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1. Introduction
It was Michel Frizot who undertook the first archaeological and technical studies of GalloRoman mortars in France. His research in the seventies focused on a large number of sites
in Burgundy.1 His analytical protocol was based on the use of acid on the samples, with
chemical analysis of the dissolved phase and in particular granulometric analyses of the
residue. In spite of his remarkable work, it was not until the end of the eighties that the
importance of lime mortar study became apparent, primarily in relation to medieval and
modern building archaeology.2 Several works on medieval mortars then followed.3
Our work on ancient lime mortars began approximately ten years ago. It was based on
identifying the composition of materials, and researching the geological origins of raw
materials. This is why this study is based on a petroarchaeological approach, that is to
say the data are obtained after analysis of materials in petrology (under a microscope).
The results make it possible to establish a typology of the mortars, which is then linked
with the chronology of a buildings construction phases, in order to see more clearly the
evolution of a particular building.
Currently this research relates mainly to the identification of the technical legacy and
expertise of Gallo-Roman masons and stucco workers; in particular it tries to establish
which parameters will influence the final choice of mortar formula. Up to the time of
writing, more than forty Gallo-Roman buildings have been studied.4
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2. Analysis
For the study of these archaeological materials, the choice of analytical methodology owes
a lot to the authors experience in the field of Earth Sciences. Considering the mortars
as reconstituted rocks, whose natural analogues would be sandstones with carbonated
cement, we chose to employ the analysis methods common in geology, i.e. the petrography
of sedimentary rocks.
Among these methods, one can mention the observation of rough samples with a
magnifying glass, the observation of thin sections under a petrological microscope, and
the examination by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of thin sections or small rough
fragments.
The advantages of this method lie in the fact that the observations offer a large
number of criteria and data that are directly accessible to the analyst, and subject to his
assessment. The plurality of optical analysis methods is a major asset, which makes it
possible to analyse material on all scales.
In addition to aggregate identification, these observations make it possible to note the
texture and internal structure of mortars, as well as their stratigraphy (for coatings). A lot
of data can be obtained for the aggregate through the study of its appearance, which is
important: this is the case for clay (especially illuviation clay brought with grains of sand,
indicating the exploitation of precise geological locations), and also for the identification
of badly burnt limestone fragments and for fragments of other mortars present as salvaged
material or residues from the mixing process.
Moreover, the combination of these observations with physicochemical analysis
techniques is one possibility frequently used to identify non-observable phases and to
check and validate the observations. The principal techniques are:
Granulometry, for siliceous aggregate, after dissolution of the binder.
X ray diffraction, to identify mineralized compounds in a few milligrams of
powder (useful for clay).
Cathodoluminescence and electronic microscopy, very useful for the
identification, analysis and cartography of neoformation and hydraulic
compounds.
Mass spectrometry.
Multispectral micro-image processing.5
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by Laurent Guyard.6 It is a crucial study because this site has the double advantage of
showing many accurately dated construction phases and of having benefited from a very
complete analysis of its masonry mortars (more than two hundred samples were taken).7
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high clay content, this formation was systematically worked during the Roman period for
the construction of the public buildings of Le Vieil-Evreux; undoubtedly because this sand
formation was the most abundant and the easiest to extract.
3.2 Typology
The typology of the mortars consists in the classification of the samples according to the
study of their characteristic features. It is in a way the final aim of the petrographic analyses,
and the basis of the archaeological study of these architectural binders. The cartography of
the types of masonry mortar used enables us to reveal the various construction phases of a
building. The baths of Le Vieil-Evreux, built in four periods between the beginning of the
second century AD and the end of the third century AD, perfectly illustrate this process.
For the first construction phase, in the first half of the second century, a beige mortar
called mortar number 1 (Mo1) is used for the foundations of the central baths only. After
a first halt in the construction process, a more coloured mortar (Mo2) is used for the
foundations of the palaestra, and for the last three courses of the baths foundations (Fig.
2). It ends this first great stage of building on the site, but the initial architectural project
was not completely finished.
The architectural programme was completed towards the end of the second century. At
that time, the Roman monument consists of a central building, made up of a double set
of rooms placed on both sides of a central praefurnium. At the ends, two frigidaria with
pools are preceded by an apodyterium communicating with the palaestra and the south
yard.
A third mortar (Mo3), slightly pink orange, is seen in the first elevation courses of the
baths. After another halt in construction, mortar number 4 (Mo4), pink orange, is used to
complete construction of the baths and the palaestra, and then the south yard. Thus we see
that this mortar is the principal construction material for the building.
At the beginning of the third century, the initial frigidaria are transformed into caldaria.
New frigidaria have taken the place of the initial apodyteria. Cold pools are built with a
masonry mortar rich in brick powder (Mo6). Mortar number 5 (Mo5), dark orange, is used
for the addition of new apodyteria, circular changing rooms.
Several years later, in the middle of the third century, yellow mortars are used for a new
extension, the addition of shops along the palaestra. Mortar Mo7 is only used for a few
walls, with mortar Mo8 used for the major but unfinished phase of the extension.
These construction phases are now well recognised and dated. Thus, it appears that
each type of masonry mortar can be dated with a great deal of precision. In concrete terms
this means that, in these baths, any new wall discovered with one of these types of mortar
can be dated with an accuracy of twenty-five years.
This large number of mortars probably indicates the scale of the building site. This is
revealed by the mortar study due to the heterogeneity of the excavated sand formation,
which involves variations in the material aspect, and to the obvious breaks in construction
on the building site. The latter could be regarded as just seasonal pauses, but current
research, linking the analysis of construction terra cotta and masonry mortars, tends to
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show that the reasons for these pauses are more complex. They would be linked, at least at
the start of construction (the transition between Mo1 and Mo2), to the end of a financing
cycle and/or the end of a supply of building and other raw materials cycle.
This petroarcheologic approach to the study of lime mortars has been employed many
times for the buildings of Roman Gaul. It was also tested on ancient sites in Roman
provinces, such as buildings of the Italic peninsula. One can cite, for example, the shop
frontages in the Casa del Salone Nero, in Herculaneum, the study results of which are of
real historical significance.
Indeed a type of mortar named MS4 was used to block up three doorways, allowing
passage between the shops and the domus. This discovery of the use of a single mortar
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made it possible to counterbalance the untidy appearance of the facings. This similarity
of treatment thus allows us to conclude that the occupant of the house ceased to directly
manage the shops located in the frontage, probably about 75 AD.8
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It is important to note the extent to which economic and environmental contexts influence
the choice of raw materials for these construction mortars. By way of illustration, we
may recall the case of Le Vieil-Evreux. Just as with the walls of the baths, the aqueduct
masonries present very coloured, orange mortars, rich in ochre nodules (Fig. 3). These
nodules are evidence of the working and use of very argillaceous sand. In spite of this
presence of clay, and in contradiction with the writings of Vitruvius, which require a sand
which does not leave stains or any particles of earth on a white garment (De Architectura
2.4), the builders decided to use this sand formation. This could be explained partly by the
fact that the mortar obtained is of a sufficiently good quality but also by the fact that this
sand formation is the most abundant and the easiest to extract, in a word the best choice
from an economic point of view.
It appears, therefore, that for Gallo-Roman buildings, masonry mortars were often
prepared with low quality raw materials, because accessibility and the volume of resources
were the most important factors in the choice of the extraction site.
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(a)
(b)
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The building programme of the monumental complex of the Roman town Cassinomagus
(Chassenon, Charente, France) provides an example. This immense complex is organized
around a large temple. Other major constructions have been found: a theatre, smaller
temples, baths and two aqueducts - the major and the secondary (Fig. 9).13 The southwestern area, excavated by Ccile Doulan and Sandra Sicard between 2004 and 200814,
is of particular interest. Here there are the major aqueduct, the secondary aqueduct, the
peribolus of the temple and the south-western tower of the baths.
Analyses have shown the use of the same lime mortar for the construction of the two
aqueducts and for the south tower of the baths. But the masonry mortar of the peribolus is
different. This has enabled us to confirm that the monumental complex of Cassinomagus
had undergone various building programmes, and that one of them included the two
aqueducts as well as the south tower of the baths (a structure for the reception of water?),
even perhaps the baths in their totality. The peribolus of the temple, and undoubtedly the
large temple as a whole, probably belong to another building programme. Without going
into great detail, it is clear that these variations of types of masonry mortars show different
phases of city growth, and therefore various clients for these constructions.
13 D. Hourcade P. Aupert Ph. Poirier, Chassenon Roman Baths, La Crche (F) 2004.
14 S. Sicard J.-P. Bost A. Coutelas Th. Morin S. Soulas, Longeas, commune de Chassenon
(Charente), programme scientifique TherMoNat (2003-2006): fouille programme annuelle.
Systme hydraulique entre temple et thermes du complexe monumental (Rapport de fouille), Poitiers
2005; C. Doulan Chr. Belingard A. Coutelas Th. Lepaon S. Sicard S.Soulas, Systme
hydraulique de lensemble monumental: tour sud-ouest des thermes et aqueduc secondaire
entre temple et thermes. Longeas, commune de Chassenon (Charente), programme scientifique
TherMoNat (2003-2006): fouille programme annuelle (Rapport de fouille), Poitiers 2006.
15 S. Ploux Cl. Karlin, Le travail de la pierre au palolithique, ou comment retrouver lacteur
technique et social grce aux vestiges archologiques, in B. Latour P. Lemonnier (ed.), De la
prhistoire aux missiles balistiques: Lintelligence sociale des techniques, Paris 1994, 65-82.
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Figure 10. Technical chain for Roman lime mortar. (A. Coutelas)
The box compositions is related to all the parameters. Choices are made by the builders;
identification of the most frequently recurring choices enables us to characterize the
technical traditions of this social group. As has been described above, many traditions are
present in the craftsmanship of Gallo-Roman masons. Certainly these traditions are the
response to architectural needs, but most are doubtless inherited from a long architectural
legacy: they are widely used but the reasons are forgotten.
The geological environment and socio-economic constraints, and between them the
treatment of raw materials carried out when this is really necessary and economically
viable have, therefore, considerable influence on the compositions box. It is expertise
(or practical experience) which allows for adaptations and flexibility of the operational
sequence.
It seems that perfect knowledge of all the boxes of the technical chain can help us
to obtain new data about the Roman building industry. Indeed, once all the traditions
and expertise of the ancient craftsmen are fully understood, and when the constraints
imposed by the geological environment are known, it is possible to tackle the question
of external and mainly socio-economic constraints. Thus, these first factors allow us to
develop research in the area of the organization of work and the supply of raw materials,
notably through the study of pauses in construction and the study of material variation in
the building.