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soils
Almeida, M. S. S.
COPPE - Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Marques, M. E. S.
Military Institute of Engineering, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
ABSTRACT
About half of the population in Brazil lives in a 100 km strip along the coast, where ports and industries are also
concentrated. The soil deposits found in coastal city areas in Brazil may consist of lowlands with a high water table, low
strength and high compressibility. With increasing development, lowlands areas are increasingly occupied, where soft
clay deposits may reach a thickness up to 40 m. This paper presents the Brazilian experience in the last couple of
decades in issues related to geotechnical investigation, design and construction in lowlands. Emphasis is given to cases
involving very soft and compressible ground found in south-east areas of Brazil, particularly on the west side of the city of
Rio de Janeiro, where the authors experience has been concentrated in recent years. The geotechnical characteristics
of these uncommon very soft soils are outlined, followed by a description of the main methods adopted for the
construction of embankments on these very soft clays. Discussion of new construction techniques on these soils is also
presented.
RSUM
Environ la moiti de la population vit au Brsil dans une bande denviron 100 km le long de la cte, o les ports et les
industries sont galement concentres. Les dpts de sols dans les zones des villes ctires au Brsil peut tre
constitus de marnes avec une nappe phratique leve, faible rsistance et de la compressibilit leve. Avec le
dveloppement croissant, les zones basses de terres sont de plus en plus occups, o les dpts d'argile molle peut
atteindre une paisseur allant jusqu' 40m. Cet article prsente l'exprience brsilienne dans les deux dernires
dcennies dans les questions lies l'investigation et le projet gotechnique, et aussi de la construction sur ces dpts.
Les tudes sont concentrs aux cas des sol trs mous et compressible du sud-est du Brsil, en particulier sur le ct
ouest de la ville de Rio de Janeiro, o l'exprience des auteurs a t concentre dans les dernires annes. Les
caractristiques gotechniques de ces sols trs mous sont dcrites, suivi par une description des principales mthodes
adoptes pour la construction des remblais sur ces argiles trs molles. Discussion sur les nouvelles techniques de
construction sur ces sols est galement prsent.
1
INTRODUCTION
2
2.1
Table
1. Geotechnical characteristics of the sites (Almeida et al, 2008d).
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Metropolitan
Center
Panela
PAN
Pennsula
II
Outeiro
Bedeschi
(2004)
Crespo
Neto
(2004)
Life
PAL
Macedo
(2004),
Sandroni
and Deotti
(2008)
Bedeschi
(2004)
Crespo
Neto
(2004)
14
4-20
5-16
21.8
15
7.5
11.5
2-11
1.69.5
100-488
116-600
70-805
67-207
102-580
72-410
148-312
100-370
27-93
19-65
97-368
23-472
80-192
120-250
5-37
12-38
42-200
11-408
6-60
26-54
32
10-51
12.5
10.0116.9
13.7
20.2
10.213.4
11.6-12.5
11.923.3
11.2-12.3
11-12.4
10.2
14.0
10.914.9
CR =
Cc/(1+e0)
0.52
0.20.6
0.4-0.8
0.36-0.50
0.32-0.48
0.270.46
0.22
0.49
0.110.38
cv
-8
2
(10 m /s)
(2)
2-80
0,01819
0.6-8.8
0.4-1.2
0.9-2.5
3-70
0.1-19.2
0.1-0.6
0.33.3
0.66.3
e0
1.9511.1
3.3-8.2
4.8-7.6
0.4-4.7
4.3-9.0
3.8-15.0
3.021.9
1.011.6
Su (kPa)
7-19
5-10
3-38
5-23
4-29
7-41
1-22
3-19
4-18
2-19
Nkt (3)
7.5-14.5
11
4-16
4-9
6.5-15
4-16
5-14.5
Sites
SESC /
SENAC
Reference
Almeida
et al.
(2002),
Crespo
Neto
(2004)
Baroni
(2010)
Very soft
to soft clay
thickness
(m)
12
2-10
w0 (%) (1)
100-500
wL (%)
70-450
IP (%)
120-250
% clay
28-80
Natural
specific
weight
3
(kN/m )
57789
67610
47497
1.4312.37
4.521.9
4-15
MAP
Barra
76913
86636
59405
1560
721200
88218
47133
2-36
Massad
(1999)
described
the
geotechnical
characteristics of south-east Brazilian deposits composed
by fluvial-marine sediments (SFL) based on the results of
thousands of boreholes. Most of the geotechnical
parameters of the organic clays shown in Table 1 are
inside the range of parameters presented by Massad
(1999), but the parameters are in a wide range of values.
This behaviour is quite different from inorganic clays, such
as Canadian Eastern clays, for example, which, although
structured, present well-related parameters (Marques,
2001).
Despite that, a relationship between compression
index (Cc) and natural water content (w0) could be
established, as shown in Fig. 4. Futai et al. (2008)
obtained Cc=0.013w0 for Rio de Janeiro State clays, which
is very similar to Cc=0.012w0 obtained for Barra and
10
CC = 0,013w0
(Futai et al, 2008)
8
7
Depth (m)
6
8
10
14
16
18
peat (out of
analysis)
10
2
1
200
400
600
800
1000
w0 (%)
Figure 4. Compression ratio Cc versus in situ water
content w0 for Barra and Recreio clays (Almeida et al.,
2008d).
Figure 5 shows uncorrected undrained profiles
obtained from in situ tests for Barra and Recreio. A high
scatter of uncorrected undrained strengths values, Su, can
be seen, owing to the heterogeneity of the site
characteristics. The variability of peat thickness at the
areas also contributes to this scatter. The occurrence of
wood sticks, roots or fibres increases the measurement of
Su values obtained from the vane tests carried out at the
peat layer. In other words, the Su values could be very
high owing to the presence of the organic matter (Almeida
et al. 2008d). The Su values from the piezocone tests are
not as high as vane test results in the peat layer,
apparently owing to the form of the cone tip which is less
influenced by the fibres existing in the peat.
0
0
peat
Depth (m)
20
Panela
LIFE
Pan
SESC/SENAC
PAL 44828
Bedeschi (2004)
Crespo Neto (2004)
15
CC = 0,012w0
40
12
CC
30
SESC/SENAC
Panela
PAN
Gleba F
Bedeschi (2004)
10
9
20
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
For very soft clays like the ones described here piled
embankment solutions may be more economic than
embankments on vertical drains for soft layer thickness
greater than about 12m (Almeida and Marques, 2004).
4
VERTICAL DRAINS
Table 2. Construction methods and related Brazilian applications (Almeida et al., 2010).
Method/Technique
Comments
Soft soil removal
Limited to shallow deposits; the environmental impact and
neighboring constructions are the main concern.
Soft soil expulsion
(partial) by
controlled
(punching) failure
Fill surcharge
Stage construction
Vertical drains
Vacuum preloading
Piled embankments
with geosynthetic
platform
Granular columns
(Granular piles)
Equilibrium berms
Reinforced
embankments
4.1
Brazilian studies
Also used at the case
history described in
section 4.1 (Recreio clay)
Zaeyen et al. (2003)
3.7 10.5
6.8
Piezocone
2.4 13.7
8.2
Special
radial
oedometer tests
3.6 6.8
5.0
4.2
10
8
ASAOKA
PR 24
2
2.8
0
S (i)
2.6
Settlement (m)
1
2.4
2.2
2.2
2.4
2.6
S ( i-1)
2.8
measured
design estimative
10
12
14
16
Time (months)
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
TE 1 x TE 2
3rd. Cell
30
= 0.6
25
T ref (kN/m)
with 3D
20
AE 1
AE 2
Potncia (AE 1)
Potncia (AE 2)
15
10
5
0
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,2
FSSF
Stiffer
reinforcement
Stiffer
reinforcement
Stiffer
reinforcement
Figure 8. Conceptual curves on the behaviour of reinforced embankment on soft clays (Magnani, 2006).
Figure 8a shows the decrease of the factor of safety
with the increase of the embankment load v = H.
Magnani (2006) also showed from field data that the
mobilization of the tensile force T increased with the
increase of the embankment load v (Fig. 8b). Values of
T may increase until a maximum value Tlim is reached.
The value of Tlim corresponds to the complete yield of the
soft clay and is not necessarily mobilized, as it depends
on the overall deformation of the system foundationreinforcement-embankment.
As the value of T increases, the safety factor FS
decreases (Fig. 8c). The value of T may continue to
increase substantially, even after failure is reached at FS
= 1.0. The tensile force continued to increase with the
increase of the embankment load even after failure
(FS<1.0), and T = 70kN/m was measured sometime later
owing to increased displacements caused by soil yield
and creep.
Figure 8 also shows FS and T values of a geotextile
with greater modulus J. The use of a greater modulus J
allows greater FS for the same embankment load v, as
PILED EMBANKMENTS
Pile
caps
Working
platform
Piles
Soft Clay
Embankment 1
2004
1.70
1.80
1.2
1.40
0.70
Fortrac R,
polyester, biaxial
200
0.78
Fortrac,
PVA, biaxial
200 and 240
3600
2.0
3600 and
4400
0.60 to 1.0
8 to 10
9 to 11
Residual
soil
Construction year
10,000
2.8
1.00
Geogrid
characteristics
1,900
2.5
0.80
Embankment
Table 6. Main
embankments.
Characteristics
Number of piles
Pile space, s (m)
Square pile cap
dimension, b (m)
Distance between
pile caps, a = s b
(m)
Embankment height
above pile cap, h
(m)
Ratio h/a
Geogrid
characteristics
Nominal geogrid
strength (kN/m)
Geogrid modulus
(kN/m)
Fill height below the
pile cap (m)
Soft soil deposit
thickness (m)
the
two
piled
Embankmen
t2
20042005
Settlements (m)
0.10
0.15 to 0.35
0.5 to 2.0
Geogrid
Pile
caps
Working
platform
Working
platform
Piles
Piles
Geogrid
Pile
caps
Geogrid
Working
platform
Pile caps
Working
platform
Piles
Piles
Geogrid deformed
Working
platform
Paran
Minas
Gerais
So Paulo
3.0
2.7
1.0
150
1.8
11.0
1.7
0.8
200
12.2
5.5
2.4
1.1
100
4.2
2.0
0.5 100
1.1
and 400
0.80
4.0
0.9
2.1
Braslia -DF 6
So Paulo
1.9 to
4.2
2.0
Rio Grande
do Sul
2.4 to
3.6
2.3
200
3.2
0.17-0.40
6-12
2-4 x10-8m2/s
Su
Diameter of columns
Length of columns
5-15 kPa
0.78m
10 to 12m
Spacing
2.0 x 2.0m
Geotextile used in the Ringtrac R
jacking
100/275
9
LIGHTWEIGHT FILL
100/250
and
VACUUM CONSOLIDATION
Figure 15. Vacuum consolidation scheme with membrane (Marques and Leroueil, 2005).
Suction (kPa)
1.0 m
0.7 m
0.6 m
SAND FILL
80
Suction - A
Suction - B
40
-2
SUB-LAYER 2: 4.70-6.15 m
Vertical deformation - A
Vertical deformation - B
Pore pressure - A
Pore pressure - B
1 (%)
0
2
4
6
8
Problems with
pumping system
INITIAL CONDITIONS
u (kPa)
-40
4
6
8
-60
Start of vacuum
at embankment A
20
40
10
60
80
100
120
140
160
80
-20
Depth (m)
u (kPa)
Casagrande
piezometers
180
200
220
240
t (days)
Oct-98
Nov-98
Dec-98
Jan-99
Feb-99
Mar-99
Apr-99
May-99
Jun-99
Date
Figure 16. Vertical deformation of sub-layers 2A and 2B (fill B) and pore pressure measured in the middle of these
layers, at a depth of 5.4 m (Marques and Leroueil, 2005).
11
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
ABNT 1997. NBR9820, Assessment of undisturbed low
consistency soils samples from borehole - Procedure.
Brazilian Code.
Alexiew, D. and Moormann, C. 2009. Foundation of a
coal/coke stockyard on soft soil with geotextile
encased columns and horizontal reinforcement.
Proceedings of the 17th ICSMGE, CD-ROM
Almeida, M. S. S., Ferreira, C. A. M, 1992. Field, in situ
and laboratory consolidation parameters of a very soft
clay. Predictive Soil Mechanics, Proc. of the Wroth
Memorial Symposium, Oxford: 73-93.
Almeida, M. S. S.; Marques, M. E. S.; Lima, B. T. 2010.
Overview of Brazilian construction practice over soft
soils. In: Symposium New Techniques for Design and
Construction in Soft Clays, Oficina de Textos: 205225.
Almeida, M. S. S. and Marques, M. E. S. 2004.
Embankments over thick soft compressible clay layers
(in Portuguese). Proc. of the 2nd Congresso LusoBrasileiro de Geotecnia, Aveiro, Portugal: 103-112.
Almeida, M. S. S., Almeida, M. C. & Marques, M. E. S.
2008a. Numerical Analysis of a Geogrid Reinforced
Wall on Piled Embankment. Proc. of the 1st PanAmerican Geosynthetics Conference & Exhibition,
Cancun, Mexico, on CD.
Almeida, M. S. S., Davies, M. C. R. and Parry, R. H. G.
1985. Centrifuged embankments on strengthened and
unstrengthened clay foundations. Gotechnique 35(4):
425- 441.
Almeida, M. S. S., Ehrlich, M., Spotti, A. P. and Marques,
M. E. S. 2007. Embankment supported on piles with