.16)

where 1/ is the longest and ( is the shortest of three

mutually perpendicular axes of the particle, ap-

i':

r
'ii' :

The main conclusions of ALBERTSON's studies

are shown in Figure 3-5, which consist of a plot of
drag coefficient versus particle Reynolds Number
for' particles of various shape factors. l'article
Reynolds Number is defined using the nominal
diameter of the particle as the characteristic length
scale, i.e.,

pea red to provide a satisfactory representation of particle shape, at least for the degree of refinement that
currently exists on this subject as a whole. This form
of shape t~ctor had been employed previously by
numerous workers, including McNOWN eta!' The
shape factor defined inEquation 3.16 is roughly
equivalent to sphericity-and, as tirst used, the axis c
was always taken as thataxis parallel to the direction
of motion. In the Stokes' regimethis can be important since at low Reynolds Numbers any'orientation
,is stable and shape factors in excess of unity can be
obtained. However, outside the Stokes Law regime
particles will fall so as to present the maximum
projected area as norrnalto the llow. Consequently,
c will always be the shortest of the three axes and
values of S.F. will be less than unity.

;.:"

, 'I,.,

I
I

II, ',
II
i'
:
, ,
I

501.10 - lIQUJI) FI.OW

.1M

"

(Eq. 3.17)
where tin is the diameter of a sphere having the same
volume as that of the particle itself Albertson's
studies showed that the shape factor deli ned by
Equation 3.16 was able (0 adequately characterize
both naturally-worn gravel and also crushed gravel,
However, he did find that the lines or constant
shape factor for the naturally-worn particles and the
crushed particles did not coincide. which is a point
to which we will return in the following section.

...:;

. In the course of a painstaking study. ALBERT

SON(3) also addressed himself to the problem of
characterization ofboth maximum projected area
and particle volume fo,~ irregular shaped particles,
since in the now regimes understudy particles fall
with the maximum projected area normal to the
now. ALBERTSON reasoned that the axial product
(n.b) ought to correlate with this projected area. As
shown in Figure 3-3, a reasonable, correlation was,
in fact, obtained with the data for irregular gravel
particles falling close 'to the calculated line for
spheres. An attetnpt to';;iJnilarly correlate the axial
product(n.b.(/with particle volumewas rejected by
ALBERTSON because ofexcessive scatteringofthe
data: as~hown in Figurd.-4. However, from a practical standpoint Figure ~':4 can be used to give a
reasonableesfimateof
tlie
particle nominal
.
:
.
.....diameter,
"

.8

'

....

-""

1//

..: .5

It-/

.:

//
2

/ ' ':! .

IU

.,- ,

::I! 1.0

"

:3

C>

>

/( ..

~'

,':

Natural Pallic!es

,,)!, ~
,

I
6

~7'
~-

"

1/

./~ I , I-

---

'-

I,

~~ 1- -. --- -

9-

"~ "
-~~<t>
.
~'I;'

.//c,~~
0.1

N.tufal Panicles

6
I

.1

_iL

.!:!

/j-"r"

.2

.3 .4
'0,

:1

".

.5

.6

.,~

Ii

/ ./'

...
~ .2 .1

...

/,

...

1.../

e-:
~

'
'<;'/.
-'"/--c,'V'

~V

t; .3 .

~~;71

.!:!

30

,,-,'

, I /

~.6

<,4

The end result of the generalizarion hom ,pheres

to irregular- shaped panicles is the plot of Ci, versus
Re shown in" Figure 3'-6. This plot. which is taken
from Reference 4, employs a shape f,tclt'r as defined
by Equation 3.16, andis a more extensive version of
Figure 3-5 and refers to naturally-worn particles.
Superimposed on the C,,-Re curves arethe additional parameters Cw and C., where

10

.7

a:

304.2 Generalized Curves

b (eml

.1

.8

.9

,
I.OU

Flgur. 3-3 Rtl.tlonlhfp aetwellnMIJlim'umPraltcted

llftll Albl".on. RIf.'31

.1

6 61.0

6 6 10

b,e lem)3

A':tI~nci b

Flgu,.304 A,III Producf..",.. rlnl,l. Volume

flft" Alb." .. n, n.f. 31

30

JQ

MonON OF FLUIDS AND PARTICI.ES

')
I

10.0

ji
:1

. ~

1.0

,"

s'

.,

'

.....'..... '!

.. - .-'

- ._--- _. +-~-

-~ 1-'-'-

1--

9. ~f'
::::.::l!.Jl"
'j

--

-_.. -

0 7 l ' - ' - - 1-~j- - - "-1--- !--I- .1-..,

I I.O:..
- \ - - i-I-

--

'

.- ---

SHAPE FACTOR .lJti.

-r-\lTI-

I:::-r-.
- -~ ~
'<; r--,r-.

.-

I!

I,

--11-'--

-I---j

1- -,

.-.-

O. I

8 10

10'

JR.

'\0' . ,te" .

to'

Figure 3-5 0"9 CoeWclent 'IS. Revnolds:Numbet' for DiU.rent Shape Factors
f.f.e, Albertson. R'f. 3)

40

10

Il

~"

""S !'

s;.

c::;

u:

:::; 100 .... 1-'--'

8

C>

a::

l"il

I~
or

.:I

10

.J

~~

~~ r-,

S H RES

~.,

~ l::l

1\

-,

1.0

-<!'\)<:1

3" p(p ..1:1 gd'.

,,'

Y"" .

I'-<.....

'K

I .

'!?

......

~. , r-.

~'

'

i;

S,F.0.3
/

)\i
'\
,..

.
..
I.P/iERdo\
,

1\

1",-

r-kt
fi>G

FIgur.3-6 Co venUI Reynold. Number Retalionshlp'or IrregularShaped P.rtlcles

(.dupted from R,'er.nce 41

.\

..10.0

1/

1.000 '

.
1/

--

I:

'.

1- h

''\ 17

I?\
-7 -Il"

1\
1\

40.0

I\.,v 1\

In'

REYNOLDS NO. w~P

1/

~0;7

1-"

1--,.'

1\,

'

1\

1\

...

Il

',- I.-

1\

I-

",.

10,000

'9

"\\)

'Il

-- 1'71/
1'\ / 1\
\

1/

!\

\)

I}\

~k

~r--......I
.

\,000
,;8 ;

-\ 1/
'''I ~
/

,t;f!
...

,...:.~

t--.

~
, " 'to'
, , ....-1 C

~~'
~O

1/

f-- t;,
I----

~~~

,.

;-

\Il

':rr-

1\
--;

~ (~S.F:0.7
~

11 CR'

.) v

.,

lr 0

1\

~ r-, f\

1-'
Z
w

Il

-\

'\

'"
....

lOa

\Il"

i\l' ~ k../

1/
''<;

'\

~ t\. S( 1/
o

~.".

1.0

-=

1\

-s

10.000 '

0.1

SOLID - lIQ.UID FLOW

40

(Eq, J.18)

,, .
"
'.

"
and :-

(Eq.3.J9)

r-- -l-.....-j.....-jl-

It can be seep that Cw andC, are related to Equations

3.13 and 3.14 given previously for spherical particles. Thus, Figure J-6 is a rather economical composite of a great deal of information and can consequently be employed in several ways. The use of
primary concern to pipeline design is for tile calculation ofdrag coefficients. The importance ofknowing the particle shape, factor is that it permits the
location of the proper CI1-Re curve for the particles
under study. However, in addition to shape factor
there are another five variables in the definition of
Figure 3-6; namely, Iluid density, and viscosity,
particle density, nominal diameter, and fall velocity,
Anyone variable can be determined from Figure 3-6
if the other five, are known, ,

,
"

<:1
""'(":.;'1

In most slurry pipeline applications, the solids are

subjected to some form of size reduction, and as
ALBERTSON discovered, drag coefficientsofcrushed
particles of a gh~~n shape factor do not coincide
with the values for naturally-worn sediments.with
the same shape factor. This does not preclude the
use of Figure 3-6 in practical applications; however,
in using Figure 3-6, the engineer should recognize
exactly what it is he is evaluating, A knowledge of
the nominaldiameter and the terminal fall velocity
for a crushed particle allows both Cu and Re to be
calculated. This allows location of the shape factor
line for these particles. The line will be designated
by a "naturally-worn" shapefactorwhich tells the
engineerncthingofthe actual shape factor. What
it does tell him is that his particle is hydraulically
identical to, a naturally-worn particle of the shape
factor given by Figure 3-6.

3.4.3 Fall Diameter

Another concept' which is sometimes used to
characterize the effect ofshape on particle fall velocdiameter", which is defined as
ities is th~t of
the diameter ofa sphere of equal density having the
same rail velocity as the particle under consideration.
Figure 3-7 shows the relationship between particle
nominal diameter and fall~ diameter for various

'1""

'---I---/--I-

-I-=t=t=ttl

0.05+J~1=::j::=f=j=t:1==!==f=jH::l,
6

0.05 0.1

G'

1.0
FALL DIAMETER [mml

10.0

Figur.3-7 Relationship BetwHn Particl. Nominel Dilllneter

.nd F.II OJ.tNt.,

shape factors. In reality, fall diameter is merely .1

substitute for tTle more basic concept of fall velocity, The ratJo.otnominal diameter to fall diameter
has been used as a "hydraulic' shape factor. Again.
on this basis, spheres would have a shape fa<,lor
equal to unity, but increasing resistance is indicated
by values in excess of unity as opposed to the shape
factor defined by Equation 3.16 where increasing
irregularity is indicated by shape factors less than
unity. Of the two, the shape factor as defined by
Equation 3.16 is to be preferred.

3.5 THE EFFECT OF

TURBULENCE ON l;LUID
DRAG
The preceding sections of this chapter have indicated how we may characterize the drag forces on a
single particle f.1 iii ng at its terminal velocity through
a still fluid. The environment that exists in a pipe. line isobviously different from the still fluid case,
f being complicated by such factors as particle rotation, the presence of more than one particle and lire
fluid will most invariably be in a turbulent flow
condition.
The effect of both scale and intensity of turbulence on fall velocities would appear 10 be arr obvious area of weakness in translating tire fall velocity
information 10 tire pipe flow case. However, as a

. i!
','

,I
'~

11

t.

II

Ii

r.
[

MOTION OF FI.UIDS AND PARTlCI.ES

, recent review by GRAp s, shows, the full impact of

_ turbulence is not well understood. mainly. due to
; the diHiculties in design and execution of experi,J ments in this urea, One effect that is relatively well
: established is that the particle Reynolds Number at
'1 which transition from the Newton's Law regime to
: the turbulent boundary layer regime (i.e. to 'regime
I (d) in I'i!lure 3-1) can be reduced from the order of
.
<
; 10' to about 1 0 ) ' ' ' . ,
'
The.effect on drag below transition is not known.
; and experimental evidence is conllicting on this
point. Some researchers report increases. others
. decreases, and others no change at all. An interesting
study in this regard was conducted by HA UWONG 1-10''', in which the turbulence of fluctuation was modeled using an oscillating fluid. In all
cases. the 1,,11 velocities obtained were lower than
those obt:,ined in still Iluid; the higher the Irequency of oscillation, the greater was the reduction
for a given particle.

3.6 EHECl' OF
CONCENTRATION ON DRAG
The discussion so far was .applicable to single
particles settling in 'infinite fiuids. '\Vhell there are
a number of particles dispersed in a fluid, the fall
velocity of the particles-will .differ from that of a
single, particle, due to mutual interference. When a
group of randomly oriented particles settle' in a
fluid, the velocity of the cluster is found to be larger
than that of individual, particles'". This phenomenon is different from agglomeration since in
cluster the particles arenotin con~act, as the groups
are stabilized only by the fluid dynamics of the
system. As,the suspension concentration' increases,
particle .acceleration due to cluster formation becomes less marked as the increased drag from the
return Ilowing fluid begins to slow them down. At
still hlgherconcennntion solids seule as amass \vith
an interface between solid phase and the fluid.This
type of settling behavior is defined as: hindered
~tli~
.
'

se'Ulingre~ime,

In the hindered
the settling veltcitydecreases with.an.iocrease in solidsconcentration. For particles settling in Stokes Law region,the
effect of concentration is given by' the following
equation: 'lI,
'
-"I

'0

w
, _'__
e4.5
W OI

41

where:
w, - hindered settling velocity
wo, - settling velocity of single particle in infinite"
fluid
e - the volume fraction of voids.
In a suspension made up of a mixture of different size particles, the coarse' particles sell Ie in a
matrix or smaller particles. For" binary mixture.
DAVIES and KAYE'" have shown that the mixture
settles: \vith;.llIt segreg.uion when the distance between larger particles issuch as to trap the smaller
size particles. Thus. particle segregation would occur
up to a critical concentration beyond which the
smaller particles will remain trapped between larger
particles.
When coarse particles are suspended in a suspension of very fine particles; the settling velocity of
the coarse solids isappreciably reduced; The suspension of fine particles may exhibit non-Newtonian
properties. DuPLESSIS and i}NSLEyf,", have investigated seuling of particles in a daysuspensionexhibiting Bingham plastic behavior. They haveshown
that the-settling velocity of the particle decreases
the yield stress of theiclay suspension increases.

"5

3.7 EFFECT OF"".. ... ""',CYLINDRICAL ,WALLaR

CONTAINER,
""

-,.~

":

-"

:"

TIle fall velocity in a .cylindrical, container' is

found to be lower than that in a fluid of infinite
extent. 111e wall effect is found by determining fall
velocity of the solids in cylinders of different diameters.
TIle measured terminal velocity can be corrected
for the cylinder wall effect by extrapolation of Plots
of settling'. vclocityversus reciprocal ofcylincler

diameter (DJ

,.,

tooc -

0; "
,

MeNOWN et al"o, have presented a relationship

between d and

D-

~L.
th~ ratio of rail. velocity of a
WID

sphere in a fluid of infinite extent and in one confined in a cylinder of diameter D.

(Eq.3.21)

(Eq.3.20)

!'

IiI I
I

'I'

1, ' '
,
"

42

I;

Here

I,

,it

rl'

SOLID - I.IQUID FLOW

W,
Will

,
- settling velocity in intinite.tluid
- settling velocity in a container ofdiameter 0
- diameter of the particle.

3.9 REl'ERENCES
3-1

,'

"kNOWN;J. S. .1OO MALt\lKA.j.. ';EtkcfS nff'.fffid~ ~h.ir('

on Seillin" VC'lo<il)";l1 Ln. Rt')'uoltls NUlntllr\.~ lr.tI1~. '\11I('r.
G(Oph~s. Union. V. JI (1950),

.1-2

t-:c.NOWN .f. S. MAt.,\IKA. J..IIHI I'R,\M,\NIK. II..

Sh.l~

,1:nd StUli.I,: Vrlnrily", riC','. tn

MC'C'lin~ Uomholy. Judi.a (I9SI).

I'

J-J

",

3.8 RECOMMENDED
PROCEDURE
,
.:'1'
. ~ :

The recommended procedure for obtaining the

necessary information for design is as follows:

,,

.'
.
Establish. theter~~ilJar settling velocity for the
parti~l~s',pfinte~estbymeans ,of experiment.
Since mosts'lurries contain particles of a fairly
wide granulometry, this will involve the separation of the solids into their respective sieve sizes. '
and the evaluationof the settling velocity for
several different sizes at the coarse end of the
size distribution.

Calculate the nominal particle diameter tin for

each different sieve size. IThis is usually considered to be the geometric mean ofthe apertures of
the sieves between which the particle is retained.
:

'

Obtain the shape factor from' Figure 3-6. This

to another.
may vary from one size fraction
,
From ',the curves located bythe various shape
factors, obtain the drag coefficients as needed.
For work in situations where the accurate knowledge of shape factors is critical. it may be necessary
to evaluate fall velocities in a fluid of viscosity
which is equal to that of the slurry itself. At present.
there is no reliable method of evaluating the effect
of turbulence, particularly in shear flows. and no
recommendation can be made regarding this.

~l"tllill('

[Ivd, Rt,.. , -hI.

ALBF..RTSON. M. I... "Efr~c:ts of Sh;ll'~ on lIn' r.ll1 Vclfldl~' nl

Gr.av~lr.mid~s~.

r,oe. 5th low;I lIyd. Cunl:. luwa (Iq!'.H.

J-4

R~pot1 No. "12. Suhcomm.on ,Srdimtntalion. Inl~IA~C'I1C\

CommillC:c onW..ter RC50urces.,Minneapolis, Minn. (1958.

J-S

GRAF. 'w. B.;-UYduulics o( Sediment Tr.ansrml", Ch.lplel"

pp. 58-62. McGraw-Hili Inc. (I97n

3-6

rORORIN. L B.,1nd GAlJVIN. W.lf., "rund.llllen13:1 A'irc(u ut

SolidCuRow. r.art V.... Cm,1di.IR:)r. Chc",.F.n~.. V. J8C tqf,fJ),

J-7'

no, B.1u-WonJ. "F.dl Velocity or :r '~I,here in ,11=il'ld or O'ililb

II:

"

.;

A~c.ni..

It has been the intention of this chapter to present a method of calculation of drag coeflicients for
the type of particle generally encountered in slurry
pipeline work. The drag coefficient so obtained may
be modified when used in pipeline flow due to, for
example, hindered settlillg effects. but in itself it
remains the most useful parameter for particle
characterization.

linS Ruid". Ph.D Thesis. Univ. of low", (June 196l);

J-8

DAVIES. R. end KAYE. D. 11.. "F.'rcril1lt'l1l;t1 !Il\'((lin.liiun hun

lite ScHli"J IJcll.1\jnur or Susrl"Il'iiot1\-. 1'll'i:t'rdil1r.' ul
rO\VTECIf 71: Inl~rn,1liol1;11 rOWtlrr Tcd,nul(,s)' & Hulk
Gw:,ubt Solids: Conference 1971.

J-9

DuI'I.ESSIS. M hntl,\NSI.F.V. R. W. "SelllillJ: r,U.lI11l'lei in

Solids rireliaiu~"....tournal or the Pipeline Oivition. I'roc. Am.
Soc. Civ.
No.
1-11 UulyI967).

En"n...

ru.

J-IOMcNOWN.J. E. tEE_ H, M. McrHERSON. M' 8, ,nd ENGERZ,

S.M."Innue-nee or &undary rroximity on Ihf' Oi;tg ofSrheres~.
rrocecdinls, 7th, Inlern,1ltional Con~. (or Applicd Mevhanics,
london. Vol. 2, rart I. 17-29 (1948).
J~II

FAIR &; GEYER. ..'to',ller SupPh and W.1"c"".ller Oisl'01.1I-,

}. \Viler o5c Son. p. 67.7 U9!'61.

3.10 NOMENCLATURE
A
Co

c,
C,

f-

Re

Projected area of sphere

Drag coefficient
3Co/4 Re

i CoRe

Cylinder diameter
Drag force
dw
Reynolds Number - -_P,

Il

a,b,c Three mutually perpendicular axis of ~ parI

ticle with It being longest and (being shortest
axis
Particle diameter
d
dn
Normal diameter
e
Volume fraction solids
Acceleration due to gravity
g
m
Mass
Radius
r
Time
t

MonON 01: I:LUIDS "NO "ARTICLES

w
w,
W OI

w'"
J.l

p
P.

Relative velocity between lIuid and particle

Terminal 1:,11 velocity .
Fall velocity of single particle in infinite fluid
Fall velocity ofa particle in a cylinder of diameter D
~
Viscosity
:
Density
Density of solid

!
3.1 Determine the settling velocity of. spherical
part ide having a density of 165.4 Ib,,/Ii' (2,650
kg/m") in water at 68' F(20' C) if the particle
diameter is 0.0197" (0.5 nun),
3.2 A naturally 1V0rn sediment particle has a nominal diameter of 0.00082 ft (250 microns), a
density of 1871b mlft l (3000 kg/m-'J,.nd a shape
factor of 0.7. Wh.t is its f.lI velocity in water at
68' F (20' q?'

"

r
/,

!
I

! .

"

-,

3.4 Assuming that the part ide given In Problem

3.2 settles in a fluid of dcnsit y 12~.6 Ib",/ft'
(2000 kg/m') and viscosity 3.2~ :' Ill' ft'ls
(3 X 10-$ m'/s), determine it's settling velocitv,
3.5 Determine the value of dra!: coefficient for the
particle given in Problem 3.2,

3.11 PROBLEMS
:

3.3 Assume the same particle as in Problem 3.2.

except that the nominal diameter is to be determined from all other five variables.

3.6 Determine the value of drag coefficient for the

particle given in Problem .1.2, assuming that its
shape factor is 1.0.
3.7 Determine the settling velocity and drag coefficient for a 100 micron diameter sphericnl par'
tide having a specific gravity of 5.0 in a slurry
having an effective density of2000 kglrn' and
an effective kinematic viscosity of 2.5 x 10"u
m t Is.

4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
~

SUSPENSIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The design of. slurry pipeline is ultimately dependent upon how well the physicai properties of
the slurry can be evaluated, In some cases of commercial interest, for example fine limestone slurries,
it is possible to consider the slurry as a continuous
medium and to base the pipeline design upon the
average properties of this "fluid".' However, as later
chapters will show, this is not always so and for
other types of slurries consideration must be given
also to the properties of the individual slurry components.
In this chapter we discuss the more important
properties of suspensions, how they are measured,
and their significance in pipeline design.
'

iected to some form of comminution, the measure

ments should be performed on the component siz
fractions of the material in the form in which it wii
be transported, The reason for this is that som
materials can exhibit. density variation as a fune
tion of size. This may be important to the pipclin
design, yet it will not be indicated by the averag
density of the uncrushed 'material.
Suspension densit'ycan also be meas~red direct]
by conventional techniques. However, care shoul
be taken with slurries in which the.solids tend t,
settle rapidly, to ensure that when the excess mate
rial is expressed from the specific gravity bottle, th
suspension is still uniform. If the slurry has bee I
allowed to settle,' the material expressed will b
composed mainly of suspending medium, and th,
measurements will indicate a higher density thai
the true slurry density.

4.2 DENSITY
There are three density terms involved in the
specification of'any suspension; namely.the density
of the panicles, the density of the suspending medium, and thede'lsity of the' suspension itself.
;' ;

-;) I
i

TIle densities of the solids and the suspending

medium can be evaluated byconventional methods,
such as a specific g",vity bottle technique.provided
thnt- core is taken to eliminate possible sources of
error. There ore two major sources of experimental
error. Firstly, ifthe solids particles are fine, they have
a tendency to act as a trap for air bubbles which,
unless they are eliminated, will result in serious
errors. The air can be removed by a number of
met hods such as agitation or the addition ofa small
quantity of'wening agent to the mixture. Secondly,
if the solid material to be transported is to be sub-

In practice, it is perhaps better to depend on thl

measurements of particle and fluid densities te
define the density' or suspension of a given con
centration, and conversely, to use suspension den
sily as a measure of wncelllr"tion, The density of:
suspension in terms of its component densities i:
given by:
'
'
100
Pm - .,,'.--0-...
C, + . . IOO-c"_
P,
P,

c..

(Eq.4.1

where
is the concentration of solids in percent
by weight. It is often convenient to express solids
concentrations in terms. of weight percent, particularly where one is dealing with pipeline capacities in
tonnage throughput. However, the mechanics of

46

SOI.lD - LIQUID FLOW

pipeline !low are more directly related to the \'01ume of solids present, and the reader will see reference made later in the text to volume percent,
and volume fraction. <P, where <P - C,1I00.

c.:,

The relationshlp between volume percent solids,

solids specific gravity, specific gravityofthe suspending medium, and the weight percent ccncentrarion
of solids is given as follows:

In this section we will consider the case of the

viscosity of suspensions of uniform spherical particles. which are usually Newtonian in character. This
type of system iS,in practice, relatively unconnnon,
but it is of importance since its viscosity represents
a minimum value for the "viscosity" of nonNewtonian suspensions.

4.3.1 Dil ute Suspensions

<r: _

. "",

100 Cw/p,
C;
100-Cw

P,

CwPm

P,

+--"-'---""'PI'

(Eq, 4.2)

i.Cw
,l',::

.Cp
v

!I!

c, + (100",<:..)

The viscosity of dilute suspensions of solids was

the subject of a theoretical analysis by EINSTEIN
in 1905 who concluded that the viscosity could be
represented as follows:

.c, P,
--Pm

(Eq. 4.1)

(Eq.4.3)

4.3 VISCOSITY
An important effect of theaddition of solid particles toa fluid is its influence on the system viscosity. The presence of the particles invariably increases the suspension' viscosity to a value greater than
that of the fluid itself, and in many cases results in a
suspension which is non-Newtonian in character.
:
..
~

fi~ld

,,,i~~osi'ty

The
of suspension
has been one
upon which a certain amountof.controversy has
centered. This is'i1a~dly~surprisingwhen one examines the rather complex nature of suspensions.
Indeed, the conceptof a suspension viscosity is in
itself quite difficult. Admittedly, this is perhaps not
the case when one visually compares avery concentrated slurrywith the pure carrlerIluid.ns one nlight
compare a heavy oil with water. However, the mat, ter does not appear so simple in the case of a very
dilute suspension of large particles.
From an engineering standpoint, it is perhaps
better to visualize a suspension viscosity, not as a
"thickening" of the mixture vis-a-vis the carrier
tluid, but as defined in Equation 2.8, as a laminar
flow parameter which directlyrelates velocity grddient to shear stress. So while it is difficultto imagine a small number of large particles making a fluid
"thicker", it is easy to accept that 'these particles may
have an effect on the velo1:itydistribution in a laminar flow, and therefore on the viscosity.

Equation 4.4 applies to laminar flow of suspensions of rigid spheres in which the particles are large
compared to molecular, dimensions, but small with
respect to the characteristic length scale of the
measuring insrrunrent.Jt is assumed that the suspensions are extremely dilute; that is, that there arc no
particle interactions:
As pointed out by THOMAS,"ln'lOst theoretical
studies agree with the form of Equation 4.4 and although values of the constant as large as 5.5 have
been reported, it is generally accepted as stated. The
limitation on Equation 4.4 is that it is not valid for
concentrations greatly in excess of 1.0 percent
solids byvolume'P,

4.3.2 Concentrated Suspensions

The viscosity of more concentrated suspension"
must takeaccount.of the various types of particle
interactions which may occur. THOMAS'" has
reviewed the existing theoretical and experimental
expressions for suspension viscosities. Man}' take
the form of a Taylor-series expansion:

I
Jlm _
Jl."

I + K,

<[>

+ K, <[>, + K)

<{J)

+...

'

(1'q. 4.5)

where
Jlm - viscosity .of suspension
P. - viscosity of suspending medium
<[> - volume, concentration of solids
K" K" K) - constants.

II
"
II

ij
il

il
I
i

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUSPENSIONS

The value uf K, is generally assumed to be that

determined by EINSTEIN,i:e., 2.5. Vnrious values
have been assigned to Kl by accounting for ~ert;lin
interactions: GUTU and SIMHAI1 ' tibtaineda
value of I\! - 14.1. However, the higher order coefficients are not re;ldily calculable. According to
, THOMAS'" this represents "1 severe 'Iimitation on
I the use of ElIIJ;u!on 4.5 since termination }?f the
series after the <p' term leads to errors in, excess of
10% lor suspensions greater than <P "'0.20; inclusions of the <p) term extends the' validity of the
equation to c[> at 0.40.

By analysis and rationalization ofa large quantity,

of published data, THOMAS suggests. an equation
which is closed in form, viz.

-Ii

Another equation for the viscosity of concentrated suspensions is that proposed by GAY, NELSON,
and ARMSTRONG:'.11
.
fl..

~,

I 5 + ( '(J 11-c[J)n I T<P

- exp 2.

where <1>m is the maximum volumetric concentration attainable, It is interesting to note that since the

c[>

term (<1>m-<1 may be rewri,uen as ( T ) / (1 -

m
<1>
Pn.
I
1
~ ), Equation 4.7 expresses so e y as a crune"'m
fl.

..1
I

<1>

.\

,I

For small values of

+ 10.05 <f>! + A exp (B<1

(Eq. 4.7)

tion of <1>m

PRJ. l+loS <1>

P.

~-;i.e., for dilute suspension

.I

~'ni'

a series expansion of Equation 4.7 gives

(Eq.4.6)

TIle two adjustable constants A and 8 have the

following values: A - 0.00273, 8 - 16.6. Thomas
. found that Equation 4.4 gave as good a lit to the
available viscosity data as an equation ofthe form of
. Equation 4.5 with three or fouradjustable constants
as shown in Figure 4-1.

'.

fl

_.J!!. -

Jln

rp

l.

}/JOI

1 -i- 2.5 ---

(Eq, ~1.8)

i
which is similar to E1NS11E1N's Equation 4,4 except

ci>. -

that

.; .

'-;p- is substituted for

m'

'

<1>.

,i

4.4 SPECIFIC HEAT'

I
I

As with slurry density, dIe heat capacity ofa slurry

can be determined from: the specific heats of the
pure components. This \~as done by THOMAS'"
in his work on thorium oxide suspensions, and also
by ORR and DALLA VALLE'll in heat transfer
studies on a wide range of materials, both of whom
used an expression ofthe form:
.

}
",1!:)

'II'
I'I

:!,

in

10

>
UJ
>

(Cp) m

UJ

/'
o

l/

0.1

0.2

v.

,J

., (Cr.), (C~i: (C~.. (C;')L

.

; .
I .

100

,.

0.3' 0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

R.du~~R'llltf.,. Viscosity venus Volume

Fnc1ion Solid, 19aMd on

n.f. 4 n

.:'

(Eq.4.9)

VOLUME FRACTION SOLIOS 101

ripUff 4-1

.'_

a:

"

..

4.5 THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
'.'
'f
.
Methods have been proposed for the measurement ofthermalconductivities in suspensions, but
as with measurements in pure fluids, care must be
taken to avoid convection. In addition, the tendency
of the particle to settle must be either reduced or
eliminated.

."::

T
'I,

SOUl) - LIQUID FLOW

'I

r.'

\".

.,
i

ORR a~d DALLA VALLE';"proposeda method

by which particle sell ling could be'eliminated by the
addition of small quantities of agar to the suspension, thus forming a gel. The value of the thermal
conductivity so measured could be corrected lor the
effect ofthe agar alone o~ the thermal conductivity.
The thermal conductivities of slurries measured hy
this gelling technique showed good agreement with
those calculated by means of the following equation:

k _ k[ 2k1 + k, - 2tJl (k 1 - k,)

m
12k 1+,k,+tJl(k,-k,)

liquids. In this section we will review the aspects of

lion-Newtonian flow which are of importance 10
slurry pipeline design. As additional reading the
reader inc/erred 10 review articles by THOMAS'"
and WaHl'''.
The type of uon-Newtoniuu behavior usually
encountered when dealing with slurries l;ll1s into
one of the following general cale~~ories:
I. Time-independent fluids
2. Time-dependent fluids.

(Eq.4.10)

4.6.1 Time-Independent
non-Newtonian fluids

where k is thermal conductivity, and I, lit, and s refer

to liquid, mixture, and solid, respectively.

Fortime-independent fluids ill laminar flow. the

shear stress is a function of the applied rate of shear-

This equation is based on an expression derived

ing strain, i.e.,

by MAXWELL for determination of the electrical

conductivity of two-phase mixtures. It has been
employed by numerous workers in the field of heat
tran~fer to suspensions, including THOMAS"~

du _ f (r)
dy

The form"of Equation 4.11 is. of course, identical 10

that of Equation 2.8 for Newtonian fluids. However, whereas for Newtonian fluids the functional

4.6 NON-NEWrONIAN
RHEOLOGY

relationship between rand

In Chapter 2 we discussed the definition of viscosity for Newtonian fluids and saw that it was
given by the following equation:
,
~ du
p-r/,(--)

-: dy

(E'I. 4.11)

~; is completely defined

by the single parameter of viscosity;, in the case of

time-independent !lon-Newtonian fluids, at least
two parameters are required. The parameters required for characterization of the /low are known
collectively as the rheology of the fluid or slurry.

(Eq.2.8)

-.
It is possible to further sub-divide the category of
time-independent non-Newtonians, depending on
the behavior exhibited in laminar flow. into those
which exhibit a yield stress and those which do not.
Figure 4-2 shows typical flow' curves for the more
important types of time-independent non-Newtonians.

Equation 2.8 states simply that if a plot is made of

shear stress versus shear rate for a' Newtonian fluid
in laminar flow, a straight line passing through the
origin will be obtained, the slope of the line being
equal to the viscosity. Clearly, the laminar flow
behavior of this category offluid is characterized by
the single flow parameter of viscosity; in fact, Newtonian fluids can be referred to as "one-parameter"
fluids.
.

I
However,' thereisanilTll'ortant group of Iluids
whose shear diagrams or flow curves, as the shear
stress-shear rate curves are called, do not conform to

Equation 2.8. These fluidsl~for which theflow curve

is not linear through the origin, are known as non-.

Newtonian fluids. 'Fxpieal of this group are certain
polymer solutions, such as carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC). and a great many suspensions of solids in

Curve number one is typical of the response "I' a

slurry which exhibits a yield stress, a so-called Bingham plastic. A Bingham plaslicischaracteri7.ed by
a Ilowcurve which is a straight line having an intercept ro on the shear stress axis. The yield stress rn is
a measure of the stress which must be exceeded for
flow to commence. The Ilow behavior i! described
by the equation:
du
(Eq. 4.12) ,
r-r.e - '1 dy
where

rHYSICAI. rROrlmTIES OF SUSPENSIONS

The explanation of Bingham plastic behavior is

that the lluid at rest has ;1 three-dimensional structure of sufficient rigidity to resist ;lIIY stressless than
the yield stress, If the yield ~t ress is exceeded, this
structure disintegrates and the Illilterial behaves as
a Newtonian tluid under shear stress (r-r.). The
yield structure reforms whellthe applied shear stress
falls below rn

,I( (dll

dy )

(Eq. 4.13)

for n " 1.0

where K and n are constants for the particular fluid.

The constant K is known.as the "consistency" of the
!luid; the higherthe value of K,the more viscous the
fluid, Fout-I.O,that is for Newtonian behavior,'K
corresponds to the .Newtonian viscosity. The
constant II, the "Ilowindex," is a measure of the
degree of departure from Newtonian behavior; the
further 11 departs from ut{ity,the more pronounced
the non-Newtonian properties. Pseudoplastic fluids
are typified hy certain- polymer solutions (e.g.,
CMC), but the Power Law model can be used to
describe the behavior of~l1lany slurries.
1--

Curve three shown in Figure 4-2 is typical flow

curve for so-calleddilatantIluids. This type of fluid
is rarely encountered inpractice. Dilatantlluids can
be described hy the Power Law with a ftow index
n> 1.0. An example ofa dilatant fluid isstarch paste.

l:l
w
a:

l-

V>

a:

:J:

',

V>

ci/f:V~ .four shown in Figure 4-2 is a typical flow

curve for.pseudoplasricmaterial having a yield stress.
I

RATE OF ,SHEAR (r)

S,r." -

Flgure ....2 Shea'

She., R.t. CU"'" fOfTypk~ .
. Time Independen, No....Nevwt0nlan Fluids

In practice, it is found thatlh~ behaviorof.most.

suspensions exhibiting yield stresses is approximated by Eqllation4.12. However, this is by no means
the only type of behavior encountered in this category. There are many other expressions' which
attempt-to describe either the general or specific
behavior ofsuspeusionswhichexhlbitayield stress,
e.g.,the CROWLEY-KITZES equation for use with
titanium oxide slurries'", Equation 4.12, and others
like it. is referred to as a rheological model.

1
Curv.e number two, Figure 4-2, shows a typic~1
pseudoplastic I1l1id. This nuid does not exhibit'
yield stress and has a Ilow.curvewhoseslope decreases with increasing rate of shearingstrain, until at
high shear rates a limiting slope is reached. TIle
rheology of pseudoplastics can be described by a
number of modei~:-the most commonly used being
the Ostwald-deWaele. or Power Law model:

It should again be stressed that the Bingham

Plastic model an? the Power La)V model are not the
only rheological models for these two categories of
time-independent flulds.The reader will find excellent discussions of these and other models in References 6 and 9. However, in this texrthese . two
models will be used thro'Jghout to demonstrate the
manipulation techniques'involvedin translation of
viscometer data to pipelihe design.'
,",

",~

As compared with ,:Newtonian fluids, which

require merely a knowledge of viscosity for evaluation and comparison of laminar [low hehavior,the
treatment of;non-Newtoilirtns is rather more complex. In particular, the establishment of what constitutes a suitable "viscosity," even in analytical
terms, is a mailer upon.which there is no general
agreement. A number-of definitions of viscosity
have been employed for prediction and correlation
of pipeline flow data, as outlined in the following
paragraphs. It is possible to define an "apparent
viscosity," POI' as

Ji. "

r"

dU
(--)
dy

(Eq. 4.14)

50

'. I

L
r.
I,
I,

It can be seen from Figure 4-3 that the value ofp,

varies depending on the applied rate of shearing
strain. In the case of Bingham plastics and pseudoplastics. the value of /l, decreases with increase of
applied shear rate. For this reason these types of
fluids are sometimes termed "shear thinning" fluids.
Dilatant fluids on the other hand exhibit an increaswith increasing shear rate and Me termed
ing
"shear, thickening" fluids. Newtonian fluids. of
course, have /l. constant regardless of the applied
shear.
,.
rate

#..

or

where:
D is pipe diameter
. V is average velocity of flow.
In addition. one has the value of the limiting viscoslty at high rates of shear, p"", with which to
characterize a non-Newtonian fluid (which may
or may not be equal to 'lor /l. depending on the
range of the measuring instruments).The choice of
which of the above constitutes a suitable viscosity
for prediction of pipeline behavior is discussed in
the later chapter on pipeline design.

,
I

4.6.2 Time-Dependent Fluids

These materials are usually classified as either
thixotropic or rheopectic depending upon whether
the shear stress decreases or increases with time for
given conditions of shear rate and temperature.

~
<n.

...~
Z

011.,,1,,1\1
.

NEWTONIAN

""~

~
0-

-c

SHEAR RATE

Flgur.4-3 Apparent ViscC;;s:ty ,ylltsusShear ,Rate f~

Time Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids

'.J

~L'l'j

With Bingham plastics. the fluid can be categorized by the coefficient ofrigidity which isdimensionally the same as viscosity. hi the case Qf pipe flow
ofnon-Newtonians, it is possible to define an "effective viscosity" /l defined as.the ratio of shear stress
~o average shear rate at the boundary. For pipes, this
IS:

!
/l.

Tw '

--y

(Eq.4.15)

8D
which, as will be shown later, results in values of p.
for Bingham plastics and pseudoplastics as follows:'

p. -II [1

and

;0:; )

(Eq.4.16)

.
" ( 8V\ .'-.
P. - K' oj

(Eq.4.16)

Thixotropic fluids exhibit a reversible decrease

in shear stress with time at a constant shear rate. This
is generally caused by the gradual destruction of
some three-dimensional: structure in the material,
and the shear stress will approach an equilibrium
value depending on the structural properties of the
fluid and on the magnitude ofthe applied shear rate.
The structure begins to rebuild itself once the shear
strain is removed or reduced. A typical flow curve
for a thixotropic fluid is shown in Figure 4-4. The
curve for increasing shear rate' does not correspond
to the curve for decreasing shear rate, since by the
time the upward cycle is completed the Iluid properties have changed, giving rise to the form of shear
stress-shear nile loop shown.
It is generally believed that the internal mechanisms responsible for thixotropic behavior are similar to those causing pseudoplasticbehavior; but that
the)' differ in respect to time scale. That is to say.the
thixotropic mechanisms are much slower than the
pscudoplasric mechanisms.
Rheopectic fluids, which are relatively rare, exhiI bit a reversible shear thickening with time. at a
constant shear rate. Rheopexy was defined by
JULlU5BURGERand PIRQUE1"O' as "the solidification of thixotropic .sols by' gentle and regular
movement" and although the term has been used
more, broadly, it. should not in the strict sense be
used for fluids other .ihan thixotropic systems.

'.
I

Rheopexy is attributed to the coagulation or floc-

'. :1'
",.

PHYSICAl. PROPERTIES OF SUSPENSIONS

culation of part ides when the~' are caused to

approach each other by gentle movement ofthe
lIuid. The limited amount of shear brings the particles in contact much sooner than they would .do
under I he influence of Brownian motion with the
suspension at rest.

Rheope::y and dilatancy are analogous in behavior, the controlling mechanisms again differing in
time scale.In the case ofa rheopectic fluid. the structure has, by virtue of attractive forces brought to
bear when the particles are in close proximity, a
certain stability which decays over a period of time.
Dilatant behavior on the other hand has no such
stabilizing forces and the structure decays as soon
as the shear limes are released. A typical shear diagram for a rheopectic fluid subjected to a continuously increasing rate of shear followed immediately by a continuously decreasing rate of shear is
shown in Figure 4-4.

51

izcd situat ion of two-dimeusional flow. The ultimate

flow situation of interest, the pipeline, is not of
course two-dimensional, nor are the more common
of the viscomerers avaik.hle for making these measurements, What is olinterest to the pipeline designer is not the two-dimensional. or point function,
bUI the integrated function for the flow situation of
specific interest. In thi, section we will examine the
bel. ivior of both Bingham plastics and pseudoplastics in IwO ofrhe m{)~t common types of viscometer. viz, the capillary ':tube or extrusion viscometer and the concentric cylinder rotary viscometer.
"I

The rheological rel~.tibns given by Equations

4.12 and 4.13 represent id~al conditions. In praclice.
it has been found that the rheology.of a material is
not unique over a very wide range of shear stress.
For example, the value, of the consistency varies
with the rate of shear. It is therefore important that
the rheological parameters should be evaluated for
a given suspension to cover a wide range in shear
rate, including the rate of shear expected in the
actual pipeline.
;

4.7.1 Gtpillary-Tube Viscometer

l:l
uJ

...ee
'"
ee
s:z:
'"

SHEAR RATE ldu/dvl

Figure 4.4 Shelt' Oiaqrams for ThiM'ol,OIJic and
Rheopecllc FlUIds

4.7 MEASUREMENT
OF RHEOLOGY

The' essential featureof these devices is the measurement of the fricti6n 'loss associated with the
laminar flow of a fluid' at a known rate through a
tube of known dimensions. From a series of such
measurements' corresponding to a range of flow
rates, il is possible to construct the shear diagram for
the fluid under study (which is of course the objective of any viscomerric.measurernents]. The actual
construction details ofcapillary,tube viscometers
vary from instrumentto instrument (THOMAS,'''
BOWEN,t111 and SEVERS and AUSTIN,m), but
the basic operation is more or less general. The tubes
themselves range in diameter from 1/32-inch to 112inch andthelengths atlel internal bore are accurately
establis';e<!.The lubes, Me' long with respect to the
diameterso'as to eliminate uncertainties due to endeffects; THOMAS') used an

f5 ratio of 1000, bUI

much lower values have been reported.

I'

It Call be seen from the preceding section that'the

evaluation of the, flowbehavicr of'non-Newtonian
systems requires that an estimate be made of the
various system properties, viz, coefficient of rigidity
and yield stress for Bingham plastics and flow index
and consistency for pseudoplastics. The rheological
equations presented thus far to describe these fluids,
i.e., Equations 4~t2 and 4.13, are like Equation,2.8
for Newtonian tluids, applicable only to the ideal-

The primary output from a capillary-tube viscometer is the so-called pseudo-shear diagram, which
is a plot of the average shear rate versus the shear
stress al the tube wall. which is (from Equation 2.10)
a plot of

8~ versus rw This

is known a' a pseudo-

shear diagram 10 distinguish il from the

~~ versus r

5l

501.10 - I.IQUID FLOW

3

10

plot. The shear diagram (~~ vs. r) ~nd the pseudo-

~:

>'

I":
j.:

shear diagram are related bythe Mooney-Rabinewitsch equation:

(B~,)

, du
BV [ 3
l' ' din
]
(-)w - - + - --:=--=I dr
D 4 4 dl .Y'D)
:'

' n

j"

41

(Eq.4.17)

"

t1p

I
'

pseudo-shear diagram at II part;cular

v:i~ue of ~.
'

corresponding

, value of( '-ddu )w is obtained~: ,

r

"

:~

Figure 4-5 presents a typical pseudo-shear diagram obtained by THOMAS'~I using capillary tubes
of various sizes. In this diagram it can be seen that
the laminar flow data fall on' single curve, while
, the turbulent flow data' are different for different
pipe sizes.This servesto illustrate a ratherimportant
point which must be borne in mind when selecting
tube diameters for capillary-tube viscometers, In
, addition to the usual type ofcorrections which must
be made 10 the /low data, e.g., entrance effects,static
head effects;etc, it may also be necessary to correct
lor the effective slipat the tube wall. In certain nonNewtonian materials,due to the velocitygradient in
the vicinity of the wall, some of the suspended matter may tend to move away from the wall region,
leaving a layer of the suspending liquid adjacent to
the wall. This leads to a reduction inapparen t viscosityat the wall, the consequences 'of which are
similar 10 those which would be expected if there
were actual slipping between the fluid and the surface. Sinceslip does not actuallyoccur, this phenomI
! enon is referred to as effective slip. III Figure 4-5,
since all the lamina(data~oincide, the effective slip
is zero over the range ot. D. and no correction is
necessary. THOMAS'" also presents a curve show-

I
I

I'"

..

,II

l~

I."'"

In
I

y.r

It'

This is a general equation.Le., itis derived withi

out making assumptions as to the rheological behavior of the slurry or fluid, and ihe final term on the
; ,right hand side is the slope of a log-log plot of the

!!.JO'V
~:

>1

,the

-I

... .'11
10

'r,.

.'

Thus, for any value of

r-e-

-friction loss in length I, in a pipe of diame"

Iter D
-mean velocity of flow.

BV ,~:,

c...e .""

~ ...

..

where
du
'
'
, (dr)w -;rate of shear at the wall

"

.
.
.
..
.. ,.

~,..

....'

.
~

()

. i

~.

TUBE DIA

IIncM

0.174
U
0.3'B
n 1.030
f'/-5.70ep

0
2

I
0.1

.-.
2

LID SLURRY DENSITY

--

(sm/ce)

1000
635
196

1.90
1.90
1.90

TV O.69Ib/sQ"

TURBULENT FLOW

.-

1.0

100

SHEAR STRESS r. = O<lp. Ib FORCE

,W
4L
sa It
Figure 4-5 Pleudo-ShN' OI8gf.m 'or Typieal Non-Newtonian
Suspension lIIustlating Effec1 of Tube Diameter on
Onset of Turbul....c. Uro:m Ref. 4-61

ing the effect of slip (Figure 4-6) on the pseudoshear diagram. Clearly,' one can only evaluate
whether or not effectiveslip is taking place by using
tubes of various diameters. Should it prove necessary, MOONEyllJI has indicated how to correct the
values of flow velocity by mean' of an "effective
slip coefficient."
So far lye have seen how it is possible to establish
the shear and pseudo-shear diagrams using a capillary tube viscometer.The next question confronting
us relates to how we interpret the diagrams so obtained, bearing in mind that shear diagram and the
pseudo-shear diagram represent the point and integrated functions respectively. Let us consider the
general rheological equation given previously:
-du
"
dy ,

--f(f)

(Eq. 4.1 [)

. If we consider Equation 4.9 applied to pipe flow, it

can be rewritten as follows:

"

rllYSICAI. I'ROrERTIES OF SIISI'ENSIONS

800

VISCOMETER rUOE
OIMENSIONS
0:.

SUSPENSION
PROPERTIES

wo",

:<-0
. II
:>1-_
~o :>0 " .... 0 -'u-'
u
::; ....
00
.... o:
a;U.
>D:U'i'
:su. "':>
u.

600 -

\';

-I'::

0.030 1155 0.090

0.124 1000 0.090

1.47 0.127
J:tll 0.104
.

m400

I
f )

.......,.

>I~
'"
~

-c.l

300 -

i
i

'100 -

I
i

't'J

". f

0.4

lJ

.t

. . ;.i
Q - n [,J u
.

L;

.->:

Since II - 0 at r- R, the first term ofthe right side of

Equation 4.20 is zero. By substituting du/dr and r
from Equations 4.18 and 2.1 a and aftertrarisforlllation of the variahies )n 'Equ:ition4.20."we get

---

0.6

0.8

1.0

!: 1"'"
.
. --.J11 ": . ' i2 f T dr
-.....
nR- - r/.:
()
i ;.;,
I:.

': i ; ( E q : 4 2 1 ) .

:r

Ffgure 4-6 P'eudo-Sh .., Dlagr.m for Th02 Suspen,lon Showing

I" Tub.OI.mlter Eff.ct
(M.." Parllcl. Di.met.. - 1.35 microns' (from R.r. 4-6.

iI

-du

--fer)
dr

. du(r) ]R
,J-;r;- dr n

ro.

(?: .f.

A
WAll SHEAR STRESS. (Tw ' 4 : . :::.)

I,

(Eq. 4.19)

0.2

dr

Equation 4.19 can be integrated by parts which gives

'~if

,,4

,./

r u

(Eq.4.20)

.;

if

(Eq. 2.1a)

"

/
/'
J'
/'~ V:

200 -

Q.-:.. "2 n

7
v

',1,
,.

~
l-

500

::'~
"'\'-'-"'"

r;

The flow rate Q is given by

B'!l

s::"1:t.

I-

,,

r-

z.

IZ

;:: 5;::

700

S3

This equation can be t;sed to evaluate the ~elation

ship between volumetric flow rate'Qand pressure
drop tlp for any time-independent fluid by inserting the appropriate functio~f(r), where

,,

't .

(Eq. 4.18)

-dJ

dr--f(r),

"<:<1

\;;i'0

where r is now the shear stress at any radial position

r. As we saw in Chapter 2, a force balance on a cylin-

.drical fluid element of radius r gives:

T-

from the shear diagram and performing the' integration.

For Nrmtonian fluids, we may write

A~
2L

I
and that the shear stress at the wall. T';. can be written
as

so that
IT.. -

and therefore
)

ApR
2L.

(Eq. 2.1)

Substituting in Equation 4.21 gives

SOLIO - J.IQUID FI.O\V

'.,

_ TW

Rearranging gives the familiar Poiseuille equation

for Newtonian fluids
'

- TW

(Eq.2.1O)

,..

Figur. 4a8 Velocity Profll. for BlngMm Pla,tic Fluid In Pip

For B.ingham plastics. we saw that the system rheology could be described by Equation 4.10

, 'I

'"

C-

du
dr

'I -

ro

'

and
for

> ro (Eq. 4.10)

f(c)-

C-Co

for T w > r>

'I

From.this point -funcrion representation we could

expect true shear diagram as shown in Figure 4-7,
which is linear having a slope equal to the coefficient ofrigidity and an intercept on the r axis equal
to the yield stress CO'

If we now consider the physical situation in pipe

flow ofa Bingham plastic, we can see that, since the
shear stress Cw goes from c. at the pipe wall to zero at
thecenterof the pipe, there must be a portion ofthe
fluid which moves as an unsheared plug ofradius r.
in the center of the pipe, as shown in Figure 4-8.
This ism becausethe local value ofthe shear stress is
less than the yield stress, Co, so that no shearing takes
place. So, we can write: ' , :

To

Substituting in Equation 4.21 gives

-- 2V0 _ 'I .s;

nR
Cw

f 'i(r-r)
'.

dr

")

which on itiiegraiion gives

2V _

b[1.._

r' ro]"

'1rw

Inserting the integration limits and multiplying

through by 4 gives

for :. > r > 0

f (c) - 0

Co

'I

(Eq.4.22)
which is the familiar BUCKING/lAM equation'!"
Equation 4.22 reduces to the Poiseuille equation for
0, i.e., for Newtonian flow. It is apparent that
Equation
4.22 cannot be solved directly for pressure
,
_ ..:.: :,.:.::,

'0 -

__

..

"

" . , ........

drop /Jp. However, if the final term 1/3 (!l!)'is omitCw

ted, the resulting errors in.dp amount to 5.9%when

du/dV '

RATE OF SHEAR
.,,~

-,

Figure 407 Shelir St, . . VWSUI ShNr R.,. 'or

Blnghom PIIIII. Fluid

!2
- 0.5 and 1.8% when !l!
- 004. Thus, in manv
~
~
.
applications, neglecting the final term gives values
of sufficient accuracy and allows simplification of
Equation 4.22 to give

PHYSICAl. PROPERTIES OF SUSPENSIONS

rw

-"

(D8V) + 4J

(Eq. 4.23)

rn

If we 1I0W plot the pseudo-shear diagram as shown

in Figure 4-9, we obtain a curve which is linear over
most of the range and the intercept ofthe linear portion, extended back to zero shear rate, intercepts the
rw axis at 413 ro. This should be compared with
Figure 4-7 lor thp point function shear diagram. It
should be noted that Equation 4.23 can be rearranged as

~(8;)

55

are not constants for all values of the applied shear

rate. This means that the integration cannot be performed. In practice however the shear diagram for a
Power Law fluid is linear (on ;1 logarithmic plot)
over a certain range of shear rates. For this range we
can apply Equation 4.20, but it must be remembered
that this is not a general solution. Rearranging Equation 4.13 gives

~Iu j!._)~

\i K

dy

,,(K),

or

fer) -,

6rJV

given previously as the effective viscosity Pe- It has

been suggested by THOMAS"'lhat for values of
Reynolds Number less than 2100, flow will be laminar, Reynolds Number being defined as
DVp
Re---

Substituting into Equation 4.21 gives

dr

1 ,[ r Ii..
,I""
- -=-r,o. I
rw ,( 31~+I)Kn

(Eq.4.24)

P.

roD ] (Eq.4.16a)

rJ [I +

'j
n'

or

-..!!:.....[ ~ 1*

2V _

l:l
w

...

SLOPE' "

0:

'"
0:

Kj

3n+1

"

Rearranging this, we get

'~r
'"
:::1 ,-0
:r

Lt--_--!-

etC!

"'j

,;;,1,-)
II
,

I
"

I
I,
I

rw

\1\ "( 3n+

4n \"
1)
( 8D)

(Eq. 4.25)

.'
8V .
so that a logarithmic plot of r" versus D (i.e.,

SHEAR RATE I 8~ I

"to,'

Figure 49 Pseudo.She., Ol,grlm for Singham PllStic

pseudo-shear diagram) has a slope equal to nand

This will be discussed in greater detail later; suffice,

it to say at this point that only laminar data points
should be used in the evaluation of the various flow
parameters,
I

'( 4n ~"
an intercept equal to K, 3n+ I

The integration of Equation 4.21 for Power Law

fluids is not as straillht forward as it is with the preceding case. The reason for this is that the flow parameters II and K in the Power Law model

(dU) "

'r- K dy

The effective viscosity in, this case is

rw

P. -

8V - K

(0-). ( )"
BV

D
, (Eq, 4.11)

" _ K'

re

"_I

4n
3n+1

,
" _1

BV

,"

,!;D
r

(Eq.4.16)

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

56
. where, .

I,

';r l

I'"

.,

1r ' 1..., -~

,
K' - K ( ,4n

3n+1

)"

CEq. 4..26)

.1' .
As with the Buckingham equation, Equation 4.25
reduces to the equation for Newtonian flow when
n - 1.0.

,I

INlllCATINt;
SCALE

, r

.~
I

I
I
Fj~ur. 4.10 Concentric Cvlinder Viscometer

Now. at any point in the annular space. i.e. in the

fluid under test, we can write

M -2 ne'hr

This is also an instrument in common use for

determination of rheology and a number ofsuitable
types are available commercially. The instruments
are designed to shear a fluid in the annulus between
two coaxial cylinders. one ofwhich rotates while the
other is held stationary. i.e., they are couette flow
devices. The flow curve is obtained from a series of .
measurements of the torque which resists rotation
at a known angular speed. Figure 4-10 shows the
principle of operation of ~ne type of rotational
viscometer. In this example.lthe outer cylinder (or
cup) is held stationary and the inner cylinder (or
bob) is rotated; the resistive torque on the bob is
measured by a torsion wire. Other modes of operation are possible such asa fixed bob and a rotating
top configuration.

Let us consider the case of a Newtonian fluid

under test in an instrument, .as shown in Figure
4-10. where the bob rotates in the cup. Ifwe neglect
. end effects. the external torque M on the shaft is
measured on the indicating scale and is given by:

(Eq. 4.28)

The shear stress -r at any point. since the Ilow is laminar, is given by Equation 2.8. i.e,
du
r-p , dy
but for the geometric configuration here we have
du
- - r dw
....
dy ,dr
where w is the angular velocity of the bob and r is
the distance fromthe center of rotation. So we (';111
now express the shear stress as a function of the rate
of change of tangential velocity with respect 10
radial position, i.e.,

dw
r-p (-r --)
dr

Thus, the resistive torque, ill terms of the radius r;

can be written as

x shear stress x radius

X

'

4.7.2 Coaxial Cylinder Rotary

.
Viscometer
,

- 2nR uh x r w

,.......

A serious limitation on the use of the Power Law

appears if one examines the form of P. for n < 1.0.
As the shear rate (velocity) increases. P. tends towards zero. This behavior is contrary to all physical
experience. which shows that at very high shear
rates non-Newtonian systems exhibit a limiting but
linite viscosity. For this reason. when applying data
ofthis form to pipeline design. it is especially important that only data for the; shear range likely to be
encountered in the pipeline are used.

surface area

no TATlNIJ
c p.aOB
AT SPE ED w

J"' "

M-

;~

RII

-,

,J

CEq. 4.27)

M - 2nrhp ( -r

'do}

Jr )

I'IIYSICM. I'ROl'f!RTIES 01' 5USI'ENSIONS

Rc~rral1ging gives

so that

(Eq. 4.29)

which can now he integrated over the appropriate

boundary conditions lor (,) and r as follows:

j'"J

2nhp

... w -

I ?"

dll
, dr

.;.. _ ... -

rdM

--- -

dr

I
"

M
2ndl

. ---1--

Rearranging, integrating; and substituting theappropriate limits gives:

(I ' R./I) - -; I .R.R~

. I ( M~
ry 471hJR'f -

R.dr

Q-

R.

ro
r

r.

(Eq.4.3 1)

a-

MIl
- [ -R.r - -xR;r4nhp

I
(Eq. 4.30)

This is known as the Margules equation, and it states

thar a plot of M versus a will yield a straight line
with a slope of i,M, where i, is the instrument constant and incorporates the geometric dimensions of
the system. A commercial instrument will have
predetermined values of i, for given bob-cup
systems, but it is good practice to check these prior
to commencing tests on other systems, by measurements of the viscosity ofstandard oils, such as the
standard test fluids prepared by U.S, Bureau ofStan.~

RATE OF SHEAR
F;gure 411 Aale of She.t She., Stren Oiagt.mOhtai"ed
from. Concentric Cvlinder Visco meier

This integration of the point function for a Bingham plastic is performed in a similar manner as
.
follows:

From the point function equation

1
du
dr"

- - - - (r-r)

As before

and

---

du,
dr

Equation 4.3 I which reduces to the Margulesequation for r. - 0 is known as the Reiner-Riwlinequation, and it represents the pseudo-shear diagram for
a rotationalcouetre now situation. Atypical response is as shown in Figure 4'-11. In applying Equation 4.31, it is 'assumed that shearing is taking place
over the whole of the annulus and that the shear
stress at the outer wall, i.e., at R" is greater than T
In Figure 4-/1 it can be seen that the response is
actually similar .to the response one would expect
withacapillarytu beshenrdiagram.The yield stress,
r., is given.by die intersection of the curved portion
with the r-axis.The reason for the curvature is that
the shear stress at Rc has fallen below r. and that
shearing is not taking place across the whole of the
annulus. Equation 4.26 can only be applied to the
linear portion of the curve, the slope ofwhich gives
the coefficient of rigidity.

SOl.lO - lIQVIO FLOW

It should be noted that the curvature in the shear

diagram given in Figure 4-11 is due solely to the
geometry ofthe measuring iustrurncnt and does not
reflect any fluid property. Reference to Figure 4-12
will illustrate this more fully. The flow curves for a
single Bingham plastic fluid are given for a series of
viscometer sizes in which the bob radius is held
constant and the cup radius isvaried."51 The extent
of the curvilinear portion decreases exponentially
to zero as the cup radius is ttecreased (i.e.cas a zero
gap is approached). The startbf the linear portion is
marked in each case by a vertical dotted line. For
small annular gaps, the curved section is a relatively
small proportion of the total shear range; in larger
cups it becomes extensive. The inexperienced rheologist could easily misinterpret the curve given for
R.- 5 em as that cfa pseudoplastic fluid for angular
velocities less than about 16 sec", since this curve is
similar to a typical 'point function curve for such a
material. The importanceof using as small an annular gap as possible is thus emphasized.

3Z

The integration of the rotational form for pseudoplastic is accomplished in asimilar manner and
yields the following equation:

Q _ (n)

(2nR~hK

11,,[ I _( ~rn

(Eq. 4.32)
This equation reduces to the Margules equation for
n -I. From experimental data, we obtain Q and J1l.
M can be converted to the shear stress at the wall of
the bob by

and a plot of In f w versus 11/ Q can be constructed, the

slope of which yields the flow index n, By substitution in Equation 4.32, the consistency, K, can be
evaluated,

::IN

8'

t;1

~3:3

t;B2
'j

1 zo

tilW"1
crcr

t;~

crx

"oo
W
X
oo

c:
1:u

I',,,

",.

t.5

2.0

2.'

;3.0

ReiRb

o 16

-'
w

>
.,

:5

"

,"

l(~p

:/[7

.. ~

1/:

"

,i

.'",.""".~ ~
121

'

IRc - Z.ZI

/1 vv
.tZ"V L9
I

~ '12
z

aIRc-\562.51ZOO

Rheology of a suspension can be Newtonian or

non-Newtonlandependiug upon the characteristics
ofthe suspending medium and the characteristics of
the solids. Particle size and shape, as well as solids
concentratlon, are the principal factors affecting the'
viscosity. Suspensions of large symmetrically shaped
particles (approximately 50 microns or larger)
have Newtonian characteristics. In the Newtonian
range, the viscosity is a function ofsolids volume
concentration. Suspensions ofsmaller panicles orof
asymmetrically shaped particles possess .non-Newtonian rheology

/1 VI

1.0

4.8 FACTORS AI'FECTING

SUSPENSION RHEOLOGY

'".I

!(J
24 _

Z8 _~L
o;!!

~
~ 3.01

400,

1-

:,

:'625

!{Rc 5:0)

600

800

""

'

\,000

SHEAR STRESS Sb (dy r/.m' I

Figur. 412 Tt. Refallon 8etween Angu'., Velocltv aM Sh.,., St,." a' the
Bob '0" Bt"9h.m Bodv
S..,.,.I Cup Sh., with. FllI:ed Bob
RKiuJ.:St,.,u, Abc:'ve Which Flow Occurs Tht0Ufhout .he Gap
.,.Indlc.ted on th.-$tt.,.ft'AlI:i. The Fluid hit. YI.ld Vatue of
100 Dy"n/cm2: a Plasllc VlscoshV.11pt of 10 Pots.,. In In~'
Cyllnd... 01 R"dlus. Rh or 2.0 em. Ind He"ht. h. 0' 5.0 cm.
The 'nttt Shows the $Ue,. R~ulrtd'l Ih, Bob 10 !nN" ..h.1
th.... I.Sh..r Alllh'W.y Across 'M Oap.
Urom R,'. 4151

'I"

THOMAS"' has correlated the non-Newtonian

parameters with the size and concentration of particles. It should be recognized that the water contained in a particle becomes a part of the solid: the
I volume fraction solids must be increased to account
for the water contained in the solids. This fact is
quite important for coal particles which have varying amounts of inherent moisture. The inherent
moisture of coals decreases with an increase in the
degree of coalification. For example. a bituminous
coal contains considerably less inherent moisture
compared to a lignite coal, and therefore a bituminous coal will be more fluid compared 10 lignite at
the same volume concentration of solids.

rIIYSIC,II. rRorERTlES OF SUSPENSIONS

)

48 REFERENCES

4.10 NOMENCLATURE

~-I

nlo~I;'S.
r.tll
4"

n. (;.. "rrJmrem ChJ'.U:ICfi~t;c .. of Sll"r('"~ian'l:

\"111 ...\

t 'lIilllllU

viwo..iI~ ul Newto;,i..n Su\rcmions

:'lrh"'ri",1 t.mid(',.~ J.Collaid Sci. .!O.lhl (lQ(o$)."
NCllt'

lin

1111:

-1-1

(;tn". r..

1-.1

ciA\", r. C. ~EI.SON. r. A. "od ARMSTRONG. w. r .. "F!my

"rl1l'\'I1"'\ of S'lhrcmion\
Ili~h Sillid.. Concentration,"
..\ (Chl: ,I..unn.rl. \', b. p. l.~ ,NO", IQnq).

4--1

rIlO~IAS. D. (; .. MlleJI .Iod Momentum Tf;ln\rn,' Ch.lf.1ctcr

it,i ..'I ut NnnN",.tCll1i,," t\tlucnu\ Tho,iunl O:<i,l('Smrco"..ion .....
,\I(:ll!; Journ ..l. \. h, Pl" b.1I-,"-'lJ IDec. 19hOl.

and SIMII,\, R, I\olhlilll. V. 7-1.

r.

IN. f1.,Jft)

wi'"

~-;

ORR. C. nd DAnA VAllE.I. M.. Clrem. En(t. rfO~. 15ymp.

Scric\ No. QI. V. ~n. pp. 11)....s t1~5n.

-I-h

TIIO~IAS. D. G."rfajtfcu in rnrcfn,uion,tlRen'afchan Thermo,hn.1mic .rnl' Transport ru..p enle.... Amcriun Socicr~' Mech.
r:n~incC'n. ChJruer e l, M'I-Mb. NC'w \'nrk Uqhlt

-1-7

wottt.. M. fl.. "The

Rhe(l'n~y

or Suspen"ions." -Ilh Annual

Acadeinr EnJ!:. Founds-

S~"mr on r.lrriculJte S)~tC'm .Deerfield

rion nt)b Q ) .

-I_It

....'1

r.

r.RO\Xf.F.Y. R... nd KITZES."A. 5., "RheofolCiul Atll.1vior of

Thorium O:oride Slurries in I..lminu Flow: Ind. F.nlt. Chern..
V . .. q, pp. ICItR-Kql f~tly 1957).
SKEl.tAND. A.II. r., '"NonNewtonbn Flow and Ile.11 Tr..m(er."
Joh,n \'(Iiler '" Som. 11lC'., 4-10. NC'w Yorlc (l9ft1).

D
I
K

Constant
Constant
Specific It~at
Volume percent solids
Weight percent solids
Pipe diameter
Instrument constant
Consistency of Power Law fluid

K'

K(_~')n

Volumetric flow rate

Cp
Cv
Cw

3n+I .
K.. K 2, K) Constants .'
L
Length
M
Torque
R
Rb

R.
Re
V
du

d;-

du
dy
h

k
~-IO

)UlIU5BF.RGF.R. F. and rIRQUET. A.. Trans Fa"day 50<..

V. Jl. p... -15 (19J6).

-I-II no.\'t'EN. R."t., "Scale up (or NonNewlonian Fluid Flo\",Ch.']'. En~. V. M. PI'. 119-122 (I96n

II

.6.1'

4-12 SEVF.R5. E. T. and AUSTIN.}. M. F1o\V rroprrties or Vinyl

Chloridc Resin rla'iisols," Ind. En~ Chem.. V.46.pp.2J69-2J1S

c[Jm

(IOH~

4-1J MOONEY. M. "Explicil

Rh.olo~y.

Formul~s (or Slip and fluidity; J.

v. 2. p. 210 (l9JI).

VAN WAZER.). R.LYONS.}. W. KIM. K. Y.and COL\VEI.L.

R; F.. "\'jmnit) aed Fl~\'.' M,eo1",rC'm~nl.~ .lnlcncienc~.Ncw

yo,.kHQ"JI .

4-11i TIIOMAS. D. C. "Tr;ln"porl Characlerislics o(

w
p
T

To

1".

Shear rate at'radial distance r

Shear rate aty
. "eighl of hoh
Thermal conductivity
Power Law index
Radial position
Local velocity
Pressure drop
Volume fraction solids
Maximum volumetric concentration
Viscosity
Viscosity of'.suspending fluid
Local angular velocity
Angular velocity
Density
Shear stress
Yield stress
Wall shear stress
Coefficientof rigidity

Susr~nsions:

Arr1ic.1lion of Oin(r~nl Rh~olo~ical Modcls 10 Flocculaled

Suspen,ion 1),11.1.- "merit.1n Srn:iely Mcch. EnttinC'cn. C';,apler
b-'. 70-1117. New Yetrl. tJl1hZ..
I

Po

4-14 ROCKING' fAll." L "On Pl.ulic Flow TIuoutth CapiJlJry TUMs:

ASTM Proc.. 29. 21. IIS~ (1921).
~"IS

c[J

fl

Radius of pipe
Radius of bob
Radius of cup
VDp
Reynolds N.umber - .-fl. Mean velocity of flow .

Subscripts
I
Liquid
m
Mixture
s
Solids

t.

\.

.,
i.
I,
I

,.

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

60

4.11 PROBLEMS
Determine the specific gravity ofslurry, volume
fraction ofsolids, and volume ratio for a magnetite-water slurry having 60 percent solids by
weight, given that the specific gravity of solids
is 5.0.
.
4.2 A siurry of raw salt and saturated brine flowing
out ofa pipeline is collected in a weighing tank.
If the weight of I cu.ft, volume of slurry is 82
pounds, and. the.density of the raw sa,ltand saturated brine is respectively 131 Ib/ft' and 74.8
Iblft', determine the solids concentration expressed in weight percent, volume percent, and
volume ratio.

,
Determine the viscosities of the slurries given
in Problems.d.I and 4.2, assuming that the slur'
ries exhibit Newtonian rheology, and slurry
temperature is 68' F. The viscosity of saturated
brine at 68' F is .2. centipoise.

404 Deier~ine the amount, of heat required to heat

a coal-water slurry containing 50% coal by
weight from an initial temperature of 70' F to
a final temperature. of qO'F, given that the
specific heat of coal is 03 Bru/lb" F and the
slurry flow rate is 4000 gpm. Specific gravityof
coal is 104.
4.5 If the Btu content of delivered coal is 10,000
Btu/Ib, what percent of this Btu is used in heating the slurry from 70' F to 120' P considered
in Problem 4.4?
....

';'?1

4.6 In a co-axial cylinder viscometer, the radius of

the bob and the cup are 2.96 cm and 3.13 ern,
respectively. Determine the rate of shear at the
bob, given that the bob rotates at 152 rpm.
4.7 Suppose that for a particular co-axial cylinder
viscometer the viscosity corresponding to 100%.
scale reading is 64.7 centipoise. find the shear
stress at the bob in Dynes/em/ for an 89% scale
reading.for the configuration given ill Problem
4.6.

4.8 A narrow gap coaxial cylinder viscometer having a gap of 1.3 mrn and ratio of the radius of
bob to cup of0.946 I was used to obtain the following data (Table 1'-1) orr 05 weight percent
CMC aqueous solution:

Table P-I:
Speed
Setting
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Speed
rpm

5.50
7.51
9.89
13.19
17.40
25.08
33.67
44.31
59.11
. _17.98
-.":!-13.2
.. '- 152.0

Shear
Scale
Rate, sec" Reading, %
11.2
15.0
19.7
26.3
34.7
50.0
67.2
88.4
117.9
155.6
225.9
'303.3

11.0
13.4
16.1
19.7
23.7
29.8
35.8
42.3

5004
59.6
75.0
89.0

The shear stress at the bob corresponding to

100% scale reading is 196.3 Dynes/em", Estimate the yield stress and coefficient of rigidity
using a Bingham plastic rheological model for
these data assuming that you are interested in
relating these results to pipe flow in a shear
stress range of 100 to 150 Dynes/em', Do you
think that Bingham plastic is a good rheological model for this fluid?
4.9 For the data given in Problem 4.8, determine
viscosity in centipoisefor each point and plot it
against the observed shear rates.
4.10 Determine the flow index /I and the coefficient
K ofa Power Law model using the data given in
Problem 4.8. Does the Power taw model fit
/
these data? Plot the effective viscosity P. r(bleJ'n as a function of shear rate.

,
I

.' I

.. I
I

5. TI-IE SUSPENSION OF

PARTICLES IN TURBULENT
,
FLOW
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will discuss the various factors
affecting the capacity of a turbulent flow to maintain particles in suspension. While this capacity
.cannot of course be considered a physical property
in the same sense as 'density or viscosity; we have
chosen to discuss it at this stage because it represents
'to SOllie extent a drawing together of the previous
three chapters. and its proper evaluation is crucial to
.
slurry pipeline design.

-,-,-J

The underlying mechanism' by which particles

are suspended is only approximately known. This
is due partly to the fact that the measurement of
turbulence in solid-liquid flow presents enormous
problems and partly to our lack of complete understanding of the phenomenon of turbulence as it
exists in simple fluids. However. enough research
has been performed to allow the designer to predict
with accuracy sufficient for practical purposes the
average behavior of a solid-liquid system.
The following sections will outline the conclusions of this research' and 'thc:irimpae:t 011' the:
design of slurry pipelines. It should be noted at this
stage that the emphasis of this chapter is directed
towards the behavior of large particles. Suspensions
containing only small particles can be treated as i
fluid, via rheology measurements, as indicated in
Chapter 4. The llletI1Cl<!sinlhis chapter pertain to
suspensions of coarse particles and to the coarser
fractions of suspensions of a wide granulometry.

5.2 THEORETICAL
CONSIDER~\TIONS
Undoubtedly, the work of O'BRIENfIlill 1934

regarding the mechanism by which particles are

maintained in suspension by a turbulent flow
constituted a significant advance in our understanding of this phenomenon. O'BRIEN postulated that
the rate of upward transfer of suspended particles
due to turbulence, -E,

~~. was ineq;,i1ibrium

with

the downward exchange due to gravitational forces.

i.e,

-,

E dc +wC "';'0
... , ;dy.,; . ;\ :;'-YL -.~ ';;: l .~~,)~

This agreed with an equation established by

SCHMID1,2, some years earlier for the distribution
of dust particles due to turbulent mixing in the
atmosphere. In equation 5.1,

E. is the mass transfer coefficient for the particles

C is the concentration (volume fraction) at level V
y is the distance from the lower boundary
w is the f:ill velocity of the particles in still fluids.
In order 10 integrate Equatio~ 5.1. it is necessary to
introduce a suitable velocity distribution law so as
10 establish the variation of 1:, over the depth of
flow. A great deal of work has been done on the
relationship between E, and Em which is, as we saw
in Chapler2. Equation 2.26. the. eddy viscosity or
momentum transfer coefficient. From the Reynolds
Analogy we would expect E, and Em to be equal.
VON KARMAN!!) has shown the mass and
momentum transfer coefficients should have the
same general form while other workers, such as
SHERWOOD and WOERTZ.") have demonstrated that 1:, and Em arc not equal. but that they bear a
constant relation 10 each other as follows:


SOI.lD - I.IQUID !'LOW
,

E -PE m '

" ."

(E'l. 5.2)

log.
where P is a constant of ~roportionality.

c-; -

a)

w
Ym- Y x-p"u' log. ( - Y
Ym- a

or

It was shown in Chapter 2 that the shear stress at

any point in a turbulent flow was given by

c-pE

du

(Eq, 5.h)

(Eq, 2.26)

,m -dy

where

z __w_

For an open channel 110w we have that

p"u'
v

c-cw(l--'-)

Ym

and

where Cw is the shear stress at the boundary and.lm is

the distance from the boundary. to the liquid surface.
So we can write

E
m

_.:..:...!.-;..
du,
p dy:

Cw

(I-Y/Ym)
du
p dy

If it is taken that the suspended particles have little

or no effect on the velocity distribution, the velocity distribution can be assumed to conform to the
velocity defect law (see Chapter 2):

,I

- -log. (..L)
, "

Ym

(Eq. 5.3)

h-b.._ 1
Y

and CA is the concentration at some arbitrary reference plane at a height fl.

... - ...
Equation 5.6-5tates that the concentration at any
point depends only upon the vertical position and
the factor Z which is, of course. the ratio of the
settling, tendency of the particles 1(/ to the group
P"u', a measure of the intensity of turbulence.
VANONICSl showed that Equation 5.6 gives excellent fit to experimental data from an open channel and that the existence of the sediment caused
a decrease in the value of" which VANONI attributed to the suppression of turbulence.

. . 0 f 'E
' 5.3 we Ilave d
du -II'
BY dJ'ffierentianon
quanon
so that Em can be written

[)'

")I

5.3 APPLICATION TO

CLOSE}) CHANNELS
(Eq. 5.4)

TII\~ previous analysis refers to suspensions 110wing in open channels. During the 1930's when a
which from Equation 5.2 gives us an expression for
E.. as a function of)', as follows:

(Eq. 5.5)

II

"\

If we now substitut~ for E, into, Equation 5.1 and

integrate, we find that the concentration C at any.
plane)l is given by

great deal of interest was shown in this phenomenon, the major application of concern was in the
I field of civil engineering, and consequently emphasis was placed on theopen channel CaSe.Wenlust
now return to the problem of slurry pipelines and
how we may adapt the foregoing analysis to suit
these needs.
The first attempt to examine the behavior of
suspensions in closed channels was performed by
lSMAIL,61 in an experimental study following

h.1

l'ARnCI.ES IN TURBULENT FI.OW

directly from rhc work of VANONI. ISMAIL

showed th'll Equation 5.6 is .. pplicable 10 flow in a
closed rectangular chunnel if,l'm is taken to be the
point of maximum velocity. This point does not
necessarily correspond to the channel centerline
since the particles tend to skew the velocity distribution.IS~IAILnoted that at this point (i.c. at.l'.I'm), the value of E, as ~i"en by Equarion 5.5 reduces
to zero; this is in direct contradiction to experimenral
data which indicate a definite value for E,. For this
region it may be assumed that E. is a constant and
that Equation 5.1 can be integrated to give:

log

C
w
c"
.. .... (y-a)

(Eq. 5.7)

Away from this region ISMAIL's experiments con-

tion of the Ohio Coal pipeline, Using in the first

instance a 12-inch pipeline, an extensive sampling
program was performed in which samples were
withdrawn from points one inch away from the top
and from the bottom of the pipe and also [rom the
pipe center line. Using:t!,e center line concentration 'IS the reference value (i.e . CAl. it was possible
(;'

',';

.'.

",

,.

'

to obtain values of C"-: under various flow condi-A

tions. This was then repeated in the commercial

pipeline under actual operating conditions. It was
then assumed that the vertical axis of the pipe was
approximately the same as the closed-channel case
examined by ISMAIL.'.' From IS/HAIL:, data for IJ
.'.
IJ
IJ
i:
- 0.08 and iJ - 0.92. it was possible to arrive at the
following relationship:'

firmed that Equation 5.6 can be applied.

VANONI had observed that the value of the

VON KARMAN constant l< is decreased from the
clear-water value 01'0,4 in the presence ofsuspended
particles. This was also noted by ISMAIL for closed
channel flow, who recorded values of l< as low as
0.25 for his largest slurry concentrations. Many
attempts have been made to quantify the suppres
sion of l< as a function of concentration, a review
of which is given by GRAF.l7l

ISMA ILI6I also examined the variation in the

valu~ of P in Equation 5.2. He showed that P was a
constant for a given particle size and was greater
than unity; specifically, his values were:

P,
i

~~j

1.3 for 0.10 rnm particles

- 1.5 for 0.16 mm particles

Again the value to be ascribed toP has been a matter

of considerable argument. The subject has been
reviewed by GRAph and contains a great deal of
conflicting data and interpretation. At this stage it
is perhaps most simple for the pipeline designer to
assume {1 equal to unity, since this will introduce a
measure of safety in the design,
.

=1

The translation from the rectangular cross-section

to the. more common circular pipe presents the
designer with certain problems, since the data (or
circular pipes are by no means as extensive as those
for open or closed 'rectangular channels. Anapproximarion, which has turned out to be of great value,
was developed OX the engineers at the Consolidation Coal Company during the design and opera-

.G '

1.8w

log,o CA' -. - (

{1l<lI"-

>

(Eq. 5.8)

The c:.o.myarison between observed values of

' ;

f:"

and those calculated from Equation 5.8 are shown

in Figure 5-1 for two particle size fractions.vviz.
14 X 28 mesh andzd K48mesh,.andfortwo positions down the pipeline.viz..zeroand 100 miles,"
The agreement between calculation, and -observation i, hy any standard excellent and demonstrates
the reliability of this procedure for pipeline design.

A more rigorous approach tothe problem of

translation to the circularpipe was taken in a recent
paper by HSU.'9l Employing a polar coordinate
system as shown in thejdefinirion sketch, Figure
5-2, KENNEDY derived the following. equation:
. i

._<;:(,r,fJ) _. ex!' [
ceO,O) . ,:i"

~"- j.. E ..c:.f!~.:.a

cos ~ >]:
.. m

..
.

u* ' ro

(Eq. 5.9)
where a is the angle to the horizontal, all other terms
being as used previously or as shown in Figure 5-2.
m is given by the f~lIowing equation:

E
~ rou*

s
m---

Aswith the previous equal ions, Equation 5.9 can be

reduced to the form

SOI.lD - l.IQUID Fl.OW

log,o

%: -( ~:

20

lIMi~

)"< constant
18

(Eq, 5.10)
The reader will notice the repeated occurrence of
the group ~. and may at this stage wish to reread the
u

section on friction velocity given in Chapter 2.

5.4 RECENT STUDIES

It is apparent that there is a great deal still to be
discovered concerning the suspension of particles
"by a turbulent. now. We have-seen that we must
approximate the variation of E; as a function of
height; no doubt E, may also vary with particle size
which presents great problems in the rigorous analysis of systems with a wide granulometry. The
amount. by which the von Karman constant x is
suppressed is only appr~ximately known. Also the
equations presented todate depend upon having
knowledge of the concentration at some reference
plane CA,'which i~ practice may not be readily
available. In view ofthese facts, it is hardly surprising that research activity in this area is continuing
at a fairly high rate and the engineer involved in
slurry pipeline design would be well advised to stay
abreast ofthe new developments. It is apparent that
this facet of suspension now is
longer the province of the civil engineer alone; input from other
disciplines .such as chemical engineering and (in
particular) applied mathematics is becoming increasingly significanr..

"0

- 95%CONFIDENCE
fOR PROBE SIZE ANAlYSES

IS .. 14
'0

z:12
c
~. 10

<
....
B
....

;/

8
6

4-

-:

/.

~ , .! /
d /
~ .;.{:S /
CONFIDENCE
lA t5 L 95%
LIMIT FOR PROBE

/ r

:~ v:
~ /

SIZE ANALYSES

NOTE:
Includes Bottom-Middle
MiddleTop

BulkTop
Cf)l1\n;uio;nns 'or 14 Mp.o;h \("

28 Mpsh and 20 I'.1 e sh '\( 48

Mp.st fOI ,0 Mi1rs ;'1111: I00 ~-1ih~~

/;/ / '
o

8
10 12 14
OBSERVED (Vol.%1

16

18

Figure 5-1 Comparison of C.lculated Solids Distribution

with Obsernd OinrlbuHon

114M x 28M .nd 28M X,48M) (hom Ref. 58)

tion 5.1. would tend towards infinity under these

circumstances), which is inagteemetu with physical
observation.An interesting implication of IfUN"!'s
analysis is that under certain circumstances flowing
suspensions containing both coarse and fine particles may exhibit an increase in concentration oflinc
particles with increasing height.

Two recent papers are of importance mainly due

to their novelty of approach. IPPEN"o, has recently
proposed an analysis of the turbulent suspension
mechanism, based-in part on work performed at
MiLT., JPPEN'sanalysis" indicates that in openchannels the maximum concentration ofsuspended
particles, i.e., the concentration close"to the lower
boundary, is the most important (actor in detcrmining such things as suppression of the von Karman
constant-. This is an interesting variation as com- ,
pared with other methods,which employ a mean'
concentration.
HUNT"!) has presented an interesting approach
to the analysis of a heterogeneous suspension. The
transport of particles is described by a diffusion
equation: the inclusion of the particle volume in
the equation of continuity leadstoa concentration
'tending towards unity nt the lower boundary (Equa-

20

F1vu,.52 D.flnltion Shteh fnr Pota., Cooufln.'. SYlt.m

fl.'

I'ARTlCtr:S IN TURIlIJI.ENT FLOW

5.5 EFFECT OF SYSTEM

PARAMETERS ON C/CA
At this point it might prove useful if we examine
how ,\ change in one of the properties of a suspension would affect the suspension mechanism, ;IS
stnted by the hasic sediment suspension equation,
Equation -l.It); The l"lIm,jng seclion was presented
by WASP et al"l1 and shows the effect of variation
,in particle size. pipe diameter, etc, onthe CIC" value
,for a coal slurry. The presentation is based on, and
'is consistent with, actual data for coal slurry; however. the parameter changes have been exaggerated
as compared with the variations which might occur
in areal pipeline situation. Theextrapolations have
been effected using Equation 5.10, with values of K
and p observed in the real system.

r
i

I
I

The effect of particle size variation on CICA is.

shown in Figure 5-3. The system is a coal slurry of
SO%by weight, flowing ata velocity of 6 ftlsec in a
12-inch diameter pipeline. For particles less than
100 microns, the suspensions are essentially homogeneous (i,e., C/CA"':'I.O). Further increase in particle
size results in a gradual decrease in CICA until sizes
in the range of 600 to 800 microns are reached. At
this point the value of CICA drops sharply with
"furrher size increase and the flow becomes highly
heterogeneous. As we will see later this is usually
accompanied by a change in the predominate flow
, mechanism from homogeneous (and non-Newtonian in the case of coal slurry) to heterogeneous.
. From a practical standpoint, itis convenient to refer
to all suspensions having CICA ~ 0.8 as homogeneous. As the particle size is increased, the value of
CICA becomes less until, for particles of 7000 to
8000 microns. no suspension is possible under these
conditions.

1.0

r---=::::.::::::---------,

0.8

ce O.&

"U 0.4
Pipe 1.0.

0.2

seues ceee.
Flow

veteeuv

12.0 inches
-SOo:.byweighr

.6 hfsec

04-----...----,---.;:::::,,-1
lOp
10.000p
, lOOp
1.000p
PARTICLE DIA. (microns)'

Figure 5-4 shows the effect of variation in pipe

diameter on ClCA for a 50% by weight coal slurry at
a flow velocity of 6 It/sec, A change in diameter
from 2. to 24 inches results in a drop in CICA from
0.76 to 0.71 for the 20 '" 211 mesh particles. In other
words pipe diameter is of little importance.
1.0
0.9

0.8

---- - -

,
20.28 MESH

0.7
1

0.6

0.4

- -- --

---0.2 --- _
0.3

0.1

Solid~ s.g;

Slurry

to

'135

s.g. ""I~t48

. - ,fF.quiv. 1050% Wt' Coal)

Viscositv .; 19.0 en
Velodly 0' Flnw .. 6 it/sPot:

- --

8
: 12
16
PIPE 1.0. (inche.)

"

20

24

Figure 54 Effect or. Pipe Diameter on C/C A

thom'Aftf.512)

.J.

Flow velocity on the other hand may be significant depending on the particle size. Figure 5-5
shows the variation of CICA for three particle sizes
as the mean flow velocity is varied between 2 'and
10 ft/sec. For the finest particles (65 x 100 mesh)
there is lillie or no effect, while there is a steep linear
variation for the coarsest. fraction(S x 14 mesh).
The intermediate fraction exhibits aspects of the
behavior of both the coarse and finefractions. From
10 ft/sec down to 6 ft/sec there is lillie variation; as
the velocity is further decreased and. CIC" falls
below O.S,the drop-off becomes much steeper. This
again illustrates the different controllingmechanisms, as were discussed with reference to Figure
5-3..1'he.65 x 100 mesh particles arc homogeneous
over the whole range, while the heterogeneous
l11echanism dominates the behavior of the S)( 14
mesh partiCles. The 20 x 28 mesh particles fall between the two, being homogeneous at high velocities
and heterogeneous a, low velocities. The reader
should establish where each of these three size fractions fall on Figure 5-3.

Figure 53 Effect of P'tC.iclo SiuonC/CA, 'or Coal Slurrv

Ihom n.,. 5121

A.n increase in slurry concentration results in

501.10 - LIQUID FLOW

.

(is x 100 mesh fractions would not be so dramatic

since they are strongly heterogeneous and homo, geneous respectively.

65 xllOOMESH
,

:20;2$110 511

. ,;-

./

1.0

V
,

0.9 -

II
,

0.8

I
/

0.7
,

.,

./

V
2

,/

\~ II> ~

vr
,

...

0.6

Pipe t.u.> 12"

Solids $.g 1.35

0.3

,_

Siurrys.g. 1.40 (50% We. Coal)

Vjscositv~.19;O cp
I

45618
flOW VElOCITYllt./sec.l

0.2
10

0.1

/'

I,D. -12"
S"lids S.(I .... 1.35
Velocity ir ~6 "/sftc

./

80

0." C/C A

(from Ref. 5-12)

COAL SLU~RY AT 60 OF
;

5.6 REFERENCES

V.

5-1

/:
~
o

Pip~

Fiqur.57 ffee. of Concentration

80

30
40
50
60
70
.: SOUDSCONCENTRATION {wi. %1

r;

o -" .' o 10... .20

100

20

~I

Co>

~/

0.4

I,

~ 40

...;::

'Z: .

Co>

Flgur. 5-5 C/CA ..... Flow Velocltv 'or V.rlou. p.nicl. SizeS
(from R". 512)

w
~ 60
o

.,

~O.5

10
20
30
40
50
60
SOllDS CONCENTRAnON Iwt, %)

U.ion. V. 14. 487-4~1

5-2

70

SCHMIDT, \V.~ Ptcbleme der

KO'!11i~,ht'n

rh)',ik, v. 7.II3Rlhtl'~

5-3

VON KARMAN, T.. "Some A'pt'cts of Iht' Turbulence r,ohlC',n."

Meeh. E.~,. V. 57, 407-412 (l9J3).

S~,l

SIfF.R\'(OOI),"T. K., Jnd ,VOER rz. n. It.. "M.m t',.lIUlt, be1~'C'C'n rh,11C'1," Ind. En~. Chern .. / . .11.10.1-1 (19-'9).

5-5

VANON1. V. A. -Tu.nspo,tation of Suspended Sediment hy

(hom Ref. 512)

increases in both slurry specific gravity and slurry.

viscosity. Figure 5-6 shows the variation of coal
slurry viscosityas afunction ofconce l1traiion: up to
30"10 by weight there is lillie increase over theviscosity of' the carrier fluid (water). Beyond 30% by
weight the, viscosity increases rapidly. The total
effect on CIC" i,s shown in Figure 5-7 for the 20 x
28 mesh component. Again up to 30%by weight the
increase in CIC" is relatively slow; beyond 30% by
weight c/C" c1imb;'rapidly. The effect of this
change in concentration ~n the 8 x 14 mesh and

(19H~

(m5).

FigureS6 Effect of Solids Concenhation on Slurrv Yiscosily

OBRIEN. M. r.. "Review of tile Theory {l( Turbulent Flo\\' ;tntl

itf Relation to Se-dimcnt Trensportatien," Tram. Am. (;eorhy,.

~'altr,"Trans;ASCE.-V;JII; 67~1.1l (I

~~6

Q1b).

ISMAIl. II. M.. -Turbulcnl Tram(er Meehauism and Suspended

in Closed Channels: Trans. ASCE, V. 117,409.417

~dimC'nl

(1952).
$-7

CRAF, W. u, 11)draulies 01 Sedimt"nt l"ulupOlt," rp. lfo 1-202,

McGraw Ifill Book Com!?an)'. New Yorle (I q7 I).

$-8

WASP. E. .I.. CI at. -CronCaunny Coal Pipeline fI)draulics."

Pipe' Line News, pp. 20JO (July 11M3).

PARTICLES IN TURBUI.ENT I'I.OW

5-

liSt'. S. L IlEKEN. A. V .. I.ANO'll'E8ER. L end KENNEOY.

F.. ",I"ht Dhiribllliull (If SU\r~"t_kd Sc=clim~nt in Tu,hulent
Fro\\\ in CiIl,:ulJr I)irc:'.~ r,crrin, .;,. p.lrCI rrc,cntC'd .t1 t\dJlUi("
Cil\~ I\JChE m\'C'lill~otlSnlid, frJU1pOr' in .c;luuic, fI Q71).

J.

:,,1

5-10 Irrr.N. A.

,I

~m..tm,;-.~

Jr.

r.. ....\

Nt'I" I.nul; Jt Scdiment;uinn in Turhulci'll

Unmm Sot'. Ckil f~ffgl'.. V. 58. No. J. rJr- ri)Jfr<Jlf).

~-Il Ill/NT. I. ~ ."Turbulent T,.lIurnn nl" Je'CrdFCnc:('Iu, SC'dimt"II:

Qtl.tu. fr. :'oolc:ch.lniu & I\pr. M.I.h. v. 11. 2J4-2-I(, f I'J~I"J.

5.. 1~ \X'ASr. 1-:..... ee JI. "Deposhion Velocities. Transition vetochtes

and Sp.ui,sl ()imihulion of Solid, in Slurry ripclinn. lSi hut
Coni: on Ilyll,. r,.1mrort o"Solids in ript's, BIIRA Fluid Fnf:n~.
Cr.inlirltl.lI.K. r.lpc=t 11-1 (Sept. 1970).

67

Angle of pipe axis with. horizontal

'

E,/E",

von Karman constnnr

p
r

Density
Shear stress
Wall shear stress

'

Angular position in polar coordinate system

5.8 PROBLEMS
5.1 According to HUNT the distribution of solids
in a ,channel is given by

5.7 NOMENCLATURE
C

Volume concentration of solids

dc

C/C.. Ratio of volumetric concentration of solids

D

Em
E,
V

Z-

Distance from top 'of the pipe

Friction factor

h-

Ym _ 1

r.
u

Ym

Y
Eslrotl lIRadial distance
Radius of pipe
Local velocity
Maximum velocity
Friction velocity - V Vj/2
Fall velocity of solids
.
Distance from a boundary
Distance from a boundary to the point of
maximum velocity.

,',

+ (l-C). Cw-O

Prove that the ratio of concentration at 0.08 D

from the top to the concentration at pipe center
is given by

pxu*

b
f

m-

'i:."j~":l

at 0.08 D from top to pipe center

Pipe diameter
Momentum transfer coefficient
Mass transfer coefficient
.Mean velocity of flow
w

E, d--y

log

VR

vR: -

-1.8Z

where

I-C

VR-

5.2 For a 12"(305 mm) inside diameter slurry pipeline carrying slurryat a velocity of 6 ft/s (1.83
m/s), the wall shear stress is assumed to be 0.2
Iblft' (9.57 N/m'). 'Determine the maximum
particle size for which C/CA - 0.7 based on the
following data (rable P2):
i

-"'I

Tahlc 1'2:

Matcrial
='
Coal
Magnetite concentrate
Copper concentrate
Limestone

Slurry
i
Viscosity:
Centipoise

SI urry

Specific

Concenrrarion;
\'{I't%

Gravity
of So/ids

25

50
60

1.4
5.0

60
60

2.7

10

10
30

4.0

SOJ.lI) l.IQlJJl) n.o\'(!

I,g

5.5 In a pipeline carrying 0.4 mm size sand. it has

been found that inclusion of clay increases the
viscosity ofslurry from 1.2 centipoise to 8 cemipoise. If tlre friction velocity is 0.5 I'tis (0.15
m/s), determine the effect of clay on the value
of CICA Assume that the shape factor of the
.sand is 0.7 and its specific gravity is 2.65.

Assume that all the particles have a shape factor

of 0.8.
5.3 Assuming that for a suspension of sand partieles the friction loss is given by

hr - 4 x IO"V' +

VC",J:r

5.6 Determine the CICA values for 0.12 111111 diameter magnetite particles of specific gravity
5.0 and shape factor 1.0 at a friction velocity of
0.25 It/s (0.076 m/s) for the following conditions (Table P-3):

where
hr is head loss in feet ofwafer per foot ofpipe,
V is the velocity of now in ft/s
C" is the drag coefficient

If the value of CICA at 45% concentration is to

be made equal to that for a 55% concentration
slurry by adding viscosity builders to the slurry.
determine the percentage increase in viscosity
required.

Determine the value of CICA for 0.2 mrn, 0.4

mill. and 0.6 mm diameter sand particles having
a specific gravity of2.65 and shape factor of 0.7
at velocities of8, 12, and f6 I't is for a l foot diameter pipe.

Table

p'.~:

\Y/t!~

Slurry
Visrositv.
Ccntip"ise

Shtrrl'
Specific
(i rav it)

45
50
55
60

2.8
3.0
5.0
14.4

1.563
1.667

Slurry
Concentra tion,

5.4 Determine the value of CICA for ,111 iron sand

of OJ rum diameter carried in an 8" (203 nun)
inside diameter pipeline at a velocity of 14 ft/s
(4.27 m/s) if the slurry concentration is 45 percent by weight and slurry viscosity is I centipoise, given that the specific gravity of particle
is.5.0and the friction loss is 230 psi/mile (985
k N/m'-km)..
."

1.786
I. Ql.l

I:

i
.'

,-,

'6. FLOW OF HOMOGENEOUS

iI

'/

rd'

~.

'SUSPENSIONS

, ,

"
"
vo'
,,'

~(

~6.1 INTRODUCTION
,~.~

W'So far we have confined ourselves mainly to the

, problems associated with characterization of solid. Piquid systems. In the following chapters we will
discuss those aspects ofslurry technology which.are
'pertinent to the actual pipeline design. In hydraulics
, terms, as we saw in Chapter I, the main pipeline
;designparameters required are firstly, a knowledge
of the friction losses as a function .of the system'
variables, and secondly, a knowledge of the long
'term stability of a pipeline under the chosen operating conditions. These two items ofinformation are
. to some extent related, as the following discussion
shows.

i
i

. ,}:.:-:,
.oj

I
I

=!

,J
)

Figure 6-1 gives a typical friction loss-velocity

response of a homogeneous suspension. In the
higher velocity range, the flow is turbulent as indica. ted by the steep linear curve. As the velocity is reduccd, 'I point isreached where the flow changes from
turbulcntto laminar; this point is the uiscotn transition vtlodty. Below the transition velocity the variation in friction loss as a function ofvelocity is a flat
curve, typical of laminar behavior. We will see in
this chapter that m~thods are avajlable for predicting friction losses in both the laminar and jurbulent
regimes. However, without some criterion for the
evaluation of the transition velocity, these ~ould .
be of limited use to the engineer since he would be ;
unable to decide which methods were applicable/It
is a mailer of fact that slurry pipelines generally
operate in the turbulent .flow regimes; (There are
exceptions to this with materials such as very fine
limestone transported at, concentrations dose to
compaction). This is because the 'particles have a
tendency, albeit slow in many cases, to deposit in
the pipe under laminar flow conditions, This could
result in an unstable (pressure drop increasing with

time) operating condition over a period of time

particularly in the case of long pipelines. Thus, the
accurate prediction of the transition velocity is
doubly important.
In this. chapter we will discuss the technical
aspects Of the flow of homogeneous suspensions.
This will include a review of the tests for hornogeneitycurrently available to thedesigner.-surnmary of
the rnetlrods for prediction .offrictionlossesin both
the liiirilriar and the.turbulent.flowregimes, and a
discussionoftransition velocity. In addition; we will
examine how the choice of the rheological model
used to characterize the suspensionaffectsthe pipeline design. As in Chapter 4, only two rheological
models will be employed,viz, the Bingham plastic
model and the Power Law model, However many of
the techniques, given can be followed using other
models, which may give a beller description of flow
behavior in specific cases.

<,

e,

TURBULENT

<l

'"

ooJ

LIIMINAR"

'__ VISCOUS
TRANSITION
:
VELOCITY
.',o
,
LOG iVT

LOG

Figure G1 F,iCllon Less vs. Velocitv for a Homogeneous Slurry

SOLID LIQUID Fl.OW

inertial effects are practically non-existent and the

slurry is in homogeneous flow (i.e., CICA - 1.0).
As the panicle size increases, the CICA value de, creases from unityonly gradually until lilt particle
size reaches about 600 microns. For this region it
may be reasoned that while the particle inertial
effects are present they are small compared with the
viscous or the turbulent forces and so may be neglected. Beyond this point (i.e., for particles greater
than (i00 microns), the system rapidly reverses the
relative magnitudes of these forces.

':. :

For the case shown in Figure 5-3, it would be

possible to propose a test for homogeneity merely
by specifying the particle size: less tha'1600 microns
being homogeneous, and greater than 600 microns
being either heterogeneous or intermediate between
the two. However, this criterion would be specific
lor this system and these conditions. A change in
velocity or particle density, for example, would render the criterion invalid. A better criterion would
be that based on the value, of CICA . It would be
reasonable from Figure 5-3 to adopt the criterion
that all suspensions with a, CICA value of 0.8 or
gr~ater will.beconsidered as homogeneous.

L
,,
!

"j'

I"J'
.".

\:",'
i'

V
[

I
I
I

--j
i

,,

I
.I
j,
'j

..,,..1,

k;

.:

Since we make the distinction between homogeneous and heterogeneous flow, it follows that we
must in some manner quantify this point of separation; in other words, we must define what a homo, geneous slurry really is. In the strict sense, the reply
must be that a homogeneous slurry is one which
does not.exhibit a measurable concentration gradient 'of solids along the vertical axis of the pipe.
However, in the practical sense a better definition
would be that it is a slurry in which the inertial effect
of the suspended particles is relatively minor. This is
perhaps well illustrated by reference to Figure 5-3
which shows a plot of CICA versus coal partide size
for a given set of pipeline operating conditions.
Clearly, for particle sizes less than 100 microns,

Mate,iel

Sands
Specific
Gravity

Fromthe~bo~e'considerations,it follows that

between thehomogeneous flow condition and the
heterogeneous flow condition there is a region in
which both mechanisms are ofapproximately equal
magnitude. In this region the system would be
extremely sensitiveto slight changes in flow conditions, particle sizes, etc. and .the designer should
take care to ensure that the system design is sufficiently flexible to cope with possible changes.

It is possible to relate the flow condition (i.e.,

homogeneous, intermediate, or heterogeneous) to
the drag coefficient - Reynolds N umber curve given
in C:llapter} (see,Figure 3.,,1). A system whose partiCles,aregovern,ed by Stokes Law [region (a) in
Figure 3-1J.willusually .be conveyed in homogeneo~~ flow over the normal range of commercial

Maximum Concenlralion Pip;

pipeline.
C/CA of
PerUcl. Size of Solids . Diemet" OlSignVelocity",~.x.
[mm]
(wI; %)
(inch.s)
llt/el : Freetlon

Penicle
Reynolds
' Numb',r

Pipe
Reynold.
Number

0.273
0.0923
0.141
4912

26,000
21.000
92.000
1,843,000

0,;

COAL
LIMESTONE
MAGNETITE
UREOGINGS

1.40
2.70
4.90
2.65

1.00
0.295
0.147
0.470

'
r.bl. 6-1 Suml'Nry of Commercl.1 Slurrl"

50
65
60
15

10.02
10.75
9.625
12.75

5.0
3.5
&.0
18.0

0.625
0.653
0.612
0.001

it

f-I.O\V OF HOMOGENEOUS SUSI'ENSIONS

pipeline velocities, while particles governed by

Newton's Lnwjregion (eJi will be markedly heterogeneous. The intermediate flow condition generally
coincides with particle systems whose settling is
governed by the intermediate law. Table 6-1 taken
from Reference 2 illustrates this point.

6.3 DETERMINATION OF
TRANSITION VELOCITIES

would be the same for any rheology or geometric

configuration, provides what is probably the best
methud of prediction of transition velocities .in
systems represented by the Bingham plastic model.
HANKS found that transition was dependent on a
dimensionless group (r"pD'/l]') which had been
proposed earlier by HEDSTROM,'" . amongst
others. in his work on the laminar flow of Bingham
plastics. This so-called Hedstrom Number can be
rearranged 'lS follows: .

DVp

The velocity at which transition from turbulent

to laminar flow occurs in homogeneous slurries, as
would be expected, is dictated by Reynolds Number
considerations. Most homogeneous slurries exhibit
non-Newtonian characteristics, and in this section
we will consider only non-Newtonian behavior
since Newtonian flow was discussed in Chapter 2.
The definition of Reynolds Number for a nonNewtonian fluid or suspension can be based on
one of a number ofviscosities. We saw in Chapter4
that we have a choice of:
The apparent viscosity 11. which is defined as

..
r.

du

-r/(-)

(Eq.4.12)

.dy

Toll]) (E

Nil. - ( -1]-) x ( (V/D)

6 I)

q. .

The first term in Equation 6.1 is of course the

Reynolds Number defined on the basis-of the coefficient of rigidity I] (which is J1. for a Bingham
plastic). The second term is known as the Plasticity
Number, usually given ithe symbol N p l Both the
numerator and the dendminator in N p1 have units
of sec", i.e., units of shear strain. The term (VID) is
related 10 I he mean she", rate at the pipewall which
we have seen to be (8VIIJ), so that N p 1 can be considered as the ratio of an internal strain property of
the n~ia.(T./I]) to the shear strain conditions prevailing in the pipe. Equation 6.1 is sometimes written as:

(Eq. 6.1a)
The effective pipeline viscosity which is defined
as

11. - Tw/(BV10)

The viscosity at high rates ofshear, 11 ..(which

may be equal to the coefficient of rigidity 'I for
. fluids described by the Bingham plastic model).

HANKS and PRATr'sl made an analysis of a

large amount of the published data on suspension
flow, and for flow in circular pipes, their findings
are summarized in Figure 6-2, whichisa plot of the
critical Reynolds Number as a function of the
Hedstrom Number. The data points are for systems
outlined in the legend; the solid line is calculated on
the basis of the stability parameter proposed by
HANKS using the following equations:

Depending on which viscosity is used the Reynolds

Number at transition. i.e., the critical Reynolds
Number, will have different numerical values. A .
number of methods for prediction of transition :
velocites will be presented for both Bingham plastic
and Power Law fluids.

(Eq. 6.2)

6.3.1 Bingham Plastic Fluids

The workofHANKSIl\ in which an attempt was

made to obtain a generalized stability parameter.
that is, a pa rameier which unlike Reynolds Number

N II.

a.

16,800 (1 _ a.)}

(Eq, 6.4)

: "

SOLID LIQUID FLOW

'. :

10':,.,...-..;,-----------.:-----------------------,
, "
.'

::

;:.

! -: '1';.;, .

',~I

,:'::.

~ J!~ -r-. , ''''.:

, z

.,,~,

a:;,:-i

~".:;.i
,:) .
,,'
z' ,

~ 10"
-oJ

LEGEND

";r~mcnllflck

sturrv
AJver :mud slurries
O' Cluy sluflV '
Q S.'W.1!llJslu.Jg&
... Thd~ sti.rries
Lim~ ,lull V
A

...

>w

a:

...

<

'

i:','

':

'.'

a:

(.)

10'

10'

10'

HEDSTROM NUMBER INHel

Figure 6-2 Variation 01 NRec with NHo for Bingham Flow in Pipes
.

'Urom Ref. 65'

The term a. is the ratio ofthe yield stress to the pipewall.shear.stress.at transition, the subscript c indio
catil)l;C;ritical conditions, and is of course the ratio
.Of.lh~,,!"3dil1s of the unsheared central core of the
'pip~;~d:'i!leactuaIpjpe radius (see Chapter 4). The
" ' ali?f~~qua tjons aJlow calculaiion of(N.,), and Nil,

:~;
1 ~~ra!;;t~;ie:fs~e%,t:;:e~~;~;~~ef~;~~~::~~~
"

described by the Buckingham equation which. if

fourth-power-terms are neglected, can be written as

(Eq.4.22)

".'

solid line in
Figure 6-2.
,;""i+"'-'" ,;' ::

J\liali~triaii~e method of calculating the critical

Reynolds Number is by means of the Plasticity
Number, Figure 6-3 shows the: variation in (N ).
with N PI

.1
>~:I
""1

'

It will be-noted that in the methods outlined

above Reynolds Number is defined throughout
using the coefficient ofrigidity as the viscosity term.
THOMAS'"/ demonstrated that by employing an
effective viscosity, P.. to define N ... a very useful
means of obtaining approximate values of the transition velocity can be deduced, As we saw in Equa- .
tion 4.13~ the effective pipelin~ viscosity is defined
as

P. - r w I (BVlD)

Rearranging gives:
'I

Substituting for rw from Equation 4.22 and simplifying gives the effective viscosity as
P. - 'II 1 +

;;,~

(Eq. 6.6)

In most, commercial pipeline applications the term

i o D/ 6TJ Vis much greater than unity so that the unity
term may be neglectedgivillg an approximate
expression for P, as follows:

(Eq. 4.13)

_
P.

for laminar flowcondltions, In Chapter 4 we saw

that the laminar flow of Bingham plastics was

(Eq. 6.5)

[I_4ro )
3 rw

'I

[robi,) _r._~
6TJV l 6 V

which becomes at, transition

FLOW OF IIOMOGENEOlJS SUSPENSIONS

r.

10"

a:

a:
w

"
"

.'

- -- -

>a:

10"

..:
u
;::

o
'"
..J
o
2:

..J

a:

:-I"

1--1-

I:.~~
.

....

"

'0

- - - , - -, --

.'

"

2:

10'

:::l

7J

:,....---

I;

,\\(,"7'

O'?-"Y
,\\\~
~

. ./

0.1

fi

81.0

" 8'0

" "10'

_ TO 0
PLASTICITY NUMBER NPl - flV

"10'

',

t~i>'i

'iW

Figure fi..3 Critical Reynolds Numb"r v-.,sus Plasticily Number

/1. -

roD
6VT

(Eq.6.7)

where VT is the viscous transition velocity, SUl>sti- '

turing into the expression for critical ReyWolds
Number:

I.-

)\
'f"

that in fact V, is dependent upon both these variables but in each case the functional d'~pendence is
,'."er}' weak. Provided that it is used properly (i.e., that
its limita~ions. are recognized), Eq!,ati<;ll) ,6.8 yair "
provide a valuable first estimate of transition.veloc-,:
, i','

ity.

Using effective vl~cosity given by Equation 6.6

calculate Reynolds Number, the critical velocity can
be estimated by assuming that at critical v elocity the
value of the Reynolds Number is 2000. Thisgives
the following equation proposed by DUR.1ND:'"

or

v
T

_I

(NRc). ro
6p

VT

1000 [ I + I/ 1 + D-ropIJOOO
'
--op'7 ]

If it is assumed that transition occurs at a specific

value of the Reynolds Number, this becomes
(Eq.6.9)
(Eq. 6.8)

I!

constant,Forf(l'iR.).~2

KL-;2;.1

where K isa
!.Qg....
for (NR. ). - 3000,K.- 22. Thus, from Equation 6.7
it is possible to approximate the transition velocity
provided that the yield stress of the slurry is known.
The reader will note that Equation 6.8 contains
neither slurry v,iscosity(or coefficient of. rigidity)
nor pipe diamet~. Experimental work has shown

An example of the use of both the Hedstrom

Number technique and of Equation 6.8 has been
given by WASP et all2) using data presented by
WALKER'8) for chalk suspensions; Borh techniques
were employed to predict the observed values
of transition velocity. As shown in Table 6~2 the
Hedstrom Number method gives better correlation
over the whole range than does Equation 6.8. However it is clear that as an order-of-magnitude procedure Equation 6.8 is quite useful.

SOLID LIQUID FI.OW

,

('

fiQ1".C:

Wt.%
Solids

Oensity
lfb/It 3)

41.0
47.0
51.5
55.0

84.2
88.6 '
92.4 I
95.5 '

TRANSITION VELOCITIES (It/sec)

Caleuilled
F,om Eq
Hedstrom
Observed
( 6-8)
(Fig. 6-2)

~l"'~i-)""

(dynes/em')

(podol

24
100
200
320

0.0710.051"
0.08
0.1110.13)
0.20

4.2
7.0
8.2
11.5

2.6
5.2
7.3
9.0

3.5(3.4)"
7.0
9.518.0)
11.0

Tabl.6-2 VIscous Transition Velocities for Limestone Sutpen.ions In _ 1*lnmPlpt

~. I}', '>~

. !.

(Ref. 6-81
I

i/
"

l.' .

6.3.2 Power Law Fluids

Prior to considering the laminar~turbul~nttransi
tion for Power Law fluids, it is necessary to discuss
stability in more detail. RYAN and JOHNSON")
proposed a generalized stability parameter Z, given
~
by

z,; :

.'

,.

r - K' (du
,
dy

Pup'
l2r,/l8u/8y)}
,

' . 2\/l(n)
Z- ~
2r w

where

(Eq. 6.10)

\/l(n) _ (3n + I)' [_1__ I :~i

n
n+2

It ~ilI' ~~ noted that Z has the form ofa Reynolds

Numberv'except that it makes no assumption as to
the rheological behavior of the fluid. This stability
parameterappears to be similarto the laterone proposed by, HANKS.13J
i
'
:
t

From the definition of friction factor, Z then becomes

Z _ 2\/l(n)
f

[i

Z will, be zero at the pipe wall.since at this point It

is also zero.It will also be zero, at the pipe centerline

since~ -:;,0 at this point. Tllerefore Z must exhibit

DVp
z,.. - V14
n' (-J1-)

'I..

'

f. _ ~"'(n)

Il08

R-

(Eq.6.13)

Thus, knowing the tlow index II, it is possible to calculate the value of;;. Sincef-

(Eq.6.11)

I'

VI:

Assuil'lingaval4eof2100 for th~Reynolds Number

at transition, We obtain (Zm..). - 808, and since this
parameteris general wecan assume that it applies to
all time-independent (i.e., non-thixotropic) fluids.

,~6

R.

for laminar

flow. the velocity at whichlaminar lIow becomes

turbulent call be calculated (see Table 6-.1), This
table

..

and that this maximum occurs at a pomt given by

;

(Eq. 6.12)

If wenow take Z, - 808,weobtain an expression for

the friction factor at transition:

a maximum at some point between the wall and the

centerline. If the variation in [velocity as'a function
of radial distance (i,e., the velocity profile)is known.
the value of Zm.. can be calculated. For it Newtonian
fluid it can be shown that Zmax is given by

(Eq.4.14b)

it can be shown that

...

>"

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0.0076
0.0072
0,0068
0.0066
0.0075

.~~

Applying a similar procedure to a generalized

Power Law fluid, i.e., one described as follows:

T,bl.63 V.tlatlon of Crltic:al Friction Factor f e

with Flow Ind,. n

I:

75

FLOW OF HOMOGENEOUS SUSrF.NSIONS

.'
2.900

".

I'

LEGEND
Malenal

2.800

Symbol
2.100 -

'.'

Cal hoxymp.ihytc~llulme

(r

Carboxvmerhvteettotcse

Carbopor
Anasot Clay
Latex Susnensione
Cement Honk Slurries

Wate,:;:

..

Air

ED

Air

2.600

.to

"'
~

2.500

M
2,400

a:

I,

lij.
.
; .

2.300

2.200

Fihel"~Cp, Suspension

2,100

.j

.{,~;

2.000

I
1.900

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4.0.5

0.6

0.1

0.8

0.9

FLOW INDEX

1.0

1.1

!:: 1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

,'.'.

(n)

FJaur.8-4 Comperlto" of Calculated CrltfClI Roynolds Numbtr with Experiment.' Data for Pip. now of Power Lew Fluids

I_~-.:

confirms the findings ofmany authors(9) (lOHII) that

the friction factor at transition is approximately
constant for all fluids.
In a practical problem it is therefore possible to
use this procedure to obtain the transition velocity
of a Power Law fluid. Once n is determined from
rheology measurements .f. can be calculated a~d
hence (NRo). ' HANKSIJ) compared this prediction
method with a large quantity of pipeline data. His
findings are shown in Figure 6-4 in the form of
(NR. ). as a function of the flow index n, The data
include pseudoplastic, Newtonian and dilatant
fluids and the agreement between observation and
prediction is good.
'i ;.

Although a good deal of scatter is present, when

one examines the spread in the data for Newtonian
fluids, it can be seen that scalter in" the non-Newtonian data is not excessive. Thus, Figure 6-4 provides us with a more appropriate procedure whereby
the Reynolds Number at transition is obtained
directly from the measured value of n

It should be noted that in the case of Power Law

fluids the Reynolds Number is defined throughout
on the basis of ail effective viscosity. i.e., N Ro )

DVP. The effective viscosity is derived in exactly

P.

the same manner as with a Bingham plastic. From

Equation 4.14b
P _
e

-5!.- _ K 8V
(8 y)

",1 (

( ,,"-I

_ K O S; )

4n ) "
3n+l

(Eq. 4.14b)

6.4 LAMINAR FLOW

In Chapter 4 we discus~ed the methods of calculating friction losses for the laminarAow of nonNewtonian fluids as they pertained to the operation
of the extrusion rheometer. These methods will be
reviewed briefly in this section and in addition the
use of so-called generalized correlations will be
discussed.

GA.l Bingham Plastic Fluids

We saw in Chapter 4 that the integration of the

.i

tr'

r. '

~4

i: :

7,;

li

rheol~gical point function for Bingham plastics for

1.00-.--------------,
..

I'

:.,;

8V_ c" [I
D
'7

_1 CO +!(~"\.J
3 cw ,

.1

.f

""

.,

NH. = 0

cc

ro;

,.

111"10.10 10 10 10

the boundary conditions of a circular pipe resulted

in the1Buckingham equation:

1<' :

s.
1'

SOUO UQUtlJ FLOW

J,

~ 0.100
u

(Eq.4.21)

;t
Z

"

Equation 4.21 cannot be solved directly for Cw ; however by' neglecting the Iourth-power terms, an
approximate solution given by
.

e
...
cc

Cl

~0.010

...

(Eq.4.22)

is obtained.

"

'

I
~.

j .

;; .j'.\"
.;

Exact solutions of Equation 4.2 I are also available such as that due to McM1LLEN'Illand in particular HEDSTROM!~I Assuming the following functional form

0'001+--,----,---,---,----j
10

Figur.65 Revnolds Number Diagram lor 81ngham Ph_sties

Cf'otn'ReT: 7U

..........

LIp - </> (0, L, V, p, 'I. co)

.',

HEDSTROM found from' dimensional analysis

that ....
,

,
I
I
,

~1

'

,( 1'- <P,
\

[.(~~r> ' :~:~ 1

.

- <P2

(Eq.6.14)

!'

[DVP
:roD'p]
(-'7-), (--,,'- )
,

(Eq. 6.15)

where the second terms in Equations 6.14 and 6.15

willbe recognized as the Plasticity Number N rl and
the Hedstrom Number Nil.. respectively.

I
.

meter in the laminar flow region. A similar fami/yof

curves using N M as the additional parameter can also
be prepared. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs in the vicinity of the intersection of
the appropriate laminar flow curve and the curve for
turbulent flow of Newtonian fluids, the exact location being given by the method outlined in Section
6.3.

6.4.2 Power Law Fluids

The friction loss-velocity relationship for Power
Law fluids is given by Equation 4.24:

The function <P2 in Equation 6.15 can be expressed as follows:

c" - K

i
I,

(Eq. 6.16)

(D )n( )"
8V

4n
3n+1

where K and 11 are the rheological constants. In a

different form. the laminar data can be expressed by
16
1- -- . where

NR

Equation 6.16 can be expressed more conveniently in graphical fdlm as shown in Figure 6-5,
which gives a plot at/versus N R with Nil. as a para~.

(Eq.4.24)

DVp

_
Re

P.

,I

,I
I

FLOW OF IIOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

17

tonian relationship ill laminar llow, i.e.,

(0 )".,(. )"

r ' sv

1', - ,

~n

CEq.

.In+1

6.4.3 Generalized Correlation

1>.20)

Figure 6-1i shows the application of this genetalized correlation to a great deal of published data as
performed by METZNER and REED. The agreement in the laminar flow, regime is excellent. The
'use of the procedure has advantages over Equation
4.24 since no assumption .has been made as to the
constancy of K' and ,1'. The use of this generalized
correlationin turbulent flmJ is not as satisfactory,
as will be seen in the next s~ction.

It was established in Chapter 4 that for any give~

time-independent tluid,S I'/D is a unique function
of r" only (Sec Equation 4.15). Many workers 'eel
that based on this, a generalized approach tocorrelation of data is preferable to the application of
specific models. Most generalized correlations
assume a relationship similar tothat of the rower
Law, i . e . , '
"

;;

II !
~' :

1.0

(Eq, 6.17)

"-

a:
o

where K' and II' are not necessarily constants; Thus

if a logarithmic plot is made of rw versus 8 V/D,
Equation 6.17 represents the tangent to the curve'
at any given value of 8 WD.

....
e..>

-e

u.

t;

z
'"
z
z

f-

r.
(PV'/2) '

f-

K,~~r 16~

pV-/l - o"'yl-n'

o"'yl.n

N R. -

(Eq.6.19)

Provided that the Reynolds Number isclefined

according to Equa~on 6.18, all time-independent
fluids must conform to the conventional New)

I-- f.

I--

~ ttr

GE

100

,0F

K,~140+a

1~1~1~ll
. ,

.12SI INRe In.J,

TA

'.1,000

REYNOLDS NUMBE R.

""

.........

10,000
On" V 2 np .

~ Revnolds Number Correia lion

for Non-Newtonian Fluids'- High R;mge
(from Ref.G-lD'

Figure 66 FrictionFaClor

(Eq.6.18)

where y .... K'8n '- t. If it is aSSUmed that the fluid

under study is Newtonian, Equation 6.18 reduces to
the familiar equation for laminar flowf -16 piD Vp.
By analogy with Equation 6.18, METZNER and
REED"oLdeflned a dimensionless generalized ReyI
nolds Number as

20

we can by substitution of r.. from Equation 6.17,

write
.

1"I-

0.01

0.0002

,1'~

u.

...~ -

u.

. Since Fanning friction factor is defined as

, .....

0.10

a:

'

6.5 TURBULENT FLO\'(!

From a commercial pipeline standpoint, the
accurate prediction of turbulent flow behavior is of
more interest than the prediction of laminar behavior. This is because pipelines generally operate in
theturbulent flow regime. The methods ~y which
friction losses may be predicted for turbulent flow
will be discussed in this section.

6.5.1 Bingham Plastic Fluids

The methods for the prediction of friction losses

./

100.00

r.

78

.SOLID .. LIQUID FLOW

. ~ .: ,

I:

"'f'..

,t.,'

..

'

:;:~

;';

"d;:

16

"

.:!.~:

.... 10.

,',0

t= "

.. ....
'~

.... :

...

.,

10

'tl
A

.~---

r-,

,.

.':

-n..!..

~..

r,..

4IogINA."fil- 0.4

"-,

10

NA. DVPI." DVP/II ~

;~
,

N.A~

~I\

u.

-,

i--.

'%:

--...- r--

~.p bn-,,.,

'

"'-

I
.3

10

z
".j

'.

103

...

..

'0.

.A~

0.69 fb/sq. ft.

/..;r . 4IogINA."fi1 - 0.4

.~ ~
,

635
196

Ty

'"
;;:
2

1000

0,,318
1.030

." -5.70cp

f'

0.124

P .1.909m /a:

;::
z
~ 10

0
A

f'.!! .- ~

z
.

....,.. L_
.........
..
. ...,. .......... ......
'" """" I;;;

~ ~.Qiib ..............
~ ..,;;0

10"

,,,ur.107 Friction Factor n,\ R'vnold. HumIN' Plot for. TVPlcat NonNewtonl.n SU1fMmion 1It,,",.tl". , TUM
DI'me1., Iff.et Whan tM l'fNt'''' Vb.Gllty II UNcI In tht c.t",laUon o' the " .,nold. Number.
fhern A~....11'

.......

"~.

NRt' OVP/I/(i+g,Dty/6lJVI. OVP/II.II.

LID

TUeE OIA. (Inch)

r-, ,

:a:

\.
Ii OIJ ''-0:
:IO~ "':'

he-

(bl

-'

1\

~,
p ...

10

:t

ill'

:~

-...

--,

'. '''10'3

t;

r-, ~ \
."

""

f\

'

,
i'v.

\.

:!

.:.: .

\.

-,

: ...

"'.--

'2

...

1'\

C!J " ",

'2
:'iC! Z t' 6
'

K.

,l~: &:
;cj

1\

p...,

~\

1\

16. _
1'NA.

. "1<
~!

(I

a 105

n.ow

Of HOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

for the turbulent flow ot'homogeneous suspensions

differ mainly in their definitions of Reynolds Numbers. i.e., in the choice of viscosity. We saw in Section 6.3 that two viscosities could be used for establishill~ the viscous transition velocity for a Bingham
plastic fluid. the coefficient of rigidity '7. which is
the same as p,_ for a Bingham plastic, and the effective viscosity P.' We will now examine the use of
these viscosities for correlation of turbulent flow
data for Bingham plastics.

Many workersCIJIlHIlIS!in this field have coneluded that if Reynolds Number isdefined on the
basis of the coefficient of rigidity, then the friction
factors.in the turbulent flew regime will be correlated on the conventional Newtonian chart (Moody
diagram) fortheparticular pipe roughness. This of
course is a very attractive approach from an engineering standpoint since the value of'7 is relatively
simple to obtain and the designer is completely
familiar with the Moody chart.

There is a complication involved in the use ofthis

otherwise simple procedure with which the designer
ought to be familiar. We saw in Chapter 5 that the
, presence of particles in a flowing fluid tended to
suppress the value of the von Karman coefficient K.
The net result of this from the point of view of prediction of turbulent friction losses is that the use of
the Newtonian curve would give higher friction
factors than those observed in practice. An example
of this is given in Figure 6-7(a), taken from Reference 6. This is not a serious problem since any
errors introduced would be tending to make the
system more conservatively designed. However, in
cases where it is necessaryto tighten up designs the
designer should have some means ofestimating the
degree of suppression of K.
~

..

TI lOMAS,"! from the results of his tests with

thorium oxide . suspensions, co~duded that for
suspensions with rb <0.5 Ibr/ftl (240 Dynes/em'),
the friction factors tended to approach those predicted' from the Newtonian curve as N R increased
[See Figure6-7(a)J; for r.>0.5 Ibr/ftl (240 Dynesl
em'), the friction factors tended to diverge.
TH()MAS"'1 proposed a Blasius type of reiationship for, the calculation of friction factors:

(Eq.6.21)

19

and recommended a procedure by which the coefficients 8 and b could be calculated from the system
properties.
THOMAS"l also demonstrated the effect of
using an c1Tecti~e viscosity defined as,

p, - '7 [ I

+ ~~~ I

(Eq. 6.6)

on the correlation of turbulent friction factors, as

shown in Figure 6-7(b).'Comparing Figure'6.-7(a)
with 6-7(b), we can see some obvious differences.
Firstly, as we \~ould expect, the use of p,gi"es a
unique correlation in tlie laminar regime as opposed
to the use of'7 (or p~). Secondly, the reverse istrue in
the turbulent regime, the use of p, resulting in a
diameter effect. Without commenting. on the
"correctness" of either, it must be stated here that
the designer is free to choose whichever method he
finds more suitable. This will be discussed further in
Section 6.6.

6.5.2 Power Law Fluids

Perhaps the best known correlation of the turbulent flow of Power Law' fluids is the generalized
correlation presented 'by DODGE and METZNER.(11) This correlation has been discussed in
Section 6.4 with regard to laminar flow. Defining
Reynolds Number acc~rding to Equation 6.19,

..

(Eq. 6.19)

the extension of the correlation into the turbulent

now regime is as indicated in Figure 6-8. As expected a single correlation line holds in the laminar
regime; in the turbulent regime a family of curves
results. the position of any curve being dependent
on the value of the Oow index n',

so

501./0 LIQUID FLOW

..

1"-

1\
,

'"

1\

,
0.01

'"'1-.
-?~

r .....

"-

'.

ii- .
a:

o "; ~,I

j ~'

.,

"

"'

""....

t""

~ ."~

;:: .... .
oz

,.;.',
~

::;. ;,).!,i

"If

.~ ."

i'

r-.... ~
" .....

--

'.

;11.'

"j

..

2:.

:t ,'11 ,

0.001

ro

1-.

L L
1"1:: /

t; .. '," .:

---- --... -.
, .... -

,.., t-

.... r--r-I--..

r--.

I'
I
I

r--. r-...

r--

r-,.:..;

......

REYNOLDS NUMBER.

'-

_
N ='OnV'l."p
Re

'-,~~
I,D _

1"- r_

sr
'

,!
1-- -N.
.

1.1

...

-,

1'-

r- "'l{

...

" "{Q

10,OOQ
-'...

1,000

.~

i'"t- .... ~-- f.'_

1 ""'" "'-i
'~i
"1- 1-. ,.:
"
........
"

'I

...!L.

>-

r-r--;

Oll S

- -- --- --. ::/Et

-- -.-.
-_- , "'-J_:r-..(3/
,
.'

I"-- ........ -.. ......

I- 1-1"-

'Expl.'rilmmtal Rl!gions

EXltUPOT"" R"9i

I.

1--

I'--~T

100,000
7

Figure G8 Flnnl Friction Fllclor Design Ch"rt for Nnwlon;an and NonNewtonian Fluids

.:.

Uto," ReI. G17'

correlation is one of which the designer would be

well advised to take note.

This procedure was first developed for Power Law

fluids butit is valid for non-Power Law fluids provided that ni,and K',are ev~l~,ated at the correct pi~e. wall shear stress, Since thls~s normally the quantity
being calculated, a trial and error procedure must be
adopted, but such procedures tend to converge
rapidly and should not present too big a problem.
The generalized correlation makes no assumptions as to the actual rheological behavior of a given
slurry, and it has been proposed for analysis of
systems exhibiting a yield stress, as well as for Power
Law Fluids.Recent work has shown that the concept
of a universal approach to non-Newtonian flow.
regardless of the differences in fluid behavior, is
perhapsiU-considered. HANKS and RICKS lI8 )
have proposed a modified mixing .length model
which gives excellent agreement with the measured
friction losses for a wide range of pseudoplastic
fluids, However, when their procedure is appliedto
thorium oxide slurries, which exhibit a yield stress,
the method does not correlate the measured friction
losses. The cautionary-note struck by HANKS and
RICKS'''' regarding the use of the generalized

6.6 CHOICE OF DESIGN

PROCEDURE

'

If the pipeline designer is able to designate a particular system as either a Bingham plastic or a Power
Law"f1uid;theprevious sedioil~ willenable him to
predict thefriction losses to be expected in any pipeline flow. If, as is moreoften the case; a particular
system can be adequatelydescribed by either model.
the designer is presented with a dilemma which, in
/ spite of his good intentions. the generalized design
methods do not [l1l1yallsO"'er; A. great.deal.has.been
written as to which is the 'best" rheological model
or the 'correct" viscosity to use and rather than add
yet another inconclusive. chapter to this argument.
we would prefer that the' reader draw his own con-

elusions,
We would however offer some background i;lrormarion and some practical comments on thc use of

I)

Fl.O\V OF HOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

,the above methods which may be of use to the

designer, These comments concern themselves with
the choice of viscosity and the choice of rheological
model.

6.6.1 Choice of Viscosity

In selecting a viscosity to use for design it is apparent that the simplest approach is the use of u : This
allows access to the familiar Moody charts for calculation of friction factors. It also ascribes a constant'
viscosity to a suspension which makes categorization of suspensions relatively simple (i.e., the designer knows immediately that a suspension with p~of
20 cp is more easily pumped than a suspension with.
p, of 100 cp), The effective viscosity varies depending on the rate ofshear, i.e.,on the pipeline velocity,
which makes it difficult to draw comparisons between different flow systems. The absolutevaluesof
p. and Il~ are also worth noting. 1'- is more readily
related to the Newtonian viscosity of the suspending medium: values of 'I for commercial systems are
typically 10 to 100 cp, The values of p. necessary to
produce realistic values of, say, N R: in Equation 6.18
and Figure 6-8 are typically 100to 1000 cp, i.e.,they
are totally unrelated to Newtonian values.
The physics of the turbulent flow of non-Newtonian suspensions are not well established. EISSENBERG I 141 found that he could correlate turbulent friction factors for Bingham plastics using the
coefficient of rigidity. On the addition of a powerful dispersant to the system which destroyed the
yield structure (f. - 0), he found that he was still
able to correlate friction factors in this way. The
implication of this is that the action of turbulence
is, in effect, to destroy the yield structure and make
the fluid behave as a Newtonian fluid with I' - 'I,
thus supporting the use ofa constant viscosity 1'- to
correlate turbulent flows. Other workers, e.g.,
WILKINSON"" prefer to see this type ofphenomenon as one end of the scale, i.e...... these studies .

hmle 1101 /J((Ir concerned witll fluids whi(hexhibit

prolloltllud non-Naetonian propertits at theshear-rates
prttlllilillg under the tllrblllen/fl07o conditions stndied;
bll/ rather foilh th turbulent Nnetonian behavior qr
flllids 1tlhith nt knoer shear talesSh070 markeddroiatiollS
froili Nittl/iiilid,1 propiTtits.

'\

-,

No doubt the mechanics of the problem will

become a certainty in the future, However. for the
time being it is sufficient (or the designer to know
that practically all commercial systems behave such
that I'" adequately describes the turbulent flow
behavior.H te":ili( for the COJ1lI1lCH.:i.lf slurries encountered by the aurhorv,
;

6.6.2 Choice of Rheological Model

The choice of a rheological model. i.e., Bingham
plastic or Power Law, depends largely on the preferences .of the designer. There is no conclusive
evidence to suggest that either one is betterthan the
other as far as the ultima!'; correlation ofdata. There
are however some minor points which perhaps
make the Bingham model simpler to use.
Firstly, the form of the friction -factorReynolds
Number correlations should be 'noted. Using a
Power Law or generalized correlation (Figure 6-8)
gives a single correlation in the laminar regime and a
familyoCcurves (depending on 11 or n')in the turbulent regime. Using a correlation suclr as HEDSTROM's, based on tire' Bingham plastic. model,
gives a family of curvesi~ tire laminar regime and a
single correlation in the turbulent regime. So while
the Power Lawpossesses advantages in the laminar
flowregime, in the turbulent regime, which is the
regime ofgreater interest, its use is a little more diffi. cult. These difficulties are compounded somewhat
by the fact that thef-NR.curvesgiven in Figure 6-8
have not been fully identified for the complete (low
range, and in many cases itis necessary to resort to
the extrapolated curves;' .<
'
Secondly, the physical meaning ofthe rheological
parameters nand Kare not as readily grasped as are
those ofcoef~cientofrigldityand yield stress. Also
the units of K are expressed in terms of the exponent II; for example, for a fluid with 1I-0.7,Kwould
be expressed as 1I"sec" 7/ft', and if /I - 0.4, K is in
terms of Ibrsec" 'mI. The constants in the Bingham
model, on the other hand,areexpressed in terms
wlrich are familiar to the engineer, viz, those of
viscosity and stress.
'

82

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

6-19 WIJ.KIN.'iON. w. J..~ Non~N\wlonian Fluids." 1" M. r('r~.1nuJII

6.7'R~FERENCES

.,

Press. london (1960).

h-l," :CnARlES. M. E. and STEVENS. G. S. "The rip~rinC" Flow of

': ~. Slurr'~s.Transjcjon Vdoc:irit:,."lntJInc. (;onl:on J'\"d. Tr:an,poi,

i ":~;'o( Solids in Itipe-s. Bf-IRA J=luid r:n~n,:.. Cranfield:U. K.. rapt'l

:" -", EJ (.xPl. lij"i'lJ.

"I. ....

6.8 NOMENCLATURE

6-2 ';WASP. E.J_ et al, -D\'po,ilion Vd'ld,;t',. T,an,i,;on Vdoci,iC',

, ~nd Spatial Di~ffibulion of Solids in Slurry Pipclinn." ht In'.
Conf. on Jlyel. Tr;lmpou'lIiun of Solid, in rire~. RJIRA Fluid
Ent:ng. Cranfield. U. K.. Paper H4 ISept. 1970).

!'

n-J '. HANKS. R. W. MA Generali1.C'd Criterion for l.aminar-Turbu'i-. lent Transhlcn in the Flew of Fluids." Union CarbideCo. (No\'.

:;U?

62i.'

4n r
K'- K ( )n+1
A constant in
K.

6-4 , HEDSTROM.8. O. A., -Flow ofPlulic M"te-riaJs in Pipes: Ind.

,!:hlng; Ch,rn.. Y. 44. pp, 651-656 (1952).
:l~~;j; ,".
.
"
6-S".:.'HANKS, R; W. andPRATr. O. R., -Ootlte- Plow of Bintham
::::' PlauiC:,,slurrics jn, Pipes and Between Paralld Plates," See of
to'" Petroleum En~ineC'rs Jr. pp. J42-J4& (Oec.l,967).

"

...

"

~".'-

."

'

,'\

'

L
Nne

--

N,.
N Re

6006;aTHOMAS.O; C.. -Non.Ncwl,'oni,1n Su,pen~ions." P~II J. Ind.

:' En~c;:h,m. Y. 55. pp, 18~29 (Nov. 1963~

Nie

DURAND. R.and CONDOUPS~, E. MHy~raulic Transport of

6-7,

N R"

~/! Coal 'and Solid Mal~rial in Pipes,'" PtO(. Colloq. on Hyd~aulic

, :': Transpoilalion. London (Nov. 1952).
',

'~"l

- ,,'

""

6-8 t, WALKER,}. R. 0, and WORSTER, R. C., "yd,a.lie Tran.port

'1; o(SolidsTrinidad'Cement 'Ltd:s 6Mile: '2000 psi Pipeline:
.;.Pipes. Pipelines, Pumps ac: Va'\,es Conven,ion, Earls CoUtt.
.:i;,':"nd~n (1962).
.

I
I

Yr

. .

du
dy

6-9:1. RYAN.N:W.and)OHNSON. M.M..-!ransirion from Laminar

; .if to Turbulent--Plow in PiPes." AIChEJournal. V~ 5. pp. 4JJ-4J5
;

(I959~

!t.

"

6-10 'METZNER. A. 8. and REED, j..c, -Flow arNon-Newtonian

~'. FluidsCortciation or-Laminar. Transition and Turbulent Flow
.; ~elions" ,AICI1E,Journal. V.I. pp; 4J4~440(Dec. 1955).
.;,

-",'

"''-

",,'

6-14

p
r

lenIFri~tion'Fac~ors aIEle'";'ued Temperatures,": AICbEJournal,

Y. 10. pp. 411J-407 (May 1964).

6-15 TIiOMAS. D. G., MNon.N!wtonian SuspensioM. Part II, Ind.

En~

Friction factor
. Power Law index
Radial distance from pipe axis
Ratio of yield stress to pipe wall shear at
transition critical velocity

P.
P,
PM

,EISSEN'~:ER:G.rLM""Me;a,qrc~cn; :.ndCorrdatiori o(Turbu'

Shear rate

y-

6-13" nlOMAS. D. G. "Tumpoll Clmacte-ri<tics of SUlptnsions.

. Part.ly./lICbEJou",al. V. 8. pp. 266-27HMay 1962).

Length
Hedstrom Number
Plasticity Number
Reynolds Number
Generalized Reynolds Number (see Eq. 6.19)
Reynolds Number at transition critical velocity
Pipe radius
Average velocity of flow
Transition critical velocity
St~p~it!y parameter Eq. 6.10
Index in Eq. 6.21

et ai, "Cross-Country Coal ripdin~ H)dtaulics."

, Pipelin, News, pp.20-28 (Iuly (963). .

6-12:SMcMllLEN. E.l.. "Simplified Pre-ssurC'-Lo<s Calculations for

Plastic Flow," Chern. EnJn~ Pr:o~, v, 44. pp. 5J7-546 (1948).

Eq. 6.8

n'-

s-rr'. WASP.E. J.

Coefficient in Eq. 6.21

Ratio of volumetric concentration at top of
pipe to the middle of the pipe
Pipe diameter
Power Law coefficient

K'

8'-'

Apparent viscosity
Effective viscosity
. Viscosity at inllnile rate of shear
Density
Shear stress
Yield stress
Wall shear stress
Coefficient of rigidity

Chem. V. 55. pp. 27-35 (Dec. 1963).

6-16 THOMAS.. D.G. "Pto!C. in lnt, Research 00 Thermodynamic

. 'arid Tr~nsport~!~p_~"rIJ~_~."_CI':lpJer_"I.J.678.
ASMEi Neworlc

'C1V62j:' -_.

6..17 DODGE, O. W.".and METZNER, 1\. 8.-Tulbulenc FlowofNoo

Newtonian Systems'," AIChE.Journal. V. 5. pp. 189-20-1 (June

6.9 PROBLEMS

1959~

) :1

<,

6-18 HANKS. R. \Y!. and RICKS, 8. L. -T,;ans;eion.al and TurbuIe-.ic Pipellow orpseuc.t?pl.as~c Fluids," Jr. Jlydronaulics. V.9.
pp. 39-44 U.n. 1975).

6.1 A limestone slurry having 60 percent solids by

weight has a plastic viscosity of 6.9 centipoise
and a yield stress of38 Dynes/cm 2.lfthe speci-

I
I

FLOW OF HOMOGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

tic graviry of solids is 2.7 and the suspending

medium is water, determine the valueofHedstrom Number and laminar-turbulent transition critical velocity for pipe diameters of 2 em,
20 em, ~I1J hO em.

..

6.2 Assuming that turbulent flow occurs in a pipeline ill an effective Reynolds Number of 3000
prove th;1l the critical velocity for a Bingham
plastic suspension having a yield stress r, and a
plastic viscosity '1l1owing through a pipe ofdiameter D can be approximated by the following
expression:

v _

1500,/

Dp

6.3 The following data were obtained for a limestone suspension having 60 percent solids by
weight. Determine the values of larninar-turbulent transition velocities. Compute the value of
the critical velocities using Bingham plastic
model for these data, (Data taken from Ref. 6-6.
Table II).
D - 0.812 inch
Velocity

Friction Loss

cmls

Dyneslcm'-cm

347
323
297
226
181
137
89.3
120
36
44.2

1106
1001
843
540
350
204
141
159
110
127

D .... 1.59 inch

. Velocity

-;;-:-~__;--Friction Loss

D - 3.05.-'i"'n"c:..:.h
Velocity
cm/s

Dynes/cur'-cm

83.H
70.'1
50.0

34.3
29.9
34.3
34.3
31.4
20.9
25.3

265
14.3
7.7
9.8

6.4 For a clay water suspension. the laminar flow

data were correlated 'using Bingham plastic as
well ,IS Power Law model. and the following
data were obtained tor a 48 percent weight
suspensron:
Plastic viscosity
Yield stress
Value of Power Law
coefficient K
,'Value of Power Law
e_xp'?,nent Ii
.. -

8.7 centipoise
0.86 Ibrlft'

1.61 Ihm/ft. secl.57R

0.422

Determine the transition critical velocity for

this suspension for a pipe diameter of 12 inches
(305 mm) if the specific gravity of the solids is
2.7.

6.6 For a limestone slurry flowing in a 6 inch (152

mm) inside diameter pipe at a concentration
of 65 percent by weight. determine the friction
losses in 'psi/mile (KN/tn'-m) given that:

Friction Loss
Dynes/cm'e-cm

287
241
186
152
109
69.8
51.2
37.5
12.2

349
257
165
113
62.7
60
56.7
58.2
50

-,

83

6.5 Using the data given in problem 6.4. determine

the friction losse~ fo~ lami~lar fl~w in a.0.125
inch (3.2 mm) diameter prpe usmg both the
Bingham plastic and the Power Law models
over a range ofO.ltilnes critical to critical velocity.
.;

em Is

"

;i

Plastic viscosity
Yield stress
Velocity of flow
Specific gravity of solids

- 22 centipoise
-53 Dynes/em/
-4 ftls (1,22 m/s)
- 2.7

6.7 Repeat problem 6.6 assuming a Power Law

model with the value of exponent II - 0.165
and coefficient K - 34.3 Dynes-secO. IOSIcm'.

H4

SOI.lD I.IQl11l> 1'1.0\"

6.8 Repeat problems 6.6 and 6.7assuming that the

r~eological properties:of the suspension are as
follows:
.
~', \ . ; '
'f:;

6.9 A limestone slurry containing 70 percent solids

by weight is to be pumped through an 8 inch
(200 mm) diameter pipe. Determine the effect
of thinning agent on the laminar-turbulent
transition velocity if the yield stress of the
slurry reduces from JOO Dynes/em! to 25
Dynes/cm2 and the plastic viscosity remains
unchanged at 40 centipoise by the addition of
the thinner. Assume that the solids' specific
gravity is 2.7.

"

Plastic viscosity
Yield stress
Power Law coefficient
Power Law exponent .

63 centipoise
50 Dynes/em!
25 Dynes-sec?"/cm 1
0.3

'.

'

',r

... - ...

._"- .....

i
-': .

:<:J

:\/1
.,-':.-

J
; ,,-I

.:,"7. FLOW OF HETEROGENEOUS

.SUSPENSIONS

-'::'.:9
!
~:::

7.1 INTRODUCTION
'

Slurries which exhibit heterogeneous properties

can be considered as representing the opposite end
of the scale from the homogeneous flow casediscussed in Chapter 6. The orientation of the pipeline
axis becomes important in the case of heterogeneous suspensions. In horizontal or nearly horizontal pipes, the flow conditions are complicated due
to the influence of gravity force on the particles. In
the following sections, unless stated otherwise,
horizontal pipe flow is implied. Any mechanism
describing the heterogeneous flow of suspensions
must take account of the inertial effects of the particles themselves since this is a significant factor.
Heterogeneous flow is characterized by a pronounced solids concentration gradient across the
vertical axis of the pipe, and it is encountered in a
wide variety of commercial applications ranging
from dredgings to coal transportation.
Figure 7-1 gives a typical friction loss-velocity
response for the flow of a heterogeneous slurry.
Certain important differences from the typical
homogeneous response (Figure 6-1) can be discussed. At the higher velocities (point A) the curve
tends towards a position parallel to a simple fluid
response, that is to say, as the 'le!ocity is increased,
the concentration gradient becomes ,less pronounced and the system tends towards homog"neity.
As the velocity is reduced from point A., the lIlaldistribution ofsolids in the pipe becomes more and more
pronounced until, at point B, a layer ofstationary or
sliding particles is deposited in the pipe. The velocity at which this occurs will be called the deposition
11dority. Tllere are many other terms and definitions
describing deposition velocities, some of which will
be discussed later in this chapter. For systems con-

sisting of uniformly sized particles, the deposition

velocity coincides with the minimum in the friction
loss-velocity curve. If the velocity is reduced beyond
point B,-a bed of solids begins to build up in the pipe
and the friction loss increases due to the restriction
of the available flow area. This region of flow can be
relatively unstable so that the exact location of the
LIp-V curve may in fact be time-dependent.

0-

<I

o
'"
-'

,,

Vo:

, lOG V
fig ll, . 7.1 Friction Loss

VI.

V.,locity for a Heterogeneous Slurr'

Unlike the transition velocity of a homogeneou

suspension, which corresponds to the break b.
tween laminar and turbulent flow, the depositio
velocity is strictly 'a turbulent flOVi phenornenoi
At the deposition velocitythetendency-of thepa
tides to settle under gravitational forces just excee
the turbulence forces tending to maintain the parti
les in suspension. If we re-examine the basic desil
criteria, we can see that it is necessary to be able
predict not only the friction loss-velocity respor
ofa given system, but also the deposition velocity
be expected. In commercial terms, operation

86

"

i.

i ':

SOLID - LIQUID !'LOW

'

velocities below deposition is impractical. Apart

Irom'jts obvious danger of plugging the pipeline, it
also produces excessive erosion of the lower part of
the pipe, and for a system containing particles of a
widegranulometric range, it can result in the larger
particles being deposited in the line with the smaller
parti~le~' re,maining in suspension, i.e., the pipeline
will ~ct as a classifier. Thus, the long-term stability
of a heterogeneous flow depends on a reliable prediction of the deposition velocity.

7.2 CRITERIA FOR

, HETEROGENEITY
A heterogeneous suspension is one which exhibits an appreciable gradient of solids concentration
across the vertical diameter of the pipe. In proposinga definition such as that just given, one must
immediately recognize that some criterion by which
an "appreciable" concentration gradient can be defined is essential to make the description complete.
We saw in Chapter S (Figure.S-J) that it is possible
to identify at least three possible flow conditions:
homogeneous where viscous forces predominate,
heterogeneous where the particle inertia is the
dominant factor, and a region where both sets of
forces are significant. In each case the flow condition can be characterized by a specific value of
CICio' For homogeneous suspensions we would
expect a CICio value of 0.8 or greater, and by the
same reasoning, examination of FigureS-3 indicates that heterogeneity can be defined by a CICio
value of 0.1 or less.

In this chapter we will discuss the procedures

available for the design of pipelines for heterogeneous flow. The format will be similar to that of
Chapter 6 and will include a review of the tests for
heterogeneity and a summary of the methods available for prediction of friction lossesand deposition
velocities.
I;"J ::~: ,

L.d:, ;r'l '.

t-.'. .

':'. " . "

_."~'-

O...ription
and
Rtfar.nco

"Pip. 1,0. Sands Cone.

Vahicla finches)
(Vol. !I)

Sand (Rof. 7-8) Water

Sand (Rof. 7-8) Diesel Oil
Sand (Ref. 78) Kerosene
Sand lRef. 781 Water
Sand (Ref. 781 Diesel Oil

250
250
250
250
250

0.00
0.21
0.00
0.00
0.49

. 440
440
440
2040
2040
2040
2040

0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0,00
0.00

230
230
230 .
230
230
585
585
585
585
585
1150
1150
1150

0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00

1.0
l.0
l.0
1.0
1.0

1.50
1.84
2.00
2.60
3.00

T
T

Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water
Water

5.90
5.90
5.90
5.90
.: 5.90
' 5.90
5;90

5.0
10.0
15.0
2.5
7.9
7.5
10.0

8.1
8.7
8.9
7.2
7.9
8.3
8.6

T
T
T
T
T

: 4.25
4.25
, 4.25
. 4.25
4.25
' 4.25
' .: 4.25
4.25
. 'i *4.25
'''? 4.25
: :4.25
'4.25
4.25

5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
5.0
10.0
15.0

6.01
6.35
6.81
7.72
8.00
6.54
6.95
7.28
9.72
9.85
8.27
7.60
8.77

Sand (Ref. 77) Water

Sand lRel.77/ Water
Sand (Ref. 77/ Water
Sand (Ref. 77/ Water
Sand (Ref. 77/ Water
Sand IRef.77/ Water
Sand'(Ref.1'7IW''''r
Sand (Ref. 7-7) Water
Sand (Rol, 771 Waler
Sand (Ref, 7.7) Water
Sand IRef. 77) Water
.Sand IRef. 77/ Water
Sand lRoI.7-7/ Watat,

Tabl.71 Tabuf.tion of O,t.

Sand (Ref. 72)

Sand (Ref. 72/
Sand (Rei. 721
Sand lReI. 72)
Sand (Ref. 72)
Sand (Ref. 72)
Sandfflef. 7-2)

!
:'/,'1
'~"

Particle
Oia. (d)
(microns!

1.05
1.05
l.05
5.50
5.50

;~.

Vo
(It/sec/

Flow Regim.
(L z laminar)
(T z Turbuland

t:'~:':1

". i
"

T
T
T

C
CA

-"'.,:I

'I

i
\

T
T
T
T
T

T
l
T

l
T
T

',

I
I
I

,,

Ii

I
i
I

~)

FI.OW OF HETEROGENEOUS SUSI'ENSIONS

Oestrip'ion

.nd
Reference

Vehicle

Pipe 1.0.
linches)

Solids Cont..
tVol. %)

Vo
lIt/secl

Sa"d IRel. 761

So"dIRef. 76\
Santl IRel. 76)
Sand IRef. 76\
Sand lRel. 76)
S."d IRef. 761
Sand IRel. 7.6)
Sand (Ref. 7.6)

W.ter
Wale,.
Waw
Water
Waler
Waler
Water
W.ter

0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0

1.60
1.80
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.26
2.33
2.40

Coal IRef. 76) Waler

Co.1 (Ref. 16) Water
Co.1 IRef. 76) Water
Coal IRef. 1-6) . Water
Co.l. lRef. 1-6) Water
Coal IRef. 76\ Water
Coal (ReI. 76) Water
Coal IRef. 1-61 W.ter
Coal fRef. 1-6) Waler
Coal IRel. 1-61 Water
Coal (Ref. 1-61 Water
Coal (Ref. 7-6\ Water
Coal (Ref. 761 Water
Co.1 IRef.161 Water
Co.1 IRef. 1-61 Water
Co.l IRef. 1-61 Water
Co.l IRef. 1-6) Water
Co.l (Ref.1-6) Water
Coal (R.f.l6) Water
Co.1 (Ref. 76) Water
Co.l (Ref. 1-61 Water
Co.1 (Ref.16\ Water
Coal (Ref. 1-6) Water
Co.1 (Ref. 1-6) Water
Coal IRef. 161 Water
Coal (Ref.1-61 Water

0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
1.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
. 18.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
1.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0

R7

Flow Regime
= lamlUar)

Particle
Oia. III)

IT Turbulentl

----

(,"(crons}

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

!680
GilD

I.

2260
2260
2260
2260
2260'
2260
2260
2260
2260
2~60
2260
221;0
2260
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205
2205

0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

J38.
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138
138

0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
0.10
.0.10
0.10

(L

680
680
680
680
680
680

...L
CA
0.00
0.00'
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00

:"1
I
I

,I
i

.I

~j

.j

I,

I
I

I
,,

i"f

I
I

i.

I
I

,i

I..
)

l~llIlTllef: 761
Iron (Ref. 161
Iron (Ref. 16)
Iron IRef. 76)
Iron (Ref. 16)
Iron (Ref. 16)
Iron (ReI.1-61
Iron (Ref.7-61
I,on (ReI. 7-61
I,on (ReI. 7-6)
lron (Ref. 7-61
lren (ReI. 7-6)

"Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene

Ke,osene
Kerosene

i.oo
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.75 .
0.15 .
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.75
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15

T.bl, 7~ T.bul.tlon of O,'a fcont~d.}

1:0
2.0
4.0
5.0
.6.0
7.0
8.0!
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0

0.40
0.60
0.75
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.02
1.00
0.80
0.75
0.60 ~ .. '.-

l
I.

0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
1.24
1.28
1.36
1.47
1.55
1.63
1.70

T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T

4.00
4.55
4.90
5.05
5.05
5.05
5.05
5.00
4.90
4.82
4.10
4.60

T
T
T
T
T

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
L
L

T
T
T
T
T
T
T

:;~:ji:i: f88 ' '

!(i,!l;':ll; ;

.l;W;:t:~

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

,.

:f:i'H'

If we assume Pequal to unity and that there is no

suppression of the von Karman constant (i.e., x 0.4), we have

q:>;

C
w
log C" - -4.5 ( ;)* )

:t;

Thus, we see that Thomas' criterion 01'1(0111* > 0.2

corresponds to a criterion of CIC/I < 0.13; CHARLES' suggestion equates with CIC/I < 0.27. .

A paper by W ASP,et al ol l has reviewed much of

,::,:tiii, the published data regarding the flow of hererogeneous susp~nsions. As Tab!e 7-1 .shows, for aU the
:,~(;\ data examined, a calculation 01 the CIC" value
based on the mean particle diameter indicates the
sy~tems repeme? asl~e~er0!ieneoushad a CIC" value
:',:, 010.1 0 orless. 1 hus, It IS felt that the use ofthe CIC"
criterion as a testtor heterogeneity is a valid one.
lll~11 ,.

;}:,!':
!

.:.,: . While the CIG., criterio'nis probably the most

'. reliable .test for either homogeneity and heteroge"
neity available at present, its calculation isdependent
, upon a knowledge of 1/" (see Equation 5.1). In the
absence of actual friction loss data, this appears to
beg the, whole question, since the calculation of
. friction losses requires an assumption to be made as
to heterogeneity or homogeneity. In fact this is not
the case. This problem can be overcome by means of
an iterative calculation procedure described later in
the chapter. However, there are other tests for
heterogeneity, which are' not as general or as
complete as the CIC/I test, but which can nevertheless provide a useful guide as to the type of system
under study. DURAND'" put forward a simple
particle size criterion whereby particles larger than
200 microns would be transpoited as a heterogeneous
flow, This criterion however' is specific for sandwater systems and should notbe taken as applicable
to other systems. THOMAS"" commented upon
DURAND's criterion and suggested that a more
general test is provided by the value ofWill', i.e., the
ratio of the particle faU velocity to the friction velocity. THOM~S proposed that for

;), > 0.2

(Eq.7.1)

the particles would be transported as a heterogeneous suspension. CHARLES C4 ' suggested that
Equation 7.1 should be modified to
;

-.
> 0.13
u

(Eq.7.la)

It is interesting to note that both the Thomas

~rh.tiOllli1lt;/ CI"fl' l11ili/ll1~Allon

11ft ....nllllily

the lome as theClC" test, We saw inChapter 5 that:

C -"18
('w- )
Iog-.
,C/I
pxu

(Eq, 7.2)

7.3 DETERMINATION 01DEPOSITION VELOCITIES

The deposition velocity of a slurry system represents the lowest velocity at which the system can be
operated such that stable 110\\' conditions prevail.
The definition and identification of the deposition
velocity has been taken as meaning different things
to different people. THOMAS)}defined a "minimnm
transport vtlocity"as the velocity at which a layer of
stationary or sliding particles ar,peared at the lower
surface of the pipe. DURAN D' ) used a "limit deposit
vtlocity" which he identified by the appearance of
"a deposit rtgilllt" in the pipe. GRAf etal lSl pre/erred
to identify a -"critical deposi: vtlotity" which the}'
defined as the velocity at which the solid particles
settle out of suspension and form a stationary bed.
Let us consider the behavior of a slurry system,
which is initially at rest, with the solids full}' settled
in the bottom of the pipe. As the velocity is gradually increased, a point will be reached where the
bed will begin to deform and as the velocity continues to increase. a number of stages can be identified. First. the bed will form ripples and dunes and
then go into a moving bed condition with saltation.
and eventually the system will, move jnto the
suspension regime. In the case 'of a slurry pipeline.
the process is reversed since our starting point is the
suspended condition. The choice of the critical velocit}' is therefore totally dependent upon which
aspect or mechanism is of interest to the worker or
the specific application, i.e., there is no absolute
definition for every situation. However. we can
define critical velocities for specific situations of
which a slurry pipeline is one. For a slurry pipeline.
our intention is to transport solids in suspension.
When particles are no longer transported in suspenAloll, 1\1'
0' 1I.lllW ou, .,1111.1 VltOllty, Ivltelh"
or net thebedso formed is moving or is stationary.
Either situation would be catastrophic as regards
long term stability and pipe erosion!

II'

"'11

(Eq. 5.8)
In this context we will define the deposition veloc-

"LUW

or HeTEROGENEOUS SlJSI'\;NSIONS

ity just as T1-IOMAS'J, defined his minimum

transport velocity as the velocity at which,a layerof
,stationary or sliding particles appears at the bottom
I of the pipe. From a design standpoint it isadvisable
: to operate at a velocity somewhat, higher than the
: predicted deposition velocity. Although this action
>.incurs higher friction losses, it gives a measure of
safety to the prediction procedure and it avoids the
"highly heterogeneous conditions prevailing close
"to the deposition velocity, thus reducing the erosion
.:at the pipe wall.

dent, deposition velocities are dependent on the

Froude Number, DURANOtl"established the manner in which Fl varied with concentration and
particle size as shown in Figure 7-2. For particle
sizes up to .I mm, both 'concentration and particle
diameter have an effect on the value of Ft.. For
particles greater than I mrn, the dependence becomes weaker until, for large panicles, the value of Fl
is constant regardless ofsystem properties. Thus. for
a given system of particles larger than say2 mrn, the
deposition velocity as given by Equation 7.3 is a
function, of pipe diameter alone, varying as the
square root of D.

'7.3.1 Uniformly Sized Particles

,

89

:i

WASP et al(1) have pr~sented a review of the

published data for deposition velocities. 'Figure 7-3
shows a plot ofh versus solids concentration for
sand-water slurries and' includesdilta from
DURAND/I' SINCLAIR/"l
, , YOTSUJ<URA,11I and

, There have been many attempts to present a

'generalized correlation of deposition velocities,
perhaps the best known being that due to
DURAND'l' which can be expressed as follows:

'-;i

Vo - Fl [2gD ( P~~I

WIl

(Eq.7.3)

"T'"'--------------.,

10.0

The term FL is a constant for a given system but

varies from system to system. as a function of particle size and solids concentration. We can rearrange
Equation 7.3 into the following form:

...

r-.

WI .
~l.O-Li.~...,,...~~~ti~::
DURAND
CORRELATION
m

rn

05?
-

lLa

(Eq. 7.4)

, (P,-PI )111
,
PI

>

oJ

U.

from which we see that the term FL is in fact a modified Froude Number at deposition. 11IUS, while
transition velocities are Reynolds Number depen-

~SinCiair

,LEGEND
IRet
'""Durand . '(Ref.
a,Durand
(ReI.
tr Yotsukura (ReI.
o Yotsukura (ReI.
Yotsukura IRef.
o Wicks
(Ref.
+ Wicks
{Ref.

20)
16)
16)
19)
19)
19)
18)
18)
0.1+------'-,.--------1
I
1.0
100
10

SOLIDS CONCENTRATION, Cv (Volume %)

Cv'IO%
.,

,Cv"S%

Figur. 7 -J Ooposition Velocity' Correlation for SlInd Suspensions

([rom,Ref.,.?l),

"

/3;

'Cv 2%

-e

U.

Cv' 51'

oJ
U.

"

,2

PARTICLE DIAMETER IMM)

Figur. 7-2 Varfalionof P~pm.ter F L IS. FunCtion of Par1ld'. Diameter
Cham

R.r. 721 -,

WICKS,(8) together witl;! the correlation line given

'by Equation 7.3 and Figure 7-2. The, Durand correlationgives"excellent,. pifdktionofthe data, with
the excepiion ofllloseofWICKS,whicli were for
low solids concentrations (one percent by volume)
and a varying fluid density and viscosity. From
WICKS. B) data the following equation can be
derived for the deposition velocity ofdilute suspensions in fully turbulent flow:

SOUD - LIQUID FLOW

-0

I'

SS
8}
,i
t .. - 8
i

LEGbND
" Sinclair
f:Ref.
'" Yotsukur~ IRef.
o YOlSukur~ IRef.
,. YOlSukurl ('Ref.
o Wicks
/iRe',
,+ Wicks
' (:Ref.

',,1<-: 1
j"

20)
191
19)
19)
18)
18)

will supply the answer. Thus far we have considered

only slurries containing graded sand particles and,
in fact, this is the most common system chosen lor
, study: SINCLAIR'" is one of the few Investigators
who has systematically varied the density of the
suspended particles over a wide range. Figure 7-5
presents a plot of FL versus concentration [or
suspensions ofcoal and iron particles as reported by
SINCLAIR, together with the DURAND correlation. Clearly in this instance the DURAND correlation is inadequate and it must be concluded that
Equation 7.J does not tully describe the function of
relative density as it affects deposition velocity.
10.0-.-----------..;....--,

, 0,1 +--------r"--'--'-j--'---'-l
,
~
10.0
',
50.0
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION. Cy (Yelume %1

.F
. ...;,1,0
'~

Figure 74 Deposition Velocitv C:;orrelatlon ~or Sand Su,pensions

(from Ref. 711

,VO -

( '"l"'[

L87~J

2gD

(P~~'
(Eq.7.5)

If it is assumed that Equation 7.5 describes the behavior 'of dil ute suspensions and also the effect of
particle diameter and accepting that the form of the
DURAND correlation adequately represents the
effect'~f concentration, WASP et alII) reasoned that
an equation in the form
.'.'

(Eq.7.6)

tool.

may prove to be a possiblecorrelation

Figure
7-4 shows the results of plotting F'L versus solids
concentration. The data ofWICKS.'sl SINCLAIR,(6)
and YOTSU KURN1) are reduced onto a line of the
same general shape as the DURAND correlation.
The data published by DURAND" being fully
described by Eq,uati()n}.J, deviates.from this, the .,
vahics ofP'i. for DURAND's data being given in
'
Table 7-2:' '

. :

..

The reader may at this point justifiably question

why, in view of the correlation achieved for the
sand slurries (Figure 7"'3), there should be any need
to taa;nper with DURAND's correlation. Figure 7-5

..."-'
Coal - Sinclair (Ref.
o Iron - Sindair (Ref.

20)
20)

0.1+-------r
I ------j
10.0
50.0,
1.0
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION. Cy (Volume %)
Figure 75 Deposition Velocity for Coal and Iron Suspensions
(from Ref. 71J

Further work is required to determine the exact

functional. dependence of Vo,on P, and Pi.' How'
ever the authors; still recommend the use of the
DURAND correlation (or a correlation of similar
form such as Equation 7.6) since it does predict
sand suspensions, and its predictions for other
I systems are conservative.
The work of D.G. THOMAS, presented in a
series of papers entitled "Transpart Characteristicsof
Suspensions." fJlI9l001 provides an interesting compar
ison with the general approach taken in the previous formulations. Whereas correlations such as
Equations 7.3 and 7..6 make little or no attempt to
depict the nature ofmechanisms prevailing in slurry
systems, THOMAS attempted to present a general-

91

FLOW OF HETEROGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

Equation 7.7a .describe; the rrururnum transport

condition for the case of infinite dilution, and
Equation 7.7b describes the effect of concentration.
This correlation was found to apply to a number of
slurry systems and also to pneumatic conveying
systems. the only limitation being that it refers to
systems in which the particles are larger than the
thickness of the viscous sublayer, From this study
Thomas concluded thara single mechanismwas
responsible for the initiation of partide transport,
and this may be identified with Bernoulli forces
accompanying turbulent velocity fluctuations and
is confined to the buffer layer. In the case of particles smaller than the thickness of laminar sublayer,
the following equation w'as derived by THOMAS
which is independent of pipe diameter and slurry
concentration (for: dilute: suspensions, <P < 0.(8):

ized view of slurry transportation. As regards

deposition velocity, THOMAS considered the
whole matter in relation to other phenomena, such
as initial movement of beds of particles. Working
. with suspensions of glass beads, THOMAStll
derived the following relationship for the minimum
transport condition:

I
r
i
[

,.

, I '

.;..: :L~o
~d~O")~D~Ooro[P~;I fJ
Ii.
.

I,

.-4,90

I '

I
I,

o
!:!..s.
_ I + 2.8 (..z.

,i

I
. I )

)10<t>ln

u~o

u*o

,i
I.

(Eq. 7.7a)

. (Eq. 7.7b)

;vhere:
wi-settling velocity of particle in carrying fluid
: . under quiescent conditions
u o -friction velocity at deposition for limiting
: case of infinite dilution
u"~ ~friction velocity at deposition for the slurry
; . at .given concentration
<t> l -volume fraction solids in the slurry
d : -particle diameter
D -pipe diameter
Ps -solids density
-liquid density
v -kinematic viscosity of water

",. '1
"

I
!

);?Ij .

.(d

U ..

)2.71

(Eq. 7.7c)

-u" -0... 01 . ' V

The use of Equations 7.7requi;es prediction of II"

as a function of velocity. Thus.uhe procedure will
first involve determination offriction loss as a function of velocity and then the establishment of the
value of deposition velocity by using Equations 7.7.

PI

Thomas' correlation unifies a number of particle

fluid phenomena. One such asp~ct is that of the

1.0

-f-

~~

e,

a.'

Q'l

'-

.'
0,,
a

\'1)

-e

...

,,0

"

I'.~
MOTION

,1.

Q,.
I 0.10

1\

Q,

SHIELDS CUR'I

E
I

3
,j.

;11, !

.... \! .'

.
~ II".

'!.;

0.01

0.1

:,

1.0

10

u.d

!.: .:

' .,j

'.'

II

Figure 76 Shields Diagram: Dimensionless Critical Shear Stress vs. Shear Reynolds Number.

,)

'

NO ~OT'~N

..

.....

100

1000

SOLID - I.IQUID FLOW

.,

' d '. '

1) < 1

~.
6,

...

'

:4
?":

. ';'.

sc
~~

"

" 6.
,'r:l,,!

,~"y

"

i)

" ::J :,.

~

:,1

; j

e,,"

1
"

,
~

~
~"

, ,.,',1.

..

'

~
I
~'" 0.05 ",

"" 0.02/
O,OI~

, j'4

. .',

, ;

.1

,:

10

..
."

'I

,yo.l/l'.

, 10'

0.2

'

~.

1'.

~I

;k

~,

'

/ I'.

~I ,

I,V'

,J

I,

!L

~i0

r-,

1'.

I .........
@

I
I
10

~.

_.-

ell

,..-

~"',

.'

I'\.

.
Minimum Transport

Homogeneous Flow

Transverse Waves
longiludinal Waves'
HelerogeneousFlow

,,- r;:,
....
,.'

I .

Ii

6.

.'

, ...
.'

"

s: "
"

-.."
r\j-:
.

"

\,,\,..

"

"...

,"

.'
,

/ /

i"
~~ ., r-,

:"

'*i '\

\'

1/

,'\"A

I"

Fl1

i--' Jo'.......

",:~.
,

..'

i~

.~

~'"j

.~

,.

"

~II /

<,

1YI

,, il/,'I rr-.,
, ,
'

",

~,

'

,tn,

v ~ !U" <"

y/

1'... UJ

Kr

'

200'

100

l'

....
Y...
~
r,@
~ 0.51
~
I "
fJ

. f!'.

r -..

~,

,,

,l,-'<J

',!- -~;~/
! .(

\t
,
>
V, ,.r, lY>-

" V

"

1,'"V
~~7

"',

I
!
20 '

~
~

!!-. 'j ;I
UO'

'I
'j

I'

. ji 1

",

~'?-

&< 1)

/r'-.1)

-/'
,,-"-"

d
1<-<&-

I'

Homogeneous 'Flow
,

I.2
10,

10

dUo'l"
Figur.77 Gene,.lIzed Phase Dlagram.for Suspension Transport.
IA.ng' p. 'Y nd E Ph.... App'Y te O.n.lIy A.Il.1p p

-pllPI.5S/

IIrom R.t 71CJJ

point of initial movement of particles. For openchannel flow this point is described by the familiar
,Shields Curve (Figure 7~6) which isessentially a plot
of ~r!t.ica! shear stress versus the particle Reynolds'
.",
dlt"
,Nurtber (
We saw in Chapter 2 that the

7)'

lhick~ess

of the viscous subJayer is given by

so tliat the Reynolds Number term is effectively the

ratio of particle diameter to sublayer thickness, i.e.,
I U.6Jlt can be ,seen from Shields C;urve thatthe
criticalshear stress exhibits a minimum at a particle
Reynolds N umber of approximately 10, i.e., at a ~
value about unity. So the significance ofthe restric-

,,- I J,h - I10

-',

If U

(Eq. 2.32)

tion on Equations 7.7a and b that ~> 1.0 becomes

apparent, and it can be seen lhat THOMAS is in

2.5

. Va

V9ii

2.0

-:

......

_.

.'.J

dRS represents the particle diameter such that 85%

by. weight of 'the particles are smaller than dR'.

,.

1.5

t.o
o

0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
INPUT VOLUME FRACTION SOI.lOS (CI

: Figure 78 C,itJe.l Deposit Velocltv. Va. for Graded and

MllCed &lnds of Mor. Th_n 0.44 mm .
thorn Ref. 7111

.,

effect using the same parameters to define minimum transport as are used to identify initial movement. Further work covering ripple and dune formation was conducted by THOMAS,c~1 and the culmination of this work was the forrnulation''" of a
generalized phase diagram for suspension transport

(Figure 7-7). This consists ofa plot of

,~

. du"'o
'"
-y-.
The solid hne

IS

ment and in the range 2

-7 versus
Ii 0

. ..

the pomt of initial move-

.< __
au
v

0_

< 100, corres-

ponds to Shields Curve. Also shown are the regions

in which both transverse and longitudinal waves are
formed and also the regions of homogeneous and
heterogeneous flow.

7.3.2 Mixed Size Particles

Uniform sized particles are seldom encountered

in commercial practice. When particles of mixed
sizes are encountered, the prediction of critical
deposition velocity becomes more complicated.
There may not be a well defined minimum on the
friction loss velocity curve, especially in case of loop
tests where the supply of coarser size fraction that
deposit out first is limited. The deposition velocity
for slurry containing mixed particle sizes is'generally
estimated by assigning a mean particle size to the
suspension.

I
For mixed sands of more than 0.44 mm diameter,
COr-JDOLI()S andCI-IAPUScl l , have developed
a correlation between the deposition veloCity and
slurry concentration as shown in Figure 7-8. The
correlation is independent of particle diameter.
SINCLAIR'61 and SPELLS(l21 ha~e used ass as the
particle size to be-used in their correlations. Here

THOMAS slated that the deposition velocity for

Ohio coal slurry could be correlated by using Equalions 7.7 provided the mean particle size is used.

7.4 PREDICTION OF
FRICTION LOSSES
It was noted earlier that in heterogeneous /low the
presence of the solids had only a minor effect on the
system rheology, namely, a slight increase in suspension viscosity as given by EINSTEIN's relationship
(or a form of it):

(Eq. 4.4)

Thus, in practice.the problem of prediction of

friction losses for a heterogeneous /low festricts
itself to the turbulent /low regime, since, the conveying medium is invariablywater, which isnever in
laminar flow under the conditions of pipe diameter
and velocity encountered in commercial applications. In this section we will consider three instances
of heterogeneous /low; firstly, a system containing
particles of essentially one, size; secondly" a system
containing a range of particle sizes such. that the
total system still behaves heterogeneously; and
thirdly, a systeminwhieh the granulometric range
is so great that the smaller particles result in homogeneous and possibly non-Newtonian behavior
while the larger particles result in heterogeneous
behavior, both effects occurring simultaneously.
In each case the work of DURAND(2) is of great
importance.

7.4.1 Heterogeneous Systems of

Uhif6fml:tSized' Pir:tides
i

Most of the fundamental work in heterogeneous

/low employs particles. which have been' closely
graded so that they are essentially of a single identifiable size. Although this is an Idealization of the
practical situation, it ,canrJ.ey~rthelessprodu~e
information which is an, iilvaluabJe aldtoaijalyzing the more complexsituationsencountered in
practice; The work of DURAND,l2l which in the
empirical world of slurry pipeline design has come
to be regarded as a classic study, isperhaps.the best
example of this. DURAND's work, presented in

II

!.

I;: .
I"

I:
I,
I'

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

94

1952, provideswhat is still G.be most effective design

procedure for the analysis Of heterogeneous flows.
The ",i>tkcovered a wide range of conditions with
pipe I diameters varying from 3/4, to 23 inches,
panid~zes from lOll microns tQI inch, and pipe
velocities.from 2 to 20 It/sec, The final correlation
for horizontal heterogeneous flows encountered
within these ranges can be' expressed as follows:
.
~

'.- I===I"~'~
. -~i\-=-~
-- ._~ .. :.
--I-'\-' .

.
..::.-...:.., -;.::,
::';$'::lllL
,-,- : I-h-

fm,~,,~[.I,.+K f( g~) (~)V~o J'IIC]

.':f

of,.,

: ~ '.

-: .

(Eq.7.8)

.....

.:

where:
fm -.friction factor for mixture
r. - friction factor for liquid
C - volume fraction solids
K -constant -80 to 150
g ":" acceleration due to gravity'
D ~ pipe diameter
V - -,velocity of flow
P. . ~ density of solids
P, .- pellsi!y of liquid
Co ":-. drag coefficient "
,.

'~fl'.:, 1

Iii

'

5.0

10.0

.'

50.0 100.0

PI
-vgO -.rc=
P,.PI v-n
2

... - ..
Flgur.79

Equation 7.9 can be expressed graphically as shown

in Figure 7-9. A plot of the over pres~ure term
fm~r.

tion velocity, Equation 7.8 ~n be rearranged as fol-

..

1\

, Equation 7.8 is held to apply for all points to the

'

~;f!

right.of-the.minimum in the lp-V curve (Figure

7-1), i.e., for all velocities greaterthanthe deposi-

lows.: :r"

SLOPE' -

fiC

"'.;jo';

against

2'

V ( P, )''C
gD P,_PI Y VO
(Eq. 7.9)
and shows that the increase in friction loss of the
slurry over that ofthe carrier fluid flowing under the
same conditions, expressed 'as a fraction, of the
carrier fluid friction loss, is a function of the Froude
Number.theconcentraticn of solids, the relative
density and the particle drag coefficient. This "over
pressure'las giveri by Eqllation ].9 is forhorizontal
flowandnisults frornthe rna/distribution of solids
acrossthe pipe. In vertical pipe flows this.concentration gradient does not occur, as long as the flow
velocity is greater than the faU velocity ofthe partic-,
les, and the friction loss can be calculated asEqr ,a
homogeneous' suspension, :employing' of, course,
the correct specific gr~vity and viscosity terms.

results in a straight line of slope -3/2, on a double

log paper.

7.4.2,Heterog~neous Systems
of Multi-Sized Particles
DURAND's work was carried out using closely
graded particle size fractions and, apart from some
disagree/l'lenton the numerical value ascribed 10
the constants in Equations 7.8 and 7.9, the work is
generally accepted;' We will now See how DURAND'scorreialion can be applied to the more realistic situation of a heterogeneous flow in which the
particle size varies over a wide range. Clearly, the
problem is one of how to ascribe the correct weighting to each particle size.

\1

I
I

I
I

I
i

,I
.-:,1

CONDOLIOS '1110 CHAPUS,III proposed that

this problem be tackled by calculating a weighted
mean value of the drag coefficient for the solids
disniburion, and employing this value of Co in
Equation 7,8. The authors believe that this method
is not accurate. A more reliable procedure has been
outlined by WASPet alllJ) whereby each size fraction is treatedas a discrete entity. Using the drag
coefficienr for a fraction of a given size, the. over
pressure is calculated for this fraction using Equation 7.9. Note that the drag coefficient used is that
for a single particle falling in a clear fluid as outlined
in Chapter J and that C is the concentration of the
particular fraction expressed on a volume basis. This
procedure is repeated for each size fraction and the
sum of the individual contributions then gives an
accurate estimate ofthe over pressure.

;i
'j

.,

outlined in Chapters J and 4; ii) to have a thorough

working knowledge of the design procedures Jor
both homogeneous and heterogeneous flows given
in Chapter (, and in this chapter; iii) to obtain an
estimate of how each size fraction of the suspended
solids is split between the vehicle and the heterogeneous portion (or ''btrf",). which in turn requires
a knowledge of the methods available for prediction
of concentration gradien~ as given in Chapter 5.
It is felt that the application of these methods to
the compound system is best illustrated by an
example, which follows in the next pages. However. the following comments may be of use in
highlighting certain aspects of the procedure. One
of the central features of the \VIASP correlation is
the determination of the split between the ~ehicle
and heterogeneous portions of the slurry. This is
done by means of Equation 5.8:

7.4.3. The Compound System

The Iinal case of heterogeneous flow which is of
interest is that of the compound system. Sometimes
referred to as mixed system flow or hetero-homogeneous flow, this is perhaps the most important
type of slurry flow to be encountered. It arises from
the fact that in many' systems, prior to pipeline
transport, the solids are subjected to some form of
comminution. The granulometric range of the particles so producedcan be such that a situation results
in which both homogeneous flow and heterogeneous flow are occurring simultaneously. In other
words, the slurry consists ofa heterogeneous suspension of solids in a homogeneous, usually nonNewtonian, slurryvehicle.
What is probably the best method at present of
analyzing the compound system is that due to
\VI ASP et al ll ' l lIS.! which employs the concept of a
"ttoo-phas 7Jtbiclt." According to this concept, it is
reasoned that the concentration and size distribution of the particles ()ccurril1gat the top ofthe pipe
can be considered as existing at all other points in
the pipe, i.e., they represent the homogeneous or
"7Ithitlt"portion of the slurry. The remainder of the
solids is considered as a heterogeneous suspension
conveyed by this vehicle. The total friction loss is
the sum of the vehicle friction loss and the over
pressure due to the heterogeneity of the remainder
of the solids. It should. be apparent to the reader
that the analysis of this type of slurry flow is the
culmination of the previous six chapters.To effect
an analysis it is necessary: i) to have established the
properties of thesuspension and its 'constituents as

log - - -1.8 ( - - )
fJxu*
CA

(Eq. 5.8)

which ..ensures that the procedure has a built-in

means ofallowing for the fact that as the amount of
line material in the vehicle increases, so does the
carrying capacity for coarse solids. Also, the method
itself requires no assumptions to be made as to the
degree of heterogeneity (or homogeneity) to be
expected in the suspension in 'order to calculate
friction losses. Extremes of slurry behavior can be
handled equally well. This is not to say that this
aspect is no longer important, since it is still left to
the engineer to decide on the critical velocity, i.e.,
as to whether the system is deposition or transition
controlled, in order to identify the range ofapplicability of the method.

Jllustrarive Example
Determine the friction loss for an iron concentrate slurry flowing in a 12 inch inside diameter
horizontal pipe. The following data are ,given:

Pipr
Roughness

Solids
Specific gravity
Shape factor
Size consist:

- 0.002 inch

-5.0
- 1.0

SOLID - LIQUID ROW

% Weight

- 0.0059

+0

5.0

10.0
85.0

- 23% volume
- 68 F

- 0.0059 ft slurrylft
- 0.01 13 ft water/It

2nd lura/ion
Now check the vehicle and bed part for each
size solids by using CICA criteria. For each size
fraction, the vehicle part is assumed as equal to
theproduct of CICA for the size fraction times
the volume concentration of that size fraction.
The remainder of the solids is assumed to be
heterogeneously distributed.. ';

Now,

Slurry.visccsity;
Vol.'% Solids

Viscosity, Centipoise
log ClCA

-1.8 wlpxu

Assume p - I
x -0.4
','
','1

Sobaion
Since the vehicle and heterogeneous (bed) part
of the solids is notknown, an assumption will
h~~~',!O he made. The simplest assumption is
either to assume all solids to form vehicle or
/lon~ ~fthe solids to form vehicle. In the present analysis, we will assume that all of the
solids become part of the vehicle. Thus. in the
first'iteration, there will be no bed pressure
drop. '
'
Is/Iteration
Concentration of solids

in vehicle
Viscosity of vehicle
'I
Slurry density
I

1.1

- 23% (VoL)
- 7.9 centipoise

- 0.23 X 5 + 0.77
Velocity of flow

Pipe diameter
... Reynolds Number
Relative pipe roughness', '
0.002

'

-'12

- 1.92 gm/cm'
- 4.5 ftls
- 12 inches
.... [02 X 105
- 0.00017

Referring to Figure 2-7 (Chapter 2). the friction Iactor isf> 0.0047

. . ',AfV?
;'; Friction loss - 2 D .,;,; 0.0059 ftlft.

Jl~lellon veleelty ~.. - VVfr,:'i2c="",,,,

V

- 4.5 0.0059/2
' - 0.244 ft/s

The slurry friction loss ,

- vehicle friction ,loss + bed friction loss '

I
"I

The values of CICA for each size fraction are

calculated as shown in Table 7-2. Note that the
settling velocity of solids is estimated using
vehicle properties, In DURAND's equation
the value of.d<ag coefficient is computed using
properties: of water, Therefore, the settling
velocity of solids in water and the corresponding drag coefficient are also given in Table 7-2.
The bed pressure drop is calculated using
DURAND's equation:

Llphed -

82

LIp water

gD (s-l)
<Pb d [ V1 {Co

The friction loss for water is estimated as follows:

Reynolds Number
-4;6X ,I O~
Relative pipe roughness - 0.00017
.'. Friction factor
- 0.00385
,', Fricrion loss
- 0.0048 ft water/It
,'. Llph<d - 6.3,1 <Pb d (CO)')/. ft waterlft
I (Note !l>bed should be expressed as a fraction
instead ofpercent). From Table 7-2, the Llp',<d
(orlst Iteration- 0.0027,
Next ,alculatc .dP.. hl.'t,
The volume concentration of solids
in vehicle
- 22.18%
.'. Viscosity of vehicle-, 7 centipoise
Sp, Gr. of vehicle - 0.2218 x 5 + 0.7782

- 1.887

i
I

----"-~,;'::";/ '.,,"'~

.,.::/"
_

... ..

.'{

'.-'
'

'

wI
._. , Settling

Size "
Fraction
Tyler Mem

Mean
Dia-cm.

Itl

(21

FIRST ITERATION
100x 200
0.0111
0.0059
200 x 325
0.0021
-325

--.

Velocity, W
It/sic

VolumeI'
Solids
1004>

.-p" U.

C/C A
~,..
_..
-1.82
10

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

0.00858
0.00242
0.00031

1.15
2.30
19.55

TOTAL

SECOND ITERATION
100x 200
0.0111
0.0059
200 x 325
0.0021
- 325

0.00858
0.00242
0.00031

-23.00
1.15
2.30
19.55

.'].W

0.0877
0.02476
0.00317

0.6950
0.9025
0.9872

TOTAL
THIRD ITERATION
0.0111
0.00980
100x 200
0.00277
0.0059
200 x 325
0.00035
0,0021
- 325
TOTAL

1.15
2.30
19.55

0.09373
0.02649
0.00335
.. ~.':'" ... ,~

0.6781
0.8960
0.9862
.... _.. -'

1004> veh
(4)-(6)
(7)

1.15
2.30
19.55

Settling
Drag
Velocity in Coefficient
(4)-(7) Water, It/sec
CD
1004> bed

(8) .

0
0
0

-23.00 - 0
0.80
2.08
19.30

(91

0.08812
0.02490
0.00315

(10) .

8.9
53.6
1190.0

/l p bed
-3/4 6.31 bed /lp
CD
Vehicle
x 1111
(11)

(12)

0.194
0.050
0.005

0
0
0

0.00428
0.00069
0.00025

0.35
0.22
0.25

--0.82
22.18
0.78
2.06
19.28

0.37
0.24
0.27
0.88

---.22.12

-0

0.00522

-.

. . _.

(13)

/lp

Slurry
(12)+113)

-114)

0.0113

0.0113

0.0110

0.011 0

0.0169

0.01622

0.00452
0.00075
0.00027

.-.-.-. ..
0.00554

,-.
Table 7-2 Estimate of Slurry Friction Lo,. for an Iron Slurry

""
,<

FI.OW OF IIETEROGENEOUS SUSI'ENSIONS

.r-

':,'

Reynolds Number - I.IJ -, 10'

,'. Friction factor
- 0.00465
,', Vehicle friction loss- 0.00585 ftvehicle/fi
'.:(:
- 0.0110 ft water/It
.'. Slurry fricton loss
~ vehicle friction loss + bed friction loss
- 0.01 10 + 0.00522 ,
. ,~O,01622 ft water/I]
The previously calculated value of friction loss
was 0.0113 ft water per Ii, which is 30% less
than the new value. Therefore, start next iteration,
"
!

.'. Slurry friction loss

- 0,0110 + 0.00554
- 0.01659 n water/It

This compares with 0,01622 Ii water/It computed during lhe 2nd Iteration, The difference
between the two results is less than 5 percent.
Therefore. use 0.01659 ft water/li as the final
value for friction loss.

7.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS

JrJ Iteration
Friction loss
for slurry
- 0.01622 ft water/It
.', Friction factor
for slurry
- 0.00675
.', Friction velocity - 4.5 1/ 0.0067512
- 0,2614 ft/s
Next compute the CICAand Llp"d as given in
Table 7-2. The Llp bcd becomes 0.00554 ft water/ft
The vehicle
concentration
.. - 22.12%
.', Vehicle Sp. Gr.
i , - 1.885
and vehicle viscosity: - 7.0 centipoise
! - 1.125 x lOs
.', Reynolds Number
,', Friction factor
'. - 0,00466
,', Friction loss
- 0.00586 ft vehicle/ft
," - 0.01l0 ft water/It

We have discussed heterogeneous flow from the

aspect of pipeline design, and from fhis the reader
may gain the impression that thl' "lJlk of DURANDllt is in fact the last word on the subject, It
would be unfortunate indeed ifthis were to happen,
since many workers have produced extremely valuable work in the period since DURAND's work
was published. We cannot emphasize strongly
enough the need for the designer to avail himself
of the results of these researchers. For example, the
reanalysis ofthe DURAND equation by ZANDI"'
and the work ofBABCOCK,(I7) WILSON,f181 and
BANTIN and STREAT"9/, o /l the behavior of
coarse slurries in the bed flow and compaction
regimes are just a few ofthe papers which are continually adding to our understanding of these phenomena.

\I

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

7-17

7.6 REFERENCES
i

\
!

.!

WASr. t. }.. et ..I. '"DcpoJitinn velochles, Transitiolo "~Iocilic'l

;lnd SpJtiJI Distribution' of Solids in Slurry f'i~lincs." hi Inl.

1-Z

DURAND. R. "The fI)'df.1ulic T,,In'lport2tion' or Cn21 snd

Olher M,ueri..h in ripes;" Colloq. of N2tional Co.al Board.
london (Noy. 1"52),

Canr. on ffrd. r,.. nsport of Solidsin Pipes. BURA Fluid Engng:..

C,.nntld. U. K.. rlp.. ll~ (S.p'. 1910).

1-J

THOMAS. O. G.. "Tr.tnsport Chu.tcrerisrics of Suspensions,

: P", IV; A/ChEjou,..I. V.8. pp, J7J-J18 (July 1962).

7-4

CHARLES, M. E..nd STEVENS.G. S. "Th. Pipelin. Row of

: Slurries-Transition Velocities.'" 2nd Int.Cohr.onHyd. Transport
ofSolids in Pipes. BHRA FllIid Engng.. Cranfield. U. K.. r.apcr
EJ (S.pt. 1912~

7-S

GRAF. W. H.. ROBINSON. Mnd YUCEL. O.

Cti,i..1
Deposit Velocity(or Solid.Liquid Mixtures." 1st Int.Canr.on
Hyd. Tr.1nspon of Solids in Pipes. BURA Fluid En,ng.. Cr~n
field, U. K. P.pe, Hs (S.pt. 1970~

i ' . '

7-18

<:1 (S.pl. 1970).

.'

Th.

7-7

YOTSUKURA. N.. MSome Elfectsof Bentonile SUlpensions on

Sand Tumsport in a Smooth 4-'nch Pipe: Ph.. 0 Dissertalion.
Colorado Stare Uni\"ersiIY C1961).

7-8

WICKS. M.MTransportation of Solids at Lo"Concenlrations in

Hotiecnta! Pipes,M ASCE Int. Symposium on Solid-Liquid Flow
in Pipes, Univ. of Pennsylvania (March 1968).

7-9

ntOMAS. O. G.,Periodic Phenomena ~ervcd withSpherieal Particles in Horizont.al Pipes,M Science, v_ 144.pp, SJ4-SJ6
(M.y 1964~

7.7 NOMENCLATURE

or

7-10 THOMAS. D. G.. -Transpbn Charaderistics

Suspensions.
r.n IX; AICIoE }ourn.l. V. 10, pp. JOJ-J08 (M.y 1964~
CONDOlfOS, E. end CHArUS. E. E. 'Solid, Pipelin,,2,
~sir;ninr; Solids Handlin, Pipelines: Chem. Ene-. V~ 70. pp_
IJI-U8 (July 196J~

7-12 SPEllS. K. E.. Conefalion for Usc in Transport of Aqueous

Suspensions of Fine- Solids Ihrour;h Pipes: Trans-Instn.. Chem.
En8. V. JJ. pp. 79-84 (19SS).
7-13

WASr.~."~., ~t ..~.~~ .. __ ~~tI~..,.~ipJ",_SYSlems:Trends.,Dcsi,"

Me-thads. Guidelines,M Chem, Ens..V.78.pp. 74-90Uun~ 1971).

7-14

WII.SON. K. G., ~TRr,AT. M. and RANTIN. R. A.. 'Slip Model

Correla-lion u-f Dense' Two Phase Flow.... ind Int. Conf on Hyd.
Transport of Solids ill Pipt'. BIIRA Fluid En~ng . Cranfield.
U. K., Paper BI(Sepr. IlJ72)"

W.arer MixlUICS in Pipelines." 1st Int. Ccnf on Hyd. Transpcn I

of Solids in Pipes, 8f IRA Fluid En!!n~., CranJield. U. K.. P.apcr

neous Suspensions,'" Interactions between Fluidsand P~r1iclcs.

Inc., Chern. En,., London (1962).

1-11

I~~).

7-19 8ANnN, R. A. and STREAT. M ."Dense Ph.1Se Flow of Solids-

7-6 'SINCLAIR, C. G. "Ihe limitDeposi, V.i""i'y of H."ror.'

\~fASr, E.]., et ai, Cross.Country Coal Pipe-line Hydraulics:

Pip.!;n. News, V. JS. pp, 20-28 (July 196J~
.' :

7-15 WASP, E.)., c' al, MHetero-Homogeneous Solids-Liquid floW

in the Turbulent ReJime: ASCE Int. Symposium on Solid
liquid Flow. Univ.of rennsylvania (March

u'

"

p
LIp
d

Pm
Po
K

V
rJj

7...;16 ZANDI, Land GOVATOS. G.. -HeterGteneous Flo_ orSolids

in ripeline,- Proceedin~s If)'draulics Division. ASCE, V. '9J.
pp. 14S-IS9 (M.y 1967).
I

.J

BABCOCK. n.. "Hetetoueueous Flow of Heterogeneous

Solids," ASCE Int. SYnlpo~ium 011 Selid-Llquid in Pipes, Univ,
of Pelln~)'lv,lni3 {March

~ 7-1
1

I
I
I

99

P,

P,

Drag coefficient
Ratio of volumetric concentration o( solids
at 0.08 D (rom top to that at pipe axis
Pipe diameter
Coefficient in Equation 7.4
~Qe.fficient in Equation 7.6
..Constant
.. Mean velocity of flow
Deposition critical velocity
Particle diameter
Particle diameter such that 85%by weight o(
the particles are smaller than d 85
Acceleration due. to gravity
Friction (actor (or liquid
Friction (actor (or slurry
Frielion velocity.
Friction velocity at deposition (or the slurry
at given concentration
Friction velocity at deposition (or limiting
case o( infinite dilution
Settling velocity of solids
Ratio o( the mass transfer coefficient to momen turn transfer coefficient
. Fricli~n Joss per unit length'
Thickness of the laminar sublayer
Viscosity of slurry
Viscosity of suspending fluid
vonKarman constant
Kinematic viscosity of water
Volume [raction solids in slurry
Liquid density
Solids density

1,:;.,
FLOW OF HETEROGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

Fi.':,100
h: .',

[:i..(.8 P~6BLEMS

r:FThe data used in the follow~ng problems arc derived

I I from R~fl=.~ences 1 and 2 given at the end.

. ,

t: ~:r

f.r:7.!
':' (.'
':, ,' :. . .
:.

i /' ( - . "

Determine the value of CICA at critical deposition relocity for the top size fraction of an iron
conbce.nttate slurry from the following data
(Ta Ie, P4). The top size fraction is 210 micron
diameter. The specific gravity of the solids is
5.245".;"
"

,.

7.2 For a 60 x 100 mesh sand slurry, the following

critical deposition velocity data have been obtained (Table P-5). The specific gravity of the
sand is 2.658 and the sand:particles'are spherical. Determine the value of h defined by
DURAND. Also estimate the critical friction
velocity using THOMAS' correlation and compare it with the observed data:

;{j Table 1'4

' ..j
.;;
Pipe
Diameter
: .(Inch) .

Slurry
Concentration
(Volume "1l

:1

4.235

40.4
35.2
30.1
25.5
20.4

!
.j:

7.4 Repeat Problem 7.3 assuming that the material

is an iron concentrate slurry. The particle size is
30 microns and the shape factor is 1.0. The
specific gravity of the solids is 5.245 and the
volume concentration of solids in the slurry is
25 percent.
7.5 Repeat Problem 7.3 for a phosphate concenIrate slurry. Assume the particle size to be 70
microns and the shape factor to be 0.7. The
specific gravity of the solids is 3.0. Assume that
the volume concentration of solids in the slurry
is 35 percent.

Slurry
Viscosity
(Centipoise)

Critical
Deposition
Velocity (ft/s)

Friction Loss
(ft \Vater/100 ft).

22.0
12.0
7.0
5.0
3.0

4.7
4.1
3.5
3.5
. 4.0

6.72
4.06
2.58
2.32
2.58

<;I~f~ 6.240

28.7
24.5
20.1
15.1

6.5
4.5
3.0
2.5

3.4
3.6
5.1
6.2

1.28
1.48
2.49
2.92

8.240

29.7
26.6
24.7
20.2
15.2

7.0
5.5
4.5
3.0
2.5

3.8
3.6
3.7
5.3
6.8

1.40
1.10
1.15
1.89
2.61

30.2
24.8
20.6

7.0
4.5
3.0

15.1

2.5

3.4
3.9
5.1
7.0

0.69
0.79
1.24
1.90

20.3
13.2

3.0
2.0

5.4
7.7

1.00
1.71

7.3 Determine the wall shear stress at critical deposition velocity using THOMAS' correlation for
. a coal slurry carried ill a 17.25 inch diameter
pipeline. Assume coal particles uo belOO .
micron diameter with a shape factor 01'0.7.The
specific gravity of the coal is 1.4. The volume
concentration of solids in the slurry is 40 percent.

10.360

12.400

,VLIU - L1I.l.U1U Fl.OW

101

I',

7.6 Estimate the friction loss for a magnetite slurry

flowing through a 6.131. inch inside diameter
pipe at a velocity of 5 fils using the following
datil:

Solids sp. gr. - 4.73

Solids size consist:
Tyler mesh

Percent by Weight

+200
3.81
200-270
4.13
270-325
3.81
-325
88.25
Assume the solid particles to be spherical.

Slurry concentration - 56% by weight

Wei/tht %

Viscosity (cp)

40
2.7
.1.0
50
60
14A
Pipe roughness - 0.0012 inch

7.7 The following data (Table 1'-6) were obtained

for a limestone slurry in a 6.13 I inch diameter
pipe. Plot friction factor as a function of Reynolds Number. Determine if there is turbulence
suppression. Use the plastic viscosity to determine Reynolds Number. The roughness of the
pipe is 0.0012 inch. Specific gravity of solids is
2.68.

Table P'5
Pipe
Diameter
(Inch)
2.056

4.235

Slurry
Concentration
(Volume %)

Critical
Deposirjon
Velocity.Ift/s)

36.7
23.7
12.2

4.8
4.5
3.9

6.4

37.9
23.9

5.6
5.6

11.6
6.240

8.210

31.0

7.5

22.8
17.0

7.3

11.4

7.2

28.2
22.8
17.7

7.7
7.8

7.3

7.9
8.1

11.1

I'

10.360

35.0
"29.0
23.2
17.6

I
I

8.7
I

8.3
8.8
8.8

Friction Loss
(ft waterIlOO.ft)
14.61

857
650
8:13 "
5.05

"3.96
5.21
4.27
3.82
3.38

3.47
3.17
2.89
2.73
3.83
3.05
2.99

2.47
12AOO

", -,

28.1
25.0
23.9
17.7
I3A

9.2
8.5
8.6
9.1
9.1

2.72
2.27

2.22
2.20
2.05

FLOW Of HETEROGENEOUS SUSPENSIONS

102

Table P6
Weight %
Solids

Viscosity
(Centipoise)

38

Velocity
(ft/s)
3.3
5.6
7.7
10.4

0.0106
0.0204
0.0358
,0.0680

2.7
4.9
8.0
8.7

0.0064
0.0190
0.0453
0.0524

6.5

2.8
5.0
6.1
7.6
8.8

0.0088
0.0238
0.0309
0.0450
0.0482

14.0

3.4
5.0
6.5
7.1

0.0101
0.0262
0.0408
0.0514

4.5
l'

,I'.'
49

5.0

:'l;

, !1
.

',.
,:

58.5

64.8

_._.

Rifermces
I) FADOICK.R. R... A Miner..l Slurry

Data Bank.Pa:rt 2. Append.agrs-

Computer Outpul,- Bureau of Mines Report No. OFR 2(2)-73,

National Tcchnic21'n{orm:ltion Service, U.S. Dept. of Commerce.

2) SCHRIEK. W.SMITfI. L G,. f1AAS. D. and HUSBAND. W. fl.

W.-Experimental Sludicson Solids Pipdinint of C:tnadian Commcdities," Reports No. -' .1I1d No.4. S,ukafChcw2n Research Council (July 1973 and Nov. 1973).
.

I
i

I.

Friction Loss
(ftlft)

8. RELATED TOPICS IN SLURRY

HANDLING

.,

8.2.1 Heat Transfer to Bingham

8.1
INTRODUCfION
, .

Plastics

While we are in this book primarily concerned

with the characteristics of the flow behavior of
suspensions, there are other operations involved in
a slurry handling system which also deserve discussion. Among these are thickening, filtration, centri" fuging, the heating and cooling of slurries, and the
mixing of slurries.
In this chapter we have selected three of these
related topics for a more detailed discussion.

HEAT TRANSFER
IN SLURRIES

The most significant experimental study to date

of the heat transfer characteristics of Bingham-type
suspensions is that due to THOMASP' The study
used suspensions of thorium oxide in concentrations up to a volume fraction of 0.10 and en compassed the laminar, transition, and fully developed
turbulent.regimes. The most significant finding of
this work was that by using the value of the limiting
viscosity at high rates' of shear (i.e., the coefficient
of rigidity for Bingham plastics), satisfactory correlations could be developed.

8.2

'I

. Until quite recently there was a marked paucity

: of published experimental data onehe heat transfer
. characteristics of suspensions, particularly, nonNewtonian suspensions. While this situation is
rapidly changing, it may be fairly stated that our
knowledge in this field is still rather limited. There
is, however, sufficient information to obtain estimates of heat transfer properties for slqrries flowing
in round tubes which are quite satjsfactoryfor the
normal engineering design purposes.:

.
,

~I

, .

: .~ .: ' t ,~"

" ':,

This section outlines briefly some of the experi! mental work which bears on the subject; theoretical
treatment oflaminar flow is neglected but is discussed in detailed reviews e1sewhere.II)(2'AIso excluded
. is.thetreatmentof Newtoniansuspensions; it is
assumed that the reader is familiar with the heat
transfer correlations for Newtonian fluids which are
directly applicable to those types of suspensions,
provided that the system properties are determined
as outlined in CHapter 4.
.

For lamin'ar flow heat transfer, THOMASlJIcorre

lated a substantial amount ofdata for thorium oxide
slurries using a' theoretical, equation developed
previously by HIRAI"'which applies for values of

the Nusselt No. ph'k > 8.1.

;11 -

1.615

(D:P}W .

(Eq.8.1)

where jn is the heat transfer factor given by

where:
C. - specific heat
D - pipe diameter

(Eq.8.2)

I ." -,.

SOLID .. LIQUID FLOW

:
!
I. ~'

;."

r.. - wall shear stress

'1.. - coefficient of rigidity at wall temperature.

G - mass flow rate

.
h .: ..:. film coefficient of heat tr~lIsfer
III ,: ~,heat transfer factor
L :'-:;length'
k ' ! ~.thermal conductivity
V ~!"1,;.~.~an Quid velocity
,,'
'1 i ,!'i. coeqiclent of rigidityat bulk fluid tempera-

The terms C. and p were calculated as weighted

averages.and It. was calculated according to the Maxwell-type expression given' ill Equation 4.8. The
correlation isgiven graphically in Figure 8-1 ;b is the
tube side coefficient based 011 a logarithmic mean
I
temperature difference.

"J~ ture" .s
P' . ",fluid density

I,,

ro '. ~:yield stress

rlHJ lo
..

"

i.".. ,: .;.,

Ii ;':
-,

',r,)' '.

OIA.

:wi . I;:

t;,;

.r~r:::.

","

r: ';'

!:

'if
.

1'

I.IH

'10 I

;":: ::i,~'t~I:;':

:~:.'~.j:F:,

.. ,

0.318
0.318
0 0.318
o 1.030
.to. 1.030
'0.318
1.030

378
252
126
175
87
378
175

104
104
104
104
104
134
134

0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.075
0.46
0.46

0.0019
0.0019
0.0019
0.0019
0.0019
0,0055
0.0055

I.

- ..

... ,

, H

..

.......

..

.. '
2

<,

r-..

I;

' .".

.,

'.;

"

......

.'

<:.

r-

'.

"-

'

'.

"

.......Vl 'A.

...

"
;

, .

,'

3..

.t

'.""', c'

"'I"

..

-.

..

.....

"- ...... "S-

....
.'

..

r-,

h
CpIJ 2/3 L 1/3 ll w 0.14
I ~ fvlfw
.10
DVp -2/'
'Hrr(cpG)(T) (0) (T)
'1-14fVl3fwl tf.fV/3fw\41
>1.615(""1/)

: .~: "j::':

I
I

Ibllhl Isecl

.'

.......
', ............

r--,
7

Ibl",. h.

---

11.

t.

SLURRY OeNSITY

Ib/cu. n,

,
2

L/o

"

,..

' . !;

-I I

finch)

! ~: ~: . ..

-r

.~

.:

<;

! ..

;
t

7f' ~

10

REYNO~OS

3..

OV

7 8

...

10

NUMBERl NRe .......!!..)

'

,11

Figul.8' Laminar Heat TnnsleN;har3cterinics of ThOZ Slurries Compared with Theoretical Equalion
(from Ref. 83'

':-

....

......

r-,

~6781~

10

.",.,

r..(.I./\ I CI.J IVIIl....~ Ii'l ~LUKI{Y

HANDLING

107

1.

mon method of design of mixing equipment for

components in same pf,oporrions. then providing

that the systems are geometrically similar. the result
will be achieved if the interfacial area per unit
volume is the same, In practical terms thi,s will hold
when the power input per unit volume is the same
for both systems.
' ,

large-scale equipment, viz, the method of scale-up.

In order to scale from a laboratory test to a commercial unit, it is necessary to maintain similarity between the two systems in,terms ofgeometrical, kinematic. and dynamic properties. Geometrical similarity defines the boundary conditions such that the
corresponding dimensions have the same ratio (i.e.
Dr/D;, H/D, etc, are the same in the two systems).
Kinematic similarity requires that velocities at
corresponding points have the same ratio to those
at other corresponding points. Dynamic similarity
means that the ratio of forces is the same for any
two sets of corresponding points.

Under these conditions: '

(Eq.8.9)

and

PmP, (0D

Thus, Equation 8.5 written in general terms is as

follows:

1\

-1.0

(Eq. 8.10)

n; )

where 111 and I refer to r}ioJ~f and I~rge,s~ale condi."

'
tions, respectively;
,

P - "" (g.P. p, N, OJ, Dr, H. Hj, S, L, Wh Wb , B, R)

(Eq.8.8)
where the terms are as defined in the nomenclature.
The last nine terms of the equation define the
, system geometry. Thus, if their values, normalized
on the basis ofthe impeller diameter Dh are held
constant between two systems, Equation 8.8 can be
reduced to Equation 8.5.

According to SKELtANDl1I the experimental

evidence to date indicates that these expressions,
origiii:ilTy derived for liquid-liquidmixing, apply
also to the mixing of Newtonian suspensions.
It has been pointed out by CONNOLLY and
WINTERl7) that the use of a "power per unit
volume" approach leads to excessively conservative
designs when applied to large vessels: However,
most of the experimental' studies to' date .have
employed this concept. Recent research has tended
towards a more mechanistic approach to the
problem as, compared with the simple model outlined in Equations'8.9a.id 'il;!0: An.example ofthis
is the correlation due to WEISMAN'"anil EFFERDING'S, which can be expressed as follows:

As was pointed out earlier, in many cases the

Froude Number may be neglected. Thus, in order

to preserve similarity between two systems which

are geometrically scaled, it is necessary to ensure
that the Reynolds Number is the same for each.
This is valid for values of. N Rc (- about 300; for
NRc> 300, the Fronde group begins to exert an
effect and must be considered if the similarity is to
be preserved. In general, this requires the use of a
fluid of lower viscosity in the model studies so that
N Fr and NRc can be made equal to those for the full
scale unit while still dealing with speeds ofrotation
that are practical.

P "
0 ' l-c
_ _ 0.092 g u, _r ( - - )
VT

0,

1/1

e',l

'(.!.'!.)
,0,

Ap

.e

(Eq.8.11)
"

8.3.3 Mixing of Newtoni:tn Suspensions

,

TIle treatment ofNewtonian suspension involves

a variation, in the scale-up procedure as used for
single-phase liquids. The procedure is based upon
research into the mixing of immiscible liquids, and '
ofliquid and gases,and is reviewed by SKELLAND.!lI
The method uses the fact that if we are attempting
to achieve the same degree of dispersion ina model
test and in the large-scale apparatus using the same

where c is the volume fraction of liquid in the

suspension, H, is the distance of impeller from tank
bottom and 10 is the free settling velocity of solids.
The above equation includes the slip 'Velocityofthe
particle II, relariveto' the fluid arid other system
properties todefine. the

~T term.

The, correlations resulting from the "power per

501.10 LIQUID FLOW

108

unit volume" concept are generally developed on

the basis of laboratory-scale data and are. as noted
earlier. conservative when appliedto commercialscale systems. The reason (or thisis contained in the
manner in which turbulence energy.which. is
required to maintain solids in suspension, is dissipated in the two systems. II' addition to the energy
expended in maintaining the particles in suspension. power is consumed by;boundary layer dissipation and jn the dissipation ofenergy, by viscosity, as
heat. The process of eddy de~ay tells us that this
latter effect takes place at the scale of very small
'~
eddies.

Newtonian case. With the Power Law model a

constant viscosity term is inapplicable and it is
necessary to resort to some form of effective RcynoldsNurnber, which itt turn requires some means
of predicting the effective vis~osity of the agitated
fluid.
By analogy with the procedure used for Newtonian fluids,we can say that for Bingham plastics
the power requirements will be given by:

p -.,p (P. '1. To. N. Db g)

. ,,

If we consider the dissipation process as the size

of the system is. increased,' we' can postulate two
effects. Firstly,since the spectrum of eddy sizes
ranges from the order ofthe size ofthe tank down to
the dissipation range, increasing tank size results in
a separation of the largest (energy-carrying) eddies
from the dissipative eddies. In other words. relative
to the total energy production, viscous dissipation
becomes quite small. This can be demonstrated
dramatically by observing the behavior of a large
eddy (or vortex) in water. Eddies ofa size larger than
three inches in diameter.will decay to smaller eddies
aridsuspetid particles without any appreciable decay
of total ineriy.Se~ondly, in larger systems boundary layer dissipation becomes,less significant, Thus.
laboratory-scale units, where a higher rate of decay
by viscous dissipation is encountered, require a
higher power per. unit volume than large systems.
.. . ,,,,,.,,
:" ,
~

", ~',

. -.

'

(Eq.8.12)

Application of dimensional analysis gives

which can be written

N~ -.,p (N Nil.. N f , )

(Eq. 8.13)

since the term

'.

To ~oncludethis particular section it should be

stated that there are other criteria available for mixer
design; however, the scope of t,his text does not
allow their~iS~ussion.Suffi~e it to say that advances.
in 'the, techniques for the measurement of turbu-
lence must' ultimately allow a better understanding
of the phenomena involved in the mixing of
slurries.

8.3.4 Mixing of Non-Newtonian

Suspensions' '
The mixing of non-Newlonian suspensions or
.fluids presents a further degree of complexity to the
whole problem of mixing. For Bingham plastics or

Iyslema which can be described by the Bingham

modal, tha additional ealnplexlty Is nat great since
the systems are defined by rheological parameters
which are essential flow constants, '1 and roo thus
enabling a direct comparison to be m:ide with the

a:

~'I

which has the dimensions of yield stress divided by

inertial forces is equal to the Hedstrom Number

"1
I

I
divided by the square of the Reynolds Number.
.

The methods available for use with fluids described by Power Law or generalized Power. Law forms
are a great deal more complex and their inclusion'
is not. justified by the scope of this text. The reader
il referred to the admirable treatments of WILKINSQN~'~~Il~SJ<ELLAND.12lpartkularlytlleJatter

for the, analysis .procedures for these fluids. Figure

8-3 shows.. a comparison between the Newtonian

responle!and dunesponll! of apseudoplastic material In the,formofa plot of N. versus N. The main

difference between the two types of systems is that
the laminar region is extended well beyond N ..
10 forthe.pseudoplastics, indicating that the effee-:

RELATED TOPICS IN SLURRY IlANDI.ING

4.10'

-a

I ,I

"I'

"

10

I11II1

6 hladp, rrillilliuledisk'mounlediurhir,p' imnl!!I.,

ul'ed. Impl!lIp.r was positioned 3:00 inch'!';

Ihr. hotlmo

10

c0

fr",1l'

C)," 0.00 jnch thnmp.lr.f unlmlllr:d

.
vesser. Dj -. 13.00 lnf:hes.
Dj/DT: 0.67. Hj/Or .' 0,33

H/OT

' I.on

pOUlOS TESTEO

-a

"ue

'Il.UO JJp.rr.l~II'C:MC" sf)luliull

A 5.00 Jmrcp.ltl "CMC" sotuuoo

~
.~

..

'6.00 rmlcp.nI "6MC" soIUlio""

ii, 2.91' pe,cp.nl"Kelu,"-" sQlution

4'l.

z
z
;::
u
z 10
:>

... -2.00 pml:cnt.,"Kelznn' sofuttcn

0'6.50 percent "N.llrOSO'" solution
o 5,50 nercem "Nni,osol" solution

"

u.

a:
w

~
0

~ ...

Np _PIp N 3 OJ,S. for nonvoJle)(in~ system

a.

.' 1"0

('_logNR~)

Np.(-P)/(N
F)
i
PN J O 5

to
10-'

I I I 11 II

,10

I.ul!.

r--

'" ... -

.,.

..

1:5

~)

..

IU

ria.fa c.f Level Rros; (

,

I I II

Flgur.83 Pseudop'.stlc Powe, Curve

,10 I

10'

10

REYNOLDS NUMBE R NR. (dim.llsionl.,,1

tive viscosity which increases with distance from the

impeller (the material being shear-thinning) is tending to depress eddy formation, thus delaying the
onset of turbulence.
In examining data such as these, WILKINSON(1)
remarks that while it appears to be conservative to
use the Newtonian curve for design purposes, it
would be dangerous to extrapolate beyond the
range of the data presented since non-Newtonian
behavior is still to some extent an unknown quantity.

8.4 DRAG REDUCTION

. The phenomenon ofdiag iedlictlon, commonly
observed in the turbulent flow ofsolutions ofpolymers, is a subject whichhas attracted considerable
attention in recent years. Its practical usc has been a
matter of fact for many years in both water' and
slurry systems in spite of the fact that the large
amount ofresearchin thisJield has; as yet; failed to
produce a colierent correlation in a form siniple
enough to allow prediction and interpretation'of
flow data. The attraction of the use of a drag reducing agent in solids pipelines is easily seen; the ability
to effect increases in throughputs by, increasing
solids concentrations up to the pciintof compac-

tion, yet avoiding the pr()hibiiivepr~ssure drops

normally associated with such action; has obvious
advantages. Up to now the use ofsuch additives,
while on the whole successful, has 'been something
of a hit-and-miss affair. .
.
The literature contains innumerable references'
to the study of drag reduction and it would be a
difficult and lengthy task to present a .coherent
summary of.the work to date. We will,.here, highlight some aspects of drag reduction by reference to
a recent paper by ASTARITA etal.t?l The~daia from
this study, which covered a range of pipe diameter
and polymer concentrations, arc 'shown in Figure
8-4, that for a given concentration of polymer the
degree of drag reduction, as indicated by -the
suppression of the friction factor from the value for
the solvent alone, is a function of the diameter of
the pipe. By defining an effective redu~tion ratiofJ
given by

'f

p--f.

(Eq. 8;14)

. t IliS agarnst
.
V N R.',
015
and p Iotung
tIie group D
ASTARITA et al(') were able to eliminate this diameter effect, as shown in Figure 8-5.

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

.'\..

:' :

..
~'

.i

t--

ppm

125

TIll: question now arises: for a given throughput

what is the effect on drag reduction of,a'change in
pipe diameter? This is, seen by consideration of the
.
V
':
:' ';'. ;.,." !
term D~RCO.,!. }hif term;ca,,1Ii ,~e: re~Yrillen as

y1.1S

,~

L.>

pO.1S,

I,

,:.

!;~~,:~lr:r-;.
;
'! ':

''',,,.;

[JUS /.lOB ~ If D were to increase, Vwould naturally

r\..,
4

~.;

.-

-.

"

...

!.

AO2.05em
1.10,
0.69

'

2, 000

. 10 '
NRe :

~gn," ,;; .~Igur. a.4

t", ; ~',

'

I, 000
,

,10

,).t

./..:(': ~ ~j I ~,~

500'

Ii!

':'-.;,-

"

10'3

.;>

j,

irUmi
-.

'I'

250

--

, I

decrease for a given volume flow rate. Since V is

proportional to lY, the term as a whole would
decrease which from Figure 8-5 .means that P or

Friction Factor &lmpl. Data. The f L LineS (I.h)

and ,the '0 line,fup) .r. Reported for Comp,arison.
(from Ref. 89'

. ;., .. t

.,~

. '.

.~

Further to this work KOLAR,f101 studying drag

reduction in suspension flows, noted that the addition of a polymer can in many cases produce side
effects, such as flocculation which overshadows any
contributions from the drag,reduction mechanism
itself. Clearly the'use of drag reducing additives in
suspensions requires much more study before it can
be considered as a normal pipeline practice.

8.5 REFERENCES

... , .

1.0

I,.,~,

., ,

ppm

125.

.1 I
,

resuItwouldbe thatfwould abo increase. However,

fois reduced by increasing the diameter, a fact that
contributes in large measure to the increase in p.
Thus the effect of a'change in pipe diameter on the
amount of drag reduction is very slight.

:".-~

~ t ~. ',

I'

would increase. Iffo were tore"!~!n, constant the

' ,

{j;r;',::';;'::'~:'
: , ~'. . t '.

-t-t-+t-tfHf--0.5

8-1

Ltd.. london (1960/.

8-2

SKEllAND. A. H. r.. NonNn\'loni.llI Flowand Heat Transfer." John Wi'cY & Son. tee, New York (I~67).

8-J

THOMAS. D. C . Ueat and Momentum Transport Ch,u...,.

I, \I

.,

0.5

, 250

tctistiCJofNon-Nc\\'lonian"Aqucous'ThoriumOxide'Su~ptri~

sions; AIChE Journal~,V. 6. p. 631 (Dec. 1960)

. 0,5

500

.WILKINSON.W. 1-.-NonNewtonian Auids," rCfsamon rress

8-4

HI~,AI., E..'Thcorclic.a1 Explanalion, of Ileal Transfer in

of Bin"ham Fluid," AIChE Journal. V. S~ pro
1J0.IJJ(March 1959).

lami~arRc~ion

0.8

0.3

1,000

I ' ""1

8is

0.3

Srrc~'mfrnc Fjo~: 'Food Rcsc.arch,:V.24.pp.lI9-lJI (July. 1959).

2,000

0,1

10'
0.15

V NRe

10

CIIARM, S.E..nd MERRILL. E. W,. ",1 1 T"n.r.r co.m

'e!!"i, ,in,~_u,1i,:ll~T~~~_f~rJJsC'udorJ~stic_food"Malcriahin

8-6

ME,ZNER. A, 8.nd FRIEND, P. S" ""... Transr.r.o TutbuInd. En,. Chern., V. 51, pp. 879-

I~nl Non.~ewlon;anFluids,"

hec .1)

889 (/uly

1,959~

"

~igu',
8-5 Plotl of
,

If,om

PYI.

R,'. 891

0.15

'.

D'" NRe.. Key II In Figure 8.4

81

CONNOLL Y.l.R. .nd WINTER. R. L, "Approach.... Mi,in~

Operation Sc.I.up: Ch,m, En~n": Pro~., v. 65, pp. 70-18 '
(Au~ 196q~

IIELATELJ
~HC

roncs IN SLUIII\Y IIANDI.ING

\VEISM/\N. I. and EFFF.ROIN(;. l. F.. "Su\pcnsion of Slurries

by ~_ltc".tIlicJI Mi:u:n." t\JChJ~ .Iourfl31. v, b. pr. H~~4l6
(Sept. I "4l01.

~_q

8-10

f
fo
g

I\SfARII'A. G..(;nECO. (;..IIIU NICOOF.MO.l.. ..A l'ln-nntncl1oln~ic.lllnterpr('r.ltioll .lntl Correfneiou nfO'3f: R~du(lion'
AIChE.ltltIfI1JI. v, I~. p. 5(J~ IJuly (1Itlql.
KOl.AR. V.. "\hcoI~IJ'lic Fluid.$ulid Flow in I'ip<"." hI Infl.
Cent. on 11"U,3U\ic 'f,.lmport of Solid1: in Pipes, RIIRA Fluid
EII~I1~ .. CtJlllid,J.~U. K. Paper FIeSept. PliO).

,I

h
III

k
n
Us

II

Friction factor
Friction factor
Acceleration due to gravity
Film coe'Cficient of heat transfer.
Heat transfer coefficient
Thermal conductivity
Power Law index
. ve I"
Slip
ocrty - ('gdllp ) "'
,

Free settling velocityof solids

Constant '
Constant
Constant
a
p Effective drag reduction ratio
tJp Density difference
Slurry density
p
Volume fraction of fluid
e
of fluid at bulk temperature
Viscosity
P.
Viscosity
of fluid at wall .ternperature
p..
Yield stress
To
r w Wall shear stress
Coefficient of rigidity at bulk temperature
t
of rigidity at wall temperature
Coefficient
'7w
w
x
y

8.6 NOMENCLATURE
B

Number of blades on impeller

Specific heat ,
D Diameter of pipe
Di Diameter of Impeller
Dr Diameter of tank
G Mass flow rate
H Height of tank
Hi Height of impeller off bottom
K Consistency at the bulk temperature
Kw Consistency at, the wall temperature
L
Length
;
N rpm of agitator
Nb Number of baffles
N Fr Froude Number
N. Power number
NRc Reynolds Number
P Power
S
Pitch of impeller
V Average velocity of flow
v, Transition critical velocity
Vr Volume of tank
Wb Width of baffle
Wi Width of impeller
Constant
I
a
b
Constant
Diameter of solid particles
d

C.

8.7 PROBLEM
8.1 Determine the agitator horsepower requirement for a 20 ft diameter tank containing an
iron concentrate slurry. The height of liquid
level in the tank is 20 ft. The agitator diameter
is 6 ft and isinstalled 3 ft above-the tank bottom. The slurry concentration is is% solids
volume. The specific gravity ofsolids is 5:0. the '
particle size is 30 microns. and the suspending
fluid is water.
'
, '

by

9. MECHANICAL AND
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
,~

9.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapters we have outlined the

various problems associated with the conceptual
hydraulic design of slurry systems, and hopefully
the interested engineer will by now be cognizant of
these problems and confident that in most cases a
solution to them can be achieved. Other areas also
need comment, such as specification ofequipment.
pump station layout, instrumentation. construction, and equipment commissioning. We have
therefore summarized some of the important
aspects of slurry systems hardware and operation
and presented them in this chapter.

:!

The importance of carefulconsiderationof the

mechanical design aspects of iI slurry system cannot
be over-emphasized. Pipelines can take precedence
over other modes of transportation for many reasons, but in the absence of a.dependable operating
factor (over 95%), many of these advantages would
be lost. The design should therefore ensure that
facilities are included to allow the process to operate
. for 95 percent of the. y~ar. The most obvious :
exampleOfensurinl;a high availlll>i1ityis the.provi.sioil ofspare pumping capacity,thereby minimizing
unnecessary stoppages due to pump breakdown
I
and wear.
The main emphasis of the chapter: i~: directeel
towards what is the heart of any slurry system,
. ~am.e1y. thepumping~quipment, but considetat!ott
IS given to other aspects of slurry processmg,

9.2 CHOICE OF PUMPS

, :..:t~

A summary of the major long-distance slurry

pumping installations has been given in Table I-I

(Chapter One). It is significant to note from the
table that not only are different types of pumps
utilized, but also the capability of producing these
pumps is spread amongst a number of reputable
manufacturers. Conditions vary widely between the
various pipelines, Discharge pressures range up to
2300 p.si (West Irian. .C
.. . .0....
1'1'.."',.
e. r.C.OIIC.
e.n.t.rate p.ipeline),
',', k:.>,,'::
"
'
and p.',my sizes range fr0rft~5 hor~~power booster
pumps to the double-acting duple~!piston pumps
of the Black Mesa f'ipelinedriven'by 1750 horsepower motors. There isialsoa great.variation in the
abrasiviry of the slurries handled, f~. spite .ofthese
enormous differences in d,,~ratin~!~ottditions, the
selection of a pump fora specific serYiceisbase~ on
only two factors. 'nameIY.Jhedischarge.pressure
requirement and the abrasivity or the slurry. This is
illustrated by reference to Table 9-,1.(1)
The first criterion, th~t of discharge pressure,
controls the basic decision of whether to use centrifugal pumps or positive displacement pumps. For
discharge pressures under 65Q psi their lower installed ca"ital cost gives centrifugal pumps an economic
advantageoverPDpump~;This discharge pressure
is achieved by staging the pumps in series, so that if
total standby spare capacity is required, a second
parallel train of pumps must be installed. The total
cost of such a system can sometimes be more
expensive than a comparable positive displacement
system with one spare PIJITIP.IftQtll.LstandbYC<lpacity is notrequiredilhis~ostcan be;re9uced by installing anadditional pllmpjnth~series.If.?ne
pump fails, then the .additional .puntp<caiibe
. brought into service and the slurry pumped through
the defective unit. Repairs can be conducted at a
convenient time, e.g., when the plant is shut down
for routine maintenance.

SOLiD - LIQUID FLOW

114
','

Maximum f J)
Pres'surls
, (p,;)

.. :;:\

" ."
J,
~I

M.ximum(2J

Muimum

Meehln;clr
Efficiency

Panicle Size

Commlnts

920

85-90

8 Mesh

Used for Abrasive Slurries

2700

85 - 90

8 Mesh

50,000

40- 75

0'

flow
(U.S. gpm)

(J)

..

'.'

'.

350a,- 4000

.PLUNGER
PISTON
'; ,~

CENTRIFUG~L~GbO"
~. "~~"~

'I'

'Nci!t~s:

.' ,'.;~:{

"il: I ' :', fj

700

Series Ins.allation
low capital cost

),

"

:Ii

hr, Maxirnu rrt J!,r~~1gres-refers

~o comnierci,allyviable slurfv pipeline vctvmes.

(2).iPR~i'liye ,dis~~ceine"t pumps are only caoabte of these maximum flow rates at pressures

<~.: ~:! !:~m~i~h,}e~Se~~.n: ~;r~~,~i'r.,:,mpressures "Ol~d.

For

e)(ampht~ at ~~O 9pm. one n:anufacturer'S

.;;~ iUJ!i.I?C~, ~~[;~~~~~~p,~ger pu~ph~s.a.rnaxlmum pressure capabduy of 1000 pSI.

~'~~hi~en,\~d,
~~~~v~,!~
Miller Numbers greater than 50.
.
,',,-

..

~.

-,

Tabl. 91 Comparis~n of E')(j~ting S'urry Pump Capability

'~.

-,:

, F6C,

systems requiring discharge pressures in

exc~s.~ of about 6;iOpsi, casing pressure limitations
once~~rifugal pumps mean that only positive displa.~eJ!leltt pumps are technically feasible. The type
, of posiiive displacement. pump employed depends
upon~the'abrasivity of the partieularslurry as
'inea:s~~ed' by, the" Miller Number. For a slurry

. F::.,

, "

which is highly abrasive, normal practice is to employ plunger pumps. equipped with a flush-water
system to ensure that the plunger is kept free of
abrasive particles. Less abrasive slurries can be
handled using piston pumps. In general, piston
pumps have greater throughputs but lower discharge
pressure capability than plunger pumps. so that in

, J.

.,

'

:,

"

, ,,..

liii "

&If;'J''
...... "', .

,~ ,

.
",.

'~

"

'.

l'r
,
,,(

Figur. 9.1, Co'",olldaUon Coe' Pipeline

i.i '

'.,

'.",

MECHANICAL AND OPERATIONAl. ASPECTS

.: . choosing between the two types for a borderline

.~::; situation, the economics oflJ.ulll.~er9f;P\l.mps,.

V:.station spadng,spares,andntai~tenarce'costs
: ~l!Sho~1d be c13selyscrutinized..,..... .' . ,
'.

t ;

.. Coal slurry is a.sysrem where piston-type I'D

" pumps have been successfully employed.;&oth of
. the coal slurry pipelines constructed in the USA
. : utilize double-acting duplex piston pumps. The
. :',' abrasion rates encountered in those systems are low
, :. enough to allow reasonable. lives 'on expendable
.,,: parts, and in addition, the systemsbenefit from the
larger throughput capacity .01' t~le pu"!ps ascornpa:- k red to plunger pumps (which IS due m.part to the
f~" double-action feature of the pistons). Figure 9-1
,~q'i'~ ~ho~vs one of th~ 4~0 hp. pump.s us~d in the Consol,Idallon Coal pipeline III Ohio, Figure 9-2 shows
I 1:~neofthefQur punWi?g stations on the Black Mesa
pipelille~yste.lJ.bThree.ofthe stations employ three
; lflla.i!JlilJ.~pump~ discharging at 1100 psi.The fourth
n:J.tiollc.ontains four pumps with smaller pistons to
gerieratethehigher discharge pressure of 1600 psi.
The pumps arc rated at either 1500 hp or 1750 hp,
.. They transport 660 tons/hr of coal at a concentra". tion of 48 percent by 'weight (a volume flow rate of
. ~200 US gallonsper minute),

.i k

.:,

,! r

i '

ii "

.~J

~:I

.k

I~

",

.r
1

,
I,

.1

"

."

11

Piston pumps have also been employed in th,

transportation of limestonerslurries, Figure 9-;
shows :rhe single pufup station of the Calavera:
limestone system in: California, which transport:
250 tons/hr of limestone at 70 percent concentra
tion. Pumping is achieved by means of two 700 hf
Continental-Emsco double-acting' duplex pump'
(one unit is spare), which deliver 82.0 U.S..gallons/
minute at a discharge pressure of 1000 psi. Pump
speeds range from 0-66 rpm and excellent speed
control is provided over th~ full r,mge,by eddy
current couplings. This featurejwas particularly
helpful during the ,start-up phase when tests were
conducted in order to confirm the criticalvelocity
of the slurry and. other hydraulic 'Parameters.

:l
; !'

Magnetite is typical of the abrasivesfu~ries, and

for positive displacement systems,lunger pumps
should be used since the plunger ca'nberushed with
clean water. The Savage.River pipeline.lnFasmania,
the first long-distance: magnetite concentrate line,
utiiiz;s four triplex plunger pumps in parallel v.:hich

:::

'

:: i:

116

SOLID - LIQUID

F~OW

"

[;

I
I
,

,"

'

"

:Thef6regoing descripti6ns ofvariouS~Clmmer

'cial,pumpingsystems show .clearly thatil!7choice
ofpump must.bemade withdue reg~.rdJ~the sh,lrry
itself. Providedthat the abrasivity of tile ,slurry is
established, pumps are available whicl1",mensure
successful operation throughout the lifetime of the
project. We will now go on to consider, in detail.
the various types of pump available.
~.

, i
",.ECIfANICM. AND OI'ERA nONA!. ASI'I'CTS

117

"
Figur.9-4 Savage Rivet Slurrv Pipeline

,t
,

--,I
>,j

".j

...

''''

'fr
II

I'

;\

I, \

~.~1tf\...
.' ,r..... -',
}

"r,
1\',
,..

. ..,

' '10.

-. ':'~;';'''''''''''':'':,,;t.: - ...:

-..

Figur. 9.5 .Wafplpl 'ronsands Shiplo.ding Pipeline

SOLIO - LIQUID Fl.QW

:.... ';':~)<.\~{~~""'%'~!';""i;:i;._<"

__'

., - -

Figur. 97 -West "fan Copper Concentrate PlpeUne

9.3 TYPES OF SLURRY PUMP

9.3.1 Positive Displacement

PUIllPS

The present generalion of positive displacement

pumps employed in slurry pipeline service owes its
reputation.for reliability 10 the practical experience
of slurry pumping gained over many years in oil
fieldsthroughout the world. Oil field practice demaiids,Jhat slurries; in theform of drilling muds. be
pumpedal high pressures (up to 5000 psi) and with
ahigh.degre~,of reliability" and pumps evolved
1 whieh',c?~Id' withstand these severe conditions,

.Pis!~~ahaplullirpumps;typicalofthose. used

.in oil fields';y,e'reinvesliga'ledf()ruseinthe three

Figure 9&

~ougainvill.

... =-. -

Copper Coneentrete Pipeline

pump stations of IheiConsolidalion C~alpipeline

in Ohio. Pistonpumps with a discharge pressure of
1100 psi were eventually'selectedf()rthisservice.
During theoperatien ofthis syslem a significant
extension '. of the . life of expendable parts was
achieved.m Black Mesa Pipeline in Arizona uses a

MECHANICAl, AND OPERATIONAl. ASI'ECTS

newer version of this piston pump. This "third generation" pump delivers 2100 U.S. gpm: at a pressure
of 1100 psi.

p,,,,,,,

"q.~ 'l'r"Y..

.. Padlinlf

Piston and plunger pumps can be compared both

in terms of their similarities and their differences. '

Types or I'D Pumps

The piston pump has a piston which is driven by
a crankshaft and is in constant contact with the
cylinder wall during each stroke. This action would
result in high wear if the pump were used for pumping abrasive materials such as iron ore. A modified
plunger pump was therefore introduced for such
service. It has a plunger which is continuously
flushed with clear water during the suction stroke
thus greatly reducing internal wear. Figures 9-8. 9-9,
and 9-10 illustrate the differences between piston
and plunger pumps.
Positive displacement pumps consist of two
principal elernents; a power end and a fluid end. The

figure 910 Verlicaf Plunger Pu'mp - FluiliEnd

power end converts the' rotative' motion .of the,

driver (electric motor or diesel engine) to reciprocating motion required by the fluid end"
Power End
"
.
.
The power end of a reciprocating 'pump consists
of a fabricated steel framecontaininga crankshaft,
connecting rods, crossheads, crosslieadguides, ~nd
other auxiliary equipment (Figure 9;"] I). The larger
pumps aiso' contain an integral speed reduction
gear consisting ofa bull gear mounted on the crankshaft with a companion pinion gear .and shaft.
';' ';~

Pllln,.r

CI.~sh..d

;COlllltl:lill"nl'

C~lnh""1 ,

,:'::.,"

Figure 9-8 Piston Pump - fluid End

Packing -

BlIs,hing

V.I.e,

.... 'h_l.

Figru. 9~ 11 Positive' Oisplaeemeni Pump - eros,s Section

=
Gland
lantern Rings
Fi911'~

g.g

Pf~"'9~'

liquid
Pump -Fluid End

Flow

An important modification to the power end of

pumps originally designed for oil welldrilling is.the
increase of the conventional 30,000 toJ5;000hours
bearing life, .The stated bearing life means that at
least 90 percent of the bearings wjlll~st longer than
the number of hoursind'ic3ted and that 50 per-cent
of the bearings willIast five times as long as .rhe
, hours indicated. For slurry pipeline s'e'rvi~e'J'unlps
must operate continuously for long 'periods and
should he designed to last as Iongasthelifeof the

I.W

SOLID - lIQ.UIO FLOW

project. A standard for recent slurry pumps has been

to provide 100,000 hours bearing life and gear life.
The Savage River pumps and the Black Mesa pipeline pumps were so specified. In addition.Iouger life
pans are substituted for chain drives and other parts
that normally have high maintenance costs.

.....,-.,--:-,--'-------------'-,
....

r.
,

:, ,.... -~- _:"-,

:

::I

::
~
:'

1110

....

'-_. --_ ..... _...

. "-_ _ "
--1
0

.;:._

1'.0'

~ u..

_---'-

__ -J.-

i,
i

..

... --..-

----_.

~---

.,

.,: n-

:!

-_.. -.

~-_

.... _-,.

"-r-:, ..:
1

lott ._ . .

-t-_..

; 0'

...;.---'---,-""---'--------1
~

,1*

1~~14"

1m

1m

~'U\"C.,lCUY:

1m

~"

:.IIS G.....

Figure,9-12 Positive Displacement Pump Performance Clirve

Fluid End' ,
The fluid e~d ofa plunger pump may consist of
two or more single acting plungers, .individual or
monobloe fluid cylinders, and a suction and a
discharge valve f~r', each cylinder (see Figures 9-9
and 9-;10): h:phe:case'<ifa piston pump, single or
double acting pistons would, take the place of the
,
. ..
.'
plungers {Figure 9-8).'
.

. " ' ,

,-

The parts' experiencing wear arevalves,val':e

seats, plunger or pistonpackJng, plunger sleeves or
cylinder liners, and "brass bushings. Consequently
these parts should have quick replacement features.
Pump flow rates and maximum discharge pres- .
sures are a function of the piston orplunger diam-,
eter, an~powerendhorsepowef'capability; Asthe'
piston or .plunger diameter increases; the flow rate
increasesiand the maximum' working "pressure
dWidlll'l'lllilff , .. 12I11uII,alll Ihll,elalll;llllhlp,
Ofcourse, flow rate .isalsc.a function' of the stroke
length which ,is determined by the, eccentric of the
crankshafi on thepowel:.el1d. Maximum-pressure is
limited by two factorsr the design.ofthe fluid end
and the power. rating l;lfthe power end .. ' " . ,

Volumetric efficiency is determined by the

amount of leakage back through the valves when
closed and the volume between the valves and the
cylinder.Just after installation ofnew wear parts. the
volumetric efficiency.in most pumps will be above
98%. ~nd after a period of wear it will drop. A value
of 95% is a common design value.
Maintenance COsts
Considerable improvement ofpump maintenance
costs has been experienced on existing pipeline
systems.This has largely. been accomplished with
experimental programs and only after the pipeline
has been in operation for several years.
HALvORSENf2I ha~ reported that, initially, a
life ofonly 90 hours was routinely experienced with
rubber valve inserts. as compared to an improved
1100 hours for polyurethane inserts. Originally
piston inserts were changed every 180 hours. The
use of chrome-plated cylinder liners increased the
life of the inserts to 500 hours, and the life of the
liners was almost doubled. Piston rod packing originally lasted 100 hours. By experimenting with different kinds of packing and changing 10 continuous
oil-drip lubrication and chrome-plated piston rods.
the packing life was finally extended 10 6000 hours.
At the same time the life ofthe piston rod was quadrupled,
Needless to say, it is desirable to have an alternate
approach to experimenting. on systems that are
operating commercially. Current practice is to carry
out laboratory tests during the design phase of the
project, using samples of the solid material to be
pumped, to determine the relative abrasion rates for
various pump materials, One of the test procedures
used was developed for evaluating iron ore slurries
at Savage River and has proven to bea reliable indicator of expected wear of fluid end parts?'
Maintenance experience on expendable parts
life for low and high abrasive slurries is shown in
Table 9-2 for a differential pressure of from 1100
to 1500 psig.The typical range of costs of expendI abIep~rts.forthe,pull1pingof various types. of
slurries; IS shown in Table'9-'3. The actual cost of
expendable parts is dependent on the abrasivity of
. IhUI\icty,lhe dl.ehArllt pc.ullre, And lh. _"wI tlf
. the plunger or piston.
.

t
I

Speed Control
Slurry pipelines utilizing positive displacement
pumps usually have at least two variable speed

I
I

,I
I
,I

'j
I

MECIIANICAL AND OI'ERATIONA!. ,ISI'ECTS

Expendable Part 'Life. Hours

\ I

,!
j

:i
!
I

Low Ah,asivily
(Piston)

High, Abta3ivi.ty

1100
3000

500

VALVES
PISTON ROO
PLUNGER SLEEVE
PISTON LINE R
BRASS BUSHINGS
PACKING
,I

(Plunger)

120
425
425

Approltimately 1500 psi Differenti Pressure

I)
:;~i'

Tabl.92 Positive Displacement Pump P.r1~ lif.

In Slurry Service (from R,f. 101)

Variable speed motors also aresatisfactory for the

service required on. slurry pumping systems,
although they are more sensitive to variations in
load as compared to fluid and eddy current couplings.

:r

Typical Ranges

Cenls/Ton/Pump S.al;on

",.I

.)
I

!,
I
!

0.3-0.8
, 0.6 - 1.2
. 2.5 - 5.0
3.0-6.0

COAL
LIMESTONE
COPPER CONCENTRATE
MAGNETITE CONCENTRATE

Actual Cost Depends on Abrasivhy of the Slu,ry.

tho Station Discharge Pressure. Piston/Plunger
Sp,ee.d. and Manufacture", Repl.;;Jcement Patls Prices.

Table 93 EKpendable Part, Costs for Positive

Displacement Pumps (hom R" .: ,01)

. FLUID DRIVE

,d I.

'it
::
EDDY CURRENT ; .
WOUND ROTOR MOTOR
WITH lIQUlollHEOSTAT
SYNCHROORIVE ..
POLE CHANGING' i .
SQUIRRel CAGE,.'

Where Used
.i CONSOLIDATION

COALkSAVAGE RIVER,
SLAC MESA
.
CALAVERAS, WAIPIPI

I
BOUGA,,.VILlE
WEST IRIAN
TRINIDAD
',I

.;

~i. l l .

Tabl.94 SPied Controt Devices for Electric O,I...e

SlurfY-,Pumps (from Ref. 10 1) .. ,

:~

The pole changingsquirrelcag~rnotoris a variable

speed device capable ofoperating-at two speeds.
This is also referred 'to as, poleamplitude modulation. It has the advantage over other speed control
methods, of operating at high efficiency 'at .either
speed.. By having several pumps in parallel with
different speed ratings, combinations can be used to
greatly increase the system's speed capabilities. For
example, three operating pumps with two speeds
each would have a combination of eight different
system speeds. Increasing the number of pumps to
four would result in t1.eavailability 'of 16 speeds.
Another variable speed drive is the "Synchrodrive" unit which is installed on the West Irian
copper concentrate pipeline. The' unit may be
obtained in any size required for a slurry pump and
combines the gear reduction and speed control
elements, This, of course, results in a savings ofspace
and cost. Furthermore, it is expected that 'maintenance cost war below becauseo( re,ll,ced cOlnplcxi~
ties of the system. .
,

",

TvpeSpeedCont,ol

operating pumps per. station in order to -vary

throughput and also to simp1ifl' restart (soft start)
of the pipeline after shutdown. Anumber of differenrspeed control devices (Table 9-4) are being
used on existing systems.
Fluid couplings have proven 10 be satisfactory in
high horsepower ranges. They are rugged,reliable,
and require little muintenance. Eddycurrent couplings have performed satisfactorily in the lower
horsepower ranges (less thanI 000 HPJ and provide
more precise control, particularly at lower pump
speeds .

. 4000
6000

III

The designer must be careful of two pitfalls

generally common to such systems.The first is the
wide variety .of controls available on the market

from whicli a selectioii.icompatible. -with-systern

requirements must be.made.
. '

"""

.
"

",'

. The other point of great iinp()rta~ce is that of

sizing a sumcienllyluge coolingsystem.The system
must be capable of accommodating the worst possible anticipated conditions. In-slurry :systems the
worst condition .occurs during. pipeline' restart after

112

SOUl> - I.IQUID FI.OW

an emergency shutdown. The restart ofa slurry pipeline containing thousands of tons of solid material
requires time to accelerate the system to normal
velocity.During' this period the pumps are required
to operate at very low tlows and high discharge
pressures,. Most couplings are constant torque devices. and' the energy so dissipated would be totally
absorbed by the speed, control' device. thereby
requiring a fairly large cooling system. ,
r

Of course. ,til units ~IUst be evaluated on an

economic ,basis for each case considered.

Centrifugalpumps are ,tile "work horse" of inplant conilllerc\~Jslurry,systems. Their application

is generally restricted to short distances because of
their limited head capability, lower allowable casing
pressures. and lower efficiencies. They are used typically for in:plant transportation of slurries in the
mining, cement.and other industries.

dist~n~e,slu~rt.

On' long
pipeline systems, they
sen'e,as .charge pumps prbviding suction pressure
required for the mainline reciprocating pumps.
Centrifugal PUIllPS are also used to pump slurry
through a' "safety loop", thereby permitting, the
system operator to monitor the slurry for quality
control purposes before committing it to the pipe"
line, .
Design Considerations:
The casing pressureicapacity of a centrifugal
slurry pump is limited by. the vertical split-casing
design necessary foreasy replacement of the impeller and the wear-linings of the casings. For rubberlined pumps the impeller tip speed is generally
limited to 4400 feet per minute to minimize \Vear.
The resulting limitation on pump speed reduces the
maximum head that a rubber-lined centrifugal
slurry pump can develop. Rubber-lined pumps are
generally limited to fine slurries in which the 'naximurnpartide size'is less tl~aneight mesh. '
i

Wear resistant metal-lined pumps are commonly

used for pumping, slurries containing coarser
particles. A higher impeller tip speed Can be tolerated wlthmetal-llned centrifu&al pumps, and conseqentlyhjgher,hea~capabilitiescan be achieved. A
common applicil\/olh:Jf metal-lined pumps is in
hydraulic dredging where' heads in excessof350 feet
of slurry
and
flowrates
greater than 40,000 US !!I''''
, . 1,'
'.
... '.. "..

are achieved by 88-inch diameter impellers driven

by 6000 horsepower engines.

The efliciency ofa centrifugal slurry pump is low

because of the robust nature of the impeller design
and the relatively wide throat impeller clearance.
Efficiencies or <>5 percent are common compared to
85 to 90 percent on positive displacement pumps.
Thecentrifugal slurry pump is a flexible piece of
equipment. If sufficient drive horse power has been
installed. the head capacity can be increased or decreased by simply changing the speed of the pump.
Belt-driven units are' most common and speed
change is.generally achieved by changillg the drive
sheave. In pumps with metal impellers. the diameter
ofrhe impeller can be built up or reduced 10 match
the system characteristics.
Pump Characteristics
The head versus flow characteristic lor a centrifugal slurry pump is relatively flat. This means that
if a centrifugal system flow rate drops to a poilit 100
near to the deposition velocity, where the system
head loss curve hooks, the pump characteristics
could cause-the flow rate to drop below critical vclocitl'. Continued operation below critical velocity
will result in a fixed bed of solids deposited ill the
pipeline which could develop into a plugged pipeline. In moSt multi-pump centrifugal systems. this
limitation is overcome by installing one or two units
with variable speed drives. If the system head illcreases, the flow rate is maintained by increasing
the speed of the variable drive units.
When 'designing centrifugal systems, the designer
should be aware that transient conditions, Ivhen
changing from slurry to water or from water to
slurry, can be detrimental to the stability of the
system. The centrifugal pump only produces head
while the system depends 011 pressure. The pressUle
loss of a line full of slurry is high, and at the change
from slurry to water pumping. the centrifugal pump
develops, a ,fixed head of water and the pump
discharge pressure will drop. The result is that the
. flow rate will decrease unless it is maintained by all
I increasejnspeedof SOllie arche pumps in the
system. Investigation of the dynamics ofthe change
from slurry to water or water to slurry is more critical
when pumping slurry of high specific gravity and
high concentration.
Discharge pressures as higl1"3s665 psi have been
developed with multiple pumps ill series. The
Waipipi Iron sands shiploading system vis all

MECIIANICAL AND OrERATIONAL ASI'I!CTS

example. This system consists ef an above-ground

transfer pipeline and a submarine shiploading pipeline.

f,I

The tr.msfer system has eight identicallOinch by

JO-inch rubber-lined centrifugal slurry pumps.
Three pumps are installed in series on a concentrator barge and the remaining live pumps are installed
in series in the main booster pump station. The
pumps are rubber-lined and are rated at 2300 U.S.
gallons per minute of slurry, at 45 percent solids
concentration. The maximum pump casing pressure
is 400 psi.
The shiploading pump station is equipped with
six, 16-inch by .l-l-inch centrifugal slurry pumps
mounted in series. Three pumps have fixed speed
drives a'no the remaining three are installed with
variable speed drives using eddy current couplings.
The pumps are Ni-hard metal and are rated at 6450
U.S. gallons per minute at45 percent solids concentration. These pumps have a maximum pump
casing pressure of 665 psi.

12J

pump. The oil prevents contact between the pistons

and cylinders and the abrasive slurry thus greatly
reducing wear. The suction and discharge valves,
however. still operate in the slurry and are vulnerable to abrasion. The oil barrierrequires an oil tank,
two interface tanks, 'and, numerous.auxiliaryparts.
Nevertheless. maintenance costs are generallylower
than on conventional piston or plunger pumps.
I

A recent Mars pump installation (March 1971) is

the Vaal Reefs mine in South Africa where gold ore
is pumped to the surface from an underground mine
at a depth of 7,200 feet.'," The pump used is a
duplex, double-acting unit. The maximum operating pressure is 1140 psi. The flow rate is 580 gpm.
Because of the limited discharge pressure, four stages are required to pump the slurry to the surface.
.
" .
11

It is significant that thi~ installation is unprecedented in hydraulic hoisting with regardto its 7.200
foot depth.
'
,

9.3.4 Moyno Pump

Seal Water System
An important feature ofcentrifugal slurry pumps
is the method employed to protect the gland from
abrasive solids. A common method is the use of a
seal water flush system, where clean water is injected
on the slurry side ofthe gland packing to f1ushsolids
clear of the gland and to keep the gland packing
cool. In multi-pump centrifugal systems, it is necessary to install fairly elaborate seal water systems to
ensure a good flow ofseal water to each pump gland
under varying pressure conditions for each pump
stage in the series. A very satifactofy solution to this
problem was adopted in Waipipi. Each main pump
gland was provided with its own positive displacement pump. This ensured a constant seal water,
flow under all mainline pump pressures.
For slurries in which dilution by seal water flow is
not acceptable, for example in coal and limestone
systems, mechanical expeller-type systems are available. These sealing systems do not require 'sealing ,
water.
I

The Mars pump is manufactured in Japan by

Mitsubishi Metaland Mining Company, Ltd. It is
a duplex, double-acting piston pump-which utilizes
an oil barrier in the piston-liner. portion of the

.J

Tile ivI7>yno, pump is a variation of the screw

principle that utilizes a single helical rotor within a
cylindrical stator. As the rotor turns caviriesJn
which the material is trapped advaiicetoward the,
.discharge end of the unit,
' "

The Moyna pump' is 'flexible in 'the" choice of

construction materials. Rotors can be made from
alloys, including stainless steel, for purposes ofminimizing corrosion and erosion in t111i'casiofabrasive
slurries. Stators' are generally made ofrubberunless
it is not practical because. of the material to be
pumped.The materials puniped gen~raily have high
viscosities. Examples are sand and cement grout and
centrifuge cakes.
'

9.3.5 Special Pumps

Some unique types of-pumps have been developed for special applications.
Lock hopper Pu flip
,, .",.. .
"
The '"lockhopl'ersystelii(Figure 9-13) utilizes
two pressure vessels toalternately inject slurry into
the pipeline.Jnjeciion is provided by writer pressure
acting on a diaphragm which separates thesilirry in
the vessel from the' water s~pplyil1gthehydraulic'
pressure. Tile'diaphragm,' shown in' Figure 9.-/3~ IS a'
c.""

"

;'

",

,-

'

SOLID - I.IQUID FlO\'(f

IH

1I1l.". -r" ~I I'~ ":....11;"',.; '''VOl''. It) ,,,, ~

,.... .. ,.", ....';/..1
t~H " ...<f C MI, i:iil1,ri .
"000 '. &1<0 0' .",
,
I .. rl.~

"

'I.
'''.'"1C'O
.."'V, ". ,,,.,:,"'1 '00' U "......." '10' ....
olio""'..... 'U"" ,,,"':In<MIl ,,,t "'jf'_,. '''''''UGIO
'.'\11 0 .'oU 111'''' ,'tV" .'.h.......,,.U "'H
Iff '''' 11m.. ', 0.,,1,. II , .. " .. , .. , _.
, .. ,
.f,
'..".
Cut _U """"If
, C ..... 'W'''''I
~U

~IYI

\'r.~"L

"" (, ftl .. "'''\\11'' '"

It

U '"

lOCC"'_'''''fO

'tJIIW'''I''~t1OK,,,I'rof

lIS "UttoG M' .. 'CI.UlIIIV

.'

--

oo,"c.''<G """'fill

,"tOIlC'''' "'_IV'

,..*t_oc.. ,,&'V, I ,"

,",....".,.,,,

r.' , ..n "'ll

,,,

'.'I'S"

COOIII:""" "U.~ ""I"~l"'lh' .....'l 16.1

t
"GII"1 ..-.0' ~ I .f", 'l'G""'.' ",IU ("USI ",Al VIS
"- ...-.0 C"OC1.OSf ."Ov"'Vf;1l ,
10',"".
'"'VI f""llltotG , .. , HCWf f\J'l\ ...~. 11'1 CKt<""nf

"'''0'",

kV'"Il ''''0 , .... "Ph.....

Figure 913 Lockhopper Conceplual Operation

diameter prototype slug pump was built by the

patent holders and tested experimentally to pump
coal slurry. Basically, the slug pump may be described as two valved legs which are alternately being
filled with slurry at low pressure and then displaced
with water at high pressure by a continuously operating high head centrifugal water pump. Two fundamental problems developed, those of waterharnmer and product losses into the clear water circuit,
and work on the concept, was suspended. Once
additional experimental work has been performed.
it too may find an application in the transport of
solids.'"

free-moving rubber spherical "piston" which alternately 'drives the slurry from the vessel and drives
the water back to the mixing tanks.

I
"j"-'1

A multi-stage, 'high head water pump is used to

produce the heads required by pumping clear water
from asurgetank IQ the upstream side of the sphere
in the injection sYs.tem_ After injecting the slurry
into the pipeline, the clear water is.displaced to the
slurry hopper by pumping slurry at low pressure
from a mixing tank to the opposite side of the
separating sphere in the injector. An electronic regulating device activates the valves by detecting the
passage of the injector sphere,
A lockhopper system is being used for hydraulic
hoisting from underground mines where the pump
is mounted on thesurface and.the lockhopper at the
working level. A future application of the lock hopper may be.lor the-paper pulp industry where wood
chips would, be transported by pipeline, instead of
by truck over hazardous forest.roads as is now being
done. ,
.
....

i
I
!

9.4 PIPING ANDVALYES

i

The layout of a slurry piping system must take

account of the type of pumping equipment being
employed, the physical nature and the flow regime
of the slurry, and the regular maintenance operations likely to be required..

Slug Pump ...,

';': '. " '0 ' . '

A sJugpumpcoticept (Figure 9.-14) has .been
developed 4!ld is':p4t~lIte~ by th~ Consolidalion
Coal Company, Library, Pennsylvania. A three-inch

Ina system which uses posmve displacement

pumr; Iht "ih,alions 10 which the riring system
rnav he eubi-. -ed s'iould be given full consideration.

MECIIANICAl AND OPERATIONAL ASI'ECTS

SLURRy ENTERS AT VALVE "A" UNTIL TOPMANIFOLO IS Flll"E-O

WI I" Slunnv 10 VAL VE "C". PUMP ''SEES'' ONt V WAnn AS
till' SllJl1RV IS FonCED FROM ROT TOM MANIFOLD DOW" tlIELlNf.

125

THE annOM PMNlrOlD CDNJltIllU TO fill VJlJH SLURRY UNlit

JUSt 8EFORE I' REACHES VALVE "C", t"EN BorH VALVES 1\'.
AND 'C' ARERF.Vf.RSf:D INnt SHOWN) AND tUf. PROCESS REPEATS
nSEtt,' At All mAl$ DllnlNI; mr PllMPUU; OPEnAw.r; UIE
PUfu, "SEES" nNl v Wfl reR;

STEP 3#=~~~_~.===="",~,
Q.

STEP
)

2~~~====~
,

VALVS "A" AND "C" ARE REVERSED AND 'UM, FORCES

SLURRY OUT OF TO' MANIFOLD AS PUM' snu, "SEES" ONt y
WAnn. 80,rOMMANIFOlO 8EGIHSFllllNG Willi SlURRY.

Figur.914 Slug Pump Conceptual Operation

,.
Vibrations associated with positive displacement
pumps have been a problem for many years.and the
designer must pay particular attention to the questions of pulsation dampening and piping supports.
Inadequate dampening and poor station piping
design can result in excessive pump maintenance
costs. and increased fatigue failures in piping and
instrumentation,

The second type ofpressure variation is more

complex and potentially more serious, It is associated with pressure itrnnsients induced iby sudden
pump valve openings (waterharnmer), Commercial
dampeners are not available-to compensate for such
pressure transients in slurry iservice.. Fabricated
cappedstandpipesare the:. pest available method of
minimizing'suchpressur: transients" On 'station

sucticnpiping,
Vibrations in pump station piping are induced
by '''CSSII,e transients Ofl1l0derate freqllency, reslJlting from rapid opening and closing ofpumpsuction
and discharge valves, (They are not caused by unbalanced forces of the pump which are compensated
lor in the design and structural integrity or the
pump's foundation.)
I
=

Two types of pressure variations occur in positive

displacement pump station piping. The fitst type is
the normal pressure. pulse fluctuation associated
with the sinoidal variation in flow rate during a
PUIllP stroke. Commercially available dampeners
can even out the "variations in flow which will .
reduce these "flow induced" pressure pulsations.
:J

:.Y'

presstir~t"alJS.ieii

A meiIiQdfor.ll,eaS1Jril'irapid
IS
at the slJ5tio,~and dischargeofa po,si~ivedisl'l~ce'
ment pump.utilizesa presstire transdu2e(and an
oscilloscope. A Polaroid' call1er~ isheIl'ftil, using a
time e~poslJ.reofthe s~m~durati(,n,as.the:pump.
stroke.:This.:.produces a.~ecor(r'pf.t(lei pr~~sur~'
transient foionerevoliJti()!lo,fth~;Ji~mp~;T(lis, .
metho~\Vasu~ed to investigate prdsureira~sients
on tlie~uction and dischargepipi~gQfduplex
piston pumps.
A typical pressure transient for the disch~rge of a .
duplex, double acting piston pump is 'shown in
Figure 9-' IS. The average wave, if plotted through

SOI.lD - I.IQUID

126

the mean of the higher frequency pressure Iluctuation, is asscocia(fd \vithdte;i1tmnaIHow variation
of the pump. Tf,eampli'ud,e of this average wave
can berequced:bY il,stilll;atil1jl ofadditional dampener capacity; Ifif)epres~lire r4rialioll ofone pulse is
withi~'a lewp~Weiitoflfie'(olaldisch'lrge pressure.
iris norl1)aIlY<:QJtsidef~~ Il.\aldampeningis adequate, The spik~~ indicated lh Fi!iure,9~(5 is typical
ofa shockwav~tesulting'frql1)the sudden opening
of the pumpdischarge,,,~lve,'
'." ,.. .0
-.... " ' ".' ;
~

'~

:.;;

l :; ,
',"C

now

The suction conditions ol'the first positive displacement pump station in a slurry system are particu" larly important since it is normally fed by centrifu- "
. gal pumps. Figure 9-16 shows a typical suction
pressure trace .of a suction directly from a slurry
, storage tank. Note the, typical "saw tooth" pattern
of the mean of the trace. When a piston starts on a
suction stroke. the suction valve opens and the
suction pressure drops. The suction pressure then
builds up before the next suction valve opens. In
this period the flow is accelerating in the suction
piping. The energy in the suction system is supplied
by a centrifugal slurry pump. so /low and head
continually vary.

It should be noted that the sudden suction valve

opening induces a pressure transient (spike) in the
suction piping (waterhammer waves traveling at the
speed ofsound). If the combined lower pressure due
to pulsing flow and the "spike" result in reduction
of the suction pressure to below the liquid vapor
pressure.fhen the pump willcavitarc. Cavitation is
immediately announced by loud "banging" noises
as each piston strokes. It is obvious that continued
operation with- cavitation will cause damage to a
positive displacement pump.

Figure 9-15 Pressure T,ansiftnt T;acePositive Displacement Pump O.ischarge

""'

..

Numerous tests, of which Figures 9-15 ilnd9-16

are illustrative. led to the conclusion that the standpipe is a very effective device in controlling "spikes"
on the suction side .of the pump. Spikes were
reduced to approximately 5.0 percent with the standpipe compared to the bottle-type pulsation dampeners. In addition, the standpipe was eflecrive in
reducing ,the average pressure variations to as low
as 5 01'6 psi :-,significantly lower than the 10 to 20
psi experienced with the bottle-type dampeners
used; larger dampeners would have equivalent performances.
Inol'der to tlli~imize pressure pulsations. pump
station piping should be as simple as is practical with
adequate supports provided. In addition. the allowable pipe wall hoop stress should be reduced to take
into accountcyclic fatigue stresses of moderate 10
,higli frequency.

Figure 9.1S'p;'essu,. Tt~~sll!nt TracePositive Displacement Pump Suclion

Delicate instruments, such as pressure recorders

and gages,. should be remotely installed with a
flexible" pipe 'fitting.

.,,~

"

The piping designer must also include in his lay-

out the means to.facilitate both regular and omslonal malntenance. Some of the operations which

i,

, I
I
I

I'
f

I!

~mCIIANICI\l.

ANI) OI'ERA TIONA I. AsrECTS

mil)' be carried out in a typical.slurry pumping unit

are as follows:

Flushing or draining the piping on 'routine or

emcrucncv shutdown-

Replacement of wear points (at pump discharge,

sharp bends. restrictions. etc)
Rotation of straighthorizonlal pipe sections
handling coarse slurries
Access for unplugging
Elimination of dead spaces at tees and tappings.

The above considerations apply much more strongly when heterogeneous slurries are being transported.

,I

.j

:~::!

,i

I
I
,

The abrasive elfects ofslurries.discussed under the

section on pumps. are also felt in slurry piping
systems. although to a lesser degree. Figure 9-:-17
illustrates some of the typical causes of abrasive
wear. For homogeneous slurries. ill the absence of
oxygen. pipe wear only becomes a consideration at
velocitiesofabove10 It/sec, and is more ofaconsiderarion at velocities above 20 ft/sec. For heterogeneous slurries, wear can be serious at5 ft/sec.Inter-

.'J
...

,;;::1
"~I

"'i

tI'GNVUOCItY - -

..~ '-::.

..no

.'.

_ ..... _ .....

-=: '_
~

.:~~

nal lining (e.g., rubber) of the pipe may be desirable

in some cases. Wear at flow direction changes can be
minimized by selection of fillings which make the
changes more gradual, such as extra-long radius
elbows.
The designer of slurry syste..ns is'faced with the
problem of selection of the most economical pipe
which will have an expected life consistent with the
particular application. The choice ofpi~e m~st. be
, made with regard to pressure, temperature Iirnitations, corrosiveness and abrasiveness of the slurry.
In addition to conventional carbon steel pipe, there
is availabe rubber-lined and concrete-lined carbon
steel, special abrasion resistant steel, and aluminum.
These are, of course, more expensive and would
only be used with a very abrasive or corrosive slurry.
As noted, the amount of wear experiencedby a
pipe depends upon thevelocity and the abrasiveness
of the slurry. As stated earlier, general pipeabrasiop
becomes a consideration at velocities above'abo,ut
5 ft/sec with heterogeneous slurries>Above' this
threshold. the pipe, wear.Jncreasesexponentially
with l(~IQ( il)'.'61 the value of theexponentreported
as being in the: range 2.1to 2.9. Theabra~iv'e'char:ii:
ter of a slurrymust be evaluated Onacase-by;ca~,e
basis, although some relative, values of abrasiveness
can be obtained from the Miller Number.'!' ,

A'!tAsrOIf, C101l'N"ltfAY

'0''''''0

After selecting the pipe, the designer ~ust specify

through standard formulas the pipe minimum
yield-strength and the wall thickness required to
contain the expected pressurcs.r" The normal economic range of wall thicknesses encountered in
slurry systems ranges from 0./ 88 in. to 0.750 in.
Heavier pipe is 'feasible but calls for higher.costs in
termsof capital and welding and installation. 0;750
inch wall is about .the practical 'maximum'. ," ,

.- -;

1,"'''''10 IY stlDlIiIIC
Olt 10UIIC'''G,A"flCIrs

Other thanmanufacturing~b;'siQe;~riQ?s,the
limiting factor fOf the minilllll ll1wall. thi~kne.sse~
for cross countryline.pipe is usuallyexternal.loading. A'convenrional rule-of-thumb.is thittthe ratio
of pipe outside diameter towall thicknessshould be
lessthall'128.
"
"

.. I
=

127

,"...el 01 DllllC 11011

'OIlG.AOIVS Ittouus ,,'A"

"

Figure 917 Abrasive We., Can Have V.rious CaU1es

Valves, as wi!hpumps,Il1~s,t be c!esjgl1~d for abrasive' service:'l'referablytheyshould,l'royide a f~l! '

line-size 'opening, they sliould' not. depend upon
machined-metalsurfacesfor closure;aMshollld not
have dead pockets that canaccul'iulate. solids and
restrict operation. Valves having restrictions or
circuitous fluid passageways will cause abrasion
downstream of the valve, as shown in Fig. 9-18.

, SOLID LIQUID Fl.OW

HlI ..... 1I0

........'10' ,,,,..'U,,,,

Figure 918 Valves:' Impingement on Seat and Wails

will Caus. excessive Wear Hefd; tbe hili-opening
flow.r,~ngem.nt ('!ght' Minimizes Wea"

Many suitable valve designs are available for low

pressure; service, often using rubber-to-rubber or
metal-to-rubber sealing, To date, high pressure/large
diameter applications have used lubricated plug or
ball. valves, neither of which is ideally suited to
slurry service.In some cases plug valves are specified
with Stellite facing on the plug and internal body to
reduce wear. Most ball valves must be fitted with
flush and drain connections so that solids can be
removed. fromthe body.after operation.

Figure 919 Yypica' Processing fo', Slurry Systems

Common to both preparation and utilization,

there is almost always a slurry storag~ phase.since it
is rarely practical to direct I)' couple the transport
system with the processing plant. Various storage
facilities, such..as tanks and ponds. with their associated agitators and recovery dredges, must be considered.
The literature on the individual processing operations is quite vast and an attempt to summarize it
here would not be very meaningful. Our purpose in
this section is to indicate what processing steps are
associated with slurry transport systems. to discuss
the type of equipment presently used, and to highlight various key design parameters that will be use.
ful to the design engineer.

9,5 SLURRY PROCESSING

The -.processing steps associated with slurry
systems are often Critical to the technical and economic .viability. of the slurry transport system and
deserve careful-attention.Processing can be broadly
dividedInto slurry' preparation and slurry utilization (see Fig. 9-19)., Preparation-covers the physical
and chemical processing necessary' to achieve the
slurry characteristics required Jor hydraulic transport and utilization. Preparationnormally involves
both pariicl~ size reduction 'andslurrificatiOiI (additionof the liquid phase), Chemical treatment may
also be part of a slurry preparation system for corrosion inhibition,' thinning, and improving the
characteristics of the final product. The utilizariou
process may include facilities to change the slurry
concentmtion.jrorma Ily- to . iricreasethe. solids content by means of thickening, decanting, cycloning,
and. screening..... More"osophisticated dewatering
~lethods may beneeded,dependingon the slurry
and its ultimate use, such asvacuum filtration,centrifuging~()rthermal dryiitg.Thesl,,!riy might need
treatment,such as'~leating,'to improve centrifuge
performance, or chemical.addition to enhance
thickening.

9.5.1 Slurry Preparation

Minerals extraction generally requires very fine

grinding of the ore: 70 to 80% of the particles
passing 325 niesh (44 microns) is not uncommon.
Size reduction of the ore normally involves a wet
process and the resulting slurries are readily handled. However some hydraulic transportation S)'Sterns require-special slurry preparation facilities
(see Table 9,.5), a typical example being coal. for
these systems a balance has to be made between the
particle size range suitable for pumping and the size
range which gives good dewatering characteristics.
If'sizing is too fine, pumpability may be good but
the slurry may be difficult to dewater at the pipeline
terminal. lft he size is too coarse, a high I)' heterogeneous slurry results, with consequent higher

MEClfANICAI. AND OPERATIONAl. ASPECTS

Material

Gray.i-t-y

Maximum
Plr1icle
ma Mell.

GllSONITE

1.05 .

Yes

Highpressure water jets, crushers

COAL

1.40

Yes

Impactors, cage mills, rod mills

LIMESTONE

2.70

48

No

Impactors, bal(mills

COPPER

4.30.

65

No

Crushers, aUlo~enous mills, ball mills

MAGNETITE

4.9

t50

No

Autogenou, mill'. ball mill'

Specific

,I

Special

12"

Prep.ration
Required

Size Reduction
Equipment
Commonly U..d

Tabl.95 Commercial 5Iu,,'" for PlpellnltS

I
pumping velocities (and costs) and higher wear
. rates. The ultimnte choice of particle size range
depends upon:

higher than required for thle. pipeline with dilution

control instrumentation .providcd d,.)\vnstreatn in .
the line.

a) The overall cost of preparation, pumping and

utilization of the slurry, and

Top-size "control is extremely important for any

slurry transported over a long distance in a pipeline.
Large quantities of coarse, fast-settling particles can
cause pipeline plugs. To prevent this safety screens
are installed to prevent coarse particles from entering the pipeline.. In systems where..a-minimum
amount of grinding is dOJ1e andwherethe slurry is
relatively high in density and slow settling, con- .
ventional classification devices such as cyclones and
screens are not satisfactory. for top-size control unless the slurry can be diluted and .later thickened
prior to transportation.

b) operability of the slurry, including shutdown/

startup characteristics and critical velocity.
Grindin~ of Solids

Where' grinding is done specifically to prepare a

material for pipelining, the step will normally involve conventional milling equipment, In some
cases the equipment may be a new application to
grinding the specific materi;ll.lKl In the Black Mesa
.coal-preparation plant, shown in Fig. 9-20;rod mills
(typical of those found in oredressing plants) are
used for the final coal-grinding stage; It 'vasneces'
my to apply the known.jnilling technology of
metal-ore dressing to the grinding of coal.

=[

In slurry preparation for pipelining, two variables

become quite important. These are the control of
slurry density and controLofproducttop size:
Control of slurry density is important primarily
for the production of a consistent material fitting
the hydraulic design of the pipeline. As described
earlier slurry concentration plays an important role
in both the friction'19ssin the pipeline and the critical velocity of the slurry. The preparation step is
usually performed at a solids concentration slightly

_.

--

There are many types of mills available for crushillgalld grinding ores. The most common include
autogeneous.Impact cage, rod, and ball mills. Selection of the most suitable mill depends on the
characteristics of the ore, particularly. hardness, and
the required fineness of the final product.
(;rit:tgingl'ower;MetaILoss.
While many crushing and grinding mills are sized
based .on manufacturer's experience or tests, the
horsepower requirements fOf grinding with rod or
ball mills have been correlated to a theoretical Work
Index (\Vi) by F. C. BONO,'8) The Work Index in
BOND's Third Theory is a property of the material'
to. be, ground (determined bya laboratory 'test or,
preferably, from commercial or pilot-plant ex-

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

IJO

Fig.ur. 920. Preparing Coal for Slurry Transport Involves Screening. Crushing. Grinding. and Storave In Mi)dng Tanks.

r-"...

1-"

Table ~~61'rovides a quick way of estimating the

perience). BOND's app~oach gives excellent estimates of grinding-power. requirements, and many
millinginstallations have been sized on this basis;
ho,~ever. it.is .a. big step' from a fractional-horsepo)"er .Iaboratory-millInvolving a few pounds of
sample, tq a.multithousand-horsepower commercial
mill, processing millions oftons per year. Needless
to say, great care, and.judgmentmust be used in
,
making such: extrapolations;
v

80% passing feed or product sizevbased on a general

knowledge of the size ofthe material.

MaterIal Size
99% Passing

1}sin.
lin.
!lIn.

:t.'

Thebasic Bond equation is:

W-[

10 Wi

(pl ll

10 Wi
(p)1I2 .

Jx

318 'ia
3 mesh
4 mesh
6 mesh

1.34

"::,

Where,:<
'.'
WLWork Index
. ' ..
P the 'size in microns that 80% of the product
passes
F .the 80% passing feed size, microns
W .grinding-powerrequirement; hp-hr/short ton
This equationis also useful for estimating the effects
ofvariablechangeson a commercial milling operation.
..
..
.
Work hld~xe~"frOQ)ma~y t~ts are available'" 1'0'
and general values,for most materials can usually be
located fa! prelil~inary, horsepower calculations;

In.

mesh
10 mesh
14 mesh
20 mesh

28 mesh
35 mesh
. 48 mes~
6511lesh
, 1.00 mesh,
150 mesh
200 mesh
325 mesh.

80" Passing Equivalent

For P .. Microns

(fJY, or (pry,

25,000
18,000
12,000
8,000

158.0
134,0
109.5
92,2

6,000
4.200
3,000
2,100
.1,500
1,000
800
500

77.4
64,8
54,8
45,8

400

270
150
105

n
55 '
.36
20

38,7
31.6
28.3
23.4
20.0
16.4
12.25
10.25
8.48
7.42
6.0
4.47

Tabl. ~.6 -Conyertlrig'Niaterial SJz~s for Us. In Bond Equation

MECHANICAL AND OPERATIONAL ASPECTS'

Having an estimate of the Work Index and feed

and product size, Figure 9-21 is useful for estimating
grinding-power requirements.' For examplej what
is the power required to grind coal in a wet process
lor a Work Index (Wi) of IIA? The coal feed size to
the mill is 99~~ passing 114 in., this correspondstoan
80% passing Iced size
of 5,000 microns (Table
9':'6). The desired product size is 80% passing 300
microns (all passing 28 mesh). Using Figure 9.,.21
to obtain lfp - 9.0 and 111- 2.2, then:

1.1,1

"-,.---,----,----,---,.---,

"'-1---

.20

!
e
%

::i

1.15 .

e
~

;!

I -__ HOJl;:111lC11fI!U li/llffl.nd liljllcfin,M.oIi'._ _-t

...5- - :_ _

.-t-'---+--...,f----l---..:.ii'---l

.. .,.
,

D,'

ABAASION 'NDU. AI
..

t ..

tIf'Wtll'"

"M

u ....

L.

_1"_,,,_

"""rt IlIn ....ClttIll. . .USIliJII

Iii ~ A.\ I>

.-..- -

Figur.921 Correlating Grinding Horsepow.,wilh Size

W-Wp-Wf
- 9.0-2.2 - 6.8 hp-hr/ton
Therefore, ifit is necessary to grind'l,OOO tons/hrof
this coal to 80% passing 300 microns.the minimum
milling horsepower will be:

,I'

~I

f lorscpower - 6.8 hp-hr/ton x 1,000 tons/hr

- 6,800

A significant part of grinding costs is the loss of

metal through abrasion from the grinding medium
and mill liners. Here again, r. C. BOND has developed correlations and laboratory procedures!') to
estimate.metal consumption during grinding. The
abrasiveness in grinding of various materials is correlated with, the Abrasion Index, Ai.

Figure 9-22 is a plot ofthe Abrasion Index against

metal consumption for wet,grinding in rod or ball
mills. The metal los~'values from Figure 9-22 include both liner and grinding media.

."

Flgur.922 Met.1 loss In Wet Grinding Operations

BOND tabulates Abrasion Indexes from numerous tests. This tabulation was the source of, the
Abrasion Indexes used' in the metal-consumption
calculations shown on Table 9-7. For example.fhe
AbrasionIndex for limestone, ,taken as 0.0238,;
gives a metal usage (from Fig. 9-22) for wet ball milling of 0.052 Ib ofrneralpergrinding horsepowerhour. Using the' previously calculated grinding
power for this limestone and product size of 11.2
hp-hr/ton (fable 9-7),a metal consumption of
0.052 lb/hp x 11.2 hp-hr/ton - 0.58Ib/tqn of limestone ground results.

Grinding power and metal consumption through

abrasion are the two major variables in the operating
costs of a grindingiJlsta/lation. As shown in Table
9-7, the power 'costs for grinding may range from
half to nearly twice the metal costs.
Relative grinding costs for coal. limestone, copper
ore, and magnetite eire are.shown on Table 9-7 to
illustrate the relativerange ~ftosts to.grind.a material to a size suitable for plpelinetrauspcrtarlon.
Taking coal asa base of 1.0,the relativeoperating
costs are 1.6,3.5, and 5.7, respectively, for limestone,
copper ore, and magnetite. In actualpracticeonly
the coal grinding would be chargeal)(e'iotJ:3r1SpOr~
tation- (and 'then only 'partially). The 'grinding
illustrated for Iimesrone, copper ore; and magnetite,

, .12

'SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

Horsepower
Work IUdel.Wi
Feed sin. 80"~ passmg

IF'
microns
5000
PloduCI sile'. 80') passinq
(PJ microns
300
WI IFig.9-211
2.2
Wp IFig. 9211 '
. ; 9.0:

5000

5000

5000

150
2.3
13.5

100
2.2
16.0

55
2.3
23.0

. W!" Wp - WI. hp..hr/lon

As the cross-sectional area of the sump narrows (an

inverted cone or pyramid shape). slurry concentration increases.

lime- Copper
~ ..!!!!!!.. 0 Ma,Retill
13.6
IV
11.7
11.4

:.6.8,

11.2

Another ,slurrification method requires using

energy of a high-velocity stream of water to break
up the solids and form a slurry. The high-velocity
water strea lll is formed by a high-pressure nozzle.
Hydraulic mining and the Marconaflo jet system
<IlHIJI are examples ofthis (Fig. 9-24). In this system
slowly rotating jets at about 300 psi reslurry caked
concentrate. The reslurried concentrate then flows
by gravity through grates to sumps and the SUIllP
pumps.

--13.8 20.7

. Metal consumption
8.n 8all
Rod
8all
Mill. wei
Abrasion Index. Ai
0.02 0.0238 0.1472 0.2217
0.053
0.52 0.143 0.164
A,lh/llph' mg. 9221
Melal consumption, A x W,
1.97
3.4
Ibllon
0.36
5.8
Rel.tive ,rlnding costs. eIIon
Power .1t1kwh> '
Mel,l &llOMh
TOlal
Relalive Clut

5.1
3.6

8.4
0.58

8.7
' '1.0

14.2
1.6

10.3
19.7

15.4
34.0

30.3
3.5

49.4
5.7

-- --

T.ble 9-7 Cah::ul.tions fOf Grinding:

Horsepow.r and M.lal Consumption

',.

although sufficient for pipeline transportation. is

required for the end use.

-\--

-~

--------- ----

.. -.,.,',

Siurrification: Mixing Water and Solids

Slurrification normally takes the form of mixing
water and solids together in a gravity feed chute
where the water assists t1)e travel of solids through
the chute. This is common practice in a wet-grinding
process. The water and coarse solids feed directly
into the grinding mill which. discharges a uniform
"
slurry.

.:..~

\
\
\
\

HopPfl Bollom
to Conu"tlll' Solids

Slope Excuding Slulfy',

HAnvl. of R.pose"

\
\

; A notable 'exception 'to this is the' cutter-head

suction dredge. A rotating cutter head provides the
shearing action to breakdown the bed of sand or
gravel into particles that can be transported hydrauIically in 'slurry form. The solids in the bank are
sheared downwards. thus dragged downrowards the
dredge suction where they are picked up in the suction flow, Thcm.iximum' suction lift of a slurry
pump limits the' density ofa slurry that can be recovered by a ~redge.

Siurrifi~ation is also often achieved by using

hopper-shaped :sump5(Fig:' 9-23).' Solids disperse
over the surface of the liquid in the sump usually by
, gravity flow through a screen. Water issprayed onto
thesurface of the screen to assist in screening; to
break.up.agglcmerates, and to distribute the parti, eles. Liquid inlh~ $\Illlp,is maintained at a constant
. . Ievel.independenr of solidsaddition. In the sump'
the particles settle at their terminal settling velocity.

Figure 923 Scre,n System for Reslurrving Coarse Sand

Rotalin, Jr'

"It"Pr,$Wt':

...~

$'uIfY

..... :.uP~.t".'.

Figure 924 HI9h'.Pressur.Jet

C.n Reslurry Caked Solids

I
I

lI
I
I

[,
'\ 1

MECII,INICAI. AND OPERA TIONA!. ASPECTS

Chemical Treatments
Corrosion in a pipeline transporting a water/
solids slurry is controlled by, adding,corrosion inhibitors alid will be discussed in detail in Chapter 10.
Shear-thinning materials. or dispersants. such as
lignin compounds and polyphosphates, are exampies of materials that are effective .in breaking-up
agglornerates. Such chemicals are used in the cement
industry. These materials reduce the electric charges
on the edge ofthe particles so that they are dispersed
in the fluid trapped in the agglomerates. This fluid is
now released and becomes part ofthe free fluid. The
effect is to increase the dilution of the slurry. A
su rprising reduction in pressure losses is possible
with low-dosage levels.
Drag reducers suppress turbulence in the pipe.
These materials are usually macromolecules of very
large molecular weight (large-chain polymers). The
exact mechanics ofhow they reduce turbulence is
not understood. They are quite effective in astonishingly smallquanritlesinnonslurry systems; but
they are less, effective in slurry systems because
considerable suppression of turbulent energy dissipation has already taken plaCl.(I<lln addition, most
slurry systems operate near the laminar-turbulent
transition point where turbulent dissipation is not
ftryh~.
-,

I.lJ

In such an event. the off-specificat ion slurry iseither

recycled or sent to a dump pond.

, ,-

SUlItllT
. ItDIIAn

"'lolltllltf'UW

, , -... 0...-...,11

-~ltI,I .., _

Figure 925 'Slurrv PipelineSafety Loop

;."

Controlling Product Quality

As a final control step to ensure that only specification slurry is committed to the main pipeline, a
"test loop" should be included in the system (Fig.
9-25). This test loop is normally or piping section
about 300 ft long, ofthe same diameter pipe as used
in the main slurry pipeline. All slurry must pass
through this section before going into the main
pipeline. The test loop on the Savage River system
(iron concentrates; Tasmania, Australia) is located
betweenthe feed tank and tlii: mainline pumps.
An alternative location is between the slurry storage
tanks.
'

Since the test loop is simply a short inline versIon'

of the main pipeline, it is, useful in monitoring
changes in slurry hydraulics. Pressure drop (usually
by differential pressure cell) !s measured in the loop
along with flow, temperature, and density. Any
increase in the test loop pressure drop above specified limits signifies a deleterious change in, slurry
properties and probably indicates that 'coarse, fastsettling particles are forming a bed, in the loop.

9.5.2 Slurry Utilization

The following sections will discuss the utilization
of slurries from a practical standpoint. Although
most of the unit processes which have beendeveloped have been built up around .rion-pipeline
transportation systems. It should, be expected that in
the future, as slurry pipeline systems become more
commonplace, a better fit will occur between: the
preperationstepa.necessary, to' prepare 'slurry'for
long-distanceslurry pipelines and the subsequent,
utilization steps at the terminal end of the line:
Storing Slurries
Size and type of storage depends on throughput
of the preparation, plant and slurry pipeline, the
operating factor ,of rlie.preparation-plant.rand the'
type of slurry being produced..
"

... ;'

Fo~ mostlong-distance slurry pipelines, it is good

practice, as.aruleof.thumb, to have-a minimum
storago; sapac,ilyequiv.alentto .six hours ofplant
throughput. The time between-receiving the 'slurry
into storage and committing it to the pipeline is
/':l::O-':'-,~:--\

/.4.'

..~' ::::.\

SOLID I.IQUID FLOW

134

'j:'

t".

'

J:
"

"

"

necessary for laboratory analyses such as slurry percent solids and size distribution; If the slurry is outside.the specification for pumping, then the retentiontime in storage can Ill: used to carry out corrective .rneasures without shutting 'down the system,

Air-1'7aur Connections> Suitable air-water connections at the top of the tank for lancing purposes
are desirable.' These connections can also beused
during a power failure or to get a stalled agitator restarted.

Agitatcd Storage
The calculation of mixing-power requirements
has been' amply covered in' Reference 15 and in
Chapter 8 so there is no reason to cover this subject
here.

Bottom ShajiGuM, - It is not recommended

that bottom bearings be Used: they are difficult to
maintain in the slurry. The bottom ofthe shali
should be fitted with a loose guide to prevent shan
whip.

The Mohave coal tanks, with 6 million gal in useful capacity per-tank, are the largest agitated slurry
tanks in existence, being 125 ft dia. by 85ft high.
The agitator-drive horsepower is 500, the upper
larger agitator blade is 34 ft dia., and the lower agitator blade is 29 ft dia. These blades rotate at a speed of
7,rpm.

. Ddi1J"YP~'Jt- The delivery pipe to the agitator

tank is sometimes placed below the surface of the
slurry to minimize air entrainment.

One item the engineer should specify carefully is

what he wants, in the .way 'of performance. Two
comments bear on this:
1. Concentration variaton ,of the slurry on withdrawal from the tank should ;be held within specified
limits. There isusually little interest in the actual'
concentration. gradient, in the tank. The authors
have seen the situation where a water layer was
present at the top of the lank when full, and upon
emptying, the tank concentration remained rela. lv
unif
nve
y unllorm.'
'i'I
.
2.The'design should avoid large quantities of solids
being deposited at the edge of the tank due to insuffi~ient turbulence.
Here are sOole design hints to avoid 'such operating problems. We have also included some Useful
items of "convenience":
. Au(JS Doors - Access doors should be big
enough so that a wheelbarrow can be rolled into the
bottom of the tank for periodic removal of trash

material,

Drains - Drains should be at the very bottom

of the tank, .below the normal suction,to perniit. I
complete-drainage for tankInspection,
'

Solids Attririon in Agitated Tanks

One area ofgreat interest in handling materials in
agitated tanks involves solids attrition; Experimental data are often needed to determine the relative
tendency of the material to degrade. But laboratory
attrition. data obtained at agitator speeds of 1,000
rpm and higher have no relation to large cornmercialtanks, because such tanks have much lower rotational speeds- Note that the Mohave tanks have
only a rotation speed of 7 rpm.
While the rate of shearing strain (shear level) is
proportional to rotational speed, there is considerable
confusion in the literature as to what is meant by
"shear level; and the followingbrief discussion will
try to clarify this point.
In \I pipeline for laminar flow:

Viscosity -

(LlPDI4L)
(8VID)

Shear stress
Shear level

The term 8VID.sometimescalled the flow function,

is really the shear lev~1 on the wall of the pipe.

an

In
agitated slurry tank, we may write the expression:
8V _ ( Tank velocity parameter
--=-""i'--,i"-'=-o.<.J;';::';'::=:':':"-) - KNc
0 , ' Tank distance parameter
";f;'

::l.

Ugh/big - Adequate lighting is needed at the

top of .the tank platform to show thesliJrry level,
,

"

Sualon PiP;'I,~ ..,Anysucticlll'pipin'g'leading to

a pump should be pla'ceda'fe\v feet abdve' tli~ floor
of the tankto avoid drawing trash into the pump.

where.:

V - linearvelochy
D - dia. of pipe
L -Jengthofpipe
P - pressure'
N ~ agltatcr.speed in revolutions per second.

I~

~IECIIANICAl

I )

IL
I

t
L
!
L
,

t,
'!

i
II
I

.l'r

L
I
I
I

\
L

~I

ri

i,.

J,
f

I,
~

The last equation is discussedin Reference IS.

Chapter 4. Certain simplifications are possible: the
exponent ( is unity for many materials. The propertionalirv t:1ctor K is about 10. There are interesting
implicctions from the. above formulas for mixer
design. As an example, let us assume a slurry going
through a pipeline at a 110w rate of4 ft/secwith a pipe
diameter of 10 inch does not produce measurable
degradation of these solids. Then. by-applying the
above conversion, we calculate that an agitator
speed of 4 rps would give comparable shear rates in
an agitator tank. This,of course, is 240 rpm.which
as already noted is much higher than would exist in
any cornrnercial Iarge-scale tank. The procedure can
obviously be reversed; If one determines a critical
value of N in the laboratory mixer, then the critical
degrading velocity in a slurry pipe system can be
calculated for a given diameter pipeline.
Static Storage
For the bulk storing of large quantities of slurry,
either nonagitated tanks or ponds are usually the
most economical method. Large-volume storage is
only necessary in processes that operate very interrnittently or in industries that require large, onsite
feed stockpiles.

AND OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

~
I)

. The bulk storing. of iron-ore concentrate at

marine terminals for shipment using the Marconano concept is an example of nonagitated storage.
Another example is the storing of a coal slurry in
nonagitated, emergency storage ponds for use in the
event of long-term stoppage of the pipeline processes.

In operation, the slurry is discharged directly into

the tank or pond, and the solids settle to their terminal concentrations. Depending on particle size of
the solids, inflow slurry concentration, specific gravity of the solids, the settled slurry will remain semifluid forextended periods (provided it is not compacted by induced vibration). It is possible to reclaim this settled slurry via suitably located drawoff
points. Fast-settling, high-specific-gravity slurries
settle into a compact bed, and shearing action is
required for reslurrification, One method now
being adopted is to use water jets to reslurry the
solids to a pumpable consistency. Another method
involves dredge recovery.

Thickening of Slurry
The thickening ofa slurry priorto pipeline pumping is necessary with some slurry pipelines. This is

done for two reasons: (I) to raise the slurry density

to a controllable level for pumping, and (2) to limit
the amount of unnecessary water pumped into the
slurry. But. if the density is too high; the slurry will
be too thick for economic pumping. Therefore, the
economic tradeoff must be analyzed.
At the terminal end of the pipeline, the slurry is
oftenthickcned as, the first step in the dewatering
process to .reduce the size of the more expensive
filtering equipment.' .
I

Tbickmers - A thickener is a tank or basin, usually

circular, in which solids settle by gravity. The primary objective of a thickener is to recover settled
solids as a concentrated slurry (clarifiers produce a
clear liquor' from ri dilute suspension); Sedimentation in a thickener is by zone or line settling, The
particles in the feed slurry cohere in a floc structure,
and the solids settle as a consolidated mass,leaving
a sharp boundary.between the settling suspension
and the supernatant liquor. Thickeners usually have
a raking mechanism 10 convey the settled solids to a
discharge point.
.... " .
The degree to which a slurry can be thickened depends on the settling characteristics ofthe solids; the
physical size of the thickener (area and del'th), the
feedrate, and the underflow concentration,
~'}.

Bench-scale batch testing of thesettlingcharacteristies of various' 'concentrations of slurry as

measured in graduates is useful for sizingthickeners as large as 300 ft dia. In these tests, the-subsidence
of the slurry supernatant interface is measured as a
function of time.
., .

r,

Data recorded fr6m these tests are 'used in' the

COE and CLEVENGER technique for sizing
thickeners. The reader is referred to, Reference 16
fOl'fi,l'tli"i,details .

Decanters - Thickening by decanting is helpful in

dewatering a slow-settling low-specific-gravity slurry
such as coal, The procedure is simply.to fill a nonagiratedtank or pond with slurry through adistribution pipe with evenly spaced spigots to ensure an
even, uniform deposit of-slurry and. allow time for
the solids to settle. If necessary, coagulating -chernicals thatare not harmful to the final process can be
added.to.assist.in clarificatlon of the excessliquors,
The clear.Iiquid above the settled solids is then
decanted.'
.

;I

j .';.
.I"j

SOLID -LIQUID FLOW

;':;;'

(;~>,

t, ,

'... '
t' r,

i" ,
j

,There are usually two or more ponds or tanks in

anyinstallation: one is being filled while another is
bei~g emptied. The maximum concentration by decanting is limited by the fluid properties of the set.tled slurry and the ability to recoup the settled solids
in slurry form.
.

ScrWIS - Dewatering screens also thicken certain

selected slurries. Solids. retained in the slurry. Ioun
the screen oversize and water is th,escreen undersize.
This is especially effective on slurries that have a
gapped size distribution.

A critical factor in the design ofa decant thickening pond is the depth of settled solids. The greater
the bed depth. the higher the concentration of settled solids in the pond. An advantage of this method
in the dewatering of a coal slurry is illustrated in
Figure 9-26.

Dewatering a Slurry
The principal aim in dewatering a slurry is to
recover the solids with a minimum moisture conlent. Clarification of the liquid phase of the slurry is
usually ofsubsidiary importance. Table 9-8 shows a
selection of available dewatering equipment for
solids recovery. In most cases. a centrifuge or a filter
is necessary.

, c.

. Bench-scale testing is very useful for determining

the difficulty of dewatering a slurry. Simple clinical
centrifuges, or Buchner funnel experiments will
sometimes indicate the practicality ofdewatering of
a slurry by centrifuge or filter. Filler-leaf tests and
laboratory basket-centrifuge tests on a sample of the
proposed slurry provide valuable data for projecting
plant cake moistures.
.
Vacuum Fillm- Continuous vacuum filters are
populardevices-for dewatering slurries. In most of
these situatiohs.Iprimary thickening operates upstream of the filter.
H .SOlIOS IV t:t

1oll.$OtlOS.V",'

1$ ,SOtlOS IV PI

~'gU'r8 926 Benefits of Oec~n'ting.B!~Umjnous.coa; Slurry

Maior
Function

Operation

General
Equipment
Classification

Solidhowl
centri'fuge

Continuous

Cydones Cyclones have been very successfully

used in dewatering of heavy beach-sand minerals,
such as rutile, which is a uniformly graded, roundshaped' material, For very little. expenditure of
energy (only 10 to 15 psi head loss}, a 250/0 slurry can
be dewatered to a moist sand of 80 to 90% solids by
weight. The simplicity of the system makes it ideal
for this type of mineral operation.
The sand discharging from thecydone underflow
willstandilLits moist state at an angle in excess of
the: angle.ofrepose of -:dry sand. Therefore,the
-. cydonericed. only besupported over a stockpile area
on lightweight structure. A network of perforated
subsoil drains located underthe stockpile drain t,he
moist sand to obtain- a residual moisture 'of less than
'
5%. Sand, canbe.rapidly stockpiled at a minimum
cost using this type of installation.
'

Centrifugal
IiIter

Equipment
Subclassification

Cylindercontrol bowl
(vertical. horizontal);
solid/scree'" howl
cornbinatiOl!.
. Conical screen (helix
conveyor. o~cillalor);
cylinder screen
(pusher, conveyor).

ROI-nry- belihl~tlll,.
horizonlill helt,
hOfizUlltalllim.

Olher

Various wei scree"s,

cyr.lnele:'i.

~Ilflr.ial

tillen: and celluiluqPll.

selling tanks.

Cenuifugal

filler

Recover
lolidl

Balch
.utomltic

Balch

Verlical,lerfmilled besket.
C.OIISlil11 lSIUlP.tl;

horilontal'Iaskel.
variable. SlIced.
Vertical baskel. cunSlill11

t"n,d; hn,ilnnl,d

basket, vari'lhlB 5Il'!!d.

Plate :llId home; 11IP~st"e
hml.verlir.iJlillluilonlal

leal.

~1I~CIIANleAL

I'I, -,

rI

AND OPERATIONAl. ASPECTS

A typical vacuum filter incorporates a filtering

cloth or surface attached to it moving frame. The
frame moves through the thickened slurry, and the
solids are caked onto the filter through .the action of
a vacuum. The frame continues its journey to a
point where the cake is removed by mechanical and
pneumatic methods, This cake goes onto a conveyor
:IIIU the filtrate 110ws to a claritlocculator, filter
frame then moves back into the thickened slurry to
repeat the cycle.

..........
_. -

> .... ~-

~,-

i ~ t/~'~;Tt,
f

--

<:.,

I,
I

=..r:

,-.. --,

Dewatering of slurry in Consolidation Coal Co.'s

coal-slurry pipeline in Ohio in 1957 was achieved by
thickening, vacuum filtration, followed b.y thermal
drying. The coal from this system was used to feed
the conventionally coal-fired Eastlake Power Plant,
(This plant originally operated using rail-delivered
. CO:II.)

Cf1llri{i~~..s - Continuous centrifuges are often

used lor dewatering slurries.

The solid-bowl cennifuge (dewatering coal slurry
at Mohave"" consists ofa rotating bowl and a rotating-screw-conveyor section that revolves concentrically within the bowl, The bowl "conveyor" conforms to the inside of the bowl. Slurry enters via a
stationary feedpipe concentrically located within
the hollow conveyor shaft.This feed pipe extends inward to a rotating chamber located within the screw
conveyor. Here the slurry is accelerated and moves
radiallyoutward to the bowl, The- liquid portion of
the feed tends to form a cylinder ofrevolution within the bowl. Liquid depth is controlled by adjustable
weir plates at the outboard end of the cylindrical
section of the bowl. A rotating-screw conveyor
keeps the solids moving up the conical slope. At the
discharge ports. the solids falHnto a discharge
. hopper.

i,

Recent test have shown that, with a' screen-bowl

centrifuge, cake moisture content for the material
tested could be reduced by 20 to 30% as compared
with the cake moisture from a solid-bowl centrifuge.
Ascreen-bowlcentrifuge is divided axially ill aconical section followed by a screen-drum section. (Fig.
9.27). The drained solids' in the conical section go
via.a rotating-screw conveyor to the screen section
for final draining. The small quantity of solids
passing through th~ screen is recovered in a thickener loop and recycled to the feed.

,J

I";.ttL'
:;. I
i'
I

~.

~,~,,:=-r::;':i:

f,r:,"

I~~=~~:_: '~lll~: ';

j'"::':; .- -_

,. For a practical guide on equipment selection and

a better understanding of the subject of filtration,
see Reference 17.

'

137

-. . _.~,

~_.-.-

i II

! II '

.\

-.'.

l'(

Figure 927 Principles of Solid-Bowl Screen Centrifuge

Dewatering-System Example

, '
A typical slurry-dewatering facility is the .system
now in operation at Mohave Generating Station,
Clark County, Nev. This system convertswater-coal
slurry into a coal cake containing 25% moisture.The
cake feeds directly to pulverizers and the pulverized
coal is direct-fired into the furnace.
Dewatering of the slurry requires two stages: centrifuges and then thermal dryilig.
The first-stage prccess'<schematic is shown in
Figure 9-28.Slurry feed, drawn directly fr()rrialiagi~

,Cffl,,",UGf
,
". . . . ."

....

e..,lfil lJt'l
4-_,~""""

_ _-s
ClAAAI((OCUlAJOA

Figure 9-28 Typica.' System, 'o~ ~~wat.ering Co!!1 Slur.rv

tated:slurrY storage. tank, is pumped t6 the, cenrrifuges.In a centrifuge, the coal cake discharges directly to the pulverizer,
Centrifuge emuenlc~)I1tai~s a s~all percentage
of very finecoalparticles.Iminus.Sz.S. mesh). This
coal' is recovered in a thickening loop, where the

138

,SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

fines are chemically flocculated' and recovered in a

thickener. The thickener, underflow. is deposited oil
the centrifuge "beach", to reclaim agglomerated
fines.

" In the second stage of the dewatering process, the

cake discharged from the centrifuges goes to the mill
grinding. chamber for 'pulverizing and drying.
Preheated primary air, at approximately 680 F,
thermally drys the cake and transports the pulverized coal into the furnace,
Advantages of Direct Evaporation
Most materials are easier to handle in liquid form
. than in solid form.so it is advantageous to keep the
"materialin this/arm as long as possible. The convenienc,e of handling .liquids often outweighs the
'disadvantage of greater h~at required for evaporation: lit ~dlliii(ll1. this procedure can eliminate inter'mediate ,separation steps;
,

".'.!

A good example of direct evaporation is in the

cement industry, where slurry is direct-fired and the
liquid carrier evaporated in the kiln without any
intermediate .dewatering, The savings in power requirements .of wet grinding of limestone vs. dry
grinding. pay for added heat requirements. Spray
drying of chemicals is another example of this concept.

........-.

.......... ................ _
_

COAl. SLURRY fiRING

, "'lUlU
DIU'"

~.

Figure

9~29 Con';.nt~~i111

Coal handling for conventional coal firing involves conveyors, crushers, storage bunkers and
feeders. The system for direct firing of coal slurry
requires only a storage tank and a recycle pipe loop.
Allthewater in the slurry vaporizes in the furnace.
The resultant heat loss due to the latent heat of
vaporization amounts to approximately 5% loss of
the coal's Btu value.

. A unique application of the direct-evaporation

concept involves preheating of slurries. Steam in a
heat exchanger preheats a slurry prior to dewatering
by centrifuges. Tests have shown that preheating
(to 170 F, for example) prior to centrifuging can
reduce total surface moisture by 20-30%. Total
thermal load in any subsequent drying step is thus
reduced significantly.

9.6 INSTRUMENTATION
AND CONTROL
The control of a slurry pipeline system is accomplished -with the same push-button ease as with a
conventional liquid or gas pipeline. Certain precautions must be taken with regard to selection and setup of primary measuring elements, but providing
that this is done, a slurry system, even a multi-.
station system; can be fully automated;

CONVENTIONAL COAL fiRING .

A large-scale test of direct evaporation of water

from a coal slurry was demonstrated in Jersey Central Power and Light COIllP,I/lY's E. H. Werner
Generating Station in 196 I.'''' The system employed a cyclone furnace; and the simplicity of the
handling facilities is clearly shown in Figure 9-29.

"

F'ldng VI. CoalSlurry Firing

This is an important aspect of slurry pipeline

economics. The automatic control of the system
reduces the required number ofoperating personnel
and minimizes the effect of wage inflation on the
transportation. porti()n of'the total product COSI.
The experience ()fthis 'decade has amply dernonstrated the importance of a cost-stabilizing effect such.
as this. In general, by providing the correct type of
primary measuring elements in conjunction with
conventional control instruments and a telecommunications system, a rnulri-pump station slurry
pipeline is operated in an identical manner to, say,
.a crude oil pipeline. It can be fully controlled from

MECHANICAL AND OPERATIONAl. ASrECTS

the initial station with personnel provided at intermediate stations for maintenance and remedial
purposes only.

I
I

I
!

1:-

The presence of solids in. the system does

complicate the measurement of th system variables. Many of the primary measuring -elernents in
common. use in conventional service are unsuitable
tor slurry application, as they may be worn away or
become plugged by solids. Orifice plates and
turbine meters are examples of this type of element.
The need to avoid plugging of the sensing element
or its impulse. lines is of prime importance in the
selection of equipment. It becomes particularly
troublesome at pressure tapping 'points and . can
completely disable an instrument with small clearances or static zones.

'-'::,

I
!

I
I

d
'.'1

=1

I
I

IJ

The nature ofthe slurry being transported isalso a

considerationrForiexample, a radiation density
meter ora magnetic flow meter will not read correctly in a horizontal pipe where solids ar~ deposited. Fast settling slurries will also perplex instru. ments requiring a sidestrearnif flows are not kept
well above the critical velocity.
The common primary sensor~used ~o good effect
in existing slurry systems are discussedbelow. We
would also draw thci' reader's attention to an excellent review of instrumentation for slurry systems
-by LIPT AKYO)
As primary flow sensors, magnetic flowmeters
have proved to be adequate. Certain problem sources such as the one mentioned above should be
recognized. Their use inmagnetite (magnetic iron
orejtransport can cause erroneous readings and
great care must be taken in establishing the errors so
produced. They can also be an expensive capital
item. Their chiefadvantages are that the inner liners
can be made from abrasion-resistant materials, thlls
eliminating wear and replacement problems; they
present no restriction to.the flow and thus do not
generate wear problems downstream of the meter; .
and they are independent of solids concentration
and need no recalibration if a change occurs in the
flow conditions, In systems employing positive
displacement pumps,an accurate indication offlow
rate can be obtained from the pump .speed, .thus
providing a check on the primary sensor.
Slurry concentration is quite often measured by
means of a radiadon-density meter. These instruments offer the advantage of an unrestricted flow

IH

passage, but in our experience they require frequent

calibration., As noted above their use in systems
where particle deposition is likely should be carefully considered. Continuous weighing devices such
as the Halliburton densitometer have also been used
to monitor slurry density. These instruments can be
used to good effect, although they present the problem of taking a side-stream and returning it to the
system. and more important, of ensuring that the
side-stream is truly representative of the flowing
system. Those readers who have attempted direct
sampling ofa slurry system will be aware of the type
of errors that.can occur; those who have not would
be well advised to refer to RUSHTONYIJ
The chief difficulty: in' pressure or differential
pressure measurement is in preventing the .pressure
tapsfrom'becomj~g plugged by solids. This can be
overcome by ~ continuous water. p~rgingor back,flush of the pressuiesensing lines or, ~etteLStill, by
using a' sealed capillary pressure sensing system
connected to the flo\V by me~ns ?f a ,diaphragm
mounted on the pipe,:which separates the slurry
from the sensing lines while registering the pressure
and.its.variations, It should be noted,t!lattransmittersand gauges should .norbe in,b\J'nted on piping
around positive displacement pumps, as they are
likely to fail, often' qltiieqilickly,d~etoth~'vibration. They should be iddependentliniounted with
a capillary connecting the sensor to the diaphragm,
.

.- "-r

. ,

9.7 REFERENCES
9-1

lllOMpSON. T. L.. FREY. R.)., COWPER, N. T nd WAsr,

. J. Slurry Pumps' - A Survey." Pro:C:.2I1d int'l. Ccnf on
Hydraulic Transport ,of Solids in Pipe-s;' DURA Fluid Engng.,
Craefleld, U. K. P.pcr HI (SCpl. 1972).
.

9-2

HALVORSEN, W.]., "Experience of the Ohio Coal ri~linC'."

CoaIToday'andlomo,row" V.IR.--pp.18~220uncI9tl4).

9-3

PRUDHOMME, R. j., et ai, "ReciprocOIting Pumps (or Long

Distance Slurry Pipelines," Proe. tu lnt'[. Con(~ on Hydraulic
Transport of Solids in Pipes. BJIRA Fluid Engng. Cto1nlield,
U. K., P'pcr E4 (5'1",1970).

9-4

BURGE. W. H.,Vaal Reefs Grinds Gold Ore Fines and Pumps

SlurJY7200 . Ft ,10 Surface," World Mining, V. 25, pp. 42-46

O.n.

1972).

9-5

SAKAMOTO. M. KARINO.T. nd TAKGI. T. "A Pilnll'''".

of Uydrohnhl (or Capsule and Slurry TrJnspon". Proc. ..ffh Inl"1.
Ccnf ~n If)'draulic Transf10rl o(Solids in Pipeo;. "'IRA Fluid
Eng~g . C""fidd. U.K" 1"1''' E6 (M.y 1976),

9-6

LINK.}. M. and TUASON,C. E.,-Pipe Weuio Ilydr.1ulicTr;lnsport o( Solids.~ presented ~t American Minint Congress. Las
VeJ!:n. Nc'v'd.1 (Ocr. 1971).

. SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

14lJ

9-7

AUDE. T. C. et aI. Slurry I'ipinj: Systems-Trends, Dtsi,n

Methods.Guidelines: Chern. En,n~ V.18.pp. 74..89(Junc t91l).

9.8 NOMENCLATURE

11..8

I.EVEN. H. D."Ibe lon~cn. L2r~cst CoalSlurry Pipeline EvC'f

Built," Coal Mining- and p,oc,. V. 8. pp. J-1-40 (Fear. '11).

9-9

BOND.,F. C. ~Crudlin1CandG,indjn~ c.dculacions. Pans land

IJ.~ Allis-Chalmers Inc. JRcvised Jan. 1961).

D Pipe diameter
F Size in microns that 80% of the feed passes
L 'Length
N Agitator rpm
P Size in microns that 80%of the product passes
Y . Mean velocity of flow
W Grinding power requirements, hp-hr/shortton
WI .Work Index
Ap Friction loss

I
.

,!
I

I
!"

9-10 BOND.F.C.. "Mel,,1 We." in'Crushin. and Clindin,,- presented 2t.56thAnnu,1 McC'cingAIChE. Houston. Tu.n:(Dcc.196J).

9-IJRot~;Y C,ind'in~ Mills - S~leclion

end

Cap~city DClermina-

don" 'AllisChalmers. Inc.. PM J.2 (Aug. 1963).

9-12

~Marconano

- The System and tilt: Concept: Entincerin, &:

MiningJourn.I.V. 171, II. 67-75 (M.y 1970).

9-1J Slurry Handlin~ Technique. will Lower Ore Transport Con:

Ship-Building and Shipping:~c(ord (Dee. 1910).
,'I

9-14 zANDI;'I., -r;ecreast'd Bead Losses in Raw Water Conduits:

J.. Am; Wa'cr Works Assoc V, 59,pp. 21J-226 (F.b. 196n

9-15

I
9-16.

~j

'I
I

CHAr~IAN,

HOLLAND, F. and
F.. Liquid Mixing and
- Processtni in Stirred .Tanks." Reinhold Publishing Co. New
Yolk (I966~
.. .

flTc:H, B., -:e.atc~ :T~sts. rredi~; Thickener Pedormance," Chern.

Engng. V. 7g,pp. 83-gg iIIug. 1971).
. .
"

:.

9;lZ . FLOOD.}. E., ee ~r,Solid Liquid'Separation.Fihration 'Practice

Today; Centri,~ugationEqujpmenltChem. Enln,., V.,7J. pp.
. , .. , 16]-111 Oun, 1.966).
..
9-18., COFFEY. R. C. et -aI, '''Mohave GenerJting Station - De:sig"n
Features," presented at A!S'eri~.1n PowerConference, Chicago.
Illinois (April 1969).
9-19 TAYLOR, O. M. "Liquefied Coal Piped Din'ctl) inro Boiler:
Pipeline Industry, pp. 60-63 (Dec. 1961);
9-20

LlrT AK,8. G., ":Jnstrumcnlalion'(or Siurries and Viscous...b le

ri.ls; Chern. Engng. p. JJ3 O.n. 1967); p. 151 (F.b. 196n

9-21 RUSHTON,

J. nd

HILLESTAD.

J.

G., Sampli.ig of Non-

!-1omogcneous Flow in Pipes." 29th Mrg. of API, Div, of Refln-

inl. SI.lou!s. Missouri (April

.i

!~64) .

9.9 PROBLEMS
9.1 A coal slurry pipeline is designed to transport
4000 gpm coal slurry. The pipe inside diameter
is 17.5 inch and the length of the pipe is 130
miles. If the friction loss is 25 psi/mile and the
pipe is on level ground, determine the pump
size assuming that minimum number of pump
stations. are to be. used. The abrasivity of the
slurry (Miller Number) is 20.
9.2 For the slurry- pipeline system considered in
Problem. ?.I. it is desired to provide agitated
slurry st~rage ianks having 6.hour storagecapacity. Determine the size of the lank. Also determine the agitator power required assumlug that
OJ horsepower per 1000gallons oftank volume
is needed.
9.3 For the coal slurry system considered in Problem9.1, determine the grinding horsepower per
ton of coal if the Work Index for coal is 11.4.
The feed size, F, is 5000 microns and the pro'
duct size, P, is 300 microns.

.,

':':.,

10.

.. :':'

CORROS~N-EROSION IN
SLURRy"'iRIPELINES

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The majority ofslurry pipelines are made of mild
steel. Loss of pipe metal' due 10 corrosion and abrasion plays an important role in their design. The
external corrosion of the slurry pipeline does not
differ from that ofIiquid pipelines. The internal corrosion in a slurry environment could be appreciably
different from that in thecarrier fluid, The presence
of solids could accelerate the corrosion rate. Solids
can also produce abrasion of the pipe. To prevent
premature failure of the pipeline, it is necessary to
provide additional steel to take care of internal cor. rosion and abrasion. Long-distance slurry pipelines
are generally designed to provide an effective life of
15 to 75 years. Unless the metal loss is adequately
controlled, the pipe will need costly replacement,
In this chapter we will examine the mechanism of
corrosion and abrasion in a slurry environment and
the methods of controlling them: The external pipe
corrosion will not be considered.
Corrosion and abrasion are expected to.be acting
simultaneously in a slurry pipeline. However, the
. mechanism as well as the methods of controlling
corrosion is different from that of abrasion. The
. mechanism of corrosion and abrasion is therefore
. considered separately.
I

10.2 MECHANISM

OF CORROSION
The intemal corrosion is caused. by the slurry
water. Corro'sion is an electro-chemical. phenomenon. It requires, the following elements:

An anode where the metal is oxidized

A cathode where the oxidant is reduced
An electrode conductor between the anode
. and the cathode
An electrolyte solution.
In the case ofsteel pipes, iron gives up electrons at
the anode. These electrons arc; conducted through
the steel to the cathode where they.are accepted by
an oxjd~nt. The charged iron ions in the.electrolyte
carry the charge to the anode to completethe circuit.
The reactions at the anode and atthe cathode are
summarized as.follows:

Reaction at the anode:

Fe - Fe2< + Ze-

.'

(Eq. 10.1)

Reactions at the cathode:'

ZH< +Ze- -'H 2 (in acidic conditions)
(Eq. 10.2)

. O 2 -+ 4e- -+ ZHP'- 4 OH-

(Eq. 10.3)

Hydrogen reduction (Equation 10.Z) is the main

cathodic reaction in acid solutions where the metal
dissolves with the evolution of hydrogen gas. The
oxygen reduction (Equation 10.3) is the main
cathodic reaction in natural waters.
The interaction between the anodic and the
cathodic products produces corrosion products as
shown in Figure 10-"1. The final corrosion products'
are in the form of hydrated ferric oxide, magnetite,
or hematite. The reaction products form a barrier
against diffusion of oxyen to the cathodic region
and thus reduce the corrosion rate. This barrier can
be eroded by the presence of solids in water. The
barrier' can be also 'destroyed by, the presence of
chloride and sulphide ions in water.

SOLID LIQUID FJ.OW

J4Z

.~ "'I fAt OISSOtllflOll

.~(

AIIOol

Ih

'_lf~""'.h
I

..

il~

,llIUIlACnOJit 0' ""ODIC ""0 U,,,OIHC

R(,II(IIO/I '''OOUCIS !

ITI,

".-.4o'lf~_I"IO"J,

'''10"1,.''0,.'',0-''.10''',
I.10M" . - !J~. "10

COIUIOSlO/lll

Moaller

OlYlIflllllOUClIOll

O,.IH'O ... ~~tOH

Figur.l01 'nteraction Oetw.,." the Anode and the

Cathode Rction

Figure 103 Thd Corrosion Prob. Immersed In Sand Slurry

,
ShowS 8.19hC Su,t.celndleatfngErosion of
Corrosion Products

50

, 40

~
,g

----

I .I. ".

SA,N..Q. SLUR'!!y ~1~)C'!.2.e'!.L.

,"-'-

~ 30
c(

'"

o
C;; 20
o

tx:
'"
o

SAND SLURRY Ino'o)(vgenl

L:::!:L::;:~t:::::i::::-l-l-/

(.) 10

o:
o

P'STILLED, WATeR Inc oxygp.nJ

'!'

.I .
\
DISTILLED WATER lwilh 0'Y900

., I "

'1>-..i..

'8

, ' 12

16

20

servation th3t the sand particles tend to erode 3W3)'

the. corrosion products.
Steel and"'~th~r rn~tals subject to passivation
sOmetimes give rise'ti:> pitting. The term pitting is
used to illustrate a localized attack in which the size
of the attacked zone is of the.s.ame order of magnitude.or smaller. than the depth of penetration,'!'
The corrosion rate measurements based on weight
loss can p~oduce a. false sense of security when
pitting corrosion takes place.

24

TIME (houn'
Flgur.,0-2 EIf.cl of Sand on

Cor~os~n

Rate 0' OistlUed WOller

Fjllllrei6:':'isl,c.lwstll~ ~ifee:t9f adding sand particles on the corrosion rate ofliistill"d water. The
corrosion rate is substantially increased by sand
particles when oxygen 'is present. However, in the
absence of oxygen, .the corrosion rate does not
change by the addition of sand particles. This illustrate.sth~tthesolidserode the, protective film arid
, .increase the corrosion rate only when the environ.ment.is corrosive.
.
, Figure 10-3 shows the two corrosion probes used
in these tests. The surface of the probe exposed to
-, sand-water slurry looks bright while the one exposed
to distilled water looks dull. This confirms our ob"

Pitting is induced by the following:

Halogens (CI-. Br. I")
SCN-;SO.- ,
Fe'" CuH,HgH
Dissolved oxygen.

The susceptibility ofsteel to pitting increases with

higher pH. This is due to the-increase in passivity of
steel at high pH. The presence of non-uniformities
of an}' nature in passive film induces the formation
ofanode-cathode galvanic couples. Because of the
relatively ,small area (imperfection in film) of anode
, in cc.lmpa'risonto cathode (rest of the passive film),
large local currents (corrosion rates) are established.

II

CORROSION-EROSION IN SLURRY rlrEI.INF.S

10.3 MECHANISM
OF ABRASION

143

The abrasive wear is governed by the following

factors:

Abrasion. or erosion, of a metal surface results

from the dynamic action ofmoving particles on the
pipe wall. Depending upon die conditio~s of flow,
the abrasion can be one of the following two types:
Deformation (impact) wear
Cutting (sliding) wear. '

Characteristics of solids
- size and size distribution
- hardness
- density,
'-shape
- composition
Characteristics of the liquid phase

- corrosiveness

'Deform~tlQ~ wear is caused by the normal impact

- density
- viscosity

of solidsparticles, Some of these have sufficient

kinetic energy to cause local stresses higher than the
yield strength of the pipe. An accumulation ofthese
stressesand the resultant strain lead to surface breakdown of the pipe.

Condition of flow'
- laminar or turbulent
- heterogeneous l'f homogeneous
- velocity of [low

Cutting wear is caused by the oblique impact of

solid particles, some ofwhich have sufficient energy
to shear the surface of the wearing material and
gouge a fragment loose.
'

Type of pipe wall '

- strength,
- ductility.

9
8

CORUNDUM
TOPAZ

QUARTZ

FELDSPAR

APATITE

,4

FLUORITE
CALCln

W
...J
0(

~+~~

<.>

'"
:I:

"'-.1'& ~o
,,~+.,yof,o

en

::E
GYPSUM

~1> '-.. "

'" "'11-A

...J
0(

z
!:!

-..

"

a:

~'Yo?

9", "'1

~+ '~?)-t~
<:!<)-

AUSTENETIC MARTENSITIC
MANGANEZE
WHITE
,STEEL
, I~ON
INew Condition
,NI HARD,
Wo' I( Hardens
15/3
Under ImpaclJ
ALLOY

''-,
GENERAL
PLASTICS

!
5

10

316SS
AND
ALUM.
BRONZE

GREY;'CAST,
IRON I

,-- ----j :

50

100

CA
'28%CR.
40,SS IRON

500

1,000

2,000

BRINEll SCALE

t,
\.

'..",

..

Figur. 10=4 Appro_linit. ComfMrfson of Hardness ~.Iues of V.rious Com~on Ofe Mi,,!erals ~nd Metals

. ' fho".-R.f."1012)

,~

144

- SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

For-iabrasion to take place. the solids must be

harder. than the pipe surface. Thus, the abrasive
wean-can be eliminated by making the pipe wall
harder than the' solid particles. However, the 1I10st
common abrasive component is silica' with a hardness of about 800 kg/rnm], This is greater than the
hardness of steel whiJh.'varies between 200 and
800 kg.1nm'. Figure 10-,,4 shows the hardness ofthe
common. metals as well as common minerals.

, :~ ,

\ {I

The abrasion is governed by the angle of impact

of the solids as well as the'strengrh and ductility of
the pipe surface. Figure 10-5 shows the effect of
,'.....
,,I

impact angle on the erosion rate for the sof] and

ductile material as well as for a hard' and brittle
material. It can be seen that the soft and ductile
material is very useful at larger impact angles while
a hard and brittle material is useful when the impact
angle is small. In most slurry pipelines, the angle of
impact is expected to be small.
.i
.
BIITERllIIJI has developed a method for predicting the deformation as well as cutting wear. He has
developed formulas expressing abrasion as a function of mass and velocity ofthe impinging particles,
impingement angle; and mechanic~1 and' physical
properties of the solids and the pipe wall.

.t

.s :

"
W

(.1 EROSION OF ,A SOFT

. DUCTILE MATERIAL

lOA CONTROL OF ABRASION

100

.... W.

~~:liE 80

",I-::>

-e i;i:! 60
w
ux
~"'< 40

zW:liE
0"'",

in <020
0'"
0:<
"

10 20 30 40 5060 70' 80 90
, I~PIN9EMENrANGlE (degree'

100

.... w

<",

ee <:liE
"' .... ::>

Ibl EROSION' OF. A HARD

.BfJITTLE M~~ERIAL

......,0.
'
oq;.

80

. ~";

~ ffi :!60
~ux

ffi;1

Z
0'"

"",~;.!...

f!}

40

. Q. C

Ui~

0",020

""/~

GI~
. 4~

"'<
W

,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ..
IMj>INGEME~T ANGLE (degree)

100

<'" . 30
"'<:;;
",I-::>
< ffi:;; 60

NATURAL RUBBER

wux
u.:;; 40
oa.~
.
~a:<
Z

a;
C;;

<020

o~'-r-t---,--,-:::;:::::::;::"",..""'l
o 10 2030 4.0 60 60 70 80 90,
IMPINGEMENT ANGLe' (degree'
."\

'\.

",,:

...

,..'

Figu,e 10-5 ,Effect 'of Angle of Impact on erosion Rate

(from R.I.l01~I
.

The minimum required velocity, abrasion metal

loss, .and the cost of pumping decrease with a
decrease in particle size until a certain minimum
size is reached. Beyond this particle size the minimum velocity of flow and the pumping cost increaseswith a decrease in particle size because of the increase in slurry viscosity.
The additional cost of grinding and dewatering
of finer solids should be compared with the savings
in pumping cost and abrasive wear before selecting
the size to which the material should be ground.
I Sometimes grinding isrequiredfor ore beuefication.
From experience it has been found that the metal
loss due to abrasion is quite insigniflcant if the velo-

Iel EROSION OF SOFT

.... w

Abrasive wear is, governed by the size consist of

the, solids,slurry concentration, and velocity of
flow. In a slurry pipeline the size consist, slurry concentration,and velocity of flow are interdependent
to some extent. For example, use of large size solids
requires an increase in minimum transportation
velocity. Irliasbeen found that the 'abrasive wear
increases as the cube of slurry velocity; wear also
increases as the size ofsolid particles increases.Thus,
by reducing the size of the solids, the abrasive wear
can be substantially reduced due to the combination
oflower required velocity and reduction in wear due
to smaller particle size. The effect of slurry concentration on the abrasive wear is more complicated .

','

cill'of flow I. I... than about 10

fIll (J mil).

"!lr

long-distance slurry pipelines, velocity in the range

of 4 to 6 refsgives economic design. Thus,a particle
size ,consist should beselected such that the slurry
is nearl yhom9g~n~ously suspended at velocities in
the range of 4 to 6 ftis.

CORROSION-RROSION IN SLURRY "II'RLlNRS

It has been found from experience that when the

CIC;, of the maximum size particle in the slurry is
greater than about 0.5, then abrasive wear is negligible provided the velocity of flow is less than 10
li/s. The effect of particle size, velocity offlow, pipe
diameter, and slurry concentration on' the value of
CIC" was considered in Chapter 5. Table 6-1 gives
the values of CIC;, for the maximum size particle in
some typical slurries.
When the value of ClCA for the solids is very
much lower than 0.5, the abrasivity of the slurry has
been found to increase with an increase in 'slurry
concentration. At low values of CICA , a bed ofsolids
slides along the bottom of the pipe and gives rise to
abrasive wear. The value of CICA is also found to
increase with slurry concentration. Thus, the abrasivity of a slurry may reach a maximum, after which
the abrasivity starts decreasing with an increase in
slurry concentration. It should be recognized that
these criteria apply only when the velocities of flow
are above the, critical
deposition velocity.
.
. .
"

Abrasion is also found to occur at sharp changes

in direction of flow, such as at elbows, tees and valves. Extra metal should be provided at these locations. Bends and elbows should be'oflarge radius to
avoid abrasion.

,i
I
i

10.5 CONTROL
OF CORROSION

TI
I

Corrosion can be controlled by passivating either

the anodic or the cathodic reactions at the pipe wall.
Elimination of dissolved oxygen and the adjustment of slurry pH can reduce the corrosion rate
substantially.
Ithasbem observed that in certain slurries,like
coal and copper concentrate, the dissolved oxygen
reduces with time of travel in a slurry pipeline provided that fresh oxygen does not find access to the
slurry in the pipeline. Thus, higher corrosion ~ates
are expected in the first few miles of a slurry pipeline compared to the remainder of the pipeline!

=
Various types of'inhibitors may be used to reduce
corrosion rate. The inhibitors may be anodic,
cathodic, or mixed. The anodic inhibitors stifle the
anodic reaction.' Usually these inhibitors are
oxidants which. produce 'insoluble substances
directly at thea~ode. The coat formed is usually
only a few molecules thick and the metal appearance

1)

. I

is usually unchanged. Chromium is a good example

where all oxide tilm covers the metal .surface, but
the surfacestill appears bright. Chromates, nitrites,
molybdates and tungstanates are.some of the anodic
inhibitors.. Nit'rites arc. susceptible to attack by
bacteria and chromates are usually reduced by
organic m att er inthe slurry or other dissolved salts.
Generallythe pH should be greater than &.5. Both
the nitrile and chromate are dangerous inhibitors in
that 'sufficient concentration is required to obtain
protection. In.insufficient amounts, localized attack
proceeds readily.

Carb~nates and phosphates. borates and silicates

are inhibitive non-oxidants because of the low solubility of their iron compounds and their ability to
aid in the oxygen passivation. Calcium and
magnesium also produce a diffusion barrier at pH
values greater than the ~aturation pH, because of
salt precipitation upon lYle pipe wall. .
.
.
.
Hexavalent chromiuni was successfully used'"' as
an inhibitor for the Ohio coal slurry pipeline: The
environmental problems .shduld be investigated
before using hexavalent chromium asan inhibitor.
Cathodidnhibitors 'reducethe effectiveness of
the reduction reactiorr.lat the cathode. Coating
materials such as carbohatesand poly phosphates
cover the cathodic areas and deny the-oxidant contact with the cathode. The presence of divalent
metal ions aids the polyphosphates with their Coating ability. Polyphosphates also control the amount
of scale laid down when-excess carbonate or scale
forming material are present.
!.

Anodic-cathodic mixtures have proven to be

quite effective. One good example is chromatepolyphosphate combination. Lower concentrations
of each have proven more effective in combination
than higher concentrations separately. Zinc has
been added also with the polyphosphate-chrornate
combination to. obtain extremely satisfactory
results.
. .
.
The corrosion rate can be efTectivelycontroJled
by the removal of dissolved and entrained oxygen
from, the slurry. The oxygen ~eI110va'. .can be
accomplished by the use of reducing agents or by
the use ofmechanical deaeration, Catalyzed sodium
sulfite' may be used for the reduction of oxygen.
There aretwo main methods ofmechanical deaeration of water, viz, vacuum flash 'and gasstripping.

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW ,.

146

effect of short term changes in pipeline operation

. In the vacuum Hash method. a large area of fluid is
.:.: created in a-vacuum chamber, The dissolved oxygen . ' ;on the corrosion.rate. {:'U:.III,,{ :,11 1 " l '
H_~J/i"/.:.r, . ,itJ o,.H~".h q~
: , joins the vapor phase and is removed. In case ofgas .' I .
.
., .
, ' . ,," , ~ I! j :
!
I ':H I
.. ', :stripping. an inert gas (normally nitrogen) is passed" I .,
'through a large exposed area of the lluid.:'lO.6.~ Laboratory Test' , '.' ':'
i'

;'.

,j

. ,

~,,:

'~,":

. , ::At present 110 commercial units are available that

have been. demonstrated lor application in a slurry
'..system. The main problem is the settling of solid
particles in the deaerator unit. This problem can be
solved by suitable modifications in the basicunits,
TI~e corrosion carlJ also be prevented by using
corrosion resistant linings, Epoxy type linings are
normally used.for internal Iinings. A film thickness
of about .10 mils (0.454 rnm) is desirable. One of
the major problems: in internally coating pipes
length by length before laying is subsequent
treatment-of the weld. In large diameter pipes (36"
and above), the wel~scan be coated manually.
Various attempts have been made to devise an interior weld cleaning and painting unit without major
breakthroughs, A method of treating the weld is
described by ~,UT.ISl..

: BOMBERGERl7l has described a laboratory test

procedure for the determination of corrosion tate
of a coal slurry. This method' was successfully
applied in the design of the Ohio coal slurry pipeline. In this method. a two liter reaction kettle is
filled with slurry. The slurry is kept in suspension by
means of a mixer as shown in Figure 10-6. The

F"=

.'

'

. "'r:=.

If

r--.E

r
I

.........

y H11

~
=

..

.r:

'

"Abrasi6ntesistantlinings become useful under

certain conditions. Rubber-lined or polyurethanelined pipe; maybe used for:abrasive environments,
SAMBELLS'6) lias described the use of polyurethane-lined pipes. These. pipes cannot be welded.
These linings 'are,very eXHensive and hence they are
, used for"shorl'length pipes or for in-plant applica'tions;'"
.

,'io.6 MEASURItMENTOI:
CORROSION-EROSION RATE
!';

Vlnl

could also be applied in situ. This

permits coating of pipes already laid, new or old,
,:arid avoids the weld coating problem. However, the
qualitY'. control of the in situ lining is a major draw:" b~ck.The holidays left in the lining cannot be easily
detected. 'Severe corrosion can occur at these spots.
"

.. ,; ':, ~I"t.~ :"t' .q:;, 1,!;>1 '.'

'.. :the linings

..

.- '

. '

:', Corrosion-erosion rate measuring techniques are

oneeded, for.~ .laboratory.or pilot plant as well as for
anoperatingpipeline, The laboratory or pilot plant
.,test should:~eocap~ble ofgiving results in a relatively
short interval oftime,,Tl,le measuring techniques for
.an operating pipeline should be able to give both the
short arid the long teriJi corrosion rates. TIle short
, term measurements are' needed to' determine the

Flgur. 106 l..bor.tory Set-up for Oe'ltfm'ninv

Corrosion R"e
A Rction Kenl.; 9 - Constlnt
.Temper.tur.W.t.rb h. C .Mlx.r;
o . Corrollon Probe; E . Olssolved
Oxygen Probe: F pH Probe: G . Air
or Nitrog.n Supply; H Mota'

.,

I corrosion rate, dissolved oxygen concentration, and

pHofthe slurry are measured over a period 01'2410
72hours.Jhe corrosion rate is measured by means
ofacorroscmeter probe. The corrosometer probe
, consists of ametal wire. The area of cross-section
ofthewir,~is reduced
corrosion which changes
'there$istanl=~,ofthe wire. By monitoring the change
:in;resista~~~,?fthe, wire, the corrosion rate can be
estirnated.Figure 10-7 shows corrosion rate in a coal

bi

','

)t:
,
\'

CORROSION-EROSION IN SI.lJRR y, PIPELINES

'\

[J

220...,...--------------,
200
>. 180~ 160

r
IL

l-

il

I
I

0::.80'
\
a:
. .

Li

I ,

,I

L't

d
"1 I

"~ I
I i
L
i

,
;

:'~') I,
I '
r-

r
I
=l !
!

[,

120

in 100

i,

!....
,

.. Sleel Area .Slurry Volume

as in 1().inch Pipe

, ;: 140-

"

60:

~ Dissolved Oxygen Cone. ~ ppm

40 ~
.. <c
20'"
...' ...........
- ...

o0

2 .; 6

Figur. 10-7

18

8 10 12 14 16
20
HOURS AFTER MIXING

24 26

Corros1vitV of Noninhibittd Coal Slurry

versus Tiine. The Laboralory Corrosion
Rates Plotted her. would be Equal to
R.I'es Found in a Coal Slurry Pipeline
without Inhibitor Protecdon. The Initial
Corrosion Rat ... are Low ... at Lowe,
remperatures but Revene Afte, an Hou,.

POSTLETHWAITE er al"ol have described

method of measuring corrosion rate by means of al
, electrochemical technique. This technique assume
that the corrosion is caused by dissolved oxygei
alone,

.
10.6.3 Measurenlent
in the Pipeline
.'
.
..
! '

slurry as a function of time as reported by BOMBERGER.mThis method has been found to be

effective for all the slurries provided that there is no
abrasion in the pipeline.
Instead of using a corrosion probe, steel coupons
can be inserted in the reaction, kettle. The weight
loss ofthe coupon will be a measure ofthe corrosion
, rate. Electrochemical measuring techniques can also
be used instead of a weight loss measuring technique. The electrochemical technique gives instantaneous corrosion rate. Various devices are available
for measuring instantaneous corrosion rate. These
devices should be calibrated by means of a weight
loss measurement. It is quite possible that the corrosion rate' measured by the electrochemical
method may be different by a factor of 2 to 4 from
the weight loss measurement.
Determination of abrasion rate on a laboratory
scale is more difficult. JACKSON'S) has described
a method for determining slurry abrasiveness.

10.6.2 Loop Tests

Because of the short duration test. the wall thic

ness changes are extremely small. LINK'"' h,
described two methods of measuring wear. One
based upon measuring the increase ofradioactivit
in the slurry caused by the wear of a 'radio;lcti'
insert in the pipe loop. The second method is t
make precise measurements of pipe 'ivaII thickne:
in a machined test section before and after a pum]
ing test. Byinhibiting corrosion the abrasion rate c
the slurry can be measured by these method

Changes in the properties of the slurry or the

operating conditions in the pipeline 'could substantially-change the corrosion-erosion in the 'pipeline.
It is therefore necessary to moniior the corrosionerosion in a pipeline. Two methods, are normally
used to determine the corrosion-erosion rate. In one
'method a piece of pipe (corrosion spool) of the same
diameter as the pipeline is inserted in the pipe as
shown in Figure 10-8. Thisvcorrosion tspoo! is
weighed before installation. The spool is, removed
after six months to two year intervals and reweighed after removing the .loose-scale .from its
interior. The loss in 'weight ofthe spool is converted
into equivalent wall thickness .loss, Frequent removal and cleaning of the corrosion spool exposes
fresh, metal to the slurry which produces a higher
corrosion rate for the spool compared to the pipeline; To avoid this difficulty; more than aile spool
may be installed in the pipeline. These spools are
rernovedat varying periods of rirne. The corrosion
rates given by the ,spools, removed at different
exposure times give the effect of time of exposure.

Corrosion-erosion rate'can a1;0 be determined by

circulatilllf'slurrythrollgh a test section for a relativelyshort time period. This test has certain drawbacks. The continuous circulation of slurry ,could
change the size consist of slurry which might produce a lower abrasion rate compared to fresh slurry.
The circulation-through a tank could oxygenate the
slurry-and 'produce a higher corrosion rate.

TIle corrosion spool produces results after a relatively long time interval. The short term corrosion
rates can be 'determined by installing a corrosion
, probe ill the pipe. The probe will be similar to the
one used in the laboratory test. The corrosion probe
is exposed toahigher rate ofabrasion, and therefore
it might produce a hjgher corrosion rate compared

SOU D LIQUID "LOW

1~8

,~FLANGES

'

TIE ROOS
ALTERNATELY SPA.CED

--.

,,

TEST./
SECTION
,
MADE UP OF:
lOR MORE:
SPOOL
:

Since, for e~onomic reasons. the velocity of now

in a slurry pipeline isnormally maintained within a
relatively narrow range, we may assume in the following analysis that the velocity of How is constant,
Therefore, the important system variables are the
pipe diameter, quantity of solids transported. solids
properties, slurry concentration. and the length of
the pipe. In the following sections the effect ofthese
variables on the cost ofvarious alternatives of corrosion control or corrosion allowance will be considered.

'/ ,.
,"

PIEces

IO"LONG:

PIPELINE

II'

f I

II
II

II

I.
:

COUPLING-~

r.

!'
i :
,.! '

<I,r

10.7.1 Use of Corrosion Inhibitors

For a given slurry, the cost of corrosion inhibitor
depends upon the quantity of slurry to be treated.
This cost is independent of the length of the pipeline. Since the amount of metal loss is directly proportional to the length ofthe pipeline, the savings in
cost of corrosion allowance steel increases with an
increase in length ofpipe. Thus, the use ofcorrosion
inhibitor would be more advantageous with long
pipelines. '

Figure 10.8 Corrosion-Sp.ool .

fI.rom Ref. 1041 :

I,

I
I
~!! :
':,1 '

to the corrosion spool. The corrosion probe is an

early warning.device.It.reflects the relative changes
in corrosiveness of water-and slurry due to changes
in process or characteristics of water and slurry. A
correlation should be 'established between a corrosionspool and the corrosion probe for a given
pipeline.
'

.,
~

I
I
I

:{jl
<'.~,

.,

!. -...... . .

Let us consider a pipeline having a diameter of D

inches and a lenghtof L miles.

Let W be the weight percent.solids in the slurry

V be the velocity of flow, ft/s
p, be the specific gravity of solids
F be the fraction of time in the year pipeline is operating
P be the price of steel in Siton
Y: be the life of pipeline in years
m be the corrosion rate in mpy before inhibition
m' be the corrosion rate in mpy after inhibition
p be the cost of capital in percent per year.

10.7 ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS
The control of corrosion-erosion in a slurry pipe, line can be achieved either by modifying the slurry
or by modifying the pipeline. For short lengths of
pipe, the use of protective linings could be advan.tageous.tFor long-distance pipelines, the use of
'protecriveIinings lhayfio( be feasible becauseof
higher cost.
, In determining the wall thickness of the pipeline.
certain, corrosion allowance is added to the wall .
thickness requirement based on allowable working
pressure. As noted before the abrasive metal loss is
prevented by the proper selection of the velocity,
solids size consist, and slurry concentration. The
corrosion metal loss is-determined using various
types of inhibitors. Based on these data, a corrosion
inhibitor is, selected" that is environmentally
acceptableand economically justifiable. The use of
inhibitors, linings, or extra metal allowance will
deperidupon economics.
'

Then, the cost of additional steel, S. is given as

follows:
i

S _ D x 7.83
5280 x 62.34
x
2000
,
144,

PYm
1000

- 0.0281 DPYm

Simile

The ann unity of the savings in capital cost of

corrosion allowance steel is given by:

CORROSION-EROSION IN SLURRY PIPELINES

Annuity - 0.0281 DPY (m-m')'

' " .

, Assuming th:at the corrosion rate of slurry

reduces. from m mpyto m' due to deaerationl the
amount of money available for the 'consrructidn of
deaerationplant M o is given by:

(Eq. lOA)
.

Mechanical Deaeration

10.7.3
_ (1'+ prY

S/yr.-mi

IH

f.

Now the annual throughput ofsolids, T, is given by:

100
W
- +100- W
Ps

x 62.34

W x 0.01
2000
X 3600 X 24 X 365 F
tons/year
.; .

where a - annual operating cost Of the deaeration

, plant.
'

10-:10,

Figures 10-9 and

adopted from GANDHI
et al" I) show the cost of corrosion allowance steel and
the money available for corrosion inhibition for different diameter pipes. They show that for an "I 8 inch
diameter pipe, each additional mil per year corrosion
allowance for a 500 mile long pipeline costs US$ 3.3
million, based on a pipeline life of25 years and cost of
steel ofUSS 500 per ton. This illustrates !he magnitude
of savings that can be 'realized by proper selection of
the corrosion control system:
'
'.- ..

(Eq. 10.5)
Money available for inhibitor, Mi, is therefore given
as follows:
Annuity
solids throughput,
5.24 PY (m-m') p IW + Ps (100 - Wl!
-4
DV FW Ps II - (I + prY' ' 'XIO

........ . e.... ._- ......"""..'""...

."

.,

cents/ton mile

11JI"
(

"'_1....."_

Use of Protective Linings

I ..

The money available for Iinings,'M.., is th~rtfore

given by:
i

- 2

1O-1PYm .

cents/sq.ft

- .

cents/sq.ft
. (Eq. 10.6)

._

'

11/

, ......

I.

V-

!
,

.. "'T

;~

.,

l--

-~

..
..
u

IV

'~

141

I::

"

t ..
i ..

Tltc:costof intc:;n~llining;i~n~';'~lly~~pre~~ed
as cents per square feet ofpipe area. The area ofa one
mile length of pipe is given as 1382.3 Dsquare feet.

:2:

.. .

I,

..,

The cost of protective Hnings increases with an

increase in length of the pipeline. Thus, the linings
become advantageous for short lengths 'and for
slurries that produce very high rate of metal loss.

M _ 2.81 DPYm
L
1382.3 D

(Eq. 10.7)

";,

10.7.2

M o - 0.0281 DPY (m:-:Ill') L - a [I - (I + p)" l/p

0.00536 D 1 VFW P,
W + P, (100 _ W) mH.lion tons per year

M1 -

,.,j

"-

'

"

""M' ." .. ,.

Ffgur. 1G-9 Ef'.ct of Plpe.Olameter on the CoSt of Met.1 LOti

o ue to Corro.lon
!from Ref.

'!(). 11 I

. ISO

. SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

,-r---.,..----.,__
:,.-'r~'""'.._7_:.....,?:'_;..__:;,

10-1 BOMBF.RGER, D. R.. "f-Iua")lcnt Chromium Reduces

Corrosion in .. Coal-Wafer Slurry Pipeline," M.I(eri~1s Pretecncn.
V. 4. pp. 4J-49 (I.n. 1965).

N,

10-8

JACKSON~

L D. A. "Slurry AbrOl$ion," elM IWfuttiont.

V. LXX. II. 1020-1025 IS.pt. 1967).

10-9

LINK, J. M., Pipe Wear in Hyd,~uli( Trantl'0ll of Solhh,"

MininJConJressJoUlh.ll.pp, 38-"4 (July 1911~

J_,_,

,"

:,'

". '

;'

10-10 roSTI.ETHIVAITE.}. TINKLER, E. B... nd HA WRYLAK. M..

CorrosionSiudiesin Slurry Pipelines," Proc.lnd 1m. Ccnf on'

I-Iydraulic Transport of Solids in ripest DURA Fluid En~ntt.,'
Cranfield. U. K. pp. G2-15-24 (S.p t, 1972~

'l

10-11 GANDHI. R. L. RICKS; B. L nd AUDE. T. C. 'Control of

CorrosionErosion in Slurry Pipclines,"'st Inl,Conf.ollinrern.ll

and'l:lc,n31 ProreclionofPipcs,BllRA fluid EnsnJ.,Cr3nficld,
U. K. PP G4-J9-52. (S.p t. 1975).

10-12 WILSON. G.. "The DesiJn AspC'cls of Cenlrifuttal rumrs for

AbruivC' SlurriC's," Proc.2nd Inl.Conf. on H)'d,aulic Transpcn
of Solids in Pipes. BURA fluid EnJntt. Cranfield, U. K.. rp.
HZ-25-52 (S.pt. 1972).

Flgur.tCJ.10 Money-Available for Cor;oslon:lnhlbition -

tJTon VI. PIpe Longth

11,0rn Ro!. 11).11)

10.9 NOMENCLATURE
10.8 REFERENCES
10-1 . CrOLAC. 5.. VASII.ESCU. E.. STRETCU, M..

and
JOACHIMESCU, 0., "Metal PiuinJ: Comuion," Imcrnational
Chern. Enp~.. V. 14. pp. 2~4-241 (April 1974).

16-2 BIITER... J. G. A.... A Study of Broden Phenomena, Put 1,W.... V. 6. pp. 5..21 U.nJF.b. I96J).
10-3 BITTER.

J, C. A" "A Study of Brotion

Phenomena, Put 2,

W,,,, V. 6. pp. 169-190 (M.yl}un. 1964).

10-4 SIX'AN.}. D. BOMBERGER, D. R. nd BARTfIAUER, G. L..

"Corrosion Control Achieved on Co..l Slurry Pipdine."
Malcrials Protection V. 2. pp, 26-28. 30. 32. 34 (Sept. 1963).
10-5 KUT.S., 'nlernal and External Coatjnss of Pipelines." ht Inl,

ConLon Interrial and EXlci'n31 PiorecHonofPipe,.- oUR.AFI uid

En~n~.,

Cranfield, U. K. pp: A449-67 (S.p" 1975).

10-6 SAMBEllS. D. R., ..A pr~(liul Scluricn to Pumping an

Abrasive Slurry," Prce. ltd Inr. Con': on flydraulic Tran,porl
of Solids in Pipes, DURA Fluid, I!nJng., Cranfield, U. K. pp.
}IIIS (M.y 1974).

D Pipe diameter. inch

F
Operating factor '
L Pipe length, mile
Mo Money available for deaeration
MI Money available for inhibition
ML Money available for lining
P Price of steel, S/ton
S
Cost ofcorrosion allowance steel
T Throughput of solids, million tonslyr.
V Velocity of flow, fils
W' 'Weight percent solids
,
Y , Pipe life, years
a
Operating cost of deaeration plant. S/yr.'
m Corrosion rate, mpy (mils per year);before in'
hibition .
rri ' Corrosionrate, mpy (mils per year), after inhibition
Cost of capital, % per year
P
Specific
gravity of solids
P,
I

1.

CORROSION-EROSION IN SLURRY PIPELINES

't~)

.I

II

,.
I

10.10 PROBLEMS

line, select the most. economical method of

corrosion control based on the following
assumptions:

10.1 A slurry pipeline carrying coal slurry is to be

designed to have a life of 25 years. The
corrosion rate is estimated to be 4 mpy
(0.1016 mm). The length ofpipe is 50 miles
and the discharge pressure at the inlet end is
1000 psi. The pressure at the outlet end is 50
psi. Assuming a flat profile, determine the
total quantity of steel required if the allowable hoop stress in the pipe is 37.400 psi. The
pipe diameter is 18 inch and the minimum
allowable wall thickness is 0.25 inch.

10.2 In problem 10.1 determine the extra steel in

tons needed for corrosion allowance. If the
cost of steel is $ 300/ton, determine the cost
of extra steel used for corrosion allowance.
10.3 For a 12 inch diameter magnetite slurry pipe-

,
I

Ii

151

Cost of steel. P
Life of project, Y
Rate of interest, 100 p
Corrosion rate of slurry
Corrosion rate of
inhibited slurry
Corrosion rate of
deaerated slurry
Annual operating cost
of deaeration plant
Capital cost of
deaeration plant
Cost of inhibitor
Velocity, V
Operating factor, F
Density of solids p,
Weight % W .
Length of pipe;L
Cost of linings

- 500 $/ton

- 25 years
- 10% per year
- 40 mpy

-4 mpy

-2 mpy
- 2 cents/ton
- $ 3.000,000

- 6 cents/ton
- 5.5 lils
-0.95

-5 .
-60
- Variable
- 5 $/ft 1

11. ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL

ASPECTS
11.1 INTRODUCTION

.'

')

I
This chapter will be limited to discussion. of the
economics of slurry pipelining, It will..be further
limited to materials which will have significant
immediate application for slurry pipelines. Those
materials are coal, iron concentrates.copperconcentrates, and limestone for Portland.cement manufacture. The list will beaugmented by phosphate
minerals when theValep phosphate line ilJ Brazil is
commissioned in 1978. Two factors are common for
a successful application of slurry pipelines to
compete with other transportation modes:

The existence of point-to-point transportation

requirements of volumes large enough to justify
a slurry pipeline. Following are annual worldwide production figures for 1970 in millions of
Ions for selected materials:

Coal'"
,
- 2,983
Iron Concentrate!"
104
Copper Concentrates"!
20
Limestone (for Porrland'"
Cement)
- 545

Illustrative ofthe rapidly expanding U.S. western

coal market is Figure II-I. where 200 million
tons per year coal production is projected by
1985 just for tile state of Wyoming!

.j

'"

r ,

II.

.. - ,.... - ".. _..

!. . j ...J_

:.i

..'\\.~

_.

I. ... ...,<'
,';#..<f.
\.

."

i
. .. ,.

...

;
t1S
\(NO.,..!!.:!!,!1~~ __51

_.~

-_ -

;....:~.-..-.::

/ . , .

------:.

.J-=====----'-'-....:......:_'--.:--L.-/
ltrl 111) ""
ltl' I'" 1!1' 1'1' "'0 Jtll 'til,' "13 JU' .,IS
.,,~

Figur. 11' Annual Wyoming Coal Production Foroeatted

to 1985 (Powder River Basin. Wyoming. U.S.A.J

The second factor limiting this list is the amenability of the material 10 transportation crosscountry in a liquid medium, generally water. For
a cross-country solids pipeline to be practical. the
slurry is designed to be stable hydraulically. This
means, basically, that the particle top size is limited so that the velocity in the system can be kept
to a modest level and so that there will not he
any abrasive wear of the mainline pipe and the
slurrycan-be shu! dO\VII ill the pipeline and
restarted without difficulty.
Previous chapters have reviewed the technical
requirements in transporting these materials and
the physical dimensions of the systems that transport them. The economics of pipeline transportation systems will now be discussed. One important
feature which will be discussed in depth is the'
impact of escalation on tlie transportation costs in
slurry pipelines as a function of power, labor, and
materials cost escalation: as contrasted with rail
transportation .

,
SOLID LIQUID I:LOW

154

11.2 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY

The technology of long-distance pipeline transportation of solids is now approaching the realm of
a mature art. The list of commercially operating
systems with which the authors have 'been associated are shown in Table II-I. Systems now operating
account lor more than \.7 . 10"lon-miles of transportationannually. Those systems have an aggregate history of almost haifa century. The systems in
Table, 11-1 which are not in operation are either
under ccnstruction or will be committed in a few
years. The ton-mile capacity of these' systems will
increase the total slurry pipeline system operating
capacity by well, over an order of magnitude.
, Much of the expansion in slurry pipeline volume
will be due to large coal pipeline systems. Figure 11-2
shows the specific pipelines planned for the western
part of the United States. Coal stands out by itself
since it is a source of energy rather than a raw malerial. It mUS,1 be transported to the vicinity of use in
one form or another - either in its natural state, as
electricity, or as a refined product such as a gas or a
liquid. Currently.the economics of coal utilization,
particularly asan energysource for electric power
generation, favor moving: it (as close 10 the load

.o'i.

As the world demand for iron increases, more '

and more remote reserves ale becoming economically attractive, Grass-roots development of remote
ore bodies is a natural application 0' slurry pipeline
transportation. This has been the case for all the
iron concentrate pipeline applications shown in
Table H-L The planned Brazilian iron concentrate
pipeline represents a significant step up both in line
size and length. i "
Like iron concentrate. copper concentrates are
being sought in,more and more remote places which
are prime applications f~r slurry pipelines. However.
'the diameter.of.copper concentrate pipelines is not
expected to 'increase significantly, Note that the
Bougainville project is among the largest existing
:'

';'1]
Slurry Malerl.,

center as possible) and using it in its natural state,

The overall .volume of coal movement and the
t volume of usage at single sites particularly enhance
'. the use ofslurry pipelines. For instance, the Mohave
power plant in the Ullit~d States uses live million
tons per yearof coal. Power plant.sites which will use
ten totwelve .nillion tons per year of coal are being
developed in the mid-Western United Stales. This
coal will comefrom the coal reserves of Wyoming
and Montana; therefore.the potentialfor long, large
capacity coal slurry pipelines is great.

System or location

lenglh
(miles)

Annu.1
Oiameter
Throughput
Inilial
{inched (million tons/yr.1 Operalion

IEXISTING I '
COAL
LIMESTONE
, COPPER CONCENTRATE L
'f
i

Black Mesa
Calaveras, ..
Bougalnville
West Irian
Pinto Valley

273
11
17
69
11

ia,
7
.'(
. 6,
4
4

53
4
1.8
30

MAGNETITE CONCENTRATE Tasmania

Waiplpi (land)
Waipipi (olfshore)
Pena Colorada

9
8
12
'B

4.8.
1.5
1.0
0.3
0.4

1970
1971
1972
1912
1974

2.3

1967
1971
1971
t974

to
1.0
1.8

liN PROGRESSl
" COAL

.!

Nevada POMr - Utah/Nevada.'

lBO
Energy Transportation Systems Inc.,. Wyoming/Arkansas
1,036
Sierra
Grande
20
"MAGNETITE
AND
HEMATITE
.
'
.
"III"
.
"!'~
Brazil
250
Mexico
17
PHOSPHATE
8razll
; 71
,.
;

'It

rlbl, 11.1SummarYof Selected Commercial Slurry Pip~lInes

24

10

38

25
2.1
12

20
10
10
,,-'

;"

'.

t5
2.2
"':

I<C:ONI.)MIt: AND l'INANe/AI. ASI'J!CTS

.L~L I

\L

IL
Ll

.............,
____

IN'AOORISS
,I,ANHIO

cppper producers, yet requires only a six-inch diameter pipeline to transport all the concentrate
produced.

I1

lower grade ores (as th~ richer ore bodies become

exhausted>, which nece\sarily are ground very fine
in order to frothfloat them. The Brazilian Valep
pipeline is a prime example of this development.

Cement, due to economics, is traditionally produced locally from local raw materials. This will
limit the length and diameter of pipelines designed
for limestone.

11.2.1 Commercial Slurries

. Phos ph ,11 e will become a candidate for longdistance slurry pipelines as a result of the need to lise

The physical properties of these four commercialIy transported minerals are as follows:

Solids
Specific
(ira"ity
Coal
Limestone
Phosphate
Copper Concentrate
Iron Concentrate,

1-4
2.7
3.2
4.3
4.9

Maxi mum
Particle

Size; .
8 mesh
48 mesh
48 mesh
65 niesh
100 mesh

AverngeSlurry
Concentration
%SoJjds hy Weight
.50
70
65
55
60

1%

SOUl) . I.IQUIIJ FLOW

The solids specific gravity is.a basic component.

of course. in both the selection of the top size and
the slurry concentrutiou. Here we' span :, broad
range (rom 1,4 for coal to almost '5.0 for iron concentrate. At their operating velocity. all these slurries are as nearly homogeneous :IS is.likel y to. be
found iiI commercial applications. In this. refer to
Chapter 6. Table 6-1, which gives.the C/C. of the
maximum size fraction. In each case moderate
pumping velocities only slightly above five feet per
second can be used to obtain a reasonable G/C" for
the maximum size. The slurries arc therefore nonabrasive. at design velocities as noted in Chapter 10,
as well as non-corrosive; therefore, carbon steel line
pipe, with no interior treatment. is used. Another
significant property ofthese slurries is that they are
restartable; that is, when the pipeline shuts down
and the slurry settles, it. settles in such away that the
system can be restarted.

11.2.2 Equipment
As mentioned above, the homogeneous nature of
these slurries; by choice, is such that a buried carbon
steel line pipe, with welded joints, is used for their
commercial transportation. This allows the welldeveloped system of cross-country pipeline construction to be used with the inherent economies of
this production line technique of pipeline installation.
All the commercial slurry' pipelines shown in
Table 11-1 use positive displacement type pumps.
except one: The Pefia Colorada System in Mexico
is a gravity flow system. Positive displacement
pumps are selected because of their higher pressure
capabilities and higher operating efficiency as compared to centrifugal pumps. Commercially available
pumps for slurry pipeline service range up to about
1750 horsepower with annual capacities per pump
of three to five million tons.

An order-of-magnitude jump in the capacity of

agitated slurry storage tallks was taken in the Black
Mesa System when tanks of 6 million gallons
operating capacity were' installed at the Mohave
Generating Station. These tanks had SOO horsepower agitators. Agitator manutacturers have installed units for other services with 3,500 horse,
power.

11.3 THE SYSTE.M

Existing commercial systems were described ill
the previous section. In this section some simple
tools will be provided tor estimating line size.
pumping power. and water requirements for slurry
systems. The configuration and boundaries of typical systems will also be described.
One important factor in sizing a pipeline system
is the annual operating factor. Pipelines are designed
to operate 24 hours ada)', 365 days a year. Since
spare pumps are provided in pumping stations. the
instances of unplanned system outage are limited
primarily to the instances of power failures. A
system availability of95 percent per annum is commonly used for design and that figure has been
assumed in the following discussion. However.
commercial experience has been much better than
that. For example. the -Black Mesa Pipeline, in 1972.
had an availability of over 99%. and in 197,\ the
periods of unavailability of the Black Mesa System
were counted in terms of hours. f."
Figure l I-J'grves a quick means of estimating the
pipe diameter, given the annual throughput requirement in tons per year. Here, a design velocity of 5.5
feet per second is used. which is consistent wit h the
commercial experience for these materials. A 95
percent availability factor is also assumed.
The spacing of pump stations depends on terrain.
line size. and the economic balance between mul. tiple pump stations and high design pressures.
Generally, stations are spaced at 60 to 80 mile intervals. As the pipeline diameter gets smaller, say below
10 inches. the station spacing will tend to be shorter
due to the high friction losses in small diameter
pipes.
To date. water has been thevehicle for transporting commercial solids in slurries. There have been
some special cases studied using other vehicles such
as oil. but il is going to be a rare instance when the
appropriate quantities of oil and solids are going
Ifrorn the same source 'area to the same use area
especially over a 20 to.10 year period. Alld given that
situation, the liquid must not contaminate the solid
or vice-versa. nor can there be a wide disparity in
value between the two materials, since loss 01'8 to 10
percent of the liquid onto. the surface of the solid
will result. Figure 11-4 'gives a means of estimating
the water required annually to transport a given
annual tonnage of solids.

EC:ONO~IIC

A~I'EC:TS

AND flNANCIA I.

100

.'

80

I,
,

"- _.

'

60

t40

- --

--

I-'-

'"

w
w

. _. ,

'O~I.;;.-

,V ~'\~;;'-;:;-

I-

:>!

./

10

0:

/.~1?
\)~I:.\)

\~G'
~111.COG

'

COG~\G'''''' .

I:.

~ --

v
./

~
, . .,~I."

\)~\. -=. - '

Do

::
=v
.: 20

.'

,':,<.

~~~~

"". 4~S'\\),

:\~

,.

'~'\~

~I:.<r;~
\\I:.\) G\\G'
"

~<r;

.,<;/."

,\.

...:-

- - .- -

',,',

"

., ..

9S~

Operating Factor
Velntilv :05.5 fps
Solid, ConclIJnlrations - Weight %

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8 1.0

2.,0

,4.0

"

"

2
6.0

8.0 10.0

,..

'

40.0

20.0

ANNUAL THROUGHPUT - Million Ton.

Figure 113 Slurry Pipeline - Pipeline Diameter

..

....... '''.'"'''1 1., -,Flgur.:1.1-4

$fURy

"pelfn. - Wat".Requlrements

---

158

SOUl> UQUID FI.OW

MINE

OEWATER

PUM' $1AJlOHS& 'I'EUNE

stURRY PRE'ARAHON

fNO USE

COAL
SURFACE

.,

MINING

STEAM
POwlR PLANT

00

rnM'$,DRfAJlON SYSffM INCLUDES 'RErARATION AND DEWAfERING

TRANS
SlIIrMfNT

..

IRON

,
Q;

;;

;;

..'"
~

TRANSPORTArlOH

OPEN'1f 1l.1INING AND CONCENTRATION

DEW",En A

PHlHIZE

.:;:

COPPER

illASl
FURNACE

'"!::

!::

..

:
Q;

;;
.'

OPEN PIt-MINING AND CONCENTRATION

rRA"$PORTAJlON

DEWAnR

M
M

.
'"
e

SMHTER

!::

.
..

LIME STONE

:1

O'EN 'If MINE. CRUSHING & GRINDING

..

,-,.'

'RANSPORTAJION

_.
-

.
BlEND Wit u AOOtlIONA.l
COMPONENtS - fEED TO KilN

Figur, 115 Slurry Pipeline - Typical Systems

Figure 11-5 is a diagram of the four slurry systems

under discussion. Every prior application of slurry
transportation to iron, copper, and limestone industries, processing the .matcrial. as a slurry and
dewatering for urilization or utilizing the material
as a slurry was involved. Therefore, application of
slurry Jpipcline transportation .simply involves
adding a pipeline asa "wide spot" in the process
chain. The .mine is seldom near the point of use,
particularly in the case of iron and copper. Often the
concentrate has to be moved through very remote
country before any existing transportation mode is
encountered.
'
Coal slurry, on the other hand, is a differeutsituation. Here the prcparnrion of the slurry is specially
done to meet the transportation requirement; the
dewatering process brings the coal, as nearly 'as
possible.back to its original state of dryness for use
in the power plant. A schematic flow diagram for a
coal slurry pipeline system isshown in Figure 1-4
(Chapter I), The.work expended in grinding the coal
for transportation is a savings lor the firing process

since the coal must be ground to pass 4N.mcsh before entering pulverized coal fired boilers. The coal
application provides an opportunity fur the slurry
to be designed for the system, taking into consideration the coal cleaning. slurry prcpamtion.transporration. dewatering, and utilization process.

11,4 ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
The photograph titled "Along the Route of the
Black Mesa Pipeline" (Figure 11-6) visually SUIIIjnarizes the environmental impact of slurry pipe'lines. The impression given is one of little or no
effect-of the pipeline system 011 the environment
and this is, generally speaking, a fair assessment of
'the situation.
. Cross-country pipelines. including sluuy pipelines, are buried 2112 to 3 feel underground. They
are out of sight and silent. rum p stations ale usually
"electric motor-driven, hence have no effluent gas.

ECON()~lIC

I\ND J'INANC'AL .\SI'EC rs

~
~
I

- ~_.,-,-.........':!.
'.,

:~f

....

.
'

'.~:

....

l'

:~~.
',

....

"

.-'

,j

'

-,

"

<iI

..

.....
,

... ,.
,..'.

........

-.

..

..

~"

'

'

, "

'". .'
'

.. '-

Figur. 11 6 Along the Route of alack Mesa Pipeline

I
I

The water used for transportation is clarified and

returned to the environment or used as a part ofthe
terminal process or power plant make-up. The risks
of spills from slurry pipelines is slight. Minerals
(coal; iron, de)' are in' a sense 'rocks' and thus nontoxic to plant and animal life.

POWER PLANT (COOLING TOWERS)

7-8

COAL CONVERSION

1-2

COAL SLURRY

11.5 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY

In this section the cost of transportation of solids

by slurry pipeline will be presented arid compared to

alternate modes of transportation, For steam coal in
the United States. the alternative is unit train transportation over existing rail 'lines; for metals from
remote ore bodies, it may be a new rail system built
specifically for the project. .Oneimportant characteristic of slurry pipelinesis theirrelatively low ex'
posure to escalation of costs.

Tahle 112 nelativlt W"ter Rl!quiremenls

(Basis Co,,1 Slurry Unity)

=,I
I

Table t 1-2. incidentally, shows the relative water

usage of mine mouth generation of electricity, coal
conversion (to gas or liquids) plants; all compared to
the rather small requirementofcoal slurry. WASP")
has given a detailed analysis of the safety and environmental impact of unit trains versus pipelines.

11.5.1 Transportation Costs

The trnnsportarion coitsprcsentcd include direct
operating costs plus an annual allowance on5 percent' of, capital to cover ,service of debt, taxes,
depreciation, and payment of profit to the equity
owners of the system. A .detailedtreatment of the
financial analysis of slurry pipelines is given in the
addendum to !his .chapter, The capital cost of the

501.10 I.IQIJID f1.0W

1975
TOTAL "NEW"
CONTRACTS

ITEM

ASSUMPTION

(haul 1,000 miles'

Total Revenue!
I

I.

Revenue

9~'9Y2

9.0
90,000

Mills/Ton Mile;

mills on new contracts

TRANSPORTATION COSTS
Crew (train

and locomotive)

Fuel
'Termintll.Loadi.ng and Unloading

Services and Supplies

Indire'ct.:Labor :Co's U
Total Train Op~ratQrs .

MAINTENANCE
Locomot ives
Freight Cars

Total Maintenance

Depr,
. Interest

3,000
3,000
1,900
21.200
3.200

Track
Other-lilt!'. Shops and Suppliec;
EQUIPMENT
Freight Cars

6,300
7,000

320
23.000
2.000
28,000

". $3.150'; new contracts

'.( O,33;"p!l/locomotivemile, 4 locos/train.
<25C/9~I,average, 30e on new

. \ S"'S,icarat ea'ch end of round trip

:; ....

.30% ~'f-crew c.>st~

SO.45lUllil mile averaqn. S0.40 Oil new units:
:;4 unilli/hain

>S1.50/thousand car miles

S 1.35itholJsan" qtm

i'

Ii

"

~dd 5?~ do~tj/l1e

I

2,400
2,400
4,880
244
5,124

Locomotives
'i ..
Depr.
I

Interest

add5%'down .
Total-locomotive exp.

TotalEquipment
MISCELLANEOUS
Indirect Taxes and Exps.
Misc. Overhead

Misc. loss and Damnqe

'Total Expenses
As a % of Revenues
MillslToiiMile

3,000
3.000
6.000

F.eight cars cost 518.000 avm aqn and 522.000 new

locomotives cost

S375.000 average. $450.000 now.

Assume.5Y2 trips/month for 800 mlle trips,
Strip'.i/month for 1,000 mile IOlll1d Hip. 15 vem
depreclaticn basis for freight cars. 10 yeal basts fOI
locomotives. Interest at 10%.

~
6,300
11.424
2.100
3.000
400
66.644
74.0

3% revenues
5% revenues
0.4% revenues

7.4

Table.113 Revenueand Co,t ProJec:llons for Burfing10n North,;" Railr~ad, U~S.'A. Per U'nit _Tral~ Round Trip Hltul
IOerlved from Ref. SI

H;ONO~IIC

AND FINANCIAl. ASPt:.CTS

system includes the direct cost of materials and

installation. plus indirect. costs for engineering,
management of construction, contingency, startup,

and owners' costs.

Coal pipeline systems include the capital and
operating costs of coal cleaning, slurry preparation,
transportation, and dewatering. The pipeline
systems contemplated are complete operating entities with maintenance, communications, and storage facilities as required for the operation of the
system. It is assumed that downstream pump
stations will be remotely operated with a day maintenance man assigned. Provision is made for
management and administrative' staff for the
systems in addition to the direct operating and
maintenance labor.
Transportation costs for coal in the United States
are shown in Figure 11-7 as a function of annual
throughput and system length. Rail figures are
shown for comparison, as are lower Mississippi
River barge figures. The basis for the rail figures are
given in Table 11-3.101 Note that the pipeline transportation cost for large diameter systems approach
those for barge transportation. These figures do not
take into account the greater mileage that will invariably be required for a rail or barge haul as

..
..."
...
.

'O.

161

y----..,.---

-,

.,

j'

u
"

RAlL .TOOll'UlU!'

!,.

..
"

"

J '''AGE . Slllll.4llES

"

HOIf
.:: ,
A.Jt","I1t""8"""~,,,,"I~.~ ,~"..

r" ..

"

4 ~f l~. duo I~ 'flU" ."..,1, '"'

"' .... 'Oll'Hr,"';
.

"" ...

A,,, 'fl' "

I.'" t." . A.'

".l----\------C.----------l
1:"';S

',"

tIll

AHIfUAI'HAOUCH'UJ - Moff,...
I

-.

'O

"

r....

Figure 11 7 Slurry Pipeline'

r-. Coat Transportation Costs
.
-,

"

. .,

..

'.'-

1-

<I

(.. . ,. . ;'C.:) I

. I

-:

! I
.' I ;

=1I

0.1

O.l

0.4

0.6

0..

1.0

'.0

zc

ANNUAL THROUGHPUT '- MilIion.Ton,

Figur. 1, 8 SlurryPlpeUne Tr.nsport.tron Cost - i Iron Copper COricentrat~ and

:,':

lIm;""~n.

6.0

a,0

10.0

lO.O

SOUl> . I.IQlJID fl.OW

16l

compared to pipeline, which is basically a direct

line. In recent evaluations of a 1000-mile pipeline.
the rail distance was,350 miles longer.

.,

11.5.2.Escalation i .
The most important aspect.of a slurry pipeline
., from an economic standpoint is its low escalation
rate. The pipeline capital intensive and rail is labor
intensive. For example, in the United States a 1000
mile,25 million Tq'(coal slurry pipeline system will
require only 325 Ten for its operation and maintenance. while the ,ailroad willrequire 2575 people.
Man-power and otlie~ resource comparisons ofpipelines versus unit tfains for this case are shown in
Figure 11-9. The following is a summary of the
slurry pipelin.ecos~breakdown between fixed and
variable costsgiven by MONTFORT et al.(7)

i,

~AI~

\.."

'7.5 ..

nAIL
5.5
Oi~ll FU4'1
.;.;,j;$28elfl'.

RAIL

1.'

__ fl4/Icm

. Sf EEL
REOUIREMENTS

. 'RELATIVE
ENEROV

RA~Y

costs

6%
5%
5%
100%

Total

A similar breakdown could be made lor the rail

delivery. Table 11-3 shows that labor is well over
half of the total cost.
The historical behavior of unit train rates in the
United States is ofmore significance (as measured
by the American Association of Railroad Cost
IndexAAR Index") in relation to inflation rates
over the last 15 years. This relationship is shown. in'
Table J 1-4. Briefly. theAAR Index increased about
90% faster than the general inflation rate in the last
IS years, In the United States once the rail operation
actually starts. the rail contracts call for the annual
increase to be 80% of the change in theAAR Index.
Other countries will have different histories, but the
basic susceptibility of railroads to inflation is indisputable. .... -

Ratio -

Western AAR

.'960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972

77.4
79.7
81.7
82.2
84.4
89.7
93.0
100.0
105.1
111.6
122.8
134.4
145.5
163.6
187.4

/1973
Co, Fud

MANPOWER.
REQUIREMENTS

Variable
Power
Labor
Supplies

Figure 11-8 prelents transportation costs for iron

concentrate, copp~r,lConcentrate, and limestone as
a function of annu~' throughput. Note that these
figures do not incl4de the cost of crushing and
grinding ordewaterihg since those are part of the
process whether pipeline transportation is used or
not. Thcy are not "greatly affected hy length of
system once it is longer than some minimum length
on the order of 30 to 50 miles. Transportation costs
for a new 50-mile rail system are also shown above
the pipeline curve. Sibce there is now a large capital
component directly !chargeable to the rail transportation. it showsa larger benefit for pipeline
transportation from lncreased annual throughput,
.
i.e., economy of scale.

84%

Fixed

1974
Average

%
Change

GNP Dellator
Index

%
Change

% Change
AJ\R Indexl
GNP

Deflator

103.29
10~.G2

2.97
2.50
0.61
2.68
6.28
3.G8
7.53
5.10
6.18

117.59
122.30
128.20

1O.0~

135.2~

9.45
8.26
12.44
14.55

141.60
146.10
154.31
170.18

105.78
107.17
108.85
110.86
113.9~

1.29
1.11
1.31
1.57
1.85
2.78
3.20
4.01
4.82
5.49
4.70
3.18
5.62
10.28

2.30
2.25
0.47
1.71
3.39
1.32
2.35
1.27
1.28
1.83
2.01
2.60
2.21
1.42
1.89

'on
30 YEAn OI)EnAJlON

Figure 11 9

Rela~j:,e Resource Usage _ Pipeline versus' Rail

fTo r,import 25 Million Tons/Year of Coal

bvpipeline 1.040 miles; by Rail 1.310 miles)

Table 114 Historical necord. American Associiltion" of

Railroads CAARllndelt. GNP Deflator 196G-1974

1.1

ECONOMIC ANt) "INANe'AI. ASPECTS

,I

The corresponding deflator index corrclators for

the variable components were found to be as
follows:

.'

Power
Labor
Supplies

I
!

period of time could be expected to produce reactions negating the basic parameters.

11.6 CONCLUDING REMAI{,KS

1.0
1.3
0.7

Using these deflator indices for the pipeline and

weighing the costs tor the percentages already given.
then (or a 3.6% U.S. Gross National Product (GNP)
deflator index. the pipeline would have inflated at
an annual rate of approximately 0.5%. No consideration has been given to adjusting return 'on
equity (or inflation.
The results of assuming a 3.6% average inflation
rate for a 25 year period with this relationship is
shown in Figure II-tO. Note that the rail rate will
almost quadruple for even this mild inflation rate
over a 25 year period. Contrarywise, as noted, the
pipeline tariff will be essentially flat under these
same conditions. ,
The effect over a 25 year period. with these drastically different rates of inflation is. of course. startling. For initial tariffs ofUS$ 6.50/ton for both pipeline and railroad. the total savings for a pipeline
delivering 25 million tons of coal per year. over
1000 miles will be 5 . 10'(US) dollars. This assumes
a 25 year project life and a 3.6%GNP deflator index.
Use of the recent 8%GNP deflator rate wouldyield
so high a figure as to be probably meaningless
because' inflation rates of that level over a long

The technology of "ipeline transportation of

coal.v limestone, copper concentrate and iron
concentrate has reached a. maturity based on
1.7 . 10" annual ton-miles of commercia] experience.
Slurry pipelines have a small environmental
impact. relative to alternate modes of bulk transportation.
Transportation costs for coal. including slurry
preparation and dewatering. are. on a current
cost basis. below those for existing rail lines for
large volumes. Pipelines benefit from direct routing; generally, considerably shorter than routes
following existing rail. lines or: water ways.
Althongh slurry pipelines for minerals are of a
smaller scale. transportation costs are lower than
for new.rail lines or truck transport over existing
roadways.
'.,

:'
Pipelines are relatively insensitive. to escalation
due to their capital-intensive nature.

11.7 ADDENDUM
The following discussion only applies when' the

slurry pipeline isa separate entity which offers trans-

..
':.~.

~~

;1
I
..

--'
-"-'
--1-'
......
.
"

port services for a tariff. The tariffis computed as the

sum of a capital charge.(F) plus a unit operating cost
(0). The capital component may be considered as a
function of the following variables:

1-----'---- -'-'" '~~~~r

..... - -.. _ - I
"..............
I................. .

..............

'.1"\ue

'''(lIN(

"

II

"UR

"

Flgur", t, '0 'nfl,tlon Effect on Coat T,amport CostsBasis 3.6% GNP 'nflation R.t.

"

In any.year, the capi\al charge will be the summation'of Debt Interest. Cost + Gross Return on
Equity' + Annual' Amortization Charge + Ad
Valorem Tax Charge.
includes Income

In

'. I

I
I

SOUl) UQlIlD FLOW

For the tirst year, the capital charge

F, ($/ton) - C [

(F~

will be:

(0)(1) + (l-D)(R) +-~ +_~_I

1001.00
(1-T)
Y' 100
,'

11-5 M('morandun1 linm RrM.'au:h Oq)t .. I.. F. Rf1Ilm:hiM .:\ (n ..

.)q WiIIi.. m S"':r:f. N. Yo, N. Y.. by Anthony I.U\Vnln ItI:
Burlil1l=-l"n Nord'cm [Nov. 14, 117~1.
II-h ..A....c....meut of lin' l'oh'nlial Rul,' 'ul Inl.unl W....UrfW.l\.. III .Ill
II11C~I.l1('d Tr.m..pol1 SY~lcm lor the t tnhed $1.11"": CUfl'\ til
. F.nl:-inCCfS .1nd Ocrl. ('It Tr:lIUrnll.llioll. U.S. <iO\'C'fRR1cnl

I
I

For the last year, the capital charge (F,) will be:

.,:

Il-i MONITORr, I, G. and \'l;'ASr; E. j., "C",,'

(D) (1)
(I-D) (R)
F,. - C ( 100Y +100 (1- T)

Mich. (19;4).

V
+ Y+ '100 J

If debt payments are levelized, (i.e, averaged for

the project life) the capital charge (F,) will be:

11.9 NOMENCLATURE

1 +-~
-C (D)(I)(Y+I).+ (I-D)(Rl+_
100
2Y
(I,
T)
IOU
Y
100
.
,

C
D
F
I
R
T
V
Y

Historically there is a relaiion between return on

equity and interest cost. Obviously, if the bond
holder who has senior rights to the equity owner,
and further has the property as collateral, earns 10
percent per year the equity owner will want a higher
rate of return than .. the bond holder. How much
more clearly depends on the equity. owner's .risk
level which is specific for each project and requires
careful analysis in each case..'
.
':'l
t !

Capital cost of project ($/toll)

Debt fraction
Capital charge,
Annual.interest on debt, %
Annual rate of return on equity, %
Income taxes, fraction
Ad valorem taxes, fraction of investment
Period of amortization of capital, years

U.lO PROBLEMS
11.1 Determine the levelized capital charges for a
slurry pipeline project based on the following
data:

Ii,

:!1 ~

I;,'

U.S REFERENCES.
11-1 1'J70Millt'I;JI, YC3rhuuk. V. W,
Olflce (972).

If,)n~r''Il.llinil

I:collnmin,w peesented .n o)lh \'('UlM Enell!r CUIlI.. Lkllllil

us,

(jo\'crnnu:nll',illiinte

lI-l MONAGIIAN. U. Moo "Iron Orcin Canad". 1970... 19110,CJIlJ,di.an Miiljl1~ sud M'f.11Iurt:i~al Rul!clin;-pp; -S9-100{Otl.

1971;.

II ~., MON'I'rOltT. I. (t. "Collllnt'IlU on 5131(' of the ArloI' Solid,

rirdinint: Jlnl Nt'"' Dirt'tliOln: rrc::~(ntt'd.1t the C.1n<1di:m
1~Ilt:illt'(',il1~ Coutetence, Vancouver. B.C. (191J).

CIIl:Rlie,t1

11--1 \'('ASr. E.J., "rnl~rt"\\'W~lh OMI Slurr~' Pipelines (CumpJri\on

with Unit Traiml." rn'~"IlICll ae American Mininr; Con~rc'\~
Minil!t: Ccneemion. S.II) Francisco, C~li(. (Srrt, IQ 15l.

Total cost project

- $ 750 million
Annual throughput - 20 million tons
- $ 45 million
Operating cost
per year
Income taxes
- 50%
- 20 years
Amortization
'-75%
Debt
-18%
Return 011 equity
Interest rate
- 10%
Ad valorem taxes
- 1.5% of investment
per year

11.2 Repeat problem 11.1 usingreturn on equity

equal to 10% and 30%.
11.3 Repeat problem 11.1 using interest rate equal
to 5% and 15%.
11.4 Repeat problem 11.1 using debt equal to 65%
and 85%.

APPENDIX

Sr F~~lIrr A-/

.j

.~

Computation of Settling Vclocirv of

Solids in Vehicle

t
l

The following section describes a graphical

method of computing settling velocity of solids in
any given fluid. The iterative procedure lor com puting friction losses for slurries described in Chapter
7 requires computation of settling velocity of solids
in vehicles. This computation can be easily carried
out by using Figures A-I, A-2. and A-3. The use of
these figures is best illustrated by the following
example:

L
,

Illustration: Determine the settling velocity of a

magnetite particle of 295 micron diameter in
slurry vehicle. The slurry vehicle contains 25
percent solids by volume and has a viscosity of
10 centipoises, The specific gravity ofsolids is 5.0.
Assume the solids to be spherical.

l-

,L

Solution: First find the density of the vehicle,

Density of vehicle, p - (p, - I) <P + 1
where p, - solids specific gravity

-5.0
<P - volume fraction solids
-0.25
.. p-2.0

i
Next find the density difference,
Ap -P,-P

-3.0.
,~

,. '-:)

;:"';:.~

"'cr'
'~':I

ir-

.1

-.

!
,

'=="7 i

Find a by laying a st might edge connecting - l.O

and AfJ - _1.0. Next find constant A by laying a
straight edge connecting a and slurry viscosity
p - 0.10 poise.
Value of .t > 0.125.

Sa Figttrc A-2

Find a by laying a straight edge connecting n -0.1

poise and dp - 3.0.
Next find B by laying a straight edge connecting a
and the fluid density I' - 2.0.
Value of B - 0041.

--

See Figure A-J

Find the ratio VIA where D equals particle diameter in centimeter .... 0.0295 ern.
DIA - 0.0295/0.125 oj. 0.236
From Figure A~3 n/B - 2.95
,', .,i - 2.95 x 0041
i - 1.21 em/sec.

SOLID U<.1.UID fl.OW

P flUID (gm/cm 3,
i

"

It

Iii

.:-"???? ?

b\r.:

ew "u.

OOb(lt .... '" Ul

"-d

tiP (gm/cm 3,
o
llJ

C'
!

"
!

"~

- -',"

V'~ ..,0>'.00
, ,,0
~(i i i i Ii

lao

(oJ

a PIVOT AXIS

"

W
,

....

.""
j

,fJ'I 0''''
I

.'

-'" " "'" ,

$'D~

0.0.
<1

. "

.:;::-=

W
,

ti~

"c -c

~~

"-d
,

,!"

0.'
<10.

>w

, '", , , , ,

,,"'w

,.:.

Il POISE

-'" ", "

-I
O',""O"DO

, , ,

,'''''

I,

1
1
\
1
-,
'\ 1
Y
1
1
1=

ft,)

"u.

"''''''''0lJ''''''
O'
\

,!

,.,c ..,c
""

' " . .., btl,l)

0
,0

"

. !

l i,

Il POISE

! ~;
i

I I I I

iii
w " "

iii iii

'"

',"

~"

~,
.~..

II

."

I (' i

VI

'"

I I

"'..

":V'Ch"'''~O

I"

.w

-.OIt""ChUo

'I I , ,I I' " \

"

i".'-Vow
I

...

Ul

l1I .... a..Oo

) ) )-

\
\
\
a PIVOT AXIS

/
/

0 0 0 0 0 ....

u.
,

~ :"'o,~o
I

1 ,

V.I

Ntw

0/;'" (,
.f!

P FLUID Igm/cm 3)

d
,:,
o.!
<1"-

Q,d

"

::N
a c

(,";) en
>w

"

I
I

II
i

. ,I
I

i
I
I

F!(W;
I

JOHN 1'. KENNY, Project Manager in the pipeline design group of R. J. Brown and Associates.
During the last ten years he has participated in
various slurry pipeline projects, from feasibility
studies through pipeline start-up.
He is currently involved in the design and installation of off-shore pipeline systems.
He holds a B.Sc. (Eng.), Chemical Euginecring from
University College London, where he also undertook three years of postgraduate studies in the
turbulent flow of suspensions.

RAl\lESII L. GANDIlI, engineering specialist

with Beilit.e1 Incorporated. San Fr.mcisco. California. During the last six years he has been
involved in the fea..ibility' studies, design, and
startup of various slurry pipelines. lie is presently
in charge of the technical development in slurry
pipeline technology at Bechtel.
l le has also worked as a reader in civil engineering at the M.S. Univer..ity of Il'lr",b.. 1;"li.1.
lie holds a B.E., Civil Eugiuccring from 1\1. S.
University. Baroda, India; M. E.. I'ublic Health
Engineering, University of Roorkce, India. lie W.IS
university fellow at University of Pen nsvlvun i.,
for three years; . post graduate studies in W,lIn
Resources Engineering, lie received two gold
medals (1960 and 1964).

,-,
I

L'.

L
L

L
L

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 2
z.:

F.I'.S. Systcm

Metric System

Pipe 1.0., [) - 17.5" - 1.458 ft

D - 445 nun - 0.,445 m

Flow rate, Q - 4.200 gpm

Q - 954 lll'/hr

1 felsec
- 4.200 gpm x 448.83 gpm
- 9.36

re Isec

v- ~ -

A - 0.156 Ill!

v-

5.6 ft/sec

1.7 m/sec

- Lcp, - 10-)

Reynolds No., Re -

- 1000 kg/nr'

Density of water. - 62.34 Iblli)

Viscosity of water, - 6.72 x 10- Ib/ft sec

L
L

- 0.265 nr'zsec

Area of pipe, A - : D! - 1.67 ft!

Velocity

.: hr
3600 sec
,

.J

L
L'

Re -7.6

VDp - 7.6 x lOs

J.I

N. sec/lll!

x lOs

For steel pipe c - 0.00015 ft cl D - 0.000 J

For Re - 7.6 x 10; and e/I) - 0.0001, from Fig. 2-7,

L.

j-0.00375
4JV!

IJr/L - 2gD
--

Friction loss

4 x 0.00375 X 5.6!
2 x 32.2 x 1.458

.-

4
2

- 0.005 ft/ft

- 0.005

Total friction loss (or 100 mile long pipeline

- 100 x 5280 x 0.005 ft
- 2640 ft

x 0.00375 x If
x 9.8 T x 0.445
111/111

Total friction loss for 160 km pipeline

- 160 x 1000
- 800 m

x 0.005

Static head - 305 ft

Static head - 100 nl ,:

Total discharge head - 2945 ft

Total discharge head .l. 900

I
.

111

Mass flow rate - 583.5 Ib/sec

.,

Mass flow rate - 265 'kg/sec

SOUl> UQUID !'I.OW

583.5
Power -

.!!?.sec

x 294$

~
kW
. 265 -se-c x 900 m :{.O 0(j806 kg m/sec
Power - - - - - - - 7 . " : , . - - - - " ' - - 0.7

ft Ib
550 - - - '. 0.7
sec. hp

- 3.11 J kW

- 446.1 h~ :
.
'.
;

I .
I,
.
r~'l

;. .! ~ \

.
265 x 900
or Metric hp - 0.7 x 75 - 4540

2.2 For laminar flow.

J.:

16

16

Re -7.6 x 10' -2.1 x 10

. ."..

.s

_c

nctron oss - 0.005 x

2.1 x 10 .
0.00375

<

- 2.8 x 10-'

lim

(m/m)

This shows that laminar friction 16ss for this case is only 0.56% of the total friction loss.

2.3 If in Example 2.1 the Iluidis other than water, with a viscosity of 0,0135 Ibm. sec (0.02 kg/m. sec) and
density of 73.5 Ib/Ii) (1180 kg/nr'), determine the friction losses, friction velocity and thickness of
laminar sub-layer. '

The Reynolds Number - 7.6 x 105 x

6.72 x 10-'
73.5
0.0135
x 62.34

- 4.46 x 10'
For e/D -0.0001 'and Re - 4.46 x 10', the value of
. friction factor'

friction loss'

- 0.0054

_If _ 4jl"
L
2gD'

since Vand D are same,

!!l.
_ 0005
L
.

0.0054 - 0.0072 lilft (m/m),

x 0.00375

if

1...'

IJ

L
L

,,
I'

.i;
) i

SOLUTIONS

1',1'.5, SI'SICm

Merrie System,

Friction loss
"

L
L'
L
-<,I
L
L
I
,J

LlI

Ll
L!

n lluid

O,Oll72

0529 lb/Ir' fi

73.5 lb/Ir'
'<--Iluid

m lluid
1180 kg!rll'
N/m'
Ilr - 0,0072 ----"" / '" - .._- / ----..- III
m lluid
0, I02 kg/m

rt

0.529

Ib
it'

m-nl

Wall shear stress -

I'

tricnon ve ocuy,

III

4
- 9.27 N/m'

- 0.1929 Iblft'
C'

'

8.l.3 -,-- x 0,445

1.458 ft

U" - l " 0.1929

>-. 32.2
73.5

ir _ /

9.27
1180

- 0.087 in/sec

- 0.29 ftlsec
Thickness of laminar sublnyer

"

0.02
0.087 x 1180

5 X 0.0135
0,29 x 73.5

-0.0001 m

- 0.003 ft

2.4 Based on VON KARMAN's similarity hypothesis prove that the velocitvdistribution in turbul
now of circular pipe is given by the following:

where Von is the maximum velocity at pipe centerline, V is the velocity at a distance J' from the I
wall, k is von Karman constant, '. is the pipe radius and /I' is the friction velocity,

According to similarity hypoihesis the ratio

dl//dy
- constant
d '/1/dy'

IL

\I
,

Let mixing length

SOLll> ' I.IQUIl) FLOW

Now thc shear stress is given by

'j

But r

-'w

,
!
2
,
( I - Jolr.)'I' an d,{II,
d/ IS negative
dlllidl
,', (dilld.J,)l

k
- - 11*

I
VI-Jolr.

Integrating this we get

, I
~ r----- - - - -2k -I I - y/r + const,
'dllidy
II'
Now, as y - 0, dllidy "" very large quantity
,I

"

,', dllidy - 0
,', const, - 2krulll'

,"

1-

Yl- Jolr.

Integrating once again,

II

aty -

TO J It -

11* [ VI - J'I", + In (I
-T

Um
,'.Um -0

,', II

or

VI - J'lr..) J+ const,

TII' [ VI - J'lr. + In (I

+ const,
I

- y'l - J'lr.)

1+

U"'

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHJ-\PTER 3
3.1 To determine the settling velocity aLI spheric. I particle having a density or I (,5A Ibn/Ii' (2.650 kg/rrr') in
water at 611 OF (20 e). The particle diameter is 0.0197 inch (0.5 mm),

AmwtT (fps units)

..'
,.
For water at 68 OF, the density of water is 62.3 Ibm/ft J and its viscosity is 1.08 x lO,s fr2/sec.
As a first step apply Stokes Law:'
g(PI-P')d 1
18 pr\'

71' -

--

where:
32.2 ft/sec 1
165.4 Ibm/f!'
62.3 Ibm/fr!
LOll >( lO's ftl/sec
- 0.0197 inch - 0.0016~ ft

g
P.
P,
v

..1t1

32
(165.4 - 62.3)
j8x 62.3 x 1.08 x 10"

x (0.00164)2 - 0.73 ft/sec

R _u.d _ 0.73 x 0.00164 _ 1297>- 1

:.

1.08

>(

10"

.'. Stokes Law does not apply

Determine the diameter term

CiI>.R e -

'!&Jp. -

Pr) d'
i
.\p, v "

4 x 32.2 (165.4 ~ 623) (1.64 x IO. J )

3 x 62.3 x (1.08 x 10") 1

I
;/J

-,

- 26R7

,.

;:: ~ .

I:,

180

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

Referring to Figure 3-2, read the value of Re - 40

f
Now

1f'd

Re-'v

40 x 1.08 x 10-) / (0.00164)

,'.1/1 -

- 0.263 It/sec,

,
;

Annur (mks units).

For water at 20' C.the density of water is 1000 kg/m s and its viscosity is 10-6 mT/sec.(As illustrated in the
solution for fps system of units, Stokes Law is not applicable).
Determine the diameter term
I

Ci R 2
4 x 9.81 x (2,650-1,000) x (0.0005)' _ 2687
n e - :
3 x 1000 X 10-11

.' - ...
Referring to Figure 3-2. read the value of Re - 40
, ., ,

.'. w - 40 x 10-6/0.0005 - 0.08 III/sec.

r,
3.2 Given d - 0,00082 ft (250 microns)

Shape factor - 0.7

Temperature - 68 F (20' C). To lind

Dele~lI1jne

the diameter term C.

c. _ndsn (P. - Pr)g

.6p,v!

1t'.

",'Ii

SOLUTIONS

i)

1'.1'.5. System

L
i; L
i';
,11

dn

'1\ldric Svstcm (mks)

0.00082 ft

-0.00025 m

I'!

I~ L

s> 32.2

I:

L
L
L

I
.:;:'

.~~~

- I b
.'. C, -

1f X

(0.00082)3
6

(I.Oll

.'. 1" -

8.2 X 1.08 x 10.5

0.00082

8:2 :< 10'

0.00025
"

-.0328 m/sec

- 0.108 ft/sec

it,

3.3 Assume the same particle as in Example 3.2 except that the nominal diameter is to be derermi r

C - (ps - prjJ .~"

,',
pr

Cw'" 2 x

111

Metric System (mks)

J2'~0~1~8~~ X

; 2 x 9;ill x 10'
(0.0328)'

IO-

-0.56

- 0.56
/

From Figure 3-6, for Cw

:< (OJ)0025)l x 2 :< 9.111

__.- 6:~ Io-rr---

~.

From Figure 3-6, for C, - 159.0 and a shape factor of 0.7: Re - 8.2

1'.1'.5. System

=1

tt

I
L

10-')'

- '159

from the other five variables.

2 x 32.2

- 159

~"I

m'/sec

. f

, I'n

.;.

0.56 and a shape f~ctor of 0.7, Re - 8.2

8.2 X 1.08 X 10.5

0.108

- 0.00082 ft

- 0.00025 m - 250 f.lm

I~Z

SOLID ,LIQUID FLOW

3..l Assuming that rhc.parricle given in EX;IJ1Iple 3.Z settles in a fluid of density IZ4.1> Ib",/II \ (ZOOO kglIll')
and viscosity 3.2-1 :< 10' fl: Isec (3 ,.; 10-; m'/sec). determine its settling velocity.
The value of P< -.J!!... for this
PI

,'.

C< - 159

.>(

GISC

is 0.5 and J1 is 30 times that given in Example .1.Z.

.'

0.5 I'
-Z-,;"

I)
9iiir
- ( .II'~-l

(from Ex..1.2 C - 159)

,,

.'. The settling velocity is given by Stokes Law.

'ii
First determine the fall velocity of spherical particle.

1'.1'.5. System
32.2

Metric System (mks)

0.5 '

-18 x 3.24 x

10-' x (0.00082)"

9.81
- 18
x 3 x0.510" x (00025)'
. 0 .

- 0.00186 ft/scc
.', Re - 0.0048 .'. Stokes Law is applicable and therefore no correction for shape factor is needed.
(See Fig. 3-6).
.'. Settling velocitye- 0.00186 It/sec

- 0.00057 m/sec

3.5 Determine the value of drag coefficient for the particle given in Example 3.2.
,.j

F.P.S. System

Metric System (mks)

j
4 x 32.2
[<~~- 3 x 0.108/ x; 2 x 0.00082

!!'~
;

....

-6

CD-~
310

4 x 9.81
- 3

(0.0328)'

0.00025

-6

3.6 Determine the value of drag coefficient for the particle given in Example 3.2 assuming that its shape
factor is 1.0.
In Example 3.2, the value of C. was obtained as 159. The corresponding Reynolds Number and drag
coefficients from Figure 3-6 are 9.5 'mel 4.3, respectively,

I~,
1
I

~.

,\,7 Determine the sell ling velocity illld drag coefficient Ior a !OO micron diameter spherical particle having
.1 specitic g"wily of 5.0 i~1 il slurry having an effective density of 2000 kg/ l1/ and an effective kinematic

,'isco,ity of 2.5 -, 10'" m~lsec.

!I-

I-

'

tI

1(1

-18 x

5-2
.J'
2 x 2.5 Yo 10-" x (10 ).

- 3.27

10'> m/sec

100 pm

I ()"J m

Try Stokes l.aw

9.81

1(1d

Re -

v -

3.27

2.5

10'> X 10"
X 10.6
- O.1.l

.'. Stokes Law is applicable

.'. Settling velocity - 3.27 x 10'> m/sec

I
I

qi0
I

I
I

I
-I
I

'I'

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 4
.1.1 Giuor:

c. -

60. I

p, - 5 X

I gm/cm',

pw - I gnj/cm'

To find: <1>, volume ratio, pm

! '
100

p .. -

!.

c. + 100-Cw
p,

(Ell. 4,1)

pw

100
---60 + 40

- 1.923

(Eq. 4.2)
0.6

I'

I
I

1.923
5

- 0.231

i"

,
.
Volume of solids
Volume
rauo
-V"I'
f ,.rqUl'd,
0 ume 0

- 0.3

.I

4.2 Giuen: p,n - 82 Ib/rl'

p, - 131 Ib/fl'
l
PI - 74.8 ,Iblft
To find: Cw, C. and volume ratio,
"

.." JI_U I H IN:')

Rc.Irr;III~ill1l E'IU.llion ~.I.

we get

c, -1001"(

!'n. -1")

Pm
- 100

P'-PI

IJI
82-74.8
--I
--_._)
. 82
IJ 1-74.8

- 20.5%

c.-Cw 1"Pm
- 20.5

(Eq.4.2)

82
131

.
- 12.8%

c.

<t> -100-0.128
<t>

....

Volume ratio - T:<t> - 0.147

j,

i.

h
~

4.3 To determine the viscosities of the slurries given in Examples 4.1 and 4.2, assuming that the slurries
exhibit Newtonian rheology, and slurry temperature is 68 0 F. The viscosity of saturated brine at 68" I: is
2 centipoises.
a. Example 4.1
The volume fraction of solids </> in this case is 0.231. Referring to Figure 4-1 or by using Equation 4.6. we
j
obtain
p ... - 2.24
po
po - I centipoise

:1

.'. Viscosity of the magnetite slurry - 2.24 centipoise.

.
I

=[

i
I

b. Example 4.2
The volume fraction of solids </>in this case is 0.128
.'. /.1m _ 1.51
/.10
/.10 - 2 centipoise

.'. Viscosity of the salt slurry - 3.02 cent ipoise

SO!.lO - I.IQUJD FI.OW

4.4 To determine the amount olheat required to heat a coal-water slurry containing 50% coni by weight from
an initial temperature or7ll' I' to a linalteml'eraturc or 120' Fgiveu that the specilic heat or coa I is 0.3 Btll!
lb OF and the slurry flow rate is 4000 gpm. Specific gravity of coal is 1.4

Gi1'(1/: Q

- 4000 gpm
,,

Cps -IU

Crm -

+ c, C"I

C,_, C"

100

0.3 :< 50 + 1
100
- 0.65 Btll/ib

.', Heat required ,'

50 + 50 - 1.167
1.4 -1

"',;Mass flow rate of slurry - 4000

'j.

50

100

Specific gravity of slurry

:I

4000

1.167

1.167:< 8.34lb/min
8.34 (120-70)

0,65 Btu/min

- 1,264,900 Btu/min.

4.5 If the Btu content ofdelivered coal is 10,000 Btu/lb, what percent of this Btu is used in heating the slurry
from 70 0 P to 1200 J considered in Example 4.4.,
Mass flow rate of delivered coal:" 4000
.', Btu of coal delivered - 4000 x 1.167

X
X

1.167 X 8.34 X 0.5 Ib/min

8.34 X 0.5 X 10,000 Btu/min - 194,655.600 Btu/min

.'. Percent of Btu delivered that is used for heating slurry

1,264,900
100
6501
- 194,655,600 X
- 0,
,e.

4.6 Givm:

To Find:

RIl- 2,96 em;

R, - 3.13 em,
o - 152 rpm.
rhoh

From Eq, 4..10,

...

SOl.UTIONS

Now

,[
\. II
,r :

I
I

I
\1

.
,,,.

,11
2nRh'!Jp

"'--h - ~ -

,[I

lR/D
.";;J
(R e - Rh ' )

., .".,'

Ghvu: Q - 152 rpm - 15.92 red/sec

'>1

. '.

( Rh )! _ ( ~96
n;
3.13

.
..)'hob-

f _ 0.894

15.92 x 2
.1
0.106 -300 sec

4.7 Suppose that f~~ particular co-axial cylinder viscometer the viscosity corresponding to 100% scale reading is 64.7 centipoise. Find the shear stress at the bob jn Dynes/em! for an 89% scale reading. for the
configuration given in Example 4.6.

",i

Now. r - py
At 100% scale. p - 64.7 centipoise; therefore. for 89%' scale, p - 64.7. x 0.89 - 57.58 centipoise.
y.". - 300 sec" from Example 4.6 ,

.'. r - 300 X

57.58
1
1iiO172.7 Dynes/em
:.;

4.8 First convert the scale .readings to shear stress in Dynes/em! by rnultiplyi;lg:the scale reading with 1.858
Shear Stress

Shear Rate

(sec

ol

=1
iI I
I'
I
i

,:1.[. 'J
;;'11

(I5}"lcs/crn

11.2
15.0
19.7
26.3
34.7
50.0
67.2
88,4
117.9
:155.6
225.9
30.1.3

21.6
26.3
31.6
38.7
46.5
58.5
70.3
83.0
98.9
117.0
147.2
171.7

!'I i
!I

,.

SOI.lIl-I.IQIIIJ) FI.OW

INS

Plot these data as shear stress versus shear rate as shown in Figure 4-13.

The shear stress of interest is 100 to 150 Dynes/em'. Fitting straight line through the points Iyin!: in this
shear stress region. we see that the line intersects the shear stress axis at 50 Dynes/cur', which is the value
of yield stress.

,
The coefficient of rigidity is given by the slope of this line which is 0.427 Dyne-sec/cur'
"

.'. The yield stress

T. -

50 Dynes/cm l

The coefficient of rigidity 'I - 42.7 centipoise

As can be seen from Figure 4-13. Bingham plastic model does not fit the data outside the shear stress range
of 120 10 24G Dynes/emf,
N 200..----------'-----,

~
1l 150
e>~ 100
w
a:

In
a:

-0:
w

iJi

,/'..t

50

,/

'COEFFICIENT
OF RIGIDITY.
11- SLOPE OF THE LINE
0.427 Oyne - stc/CID~

"

...!

..

VIELD STRESS.

....

~:.;'::

TO- 50 Oyne/cm2.

...

0+-.1---'--...:..--'-------1
o 50100 150 200 250 300 350
SHEAR RATE bec- 1)

Figure 4-13 Shear Stress versus Shear Rale

4.9 According 10 the definition of viscosity,

:

shear slress
,,- shear rate

Therefore determine vitosilY corresponding to each point as given below:

-,

Shear Stress
(Dynes/em")

Viscosity
(centipoise)

21.6
26.3
31.6
38.7
46.5
58.5
70.3
83.0
98.9
117.0
147.2
174.7

193
175
160
147
134
117
105
94
84
75
65
58

IL

IRQ

SOI.lHIONS

Figure 1-1-1 shows rhcplor of viscosity as a function of shear rate, (Note that the material is shear thinning),

Ii 200.,,--\- - - - - - - - - - - ,

II

.~ 150

E
~

;;;

en

LI
I
,

50

0-1-------.,------1
o 50 100 ISO 200 250 300 350
SHEAR RATE ISec- 1)

Figure 4.14 Vi'ScosilV versus Shear R"te

,"II :)

- 100

4.10 T" lit the Power Law model. 1'101 shear stress versus shear rare on 101(101( paper and determine the value of
n as the slope of the straight line passing through the data points,
.

.,~<.-

~l

Figure 4-15 shows a log-log plot of shear stress versus shear rare.

!
Now (or Power Law fluid. log, = ,,'logy + log"

~.

')

;'''.':..:~

'L!

~!; .!
, i

At

'1=

.'. 1I~

0.63
,~

10 sec", , - 20.5 Dynes/em',

.'. log" - log r - " logy
- log 20.5 - 0.63
- 0.68175
,,- 4.8

I'

I
It can be seen (rom Figure 4-15 that the rower Law fits the data quite well. The value of effective viscosity
versus shear rate is given below and plotted in Figure 4-16:
Shear Rate
(sec")

Effective Viscosiiy
(cenripoisc} . ,,:

,(b)""
r

=
, i
.~

T
I -

r.,

i
)

11.2
15.0
19.7
26.3
34.7
50.0
67.2
88,4
117.9
155.6
225.9
303.3

198
177
159
141
126

III
99
90
81
73.6
643

58.1

i'

SOl.lD - l.IQIJIO ROW

Inti

,..
"

3x 1 0 "
0 '

-,-

-;-_..,......,..,

PROBLEM 48

: ;

-'-_...:....--:..-1

1 xl0CJ-1dO

x1 0 0

Sx100

SHEAR RATE (sec-I)

Flgur.4.15 Shear Stress versu, Shear Rate

11
,!

.. -

'00.-

150

.~

100

(;;

u
en

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

SHEAR RATE (Sec-I)

Flgurrt 416 Vlsco,lty vet'usShear Rat. (Pow"r Law Moden

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 5
5.1

Let

dC dC
dVR
1 dVR
------:<----(I-C) . I{)' dVR
I{)'
I{J'

Now

Substituting for 'd'C in Equation 5.11. we get

)'

l d VR
.
,(I-q -.d-+(I-q CX
.I'

dVR
I{)'

C'
I-C

i.e,

,-+-lU-O

r.e.

dVR
E.--+
IIR
I{)'

1t'-()

.-.
-

X 7U-0

This equation is of the same form as Equation 5.1, therefore we get

". ;1

.:,,1 r>:

'l",

VR
log 11& - -1.8 Z.

5.2 Giuen: D .. I Ii
V - 6 (tis
rw - 0.2 Iblft 1

To lind: Mnximum particle size for which CIC" - 0.7.

!
.:;

Now,

log

s;..C:, -1.8

lit

I (jJ;m ')

(Eq.5.8)

where

fl

... J.()

-0.38

n"

-l~~&

ClC, -0.7

SOLID - U(~IJII) ('LOW

,.

.'. 7(1 -

(Eq.5.12)

0.083/ IfP

,!

where
;{' ~ settling velocity of solids in the slurry
p - density of slurry, Ibn/fe.

The maximum particle size is given by the diameter of the particle having settling velocity equal to 'i',
The values of 10 for the four different materials are given as follows:

Material

\Vt.%

P
( ib/ft')

Coal
Magnetite
Copper
Limestone

50
60
60
60

72.8
120.0

113.5
100.3

1tJ

( ft/scc)

0.0097
0.0076
0,0078
0.0083

,,"

, ,
~

j::

';"

Assuming Stokes Law. the particle size is given by the following equation:
.

",

"_/_18
g(p' .... p)

f.J7t1_

The linal results arc as follows:

Materinl

Coal
Magnetite
Copper
Limestone

-,

( 1f:'~"tJ)

i f.J
( Ibm/fe-sec)

d
(Ct)

1"tlp
Rc - _.-

87.4
312.0
249.6
168.5

0.0168
0.0067
0.0067
0.0202

0.00250
0.00039

o.os

0.OOO~6

0.00117

/I

0.1

o.os

o.os

SOI.UTIONS

5..\ The v..luc of C/C\ is given by Equation 5.8 i.e.

log

~-

-1.8 1101( I '-, 0.38

fI ")

Now,

where,

f)-1ft
g

- 32.2 fl/sec l

(Eq. 5.1.1)

It is necessary to estimate the settling velocity

1f

Particle Size (mill)

--Xg

0.-1

67.8
542.0

0.6

1830.0

0.2

1{1

and the drag coefficient

(p. - p) pi
fI

C;,

for various size particles .

111

He

( fl/sec )
0.0738
0.164
' 0.246

4.5
20.0
45.0

Ci,
8.5
3.5
2.3

4
Now calculate the value ofbr fordifferelll values of Vusing Equation 5.13.The results are tabulated below:

;
!';,elide

br for Velocity -

Sill: (null)

12

0.2

0.0507
0.07,14
0.0925

0.0743
0.0902
0.1022

0.1
0.6

n" for Velocity 16

12

16

0.1150

0.639
0.775
0.864

0.774

0.963
1.0 II
1.047

0.1268
0.1359

0.853
0.908

50l.lD - I.IQ.UlD FI.OW

sin~

Next e;tleul.teC-i'C"

Equ,ui"n.5.8. The results ore summarized as follows:

Panicle
Size [mm)

12

16

0.2
0.4
0,6

0.281
0,099
0.045

0.353
0.123
0.052

0.434
0.170
0.077

C/G, for Velocity -

5.4 CICA is given by Equation 5.8, The valuesof the sell ling velocity of solid 7f' and the friction velocity 11*
should be calculated to determine CIC".

Estimate 'if 1U
Particle diameter - 0.1 mm - 3.28 x

Hr' ft

- 62.4/(0.4515 + 0.55)

. fluid density

Ib..
- 97.5 Ii'
Fluid viscosity

.. :/
.' . -: Diameter term
(

,'\

t ;;:j

1.::1.;.

- CuRel
-70.2

.'. Re - 2.5

,'. 7U

Estimat

- I cp - 6.72 x 10-' Ibml li.sec

0.0525 It/sec

Ii;'

Friction loss - 230 psi/mile

.', Wall she" stress - 1.045 Ibr/ ftl

,', u"

11.045 x 32.2
-I'
97.5'
- 0588 It/sec

,', log CICA

.',

..

-1.8 x 0,0525/(0.38 x 0.588)

.'. CICA- 0.378

1'1,'

5.5 Tho inclusion ofclay iucreases the viscosity ofthe slurry which in turn reduces the settling velocity "hand
particles. Thus the value of CIC;, will increase due to the inclusion of clay, First estimate settling velocity
of sand in water.
'

"

J.I -

, Ibm
1.2 CI' - 8.06 x HI" ---ft/sec '
i

- 62.4

p,-

.)

I(r'

- 0.,1 mm - 1.31 :'

Lfb~
r

1654 Ibm

it'

Diameter term - ~ CnRe

'

I'

- 375

From Figure 3-6, for shape factor of 0.7, the value of Re

is 15

.'. settling velocity - 0.148 It/sec,

Srlllilt.~ 1,dodl)' ofsltltd in ,1)( pmtnet ofdl1)' '

Diameter term

_ 375 x ( 1.2 )

2 ,

'

"

- 8.4

J:el,!

.', Reynolds Number, - (,).9

.'. Settling velocity
1/" :-

- 0.059 ft/se~

0.5 fr/sec
r

.'. CICA (sand in water) - 0.04

,I
"

i
i

and C/GA (sand

III

water plus clay) - 0.276

sot.tn - I.IQ.UIO

"'6

FI.OW

5.6 The fi-iCdon\"c!odty 1f~"'(U5 It/sec. The setrling velocity is estimated using Stokes formula. (The particle
Reynolds Numberwas found to be less than 1 in all cases).The CICh values are estimated as shown in the
following table:

I'

Slurrv
Settling
Conccnrrariuu Vdocil~. 1('

(Wt ....)

(It/sec)

45
50.
55

3.16 x
2.86 X
1.66 x
5.50 x

60

10,2
10,2
10-2
10')

ClG.,

0252
0.287
0.486
0.187

?i

I,

If the CIC., at 45% concentration is to be made equal to that at 55% concentration slurry, the settling
velocity of solids should be made equal in both slurries,
For Stokes Law, 1U varies inversely with the slurry viscosity.

Let fI bettl~~ required viscosity at 45%.

:1

:;

. ,,

3.16 X 10,2
,'. fI - 1.66 X 10-2 X 2.8

.- 1.904

x 2.8

Therefore the viscosity should be increased by 9004%.

-,

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLENIS
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Gitvn

Limestone slurry - 60% wt solids

II ~ 6.9 cp -\Ul69 poise
ro - 38 Dynes/cur'
fl' - 2.7
D - 2 em, 20 em, and. 60 em
To Find: 1) Hedstrom Number
2) Lnuinur-turbulent transition
critical velocity
Hedstrom Number, Nile":'" D 1 ro pll]'
100

For 60'Y. wt slurry

fl----

60 +40
2.7

-,

- 1.607

.Substitutiug the values of D, roo p, and

<. '

I]

we get the following results:

Diameter. D (em)

Nile

2
20
40

5.1
5.1
2,1

10'

10

10'

Next determinc the vahle of thecriticalReynolds Number by referring to Figure 6-2. The laminarturbulent transition velocity is obtained by using the following equation:

SOUl) - 1,IQUJI) 1'I.0W

The lin,,1 results are given below:

,
,

v, [em/sec]

Diameter,

D (em)

, 2
20
40

5.1
5.1

104
10"

2.1

10'

6.3
2.7
4.6

X
X
X

10'
10'
10'

135

58
49

6.2 To prove th,lI

The effective viscosity for a Bingham plastic fluid is given by Equation 6.6

ro D
p.-,/+-6 V

i.e,

(Eq, 6.6)

The Reynolds Number is therefore given by

VDp

_
R

roD

'/+ 6

I
:\{

"'I

The critical velocity \,~ corresponds to a Reynolds Number of 3000.

~,~

roD
.. V. D'P - 30lJO ,/ + 500 V.

i
\I~ 2 _ 3000 'II~ . _ 500 ro - 0

t.e.

Dp

.' .

V. _ 1500 '1 J
, Dp

.. ISOO 1/
Dp

i/ ()OO()
11)2 + 2000 r
Dp
p

2.

[1 + /1+ drol?]'
4500,l

SOI.UTlONS

(d for computing laminar-turbulent transiti~nvelocit). the coefficient of rigidity. '1. and the yield stress z..
need to be evaluated. Therefore, compilte the rate of shear, 8 V/I). and the wall shear mess rwI) - 0.812" - 2.06 em

8 II

IF

Velocitv, I'
(em/sec)

(sec")

rw
(Dynes/em")
"j'

i~

347
323
297
226
181
137
89.3
120
36
44.2.

;;1

D - 1.59" - 4.04 ern

I

\.

I'

.J
iI'
1

1,348
1.254
1.153
878
703
532
347
466
140
172

287
241
186
152
109
69.8
51.2
37.5
12.2

568
477
368
301
214
13.8
101
74
24

570
516
434
278
180
105
73
82
57
60

.' - ..
_.....

..
i

352
260
167
114
63
61 .
57
59
51

D - 3.05" - 7.75 em
83.3
70.4
50.0
26.5
'14.3
7.7
9.8

86.5
72.7
51.6
27.4
14.8
7.9
I

10.1

66.5
57:9
66.5
66.5
60.8
40.5
49.0

="i

Next plot the wall shear stress rw as. a function of rate of she or 8 V/D as shown in Figure 6-9.

SOLID - I.IQUID ROW

lOU,

From l'igure fi-9 we get the critical rate of shear 8 I',I/) as.the value whenthe linear portion of CUI ve ends,
The values 01'8 I'~//) lor the 2.06 em and -1.04 em.tubes are 465 sec-land 2 15 scc'", respectively, There are
. no tutbulcnt.datafor the 7.75 em tube.Therefore, the critiCal velocity lor 7.75 CI1\ cannot be estimated.
The observed critical velocities are:

2.06 em tube,
4.0'1 cm tube.

I,~ I'~ -

120 ern/sec
109 em/sec

The laminar flow data for all the three tube; faU on a single line AB show,; in Figure 6-9. The intersection
of this line with the wall shear stress axis gives 4/3 times the yield stress.
Therefore. yield stress r. - 37.5 Dynes/em'.
The cqel1icien't
of" rigidity I/is given by the slope of the line AB.
I
,
','" ,i'
Therefore 1/ - 0.067 poise.

:W'

",~.

Now:;~bmpute lh~ilaminar'turbulent transition critical velocities for the three tubes by computing the
Heds(rolu Nuinb,:, and the corresponding critical Reynolds Number. : .

.:: :'; :~~

~::;

n:,'.; ',r

AssiJi.lre:solids.:dellsity -2.7 for limestone. Therefore, the slurry density p - 1.607.

:t '~:~ ': ' ':.~'~j .>
Tuhe Diameter /)
(cm)

Llcdstrmu Number

Critical Reynolds

Critical Velocit), \ t'

Nile

Number N'

(em/sec]

2.06
4.04
7.75

5.7
2.2
8.1

5.770
9,260
14,600

117
96
79

X
X

10'
10'
10'

5UO
PAO,WIUJ

'"i 400
E

IN'

--

>

iHiYiiiosulus ,...'J

.SfJJ'll~JtrSl .... I
(OI'U("", 01 IIfGIOf" or' StO" ortll'f

""'''''01$1

.."

o~, "'''',10''

,! 300

;
.:

100

~.,

.
:'"0

:~
";',

"

a'a
.

- - - --_.-

~fE~!'!!

O-If"...: h"
A_c ...... h ..

200

'"

,
.:

fZ'
200

300

.:.
a
~

l:1~
.i

.-

._--- .'--.- ..

.....

.--

->

-:

...,/

400
500
600
700
nATE OF SIlEAR(SV/D. S-I,

__._--

.
..

..

SOO

900

1.000

SOI.UTIONS

201

h.,1 Slurry concentration - 48% wt

Solid, specific gravity - 2,7

Slurry "emily. p. - 89.4 Ib",/ft) - 2.78 slug/ft)

1'1.1<tic viscosity, '1. - 8.7 centipoise -. 1.81 ,-: 10' ll".sec/ftl

'.Pip!, diameter, D. -

ft.

Yield stress. r" - 0,86 Ihr/fi 1

I
I
I

i:

I:

ro plf
Hedstrom Number. Nile . -::1'1

- 7,3 X 107

.'. N Ree - 31,500

.'. The critical velocity - 2.1 Ir/sec.

LtU"i",tr turbulcnt trausition critlra! 11(lo{i!v 1lSi".~1';'7l'(r Lam fluid

0.422

II -

The generalized critical Reynolds Number

NRe: -

2400

1.61

.'.

V~

6.5 Pipe diameter, D. - 0.125" - O,OI04(t

\Ie 1.S78
X

89.4
1.1323 x 0,3
X

- 5.5 ft/sec,

n -

x 10" lbr-scc/It 7
r. - O.W, Ib,lft 1

1.81

- 2.78shlglli .'

souo - l.IQlJlO F/.O\X'

lU.!

Using Figure. 1>-5 we i:el the 1(,II11wing result"

Vchu.:ilY

(rtfscd

j'

r""""

12.5
S.U
1.25

Rcvnolds
No.
N.,.

Friction
Factor

Pricrion
toss

(rt/rt)

ZOOO
80U
200

U.O u
O.05U
OA8U

12.1 U

7..16
4A~

L"UI Modd

J>

For Power Law fluid.

16/N < e-

' ,.
N R.

- 23.8 vt,SlI

Velocity
(fr/sec)

N.<

Friction
Loss

(psi/mile)
12.5
5.0
1.25

0.0125
0.053
0.473

1280
302
34

1\.63
7.91
4.41

c!
I

I"'-"

.~

h.6

/l

~.

/1

- 2.1 centipoise -0.22 poi'e

I'

- 1..1.1 rn/scc - 122 em/vee

15.1

111111 ...

15..1 em

I
.'

L
NR.

FDp
/1

L
Yield stress

II

= - -..-

14,270

53 Dynes/em!

.". Nil. - 4.3 x 10;

.". Critical Reynolds Number - 11,700

<:

14,270

.'. The flow i, turbulent

From Figure 6-5, the friction factor - 0.007
l

. .
'!f V
.'. Friction loss -2--[')
g
n

6.7

-0.165
- 34.3 Dynes-sec"
- 15.2 cm

D
V

0.014 em/ern '

54'/'1
pSI nu e ~

. -.

,.s /cm

l "

122 COl/sec

K' -K ( 31N-I )n - 39.3

41/

tr Vl.np
N Rc -

K' 8""

- 2580

.'. from Figure 6-8, friction factor

e-

0.0064

.', friction loss - 0.0128 em/em

- 49 psi/mile
6.8

l)l3ingh~m PI.mic Model

- 15.2 COl
0.63 poise
- 50 Dynes/em!

n rn
p

V
NRc

.'.
,'.
,'.
.',
,
"

-,

1:693 gm/cm!
- 122 em/sec.
- 4983 .
-

Critical Revnolds Number - 5490

Flow is I~,~in~r
.
Friction (.1Ctor - 0.0085
Friction loss - 65.6 psi/mile

SOUl> - UQUIO I'f.O\V,

ZO'

2) Power Law Model

IT

0.3

f(

25 Dynes-sec"JIcm!

NRc~-

2015

.'. Friction factor - 0.0079

.'. Friction loss - 61 psi/mile

6.9 Giuen

Find

a)

- 8" - 0.67 fl

p,

- 2.7

- 1/(0.7/2.7

'1

- 40 centipoise - 8.36 x 10,4 lbr-sec/lr'

- 0.40/1.788 c/ll11sec
- 0.224 c/ll11sec
- 2.41 x 10,4 ft11sec

+ 0.3) -

1.788 gm/cm' - J 11.6 lb/fr'

1', fora)

To -

100 Dynes/em!

h)

To -

25 Dynes/cm1

100 Dyneslcm 2 - 0.210 Jholft 1

To -

N
.'.

II, -

DIp To
0.67 1 X 111.6 x 0.21
'1 - 32.2 x (8.36 x 10"r

-46750
:

h) T.

.'. N R"

- 12000

.". V,

- 4.3 ft/sec .
l

25 Dynes/em" - 0.052 Jhr/ft

.'. Nile

.'. v.: -

11690

1.2 It/sec,

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 7

'1

7.1 The value of CICA is given by the. following equation:

log CIC., - -1.8 1t'IPKII

where

1" is the settling velocity of solids

-1.0

- 0.38

11*

in the slurry

I'''''.~--;D",,,-cf/;-;4L7'

.~

- acceleration due to gravity

pipe diameter
/t,/ L - friction loss in ft of slurrv/Ii,

o -

The friction loss for slurry is given in terms offt water/IOO ft. Divide this value by the specific gravity of
the slurry to obtain friction loss in feet of slurry per 100 feet.
The sell ling velocity of the 210 micron diameter panicle is estintatcd using the slurry viscosity and the
slurry density.
.
.

-.

The computed values of the settling velocity, 1l1, and the fri~ii;'n velocity /I. are given' in the '(ollowing
table. The values of CICA are also given in the same table. Notice that the. value of CICA at critical
deposition velocity is Jess than 0.1 for most of the runs.

",

Summary of the results:

[
:

Fall
Velocity

Pipe

Slurry

Diameter

Concentration
(Vol%)

Slurry

1/*

1"

SI" Gr.

(ft/see)

(ft/see)

CICA

4.235

40.4
35.2
30.1
25.5
20.4

2.715
2.494
2.278
2.082
1.866

0.265
0.215
0.179
0.178
0.198

0.00907
0.0181
0,0334
0.0499
0.0761

0.688
0.399
0.131
0.047
0.015

6.24

28.7
24.5
20.1

2.218
2.040 '
1.853
1.641

0.155
0.174
0.237
0.273

i>~0367
0.0562
00758
0.08.n

0.076
0.030
0.031
0.036

29.7
26.6
24.7
20.2
15.2

2.261
2.129
2.049
1.857
1.645

0.185
0.169
0.176
0.237
0.296

0.0336
0.0447
0.0560
0.0764
0.0833

0.138
0.056
0.031
O.oJO
0.046

(inch)

Friction
Velocity

8.24

,
"

SOLID - I.IQlJlO FI.OW

10,36

12.-1

30.2
24.8
20.6
15. t

2.282
2.053
1.874
1.641

0.145
0.164
0.214
0.284

0.0334
0.0559
0.0759
O.OS34

O.OSI
0.024
O.O2!

20.3
1.1.2

1.862
1.560

0.2II
0.302

O.U7/)
0.100

0.020
0.027

I).(J-I t

7.2 The value of 1',. is gi"en by the following equation:

where Vll - critical deposition velocity

.~ - acceleration due to gravity
f) - pipe diameter
s - specific gravity of solids

In the given example the values of the variables are 'as follows:

- 322 ft/sect

;., 2.658

The values of h for the different runs arc summarized in the following table. Notice that the average value
of FL is 0.95. There is very little effect of the slurry concentration on the value of h
i

Pipe
Diameter
(inch)

(1)
2.056

4.235

. 624

Slurrj-

Concentration ."
l'L ..-

(\' () I';')
.U .
(2) r

Friction Vclocitv (ftlser)

VI,

1f2,~f) (s-I)

Slurry

51" Gr.

Predicted

Observed

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

36.7
23.7
12.2

1.12
1.05
0.91

1.608
1.393
1.202

0.366

(lOO326
0.279

0.35-1
0.291
0.27.1

37.9
23.9
11.6

1.04
0.91
0.91

1.628
1.396
1.192

0.476
0.423
0.361

0,377
0,32 t
0.307

31.0
22.8
17.0
11.4

1.01
0.98
0.98
0.97

'1.514
1.378
1.282
1.189

0.518
0.481
0.450
0.415

O.JSO
O.J60
0..'53
0..145

"

.:!l)7

SOI.UTlONS
~.21

18.2
22.8
17.7
11.1

0.90
0.91
O.Ql
n.95

1.468
1..\78
I.l<l.!
1.1 8'

Ill..!6

35.1)

0.91

2ll.!)

Il.R(,

0.91

URO
1.'181
1..18:;
1.l91
1.192

0.88
0.81
0.82
0.87
0.87

1.466
1.415
1.396
1.293
1.111

t
I

28.1
15.0
23.9
17.7

13.4

11.'1

,
I
~

uvz

1.1.2
17.6
11.6

The friction velocity

o.sz

II: is given

Now

si:
4.9 ( dll. ~) ( .z.,
D . )0"
1.1

Ito

Ilere,

(to .~

i,
!

..::

(5_1)".n . (Eq,
E 7.7..a) "

0.07 ftlsec
0.Q1 stoke ... 1.076 x lO's (i1/sec.
d -O.Q1S em - 5.906 x 10" ft
5 - 2.658

10 -

1/ -

..

0.640

0.410

().(,I I

11..178

0.580
0547
0.504

0..187
O..!87

O.M7
0.6.10
0.614
0.585
O.5S4

0.393
0.365
(UM
(1.376
0.\74

O.J79

To calculate II:, the value of II.' is first calculated hy using Equation 7.7 (a). The value of the settling
velocity of solids in the suspending fluid must be determined first.
. .
The particle size is 60 x 100 mesh which is 180 microns....
The specific gravity of solids - 2.658
The viscosity of water - I centipoise
Therefore the settling velocity, 1/1, of solids - 0.07 fr/sec,

I,

(UM
OJ56
(U51
0..15"

by Equations 7.7 (a) and (b).

IL

O.55R
o.s .\1
0.501
0.458

Substituting these values in Equation7.7a and simplifying we get,

II.' -

0.11755 D"AIH.

where D is in inch.

i.

lOR

501.10 - LIQUID !'LOW

The values of 1/.' for different pipe diameters are given as follows:

Pipc diameter; D (inch)

1/.," (ft/sec)

2.lJ56
4.235
6.240
8.210
10.360
12.400

0.1600
lJ.2182
0.2577
0.2898
0.3202
0.3458

The value of the friction velocity

II: at the given concentration Cis given by

'.

(Eq. 7.7b)

..

'j
"

-. ""

The values of
of results.

II. were calculated using this equation and are summarized in column (5) of the summary

It should" be noted that the THOMAS method consistently overestimates the critical friction velocity,

7.3 Giucn:
'

d - 0.02 em - 6.56

..

Viscosity of water, v - 1.076

s - 1.4

Settling velocity of coal particle in water,

...J'

-'

1[1, -

1O-~ ft

10. 5 ft'/sec

0.0286 It/sec

First try Equation 7.7 c , i.e,

{t"I
1'~

0.01 ( dll" ),.11

. V

Ito

t.e,

I
0.02.86 _ 0.01 ( 6.56 x 10. ~(:'~
1.076 x 10 .
4

II.

.'. II" -

0.066 fl/sec.

i.1I

SOI.UTlONS

I
' I k,till,"1
N
I OW ( ll'r' If - " - I.~ e t 1.111 5.
I'

.'.11* -

110 "

(l.U66 tr/sec

tI - 0.003 em - 9.843 :, 10';

s - 5.245
[) - 1.4375 rt

[t

The settling velocity, 1,*, in water is given by the Stokes LIIV, i.e.,

s s-1 tl 2
18 v

1{1- ,~ -

L
where .~ - 32.2 ft/sec 2

v-

1.076 X 10'; fe/sec

.'. 10 -

6.84

x I0-,' it7...~c'

Substituting these values in Equation 7.7a and simplifying, we get,

Now

110

110

* - 0.233 fUsec

'tI/v - 2.13<5

.'. Equation 7.7 a does not apply since the particle is smaller than the thickness

or the laminar sublayer.

For small particles the friction.velocity is given by Equation 7.7 c , viz,

s. _ 0.01 ( till *

1/:10

.'. fl*'"

)271

(Eq. 7.7 c )

0.179 ft/sec

7.5 Gitvn:
d' - 0.007

Clll -

2.3 )( 10-' rt

s - 3.0
D - 1.4375 ft
0.35
v - 1.076 x 10'; ft 2lsec.

!
1

The settling velocit}'1i'- 0.0175 Ir/sec,

First let us.try Equation 7.7 c
"

'

111)

SOUl) UQlJlD FI.OW

0.0175 ... 001 ( 2.3 '( 10" //,; )!.11

//..'
.
1.076 x I U-'
... //.." ';'0.1241i/sec
/I"d

.-, -

..

... 2.65 < 5 .'. o.k.

7.6 Let us assume that all of the solids become part of the vehicle. Thus, in the first iteration, there will be no
bed pressure drop .

.'.
{j
'1

lst It..ration
Concentration of solids in vehicle - 56'%. wt

Viscosity of vehicle (by interpolation)

?~""j'

-21.l% (Vol)

- 6.4 cpo

Specific gr.ivitv ofthe vlurry

- 1.791

Velocity of 110w, \I

... 5 It/sec

Pipe diameter. D

... 6.131 inch

Relative pipe roughness

... 0.0002

Reynolds Number'

... 66,400

-'1

.'. Friction 1.1(lOr'/ - 0.0051 (from Figure 2-7)

.'. Friction loss

'!IV!

... 2gD
... 0.0155 Ii vehicle/ft
... 0.0278 Ii water/ft.

Friction velocity, n" ... II jl2

- 0.2525 It/sec
The friction loss for slurry
"chicle friction loss + bed friction loss
... 0.0278 + 0
- 0.0278 Ii water/ft
I

Znd Iteration
Now calculate the vehicle and bed part for each size solids by using C/G/o. criteria.
Now,
'.

log CIG"
Assume

- -1.8 ,,,Ip/(J/"

P -I
x -0.4

S( lI.VTI( lNS

!II

The seuling velocity lit is estimated using vehicle properties. Table 7-3 summarizes the calculated value,
of ;," and Cic;,. The vehicle and bed part forearh size fraction is next calculated. The pressure drop due to
bed part is estimated using DURAND's equation. In DURAND's equation the value of the drag
coefficient is computed using the properties of water, Therefore, the settling velocity and the corresponding drag coefficient are also given in Table 7-3. For estimating the bed pressure drop, the value offriction
loss lor water flowing at the same velocity as the Slurry is needed. The Reynolds Number for water flowing
at S li/sec in 0.131 inch pipe is 2.4 x 10'. The relative pipe roughness is 0.0002, .'. the friction factor is
0.0043 ..'. friction loss for water - 0.013 Ii water/ft.
From DURAND's equation. the bed pressure drop is given by

LI{'h," - 82 x L1p. ate,

- 4.1

Y.

liD (5-1) .,
I"
V fen

<Ph'" [ 1

<P""" (Cnr m

ft water/ft.

The L1f't"" values for each size fraction were calculated using this equation. The calculated values are given
in Table 7-3. The total bed pressure drop for 2nd Iteration equals 0,00242 Ii water/It.

Next calculate L1p,"hk".

- 20.22'X.

The volume concentration of solids in the vehicle

The corresponding weight percent solids in the vehicle
Therefore the viscosity

=0

54.5%

- 5 cp.

of the vehicle

Specific gravity of the vehicle

- 1.754

Reynolds Number

- 83.250

.'. Friction factor

- 0.00488

.'. Friction loss

- 0.0148 ft vehicle/It
- 0.0260 ft water/It

.'. Slurry friction loss

- L1{'h,"

+ L1P"'hk"

- 0,00242 + 0.0260
- 0.02842 ft water/It

The value of friction loss estimated in lst Iteration was 0.0278 ft waterlft which is lower than the new
as ,the slurry friction loss.
value, Therefore adapt 0.02842 ft waterlft
.

.J

~~~._-"-.:c..~-"--,"~-"-~":">"~2'~:"-- __"_.__.'_._~...,..;. __"_"_"_~~}:-;\\;";"

)~",l:;:;~:'_"_': __"

..

:~,~_. .~

_._-----

...
t

Settling

Volume %

Tvler Mesh

Mean
Dia.

Velocity, W

ltlsee

Solids
100 rP'

w
.-13K U.

C/CA
-1.82
10

tu

(2)

(31

(4)

(51

(6)

0.01010
0.00485
0.00282
0.00054

0.81
0.88
0.81
18.70

Size
Fraction

--

- 325

0.0111
0.0063
0.0048
0.0021

TOTAL

(4) (6)

17I

Set-tli~g"

Drag

Velocity in Coefficient

(4)-(7) Water, It/sec

(8)

FIRST ITERATION
>200
200x 210
210x 325

100rPveh 100Q;bed

(9)

0.0122
0.0243
0.0141
0.0027

21.20

CD

110l

11.2
56.0
126..8
1386.0

D.P
t. P bed
Slurrv
-3/4
-3/4 !J.P
CD
Vehicle (12)+(lJ)
'4.1 rPCobed
1111

(12)

0.1600
0.0488
0.0265
0.0044

0
0
0
0
0

--

1131

(14)

g'"
e

0.0218

-0.0218

e-

e
."

r0

SECollo ITERATION
+ 20r.
200x 270
210x 315
- 325

0.0111
0.0063
0.0048
0.0021

0.01010
0.00485

0.81
0.88

0.00282
0.00054

0.81
18.70

TOTAL
T.able 7-3 Estimate of Slurry Friction Loss

0.1053
0.0505
0.0294
0.0056

0.6464
D.8110
0.8853
0.9169

0.52
0.11
0.72
18.21

20.22

0.29
0.11
0.09
0.43

-0.98-

0.00190
0.00034
0.00010
0.00008
0.00242

--0.0260

0.02842

- -------

SOI.U'IIONS

7.7

(;ii.'fll:

Pipe diameter

- 6,13I inch

Pipe roughness

- n.5ll rt
- n,nn 12 inch

Relative roughness

n,nnn2

D,'/(I"m;I1,I/iol1 t?!' R9'uoltfs Number

The Reynolds Number is given by

VDp
v

_
Re

where

v-

velocity of llow, ft/sec

D - pipe diameter, ft
p - slurry density

,
- slurry specific gravity x 62.4 Ib/ft J

v - slurry viscosity
- slurry viscosity in centipoise x 6.72 x

Ilr' lb/It-scc.

-.

The calculated values of the slurryspeeific gravity and the Reynolds Number are summarized in Table 7-4.

Determination offric/ioll [actor

Friction f~ctor,

~gD

- 2slt'
!Jp - friction loss in ft water/It

where

- 32.2 ft/sec 1

- specific gravity of slurry,

The computed values oflare also given in Table 7-4.

.
I"

0.010

:;
t

et 0

u,

>4

....

2_1 ....
t;
2

0-"

ii:
u,

.,.---r-,-,..,.....".......,...-...,..........,.---,
I Ii.,
Ii. I
I

II.

-- I : NEIVT
.
~._, ' . . (flO. ONIIIN,

I I
,-

.l
,--..".'
.
, .... 1-l ..
"1__! r! i.iI it" DATA CU~VE'
0.0002
~"r-~ __ ....
..

PROBLEM 7-7

The doll;)curve falls below theNewtonian curve indiclJ1in9

I"

lurhulencesupression
2

. --!.

..:.

3 .5.7.'105

1- -

I
2

.1.: . -

VDP

REYNOLDS NO.' 'Ii'

Figure 7.10 Friction Faclor - Reynolds Nl.mher Relalion5hip

for the Oala Given in Ex. 77

~14

501.10 L1QI!ID FlO\X'

Determination <if turbnlonci: suppression

"

,)
~i.,l

Figure 7-10 shows friction factor as a function of Reynolds Number. The Newtonian relationship for"
relative roughness of 0.0002 is also shown in this figure. This figure shows that the majority ordata points
lie below the Newtonian line indicating turbulence suppression.

,
,

1
I

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM
CHAPTERS
X.I Gium.

0, - 20 ft .
H - 20 ft
0;-6ft
/{;-3ft
</J .. 25%
s - 5.0

1-

- 30 microns - 9.84 ;< lO-s ft ..

x 5 - 312 Ib/(t J
PI. = slurry density - 62.!I x 2 -124.R
tf

p, - 62.4

Now the power, 1', required per uuit tank volume VT , is given

by

P
O
I
(.!.':.)
--0092
Vr
gil, _r
D; (2)112
e
rU IJ, Jp

(Eq. 8.11)

where

VT - : x 202 x 20

= 6280 nJ
e

- [ - 0.25 - 0.75

l1p

p, - PI. - 187.2 Ibmlft l

11, _ (gtftlp )"2

PI.
=

0.0689 Ii/sec

Substituting these values in Equation 8- [ [ ,~nd solving we get,

VT - 5.06 n Ibr."./sec
- 9.2 X IO-l HP

..P- 58 I-1P
i.e. use a 60 HP agitator.

5.8 slug/.ftJ

SOLUTIONS 'TO PROBLEMS

CHAPTER 9
9.1 The total discharge pressure for 150 mile long pipeline is 130 mile :< 25 psi/mile - .1250 p<t.
Since the Miller Number is less than 50, a piston pump may be used. Referring to Figure 9-12, we see that
we can either use two pump slat ions with three operating pumps in each station. or we can use three pump
stations with two operating pumps in each station. Select the case of two pump stations. Each pump will
deliver 13.1.1 gpm against a pressure of 1625 psi.

GxP
1716 :< r

The Ill' of the pump drive

where
G - !low rate in gpm
P - pressure difference in psi
( - pump efficiency

Assuming a pump efficiency of 85%, the required horsepower of the pump drive is 1485. Therefore, usc

1500 HI' motors..

9.2 For the coal slurry considered in Problem 9.1, to determine the grinding horsepower requirement if the
work index for coal is 11.4, the feed size, F, is 5000 microns and the product size, P. is .100 microns.
The Bond equation is:
\17- (10 Wi _ 10 Wi) x 1.34

0;

(I'

..

where
III is grinding power requirement in hp-hr/short ton
Wi is the work index
Substituting the values of Wi, I' and F; we get
\l7 - 6,7 hp-hr/tou

kWh
- 6.7 hp-hr :~ 0.746 I---I--Iton

11'- If

- 5 kWh/ton

9.3 The slurry flow rate is 4000 gpm

.'. Capacity of agitated slurry storage tank

- 4000 x 6 x 60
- 1,440,000 gallons
- 193,000 cu. ft

SOl t ., 10""

21i

Assuming height ofla~lk e"u,~I. to diameter, the volume of I 'Ill k of diameter

f)

-~f)",

Using I hree storage tanks, diameter ofeach tallk - 43.4 feel. i.e.usc 3-1 a IIk~ 44 ndiameter and having 44 Ii

liquid depth. Allowa free hoard of2 ft to get a toral depth of each tnnk'equal ro 46ft.

.
Agrtator
.I
lp -' OJ

:~

14'W =
3-

I 44

.". use I so. hp agitator.

The power consumption for agitation

- 3 X 150 x 0.746 kWh

- 336 kWh

.J
;",.,

":~

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAI)TER 10
10-1 The corrosion allowance - 4 mp)' (mils per year)
-

Life of project

- 25 years

total corrosion allowance - 0.004 x 25

- 0.1 inch.

Therefore,

For an 18 inch pi!>e the maximum allowable pressure is given by the following formula:

where

p - maximum allowable pressure, psi

I - pipe wall thickness, inches
s - allowable hoop stress - 37,400 psi

~ pipe diameter, inches -18

.' ..

Using this formula, the allowable stresses for various wall thicknesses are calculated as follow"

:-- -I

'~-:-"~'

~:2~.'

'

Wall Thickness
:tflCr n.tinch
Corrosion

Maximum

\~eigh[

Wall Thickness
(inch)

Allowable
Pressure (psi)

l'1(le
( tons/mile)

0.250
0.281
0.312
0.344

0.150
0.181
0.212
0.299

620
750
880
1010

124-1
129.4
155.8
171.6

of

-~i

I
i

Tho prG5~urQ in tho pipe \'arioAlinmly between 1000 psi at the inlet end and 50 p5i allha Ol1llet end, The
pipe Ivnllllll.kneu "In be "leettll 'ueh Ihnt the pressure in the pipe is leu than the maximum allowable
pressure. The required wall thickness and the lengths of pipe of each wall thickness are 'given as follows:

~
I

SOI.l'TIONS

\\':tll
Thickness

IUSO
O.2H I
0..112
IU-l-l

From
~Iile

PoSt*

20
13
Ii

219

To
Mile P051

Lcngt l)
(miles)

SO
20
13
6

.10
7
7
1\

Sled
(tons)
372.1
906
1091
1030
TOI'II 67S0 10m

., This is the distance in miles from the inlet where the pressure in the pipe is equal to the maximum
allowable pressure,

The total steel requirement - 6750 tons.

10,2 If the corrosion allowance is not used, then the maximum allowable pressure for various wall thicknesses
will be as follows. The necessary lengths and weight are estimated in Problem 10.1.

.'.

Wall
Thickness
(inch)

Maximum
Allowable
Pressure
(psi)

From
Mile Post

To
Mile Post

'1

0.250

1038

50

,.:

i::~

..

Length
(miles)

Weight
(tons)

50

6205

When the corrosion allowance of 0.1 inch is used, the total steel requirement becomes 6750 tons as
shown in Problem 10.1. Therefore the additional steel required for corrosion allowance is 545 tons.
The cost of steel is. $ 300/ton; therefore the cost of extra steel used for corrosion allowance equals
$ 163,500,
10.3 To select the most economical method of corrosion control for a 12 inch diameter magnetite slurry
pipeline based on the following assumptions:

Cost of steel, l' - 500 Shon

Life of project, Y - 25 years
Rate of interest, 100 p - 10% per year

Corrosion rate of slurry - 40 mpy

Corrosion rate ,of inhibited slurry - 4 mpy
Corrosion rate of deaerated slurry - 2 mpy
Annual operating cost of deaeration plant - 2 cents/ton
Capital cost of dcaeration plant - $ 3,000,000
Cost of inhihit or - 1\ cents/ton

SOLID - LIQUID FLOW

1.W

25

u::
w
In
u. _

20 .- ..

~~

en

1A7~~
'"<l-~

'<';

7 v

15

.2

;;; '=

"':!!
z

..

./

5-

v'.

.7,

10-

en

.,'
~'

00

~~---

....

u.,

,,~

.'

,."" :

"

~f

/..'

o- .c..;..::
o

50
100
150
LENGTH OF PIPE IMiles'

Figure 10.11 Snings in Cost o'S_"1 versus Pipe Length

200

SOt l' nONS

~21

Velocity

v- 5.5 fi/sec

Operati ng factor F- 0.95

Density of solids p. = 5
Wei~ht%,

IF-60

Length of pipe l., variable

Cost ollinings - 5 Sifi l

;1.

Cost ofExtrn SIal

Cost- 0.0281 DPYIll Simile
/1/ - 40 mpy for linings
///- 36 mpy for inhibitor
/1/- 38 Illpy for deaeration

.' , Cost of extra steel - 168600 I. $ for linings

- 15 I 740 L $ for deaeration
- 160170 L $ for inhibitor

b. COJ/I!!" Lil/il/,gs
Capital cost of installing linings

12

- 11 X

.... -

T2x 5280 X L X .H

=82,938 L $
.'. Saving in capital cost -85,662 L $

c. Cost of inhibitor

Pipeline throughput Tis given by Equation 10.5

.', T - 4,65 x 10' tons/year

,'. Cost of inhibitor - 0.06
- 2.79

X
X

4.65 X 10' $Iyr

10' $Iyr

The present value of this cost at 10"10 interest rate is

- 2.79 x 10; x 9.077
-2.53.x 10$
I

d. Cost of Dcacration
The operating cost of deaeration plant - 2 cents/ton
.', Present value of this cost ..... 0.843 X 10' $
The capit;11 cost of deaeration plant - 3 x 10' $
,'. Total cost of deaeration - 3.843 x 106 S
Figure 10-1 I shows-the savings in cost of steel for the three alternate methods of corrosion control. It can
be seen that the relative advantages of the three methods depend upon the length of the pipe.

:)

.'

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
CHAPTER 11
11.1 The levclizcd ~apital charge FI. is given by
.

1'1. - C

[ (0)(1) (Y+l)

100 2'[

(I-O)(R)

(T=n 100 +

I
V j
Y + 100

Where
C - capital cost of project/toll
- S 750 lIIillioll/20 million
. - S .17.5/toll

[) - ddll Ir.Klioll - 75% - n.75

1 - % annual interest - 10
Y - period of amortization of capital - 20 years
I

T - income taxes - 50% - 0.5

R- % return on equity - 18%
V - % ad valorem taxes - 1.5'X,/year

"F, ~
[0.75 X 10
.21_+0.25X20XO.l8+_1j+OOI5X375
, .. ,I. 37.5
100
X 2(20),
0.5
20'
.
, - 1.48 + 3.38 + 1.88 + 0.56 '
7.30/ton.
,

;-s
'

11.2 To estimate Fl. using R ... 0.10 and 0.30

i" '

. R. - 0.10
I. Return 011 equity,
.'.FI. - $ 5.80/ton

2. Return on equity. R. - 0.30

.'. Fo. - $ 9.55/ton
11.3 To estimate Fo. using 1- 5% and 15%

I. 1- 5%

.'. Fo. - $ 7.23/ton

2.[-15%
.'. FI. - $ 7.37/ton

11.4 Giuen: D - 0.65 and 0.85 to find Fo.

I. D - 0-65
.'. Fo. - $ 8.44/ton
2. D - 0.85 "
' ,
.'. FI. - $ 6.'15/ton

123

Subject Index

l\hr:t"icllI

OCC:lndn~ US

- Cumrul \11' 1-1-1

- Index 1.11
- Mechmiwn of JH
AUrttinn 1.\..1

l>c:lbtnr ImlclC 16,1

Dcn~il~' Meter I3q
Den..il), ui 1':lIfticle~ -45
Oen-sicr of S1I5r'emlil1l Mediuni 45

n. 11 Mill.. 129

tkn\ic," '(l( SU"r:ef1~iUfI 45

Ikpc'5iliun Vcludc\'

n\';lril1~

Lift: Ilq
1Iin~11JI11 "I:l\Ii( ;5. 76
- LJlllin.tr How
76
- Turbulent rIIIW n.1 C1

n.

m:u..k ~h:":l f'ipdinc 9, liS

m.... im J:tl11:uiun 21
Uuml I:tlu:niun un
Umlf,::tiO\'iIIc SptCI1I 116
Ilnullll;m' Laver l.l
- LUllin:tr l~
- Thi(;kn(,~ H
- Iurbulem 2'
lIuc:kingh:u" 1:(III:nil)" 54,72

- O<linicinn 85 .
- Mixed Silc P.lnicle, 93
- Unilormly Sized r.U1icles R9 - 9.l
l>ew;ucrinE: 136
- Ccntrifu~s 136. 137
- Cyclones IJ6
- V.ItlUlm Fillers 136
Uilal:lnl 49
Or2~ Cf~(fieicnc .l4
- elml J:i
- GenerJliled Curves J6
Dug Fnrcc: JJ
- Form j)
2 Sphere J.I
- Vi~cous JJ
On,:: Reduccrs IlJ
Dr2R Rwuctinn 109
I>ur;utds Cundalin" R9,94'

- On

(~II:ln:r;1S f.iml~tfllu:

Sr,u:m 115

<::'II,il:1I (;h:trJ.:c 16.1

Cwit:lrinn 126
Ct:ntri"u~e 1J7
- Sc.:rcc';nowl 137
- Solid Bowl 137

Cm:nie:icnc uf IliJ.:itfhr 54
<:ufchrnuk I:clu:uinn 22
CUlnlllllmd S},..rem 115
<:nm:c:ncr:nilln Gr:ulh:nt 62. 86
- C/C" 62. 86. Kg. 1-19
- Criteti.. for I ''''Itrott-cncity 1'6.87,88
- Ctiteti.. 10' IlnnlOltCncilY 70
- Effed nf Conccll1rJ1i"n 65
- EI(c(1 of Particle Size 65
- Effect of fire Oi.tn1C:ler 65
- r:llcc! of Vdodty 65
Clln";"lent:~ 49
Cnn\nlid.tliun ell.I' l'iIH.-line 9, 118
Cum;eniun T"hlc:\ 170. 171
C:unlin1-:S~st(,'m 121
Curru"inn
- I\lIow.lnce Ihl
- Control of 145
- Inhibitor 14~
- I.uur T~S1S 141
- M~.nurCl1iC"1 1-16. 141
- M~dl.lIli~m of 1-11
- Probe 1-16
- R.lle J.f6

- SJ'O'~ 147
C:urrtl\illll-I:rminn It;1Il"; 1-1, 1-16
- M.limen.mce '4. 120,121

- Or~rJtinF: 1-1
- TrJlnrorufiun
C~'dunc~ I lb

Q.

16

I>l';ler:l1iun 1-15. 149

F.connmic$. Slurr,. l'Ipeline..

- Tr:mspor12Iion Cons IS9
Edd)' Currenl CourlinAS 121
E((ccti\"c Slip 52
Emrant:e F.J(cc(S
- c"pill.lry Tube.Viscometer 51
- ripe 24
Enfrance Length 25
Endrnnmcneal.1mr:lt:e 158
Ero~iun

86.8R

frit:liun 1.11\\ 11
- njn~h.lI11 PI.uric 76_ 77. 19
- Compound S)'ncm qs - Q8
- Heterogeneous Slt~re"liion 94
- I J(llllllg,CIICOUli Su~rcmion 79
- Ncwloni;1Il 20
- l'cwer I.JW 77. 79. 80
Fromlc Nmnber 89
GriO(lin~

Cml 1.11
Metnl l.oss HI

Mill. 129
Power 129, 130, 131
\'(.'ork Index 12q
Grm~ N:1tful1:t1 !'rmlnce (GNP) 162,I6J
IlaJtcnr'l)i:-;ctlillc fnrmul:r 51
Hardne..s 14.1
l leat Tran..fct
- Biueham 1'j;nlit:s-lamin:1r Flow 10.1
- 8in~h'lI11 rl:tlilks-Turbulent FI"w 105
- Power Lew fluid..lJminar JOS
- Power Law Pluids-Turbulenr 105
Jfcd~t'rmn Number 71
Jfclcru~ellcuu~ f;Jnw 70
lI,.dr:llllic Mil1illJ: 124
Impact C1gC 129
Inhc:r'cl1l Moiseure 58
tnhihiwfS 148

Innrumcnt:uinn
- Den.~iIY Me:1,suremcnt tJ9
- OifferC'nti2f l'rC'!'..ure 139
- Flow McasuremcnI 1J9
Linin~li

Escalaeinn IS). 162

ElCrentl:lhlc !':lrts 120

- AhrJ'iol1 Resistant 146

- Corrosion Resistant 149
- huernJI 1"6

Fall f)i:llnclcr 40

- Protective 1,16
l.uddUlI'I,cr 12.l

flu\\'
- IlcternJeneous 12. 70, 8S
- f Iomogeneous 12. 70
- Inlcrmedi.tle 10,11
- Llminar 18
- Turbulcnl 18
Hnw Mc:ecr 1)9
Fluid
I
- Oil.lt.tnt 49

l\br~t1lc~

F.<'U:lli()O 51

l\ .... !l~ :rr:lII!'fcr Coefflciene 61

Miller Number 114,121

MixinE:
- Bingham "13..,ics 108
- Newtonian Liquids 106

- Non-Newtonian 48
- rseudopbstic 49

- Newtonian S1lspef1~ion\ 107

- Non-Newtonian Suspensions 103
_. Power Law Fluids 108

- Tirne-lndependeut Ut
f1uiJ-(nurlinft..UI
Flui.1 End 119. 120
fUrln Drag JJ
Frieciun Faclf)' 20
- ChJfI 12
- lJmin.tr 20
- Turhulent 21

Mixinl:: Power 106

- Newlo',i2n l.itluitlli 106
- Nei....,oni:1n Sutl'cmions -t07
- Nn.n-Ncwtol1i.1II SlJtpC'l1\ions 108
Mnme:ntlll11 Tra"~"l'r Cncffidcnt 61
MIUllICJ,-R:lhiOl,wj!"ic:h Elu;llinn 52

- Slurries lOS
Mix;nR,tcn~lh28

.1

Ncwwns Law 71
Numin:ll Di,uncler 38

- Elf~ct on vetocitv I',nlile ,,\0

- Relative 22
.

Opcr:uing Fotcror IIJ, 156

o.cwald-dc\Vaclc: Mudd 49

S:tferr I.(HlP 122-. 133

S:,,"al-tC: River Iron Ore Pipeline: liS
Screen 140
SI,.':t' \'(t"h:r 11.1
Sculilll-: vclocirv JJ.36
- Ene~t ot' Concentrolfion 41
- Ellect of Tube f)i:unetC'r 41
- (:lIett of Turbulence 40
- Hindered Seuling

(}:trckle: Si1.c
- Sieve Siles 168

,~;

;'"'1.''j

I'iu;nn loll
1'''',Slidt)" (".I,uuber 71. 72
I'uiscuillc: Equation S4
I'ule Amplitude Mudu':uiun 121

Power

I~"d

119

Power Law 49. 74

- L.ul1inar Flow 76
- Turbulent Flow 79

Power Number 106.108

Prc:paradun of Saurrr

rs

Prc:sliurc: I)nlp

'I

- B,d 95
- Vchidc9S
Pressure Transient t2S
PuJ'i:ttion Dampening 125
Pumps
- Centrifugal Ill. 122
- Eflicicncy 122

- lockhoppcr 123
-

Mars 123
M.yn. 123
".. '
Piston J 13. 114
]
Plunger 114
l
Positive Displacement 113. 118 122
Selection' 113
Slug 124

Itdm:r'R:iwlin f:'lu:uilln 57
!lest:trt i21. 122
Rl'llInltl~ NUIIII,,:r 18
- Critical 19.71,71, 7J
- Generalized 77. 19
Rt.'~;ni)lc.kStrl,.'Ss26

Rhcnll'~."

- 8inghanl l'I.U1ic 48
- Oil.uant -19
- fluid .48
- MC';uurC'I1Il:!llt 51
- Non-Newtonian 48
- Pseudoplastic 49
- Rheopectic 50
- Thi:H"roriC 50
- Tlme-lndepeudem Ncn-Newtouian 48

Il!~i~\~~~trr:

RiJII",hnc:" uf 11ipc 21
- I\b'olul: 23

-I.

- In Uin!th;J1Tl rl;utic:~ ,II

- IllIe,m~diiJte Regime J5
- Newtons law Regime 36
- Nomograph 165" 16;
- Stnh, RC'gime J~
Shape l:iJl,.'llIr J7
- Geomt"t,ic .n
- f Iydmulic 40
Slu..':tr SIr(.~1. 17
- \Vall She,ll 17
Shear ThickC"lIinA 50
Shc:u Thinning 50
$lurrilk.l1iun 132
- M.ucon.lllo fJ2
- Suction Dredge IJl
- Sump, IJ2
S!,ccific 111,.':lC'C 47
Sl'cl,.cl Cumrul 120
- nuid Coupling. III
- I'ulc AmplitudC' fl.todu'.uion 121
- Synduod,h'C' 121
St:lhllitr 11. 16.69.86
St:.hilic) 1':tt:UJleli:i' 19.11.74
Swket 1.:1 \\'
70
Stflr'~~e

J".

- J\~il.ll(d I J.l
- J\nrilinn in 1\~il.Urd T.lOks I J.J

- C:11'.lcitr I.U
~ ..Elltl:r~('tlC)' ...1J4
~ N(JI1-I\~i1.1tcd 1J.S

Stlllblycr 9Z

Sus\'cn"illn

..:.. J eterogeneous R5. 86

- IIUll1ul.en\"out 69

- Newrcnian 58 '
- Non-Newtonian 58

- Rhcolofl:Y 58

. ....

....

;HI~ll\lIIi 1~I\\III1IIIt.III~1

Thermal Drring 131

Thickelll,.'t 1.1S
Thh:urtCIl'ic .so

lInit Train 161. 162

Ucili7:uiun IS. 12K
V:t:al R(,'('f~ SpCCI11 IIJ
Valve 127
- B.111 128
- rlu~ 128
V:rri:1hlc Speed Mutfln 121
Vehicle i2.95

"c1ndn'
- Cfitic,,1 12

- - Drfrtt

I.JW

29. >2

...... _- l)ernsilinn 12. R5

, ':-F,II 36.,41.61
":"Friction" lS
- Cradicnl- 20.2-1
-MC'"," Flow 17

- Minimum lrat1~l'nu 8ft

- I'rofile 25. 29, .10
-'$C'ttlin!t H
- Trrmin;J1 Fall 36
- Tran~ili('ln 12. f>9. 71
Vitcuu,; ~uht:l\cr .11

-lhicklt~u

.I"

Vi5cu1.if\" 4b
- APr.trC'lit 71
- of Concentrated Su~rC'mion~ 46
- Definition of 20
- Edd) 28
- Eflc-cth,c 71.73.76.81
- UmitillJC 71
- of NonNrwlnni,lU Su~pensions Sit
- SutrC'mion 4b. 93
- Waler 169
Vi5CClllltfl,.r
- C.'I,ilbr~' Tube 51
- Co"xi~1 C~'lifldrr S6
Vuhum:tric Efficient}' 120
von Karman ClIl1stant 10.62
W:ti,'il,j Irnn';:IfH''l S~"UtUl 11f'~"121

W':ucr Ilctjuirert1(,111 151. 159

":tear

Sp1chrudrh(, 121
T"!ILI6~

Tr;rm,jcnt

- Celilrifugal rlllHp~ 122

- rrcnure l:f:unient 125. 126
Tr:lnsiti()U Veillcitr
- BinI-ham rl.ntic 71 " 73
- rower I...\Y Fluid 74 ~ 75
Turhult'ncc 23
- Surt1f~5~ion 79

-AhrJsh'(' 14.1
- Cuni,ng Hi

Hffifft~I\'''I\'ln

W"t~llri:an Sr~u.. m ,J 16

Wnrk Indt'x 129. 1.10

\'it'ld ~trt'n 411 SO. S-t. 55. 57

Advertising Section

A-S-H Pump Division of Envirotech Corporation

P.O.Box 635, Paoli, Pennsylvania 19301, USA

A 13

Barrett, Haentjens & Company

Hazleton, Pennsylvania 1820I, USA

A3

OeZurick A Unit of General Sigl"!aL

Sartell, Minnesota 56377, USA

All

GEHO:l'uinpen Holthuis GmbH

Craf-Reinald-Stratie 62, 0-5140 Erkelenz, Germany

A 10.

Gulf Interstate Engineering Company

P.O.Box 1916, Houston, Texas nOOl"USA

A8

Holthuis B.V.
P.O.Box 249, NL-Vcnlo, Holland.

A 10

Imodco, Inc.
. -10960 Wilshire Blvd., Los Angeles, California 90024, USi\:. -' ....

A9

Imodco Ltd.
87 Jermyn Street, London SWI Y 6JO, England

A9

Mitsubishi Metal Corporation

23F World Trade Center Bldg. No. 2-41
Hamamatsu-cho, Minatoku, Tokyo, Japan

A 15

','

,.,.

National Tank & Pipe Company

P.O.Box 17158, Portland, Oregon 97217, USA

A}

Naylor Pipe Company

1235 East 92nd Street, Chicago, Illinois 60619, USA

A5

. OTp Omnium Technique des Transports par Pipelines

5, rue Chante-coq, F-9280 1 Puteaux, France

A4

Schmelzbasnltwerk Kalenborn - Dr-Ing, Mauritz KG

, 0-5461 Kalenborn near Linz/Rhine; Germany

A6

Simon Warman Ltd.

Halif.,x Road, Todmorden, Lancashire, England

A7

Wa rlllanlllternaiional,lnc.
P.O.Box 7610, Madison; Wisconsin 53707, USA

A7

W.lCll1an Intemational Ltd.

P.O. Box 51, Artannon, NSW 2064, Australia

A7

Al

Wood pipe:.
The economical answer
to sUurry iIransporta~6on.
""

.,-

,-'

,,'

'.

......

,-,

t,

Less friction loss. Because of

the wood's smoolh surface. friction is lower in wood pipe than in
most other kinds of plpe. Even
more tmportant, the friction does
not increase wilh age. Over a 17year span, 50% more horsepower
may be required to deliver a given
volume of water through a 24"
steel pipe than is needed 10 deliver the same volume through a
24" wood pipe. This means lhat
pumping requirements are reduced with wood pipe-or a
smaller ~Jart)eter wood pipe can
be useoto do the same job.
corresren and abrasion resistance; Wood resists corrosive
action of virtually all chemicals
within a pH range of 2 to 10.'1t also withstands the abrasive aclion
01 slumea contalnlnq 35 to 50%
corrosive soltds. This outstanding
characterlstlc, one of the major
differer,ces between wood pipe
and other kinds, makes wood
pipe theIoqlcal choice for demanding jobs.
Long life with tow malntenance. Wood pipe has shown remarkable longevity in a variety of
applications. Observed service
life of 10 to 30 years under severe
conditions are common. Typical
main tenance consists of remov. ing collars for rotating pipe or
replacing damagedsElcli()l1s and
occasional. wedging to stop developed leaks-all done with
ordinary hand tools.
Natural Insula lion. Wood Is
. a naturally good insulator and
performs efficiently in climates
ranging from arctic to troplcat, II
Is parUculariyeHecUve,inpreventing freezing and, conversely. is
cooler in hot weather; Wood pipe
has the lowesI heat loss factor of
all typlcal slurry pipeline construction malerials.
.

Heal foss by condUctlo"n

Ihroughpipe walls
\V~tI

Sleel

BTUI

lhlcltnf'S.
Sq. FI.I
(ineht'sl Hr Ide;, F.

Malerlal

420.0

5.3

Concrete

0.25., I.6BO.0
5,0

1.1

sian jolntsClr anchors normally

required by olher kinds of pipe.
Terrain adaptability. Wood pipe
is pracUcal even in tl)e most rugged. ereas.i curves-cen be buill
into the pipe as II is laid and it
will adapUtself tqselllement and
displacement 012'or 3' without
,leakageYAnd when wood pipe Is
installed above ground. posts are
SUbstantially reduced and relocationeasily accomplished..
. . Ease of Installation. Machine
banded wood pipe. manufactured
In lengths of 4t() 20 Ieet.Js IIght. weight and rapidly piaced.Semlskilled labor and simple tools are
all lhat are required to set and
- drive the pipe or tighten collars.
Wood pipe and your project,
Wood pipe Is best. suited for installations ......ith aflo.....velocily of
5't06'per second. a' maximum
pressure head of 175 psi .and a
slope gradient of ;5% or less. For
consultation on your project and
prices. send. us the following
Information:
.---.,.,.--'-.-=-~_._------.

Type of s,lurry
. pH
Temperature

,'-

Size. mlx and ccncenwetlon

orsolids present
'

If the contents ~O freeze In cold

Flow volume desired
weather. wood'plpe will withstand
Flow,
verocny desired
the buillup interna,' pressure am!
may be thawed byslmplyjntro- -.
Pfe'ssure head
duclng steam lhrough'bored
Slope gradient
holes.
..
. Mine tailings lines are commonly operated duringthe coldest
weather of the Canadian North
NATlONALrrY1NK & PIPE CO.
with temperature drops of about
2301,N..Columbia Blvd.
1" C. per mile. Woodplpe,tines
. p.o~aox 17158
are completely exposed, yet conPortland,OR97217
tinue to perform, year alteryear,
. No longitudinal .expansion. Call toli-tree
Regardless of chan,gingtert)per~
800-547-0713
atures. wood pipe undergoes no
Alaska, Hawall & Oregon phone:
expansion or contraction. Thus. il
(503)283,5257
Is not necessary to use the expanTelex 3~-0665

J
~I

f
r

Ii

,1.,

Ii"
i

,I

,I

'I

,'I

Ii

-,

,I

XPAN-CRT-5750-FS-10l
Dado que las curvas de funcionamiento de las bomb as entregadas
po r los fabricantes e s t an hechas para agua pur a , se debe
corregir la altura de impulsion mediante la siguiente
expresion:
Hw

= ....!:!L

[m . c al

HR . Cs

III..

en que:

:',

Hw
Hs
HR

=
=
=

d"o =
=
S
Cs =

altura impulsion corregida

altura impulsion en (m.c.p) = H.D.T corregida
factor de correccion por efecto de solidos en la pulpa
Hd"o,S)
diametro medio de las particulas a transportar
densidad.relativa de los solidos
coeficiente seguridad
0,95 pulpa no espumosa
0,75 pulpa espumosa

r~!

.~.2.2 Bombas centrifugas

Los criterios para la seLeccd.Sn de bombas centrifugasson los
siguientes:

dicrtfsl
250692

,,'"

Preferentemente se seleccionaran bombas de pulpa

centrifugas convencionales, horizontales 0 verticales,
con revestimiento de poliuretano 0 similar para las
piezas de desgaste.

Las bombas se dimensionaran para impulsar hasta 2/3 del

caudal maximo de catalogo.

Cada bomba impulsara una al tura menor

metros.

La velocidad tangencial del rodete se verificara que se

mantenga por debajo de los 30 m/seg para evi tar un
desgaste acelerado de rodete y carcaza.

igual a 60

24

I
I

XPAN-CRT-5750-FS-101
9.2.3 Bombas de desplazamiento positivo
Los criterios para 1a seleccion de bomb as de desplazamiento
positivo son los siguientes:

Este tipo de bombas sera utilizada para la impulsion de

pulpas a gran distancia y/o presiones de descarga
elevadas.

La velocidad de flujo en valvulas dispuestas en tuberias

de succien y descarga debe ser menor a 4 m/s.

9.2.4 Determinacion de la Potencia de los eguipos.

La potencia del motor de los equipos de bombeo se determinara

mediante la siguiente expresion:
Pmoto~> ~

I)

r
,

[HP]

Nt
En que:
Ps

PT

= potencia

bombeo

= potencia

teorica

I
i

=~

N..

Qp
Hs\
= p.~-x~~~.
..

75

N..

= eficiencia

-~

real bomba funcionando con pulpa

= Ne ER Cs

= densidad pulpa [ton/m

Qp = caudal pulpa [lis]
Hs = altura de impulsion [m.c.p]
Nc = eficiencia de catalogo = Nc(Qb,
Pp

3 ]

Hw)

ER = factor de correccion eficiencia por efecto de solidos en

la pulpa.

Mcrtfsl
250692
J
-, .'
J

,\

Nt

= eficiencia

Cs

= coeficiente

de motor y transmision

de seguridad
0,95 pulpa no espumosa
0,75.pulpa.espumosa

25