What is saltwater intrusion?

Salt water intrusion occurs in coastal freshwater aquifers when the different densities of both the saltwater and
freshwater allow the ocean water to intrude into the freshwater aquifer. These areas are usually supporting large
populations where the demanding groundwater withdrawals from these aquifers is exceeding the recharge rate. Figure
2 gives a rough illustration of what an overdrawn aquifer may look like. This can cause lateral and vertical intrusion of
the surrounding saltwater, and evidence of saltwater intrusion has been found throughout the eastern seaboard of the
U.S. (USGS, 2007). The encroaching seawater will encounter an area known as the zone of dispersion, where the
freshwater and saltwater mix and form an interface, as illustrated in Figure 3. This interface moves back and forth
naturally because of fluctuations in the recharge rate of freshwater back into these coastal aquifers (Ranjan, 2007).
Aquifers are naturally replenished by precipitation and surface waters that saturate into the ground and work their way
through the soil and geologic material to the water table.

Figure 2. Water Ways (St. Johns River Water Management District, 2008)

Figure 3. Groundwater Flow Patterns (Ranjan, 2007)

What causes saltwater intrusion?

When groundwater levels in aquifers are depleted faster than they can recharge. This is directly related to the
position of the interface and determines the amount of saltwater that can intrude into the freshwater aquifer system.
Since saltwater intrusion is directly related to the recharge rate of the groundwater, this allows for other factors that
may contribute to the encroachment of seawater into the freshwater aquifers. Climatic variables, such as precipitation,
surface runoff, and temperature can play a big role in affecting saltwater intrusion. With lower precipitation amounts
and warmer temperatures, the recharge rate will be much less due to lack of groundwater present and increased

evaporation (Ranjan, 2007). Along with this, other factors may influence the groundwater recharge rate indirectly. An
example of this would be the rising carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere. Increasing carbon dioxide levels can
lead directly to an increase in average surface temperatures, indirectly increasing the evaporation rate and affecting the
recharge of freshwater into the coastal aquifers.Figure 4 illustrates a situation where major pumping of well water has
lead to a cone of depression in the water table. Figure 4 illustrates a situation where major pumping of the well water
has lead to a cone of depression in the water table. When this occurs, it will move the saltwater freshwater interface
inland, resulting in a higher saline concentration in the aquifers' water, rendering it useless for human consumption,
unless it is treated.

Figure 4. Saltwater Intrusion Situation (University of Florida, 2000))

Another factor that directly affects coastal aquifer depletion is land use planning and management. Different
activities such as irrigating crops and industrial processing can require a substantial amount of freshwater resources to
be withdrawn. Figure 5 shows the groundwater withdrawals for the southeastern U.S. region in 1985 (Miller, 2002). If
certain wells are relying on these coastal aquifers to provide enough freshwater to support agricultural, industrial,
municipal, and residential demands, then the recharge rate of the aquifer must be able to keep up. The over-pumping of
these coastal aquifers has decreased the underground water table level and decreased the abundance, pressure, and
storage capacity of the freshwater aquifer. This will cause the zone of dispersion to move inland and drastically reduce
the freshwater that is available from the well and it may result in contamination of the freshwater aquifer and eliminate
it as a potential freshwater source.

Figure 5. Fresh Groundwater Withdrawals (Miller, 2002)

Coastal populations continue to grow larger as our freshwater sources slowly decline with the increasing demand for
freshwater resources. Coastal areas of the contiguous United States make up only 17% of the land area of our country.
Within this small portion of land, over half of the nations population resides in these designated coastal areas. From
1980 to 2003, the coastal population of the United States increased by 28% or over 33 million people. Also in 2003, it
was reported that 23 out of 25 of the most densely populated counties in the U.S. were defined as being coastal regions
(NOAA, 2007).

What are the problems associated with groundwater depletion?

Declining Water Tables

Probably the most detrimental effect that groundwater depletion causes is the lowering of the water table. The
water table is the area underneath the ground that is completely saturated with freshwater and can be drilled into and
extracted as a freshwater resource. As the water level declines, extraction of water may prove to be more difficult. If the
water level drops below the well, then it must be re-drilled and set at a lower depth. This can be quite an expensive
procedure, especially for a residential consumer with an independent well system. As the water table declines,
extraction of the freshwater becomes more difficult and expensive, and the rate of water that can usually be pumped
out of the well will decline (USGS, 2005). Keeping this in mind, if water tables continue to decrease, extraction of
groundwater for all different activities will become increasingly more expensive as time progresses. Currently in
Vermont, the price of well drilling is going up. On average, a 250 foot well will cost somewhere around $4,000 (Helmich,
2000). However, the more complicated the project gets due to location, underground geological rock formation, and
lower water tables, the higher the cost of drilling a well becomes. If this is true for a non coastal, lightly populated area
such as Vermont, you can extrapolate the costs of well drilling in a densely populated, coastal area such as coastal South
Carolina and Georgia, where the water table is extremely low.

Changing the Interface

Another problem that takes place when saltwater intrusion occurs in coastal freshwater aquifers is the changing of
the saltwater- freshwater interface. Also known as the zone of dispersion or transition zone, this is the area where the
body of saltwater and freshwater meet and form a hydrologic barrier. The natural hydrologic movement of the
underground freshwater towards the ocean usually prevents the seawater from intruding into the coastal aquifer
system (Ranjan, 2007). Over-pumping of these coastal aquifers will cause a fluctuation in the amount of freshwater
moving towards the coastal discharge areas and will allow for the oceanic water to move inland, into the aquifer system.
This will result in higher chlorinated concentrations of water and less available storage space for the freshwater in the
aquifer. Figure 6 accurately shows how the saltwater freshwater interface can intrude into the confined coastal aquifer.
When the interface moves inland, the deeper wells will begin to withdraw saline contaminated freshwater. This means
that the water must be treated before human consumption. The other option is to stop using this well until the natural
recharge rate of the aquifer can force the saltwater freshwater interface back to its normal position. This process can
take a long time and it reduces the freshwater availability of this region.

Figure 6. Seawater Intrusion in Wells (Washington State Department of Ecology, 2007)

What areas are currently experiencing saltwater intrusion?

Currently in the U.S., many coastal aquifers are experiencing different degrees of saltwater intrusion. The most
commonly studied coastal area experiencing saltwater intrusion on the eastern seaboard of the U.S. is the surficial
aquifer system of the southeastern U.S. This aquifer system covers most of Florida and the coastal areas of South

Carolina and Georgia (Figure 7). The average thickness of the surficial aquifer is around 50 feet, however, in some places
such as St. Lucie County in Florida, it can reach a depth of over 400 feet (Miller, 2002). The Biscayne aquifer is a surficial
aquifer located in southeastern Florida. This is the most heavily used water source for Florida, and it spans over 3,000
square miles. In many areas, the Biscayne aquifer has been contaminated by industrial discharge, landfills, and saltwater
intrusion (University of Florida, 2003). In 1985, the Biscayne aquifer was providing 786 million gallons of water a day,
where public water supply withdrawals were around 569 million gallons a day (Miller, 2002). A combination of large
groundwater withdrawals and a new drainage canal system has allowed the freshwater level to decline, promoting the
landward movement of the saltwater into the freshwater aquifer and canal systems (Miller, 2002).

Figure 7. Surficial aquifer system (Miller, 2002)

The chart in Figure 8 shows monthly average water levels from 1964 to 2003, for a well in Cook County, Georgia. This
well is used for a variety of anthropogenic activities such as agricultural irrigation and municipal and domestic water
supply purposes. This image offers a good visual representation of the continuous groundwater declines due to
excessive pumping of the local aquifers. Figure 8 can be considered as a general representation of the decreasing water
levels of the aquifers located in the southeast region of the United States.

Figure 8. Cook County, Georgia Water Depletion (USGS, 2005).

What can be done to prevent saltwater intrusion?

People in the Los Angeles basin have been relying on groundwater aquifers as a source of freshwater for a growing
population for over a hundred years. There are over 10 million people who reside in Los Angeles County that need these
underground freshwater sources. Just around the 1950s, Los Angeles made effort to prevent ongoing saltwater intrusion
by developing a series of injection wells. These injection wells were strategically placed with the idea that if they added
freshwater into the aquifers at a given location, then they might be able to develop barriers to prevent further intrusion
of the saltwater (USGS, 2005). These barriers proved to only be partially effective, and only prevented further saltwater
encroachment into the freshwater aquifer. Figure 9 is a basic visual representation of how injection wells function. Once
the saltwater intrusion problem has been identified, a series of closely spaced injection wells are designed as a coastal
barrier to prevent the intruding saltwater. High quality freshwater is pumped through the injection wells into the aquifer
creating a hydraulic pressure ridge that should hinder the further intrusion of saltwater into the freshwater aquifer
(USGS, 2005).

Figure 9. What is Saltwater Intrusion? (USGS, 2005)

Other solutions to prevent saltwater in coastal aquifers is being developed. One of the new technologies that are
being developed overseas uses what scientists are calling crystallization technology. This is a relatively new approach to
preventing saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers, and has only been implemented in test projects. The basic theory
behind this "CRYSTECHSALIN" process is that you reduce the permeability of the geological rock formations that act as a
barrier for the coastal aquifer. By artificially inducing a crystallized solution of slightly soluble minerals from over
saturated solution, we can change the porosity of the rock formations and prevent the saltwater from seeping through
the rock into the aquifer. This crystallization process interacts with soil and geologic rock formations turning into a grout
like binding agent. This over saturated crystallized solution has flow and seal properties that allow it to penetrate
through the soil and rock layers while creating a seal that diminishes the permeability of the rock barriers, hence
preventing saltwater from intruding into the aquifer (Geoservice, 2006).

What is President Bush's position on the issue of saltwater intrusion?

Figure 10. George W. Bush's Manifest Destiny (Reidblog, 2007)

Figure

11. Cowboy? (White, 2007)

The Clean Water Act was passed in 1972 with the sole purpose "to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and
biological integrity of the Nations waters." The Clean Water Act has provided federal protection against polluting or
destroying the streams, ponds, lakes, rivers, coastal areas, and other waters that American citizens may rely on for
activities such as: drinking water, fishing, recreation, fish and wildlife habitat, and many other uses (Earthjustice, 2008).
This was a monumental step in reducing and preventing further water pollution.
In the summer of 2005, President George W. Bush signed and passed the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This new law was
developed to change the energy policy of the United States by providing loan guarantees and tax incentives for various
types of energy production. This act promotes a wide variety of innovating technologies to be applied to energy
production. One aspect of the of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 is to increase our ethanol production in the U.S. in order
to help combat rising gasoline prices and reduce harmful automobile emissions to the environment. Even though this
seems like a great idea, it resulted in a huge increase in corn production. The additional corn being harvested for ethanol
production requires a substantial amount of freshwater for irrigation purposes, which puts even more stress on the
depleting Ogallala Aquifer of the central U.S. In addition to corn irrigation, ethanol production requires three to six
gallons of freshwater to produce just one gallon of ethanol (Neuzil, 2008). How can we support this so called "greener
policy" if it is reducing fossil fuel consumption, yet drastically increasing the demand for freshwater resources that aren't
readily available in areas like the central United States?

How do I get involved?

One of the most productive ways to get involved and try to make a change is by writing an action letter to an
associated group or government authority. The first letter is addressed to the Governor of Florida, Charlie Crist. It simply
outlines the current saltwater intrusion problems that the Upper Floridian aquifer is experiencing and briefly talks about
a study done on two wells that tap into this aquifer. The study shows increasing chloride concentrations in this
freshwater aquifer over the past few years, for which data is available for this region. If you would like to know what
Florida's Governor Charlie Crist is planning to do about this ongoing problem, please clickhere to contact the governor
and let him know that he must take action!

The second action letter is addressed to the Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger. In this letter, the
pathways of saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers are briefly mentioned and the possible solutions are brought to
light. This letter talks about past attempts of installing freshwater injection wells and their success. It also asks the
governor to reply and let us know what his future plans are to slow down or eliminate this problem. To contact
Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and let him know how you feel about this situation, click here.

Salt Water Intrusion

Topic(s):
Hydrosphere, Oceans

Scenario:
"Seven tablespoons of salt will make the water in a 55-gallon bathtub too salty to be safe for
drinking."
Can you imagine filling your glass with water from your faucet and taking a drink of salt water? Most of us
take the ready availability of freshwater in our homes for granted. Yet, in many of the world's coastal areas,
the sustainability of freshwater is threatened by saltwater intrusion, which is the movement of saline water
into fresh water aquifers.
Since the 1940's saltwater intrusion has forced the abandonment of more than 100 wells on the Cape May
Peninsula, a popular vacation destination in New Jersey. Nearly all of the demand for water on the Peninsula
is met by pumping ground water. Once used, most of this water is treated at wastewater treatment plants and
then discharged to the ocean. This process results in the removal of millions of gallons of fresh ground water
from the aquifers every day. Saline ground water migrates inland as the level of fresh ground water in the
aquifers decreases. Continually increasing demand for water in the City of Cape May resulted in more and
more wells becoming contaminated with salt water. Consequently, the City of Cape May was forced to find
an alternative means of meeting the demand for water and in 1997 constructed a $5 million desalinization
plant to remove salt from brackish water pumped from its wells. The desalinization plant has allowed the
city to continue using some of its brackish wells and reduce withdrawals at remaining freshwater wells,
thereby slowing the inland migration of the saltwater front (Galloway et al., 2003).
While overpumping of ground water is the primary cause of salt water intrusion, other factors can contribute
to the problem. In developed areas much of the rainfall flows over impermeable surfaces, such as concrete
and pavement, into storm drains, canals, and lakes depriving aquifers of their primary source of fresh water
recharge. Rising sea level, whether natural or associated with anthropogenic climate change, and storm
surges can also disrupt the equilibrium between fresh and saline ground water in coastal areas.
The problem of salt water intrusion is by no means limited to the northeastern United States. Other cities in
the United States that are dealing with salt water intrusion include Savannah, Georgia, Miami and Tampa
Bay, Florida, and Los Angeles, California. In the Laizhou Gulf in China saltwater intrusion led to the
abandonment of more than 1500 wells between 1990 and 1997, and soil salinization resulting from saltwater
intrusion has caused a significant decrease in crop productivity (Shanzhong et al., 2007). In Manila,
Philippines rapid growth and urbanization have put intense pressure on fresh water resources. Due to
overpumping, ground water levels are decreasing by 6 to 12 m/yr putting the region's aquifers at risk for
saltwater intrusion (IDRC)). In Perth, Australia, the government is restricting water use from backyard
"garden" wells in an effort to control salt water intrusion (Banks, 2007).
Roughly half of the world's population lives within 200 km of a coastline. In 2003 the average population
density in coastal areas, 80 people per square kilometer, was nearly twice the global average population
density. Demand for fresh water in densely populated coastal communities is immense. Continued
population growth, urban development and climate change are putting increased pressure on coastal water
resources. As governments worldwide struggle to supply their citizens with freshwater, they will be forced to
contend with saltwater intrusion along their coastlines.
References
Banks, A. 2007. Salt intrusion may force new limit on bores. The West Australian (Perth). July 25, 2007, p.
15.
Galloway, D.L.; W.M. Alley, P.M. Barlow, T.E. Reilly, P. Tucci. 2003. Evolving issues and practices in
managing ground-water resources: Case studies on the role of science. U.S. Geological Survey Circular
1247. Reston, Va.
Shanzhong, Q., Z. Zulu, Z. Zhaopei, G.Qiaoyu, Z. Yan. 2007. Saltwater intrusion in the Laizhou Gulf,
Shandong Province, China: Causes and its impact on coastal areas. Ambio: A Journal of the Human
Environment 36(4):361-362.

Task:

Due to your group's interest and expertise, you have been approached by a coastal state regarding the
potential vulnerabilities to it's groundwater resources. Your group should use an Earth system science
approach to investigate the possible impacts of saltwater intrusion and make recommendations that the state
can disseminate to municipal leaders so they can protect their local drinking water supplies.