Week 2 Lecture 3, Organic Chemistry:

-The study of carbon-based molecules.

-Almost all molecules in all organisms are based on carbon.
-Carbon-based lifeforms

The
Molecular Backbone of Biology
-Chains of carbon form the skeletons of most organic molecules.
-To generate molecular diversity
-change the organization of the backbone
-change the accessories on the backbone
-change the organization of the accessories
Variations of the Backbone

Accessorizing the Backbone

-Functional groups are attached to the backbone.
-Give complex molecules their characteristics.
-Small changes can make a big difference.

Functional Groups
-Hydroxyl Group
-polar
-likes to hydrogen bond
-hydrophilic
-Carbonyl Group
-polar
-reactive (important for chemical reactions)
-Carboxyl Group (COOH)
-acidic
-component of amino acids
-Amino Group ( N H 2 )
-basic
-component of amino acids

-Phosphate Group
-negatively charged ion
-crucial for energy transfer
-part of DNA backbone
-used for signaling
-Sulfhydryl Group
-Able to crosslink to stabilize protein structure
(disulfide bond).

Organization of Atoms in a Molecule

-Two molecules can have the same number of atoms or the same
functional groups but behave differently-isomers.
-Types of isomers
-structural isomers
-geometric isomers
-enantiomers
Structural Isomers
-Atoms covalently linked in a different order.

Geometric Isomers
-Arrangement around a double bond.

Enantiomers
-Mirror images.
-Cannot be
superimposed.
-Contains asymmetric
carbon.

Week 2 Lecture 4,
Molecules of Life:
Macromolecules
-While water is the most abundant molecule in nature, macromolecules
define life.
-Uncountable number of water molecules in each human cell.
-46 molecules of DNA in each human cell.
-Water is 3 atoms covalently linked.
-The smallest human DNA molecule (chromosome 22) is almost 4
billion atoms.
Types of Macromolecules
-Nucleic Acids (DNA and RNA)
-Protein
-Carbohydrates
-Lipids
-Almost all molecules in the cell fall into one of these four categories.

Macromolecule Composition
-All macromolecules are made up of smaller subunits.
-Except for lipids
-One subunit is a monomer.
-Monomers are covalently linked to make polymers.
Making and Breaking Macromolecules
-A dehydration reaction builds macromolecules (and
makes water!)
-A hydrolysis reaction destroys macromolecules (and uses
up water!)
Nucleic Acids
-Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
-DNA is the instruction manual for making proteins.
-DNA is used as a template to make RNA
-RNA is used to make protein
-RNA is both the template and the machinery!
-Both are made of nucleotides
Protein
-Most proteins are enzymes-the machinery of the cell.
-Some proteins are structural; they control the shape of the
cell.
-Some proteins signal other enzymes to get to work or to stop
working.
-Proteins are made of amino acids.
Carbohydrates
-Store energy.
-Provide energy for enzymes to work.
-Structural (plant cell walls).
-Signaling-bind proteins to activate or inactivate them (signaling
carbohydrates are usually found on the surface of the cell).
-Carbohydrate are made of simple sugars.
Lipids
-Form the membrane that surrounds all cells.
-Store energy
-Signaling-active enzymes
-Lipids are not polymers
-All are hydrophobic
-Most lipids are made of fatty acids and glycerol

Other Biological Molecules

-Not all molecules in the cell are macromolecules.
-Sometimes monomers are important on their own.
-ATP and GTP are the energy currency of the cell-used directly by
enzymes in
chemical reactions.
-Some amino acids are also neurotransmitters.
-Some molecules do not fit into the four categories at all.
Neurotransmitters
-Released by neurons to communicate to the next neuron.

Phytochemicals
-Chemicals made by plants-usually as a
defense.
-Many are being studied for their health
benefits for human-eat your fruits and
veggies!
Phytochemical Examples
-Resveratrol
-Defensive chemical in plants.
-Abundant in red wine.
-Anti-cancer properties.
-EGCG
-Unknown function in plants.
-Abundant in tea.
-Antioxidant.
Vitamins
-Essential chemicals in human died.
-Usually act as cofactors for enzymes (combine with the enzyme to
make the enzyme functional).

Salts and Ions

++
-Ions-sodium ( N a ), chloride ( C l ), calcium ( C a ), potassium (
+
+
K ), hydrogen ( H , proton)
-Large salts-hydroxyapatite ( C a10 ( P O4 )6 ( OH )2 is the primary
component of bone.